Material choice and design

impact on the embodied carbon

in a floor slab.

Joseph Hanratty | Final year Project | Date

 Table of contents

Section 1: Introduction..................................................................................................... 4

Section 1.1: The climate emergency. ........................................................................... 4

Section 1.2: Aim of this report. ..................................................................................... 6

Section 2: A literature review. .......................................................................................... 8

Section 2.1: Embodied carbon. .................................................................................... 8

Section 2.1.1: Barriers to low carbon building materials. ........................................... 9

Section 2.1.2: Lower embodied concrete carbon designs. ...................................... 10

Section 2.1.2.1: Waffle Slab. ............................................................................... 11

Section 2.1.2.2 Post-tensioned Slab. .................................................................. 12

Section 2.1.2.3 Bubble deck slab. ....................................................................... 13

Section 2.1.2.4 Hollow core slab. ........................................................................ 14

Section 2.1.2.5 Thin shell floor slab. ................................................................... 14

Section 2.1.3: Timber floor slab design. .................................................................. 15

Section 2.1.3.1: Cross-laminated timber. ............................................................ 15

Section 2.1.4: Non-standard Composite floor slab design. ...................................... 17

Section 2.3: Material properties comparison. ............................................................. 18

Section 3: Design chapter. ............................................................................................ 19

Section 3.1: Selection of material and design. ............................................................ 19

Section 3.2: Design No. 1. (Control or typical design for Ireland) ............................... 19

Section 3.3: Design No. 2........................................................................................... 19

Section 3.4: Design No.3............................................................................................ 19

Section 4: Results & Conclusions. ................................................................................. 19

PAGE 1
 Table of figures.

Figure 1. Pie chart showing greenhouse gas emissions.(‘DesignforZero[5054].pdf’, no

date). ............................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2: Chart showing stages of embodied carbon and equations to calculate embodied
carbon below. (Moncaster and Symons, 2013)................................................................ 9

Figure 3 representation of waffle slab with columns(Two-Way-Joist-Concrete Slab-Floor-

(Waffle-Slab)-System-Analysis-and-Design, no date) .................................................... 11

Figure 4: Diagram of post-tensioned slab detailing. (Post Tension Slab – Working Principle,
Components and Construction - civil engineer friend, no date)...................................... 12

Figure 5: bubble deck formwork with plastic bubbles in situ. (Bubble Deck Slab - Types,
Material Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014) ........................................... 13

Figure 6: Graphics of three different depth sizes of hollow core slabs. (Reed, 2021) ..... 14

Figure 7: Thin shell floor with floor structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in
construction, no date) .................................................................................................... 15

Figure 8; This graphic shows how a CLT panel is formed, e.g., panels layers running
perpendicular to the previous. ('Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf,' 2021) .................. 16

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 Table of tables.

Table 1 shows the availability of the individual boards that form a larger CLT panel. .
('Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf,' 2021) ................................................................. 16

Table 2 shows the size availability of finished CLT panels. . ('Swedish-Wood-CLT-

Handbook.pdf,' 2021) .................................................................................................... 17

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Section 1: Introduction.
This report will examine the effect of material choice and design choice on the embodied
carbon of floor slabs. We will examine what embodied carbon means and why we should
act to reduce it as much as possible in the choice of materials and design.

This project will focus on the material used and the design of floor slabs. The typical floor
slab design in Ireland usually consists of in-situ poured or precast concrete. This report
will examine alternative concrete designs such as waffle slabs, hollow core slabs, hardy
slabs, bubble deck slabs, and composite slabs for concrete. Using timber as a
replacement for concrete in floor slabs is relatively new to the market, and both are forms
of engineered wood. This report will also look at the embodied carbon performance of
these engineered wood products. Timber floor slabs are now available in GLULAM (Glue
laminated timber) and CLT (Cross laminated timber).

In the construction industry, there has been a growing chorus of demands to use energy-
saving materials and reduce the number of materials used. There are two reasons for this,
the first being economical and the second environmental. We must rethink how we design
many structural elements, including floor slabs. Floor slabs contribute a large proportion
of any structure embodied impacts('LCA & LCC analysis of hybrid glued laminated
Timber–Concrete composite floor slab system,' 2022).

Section 1.1: The climate emergency.

The Irish government declared a climate emergency on the ninth of May
2019(Cunningham, 2019). The construction industry accounts for almost forty percent of
greenhouse emissions when considering the entire project lifecycle from the cradle to the
grave. ('DesignforZero[5054].pdf', no date). It is our duty as engineers to act wherever is
reasonably possible in our choice of material and design to reduce embodied carbon on
all projects, given the fact that we contribute such a large proportion. New legislation in
Ireland, the nZED (nearly zero energy building standard). Below is a graphical
representation of the greenhouse gas emissions by sector. The construction industry and
buildings are combined. A large proportion of embodied carbon from cradle to gate is
because of our choice of material and design, and these choices dictate how much energy
a construction project will use in its whole life cycle. Below in figure one is a diagram
showing the built environment's carbon footprint.

PAGE 4
Figure 1. Pie chart showing greenhouse gas emissions.(‘DesignforZero[5054].pdf’, no
date).

In the last 100 years, humanity has released more CO2 and equivalent global warming
compounds into the environment than the planet's oceans, plants, and animals can absorb.
Carbon in the atmosphere has risen, and so has the average global temperature. The
result of this is an almost one °C rise in average global temperatures compared to
preindustrial times. This warming has resulted in a disruption in global weather patterns
and, in turn, led to increased drought and flooding(Arnold, no date).

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), globally, we must

reduce CO2 emissions by 45% from the levels recorded as of 2010. To limit global warming
to 1.5°C, this must be achieved by 2030. Furthermore, we will need to reduce CO2 output
to net zero by 2050 to stay on course to stay below the 1.5°C of warming agreed upon at
the Paris climate conference on the fourth of November 2016. (Webster, no date a). 1.5°C
is essential because, beyond this point, climate models become very hard to predict
accurately, e.g., warming is now unpredictable and may cause feedback upon itself and
become hard to control. The required change in attitude and behavior will require a
significant change from all people from all walks of life, and according to the IPCC, these
changes need to be 'rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented if they have any chance of
being successful in keeping global temperatures below 1.5°C(Arnold, no date)

For the construction industry to achieve this will be no easy feat, with structural materials
making up approximately half of all embodied impacts of residential and industrial builds
and an even more significant share of embodied impacts of infrastructure developments.
As structural engineers, we can be leaders of the transition to net zero embodied
carbon(Webster, no date a).

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Material choice can result in substantial reductions in embodied impacts of any project
through the introduction of renewable materials, especially those with lower carbon
footprints and low impacts on the environment, along with new technologies. In many
developing countries, this practice has led to an era of sustainability in their construction
industries. Due to timber's low embodied impact, steel and concrete have been shunned
in favor of wood and engineered wood products. In countries with strict guidelines for
replanting trees, post-harvest timber’s natural ability to sequester carbon comes into its
own('LCA & LCC analysis of hybrid glued laminated Timber–Concrete composite floor
slab system,' 2022).

As structural engineers, our impact on the climate crisis can be significant. Almost forty
percent of all global emissions are due to buildings and construction. Most modern
construction projects that use best practice construction will contribute around half of the
embodied impact of the structure over its whole life cycle, with the structure accounting
for two-thirds of the total embodied impact during the construction phase. These numbers
are already very high and will only worsen as passive building technology improves and
the electricity grid continues to transition to greener alternatives(Arnold, no date).

Section 1.2: Aim of this report.

This report focuses on how material choice affects floor slabs' life cycle embodied carbon.
The IPCC has warned that to keep on target to keep global temperature rise below the
1.5° C agreed upon at the Paris Climate summit in 2015 that emissions must be cut by
45% from the levels back in 2010 by 2030(‘Summary for Policymakers — Global Warming
of 1.5 oC’, no date). This is a big problem for the construction industry that will only become
more significant. The performance of buildings is becoming more efficient in how they use
energy. The greening of the electrical grid compounds this. The result is that the embodied
carbon of cradle-to-the-gate and gate-to-waste is an ever-larger proportion of the whole
life cycle embodied carbon(Webster, no date b). Material choice is the first and most potent
tool in lowering structures' embodied carbon. Floor slabs were chosen for this report as
they represent a large percentage of the embodied carbon of structures. Many new
techniques developed recently help lower embodied carbon in floor slabs. There have
been many new ways to use concrete that reduces the overall amount of concrete that
goes into a project without sacrificing the strength of the floor slab or structure. Timber has
also emerged as a new material with the ability to take the place of concrete entirely,

PAGE 6
engineered timber in the form of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) and Glue Laminated
Timber (GLT). Very recently, there has also been the introduction of carbon sequestration
techniques. In the next section, we will look at the most promising solutions to reducing
embodied carbon in floor slabs and select the best two for design. The best two materials
chosen must be of low carbon design and be reasonably usable regarding production and
availability of labor and skills to perform the installation.

PAGE 7
Section 2: A literature review.

Section 2.1: Embodied carbon.

What is embodied carbon? Embodied carbon is defined as any emission of Green House
Gases (GHGs) or activity that contributes to Global Warming. For this report, we will be
focused on materials associated with the construction industry. Embodied carbon
accounts for any mining or harvesting of raw materials, any activities related to refining or
manufacturing of the raw materials into products, all transportation of raw materials or
finished products at any stage, any emission associated with the installation or use of
products, including maintenance over its operational life and finally the emissions
associated with disposal or recycling.(What is embodied carbon? - Irish Green Building
Council, no date) Embodied carbon falls into two categories, upfront, described above,
encompassing every step of construction, maintenance, demolition, and disposal. The
other category is known as the whole life cycle. The whole lifecycle of embodied carbon
includes the upfront embodied carbon and the energy use of the building over its
operational life span.(Whole Life-Cycle Carbon Assessments guidance, 2020) Embodied
carbon is a measure of a building's impact on the environment. For this reason, it is a
unique tool that we can use to reduce the environmental impact of a structure in the design
phase of any construction project. Comparing embodied carbon of different designs allows
us to optimize the use of materials and reduce overdesign and waste. Up to seventy-five
percent of the embodied carbon of an average superstructure is present in floor
slabs.(‘Sustainable structural design of tall buildings based on embodied energy’, 2014).
For this reason, this report will focus on floor slabs. The literature reviewed supports floor
slabs as a structural element that is commonly overdesigned, and the parametric design
and implementation of new techniques in reinforced concrete or changes in materials can
result in significant reductions in embodied carbon. (Moncaster and Symons, 2013). Below

PAGE 8
in figure 2 is a chart showing the stages associated with embodied carbon measuring.

Figure 2: Chart showing stages of embodied carbon and equations to calculate embodied
carbon below.(Moncaster and Symons, 2013)

Section 2.1.1: Barriers to low carbon building materials.

As the operational embodied carbon of buildings has been seeing a steady reduction in
recent years, the contribution of upfront embodied carbon has become an ever more
significant proportion of the whole lifecycle embodied carbon. (‘Comparing different
strategies of minimizing embodied carbon in concrete floors’, 2022). As structural
engineers, our choices of design and materials have a more significant impact on the
environment than ever. Identifying areas or elements of structures from which we can save
on embodied carbon is essential. A case study by (Moussavi Nadoushani and
Akbarnezhad, 2015) stated that embodied carbon could, from cradle to gate, meaning all
emissions created to get a product or material to a site can account for between seventy
to ninety percent.

There are many ways to reduce embodied carbon while using the same common materials
already found on-site, like concrete. Engineered timber has also become widely used.
Glue-laminated timber can replace steel and concrete beams in many situations. Cross-
laminated timber can replace concrete in place of concrete as floor slabs. The construction
industry is resistant to change. The issues behind this resistance are complicated.
Individuals tend to stick to what they know, resulting in a slow innovation rate. Institutions

PAGE 9
may be averse to using unknown materials or techniques due to time pressure or fear of
legal consequences. Legislation can take time to keep up with new technologies and thus
hold back the introduction of new technologies. Technical knowledge can be lacking. New
techniques can sometimes be expensive, and that ease and speed of construction are a
priority above costs and efficiency of materials in many cases (Giesekam, Barrett and
Taylor, 2016).

Section 2.1.2: Lower embodied concrete carbon designs.

Flat slab floors are almost ubiquitous in the construction industry. They are cheap, easy
to construct, relatively fast to erect and provide a high degree of flexibility in the design.
Flat slab design starts by predetermining a span/depth ratio for a column grid. Guidance
can be found on this in (‘How-to-design-concrete-structures-using-Eurocode-2.pdf’, no
date). There has been a lot of research into optimizing concrete floor slabs. The only
consensus is that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to the problem and that column
spacing had the most considerable impact on embodied carbon. (Goodchild et al., no date)
has recommendations based on parametric analysis of one-way slabs, one-way slabs with
wide beams, post-tensioned slabs, two-way slabs on beams hollow core slabs, and some
of the less common slab types like ribbed slabs with wide beams, troughed slabs, and
waffle slabs. Their research has developed a guide for which slab type will best fit a given
span. With this report focusing on a reduction in embodied carbon, we will focus on the
designs mentioned above, which have been proven to result in a reduction in embodied

PAGE 10
carbon(‘Comparing different strategies of minimizing embodied carbon in concrete floors’,
2022).

Section 2.1.2.1: Waffle Slab.

From the literature reviewed, waffle slab has come out as giving good results in delivering
a reduced embodied carbon result. Due to the climate crisis, waffle slabs have come to
the fore in recent years. A waffle slab is a deep slab with square indentations on the bottom
side. This form allows high strength with less material. Below in figure 3 is a computer-
generated image of a waffle slab design.

Figure 3 representation of waffle slab with columns(Two-Way-Joist-Concrete Slab-Floor-

(Waffle-Slab)-System-Analysis-and-Design, no date)

A waffle slab is a slab designed with cavities in the underside. These cavities result in
much lower use of concrete and, thus, lower embodied carbon. Waffle slab is most useful
in wide spans with as few columns. Concrete having very low to no tensile strength and
the tensile strength provided by the reinforcing steel means that only the rib areas of the
waffle slab have been reinforced. The cavities between the reinforcement result in a lower
self-weight of the slab. The cavities formed by placing the waffle forms on top of existing
formwork to achieve the desired result. Waffle slabs are faster to construct than regular
slabs, resulting in a rigid slab with a lower self-weight than a regular flat slab. Due to the
use of fewer materials, it has a cheaper cost, using between twenty to thirty percent less

PAGE 11
concrete in its construction. Waffle slab performs exceptionally well under vibration,
deflection, and good fire resistance.(Idrizi and Idrizi, no date)

Section 2.1.2.2 Post-tensioned Slab.

Post-tensioned slabs are constructed in a very similar way to a conventional flat slab. Post-
tensioned slabs are constructed the same way as conventional slabs, with the addition of
high-strength steel cable that protrudes from the slab ends. This steel cable runs inside a
sleeve made from plastic or steel and is tensioned after the concrete has cured. The
tensioning occurs when the concrete has reached around seventy to seventy-five percent
of its strength, this will usually happen around day twenty to twenty-three. This
configuration uses high concrete performance in compression to add strength and rigidity
to the slab with a much smaller span depth. It results in a powerful performance for wide-
spanning slabs. The figure below shows the process of tensioning the slab.

Figure 4: Diagram of post-tensioned slab detailing. (Post Tension Slab – Working

Principle, Components and Construction - civil engineer friend, no date)

The result is a slab design that is very good for long spans and lower span depth. Like
waffle slabs, post-tensioned slabs use approximately twenty to thirty percent less concrete
and, as a result, have lower embodied carbon.(Post Tension Slab – Working Principle,
Components and Construction - civil engineer friend, no date).

PAGE 12
Section 2.1.2.3 Bubble deck slab.

A bubble deck slab is another slab type that decreases the amount of concrete used to
construct a slab. Bubble deck slabs are constructed similarly to a conventional flat slab,
except plastic balls are placed inside the slab's formwork before pouring, thus leaving
hollow spaces inside the slab and decreasing the self-weight and concrete required. The
concrete that would take the place of the plastic balls inside a conventional slab does not
increase the slab's structural performance. The plastic balls are clamped inside the
reinforcing structure eliminating the concrete at the center of the slab and drastically
increasing the strength-to-weight ratio of the slab. The figure below is a picture of formwork
for a bubble deck with plastic balls in situ.

Figure 5: bubble deck formwork with plastic bubbles in situ. (Bubble Deck Slab - Types,
Material Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014)

A bubble deck performs much better than a regular slab design due to the reduced weight
and is suitable for wide spans. Bubble deck is available in a prefabricated form. Its reduced
weight and availability in the prefabricated format result in savings on transportation and
cranage. There can be as much as a fifty percent saving in the number of materials used.
With each plastic ball saving up to one hundred kilograms of concrete, there is also a
considerable reduction in embodied carbon. (Bubble Deck Slab - Types, Material
Specification, Installation, and Advantages, 2014)

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Section 2.1.2.4 Hollow core slab.

Hollow core slabs are essentially pre-tensioned or prestressed floor slabs. Hollow core
slabs are manufactured using an extruder and slipform machinery. High tensile steel cable
is introduced into the element along with elliptical cavities that run the length of the element
during its manufacture. Hollow core slabs are well known in the construction industry for
being a quick and easy way to construct a floor and are very versatile due to the
manufacturing off-site. The reduced need for materials due to the cavities and prestressing
deliver a reduction in embodied carbon. The figure below shows a graphic of a hollow core
floor slab.(Reed, 2021)

Figure 6: Graphics of three different depth sizes of hollow core slabs. (Reed, 2021)

Section 2.1.2.5 Thin shell floor slab.

Thin shell floor slabs are a relative newcomer to modern construction. Thin shell floors
use concrete strength in compression to provide a massive saving in the concrete of up
to seventy-five percent and an embodied carbon reduction of sixty percent, all while
maintaining strength. To maintain the strength of the concrete is formed into a vault
structure so that the floor structure can use the natural strength of an arch to support the
floor above. The figure below shows a thin shell floor slab with a standardized floor
structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in construction, no date)

PAGE 14
Figure 7: Thin shell floor with floor structure. (‘Thin shell’ floors could cut carbon in
construction, no date)

Section 2.1.3: Timber floor slab design.

Section 2.1.3.1: Cross-laminated timber.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a relatively new product in the floor slab market. Cross-
laminated timber is several layers of glued boards. Each layer of boards is laid
perpendicular to the last layer. The result is strength in both directions, with each layer
reinforcing the layer below. Cross-laminated timber is a member of the engineered timber
family of products. Cross-laminated timber has a wide variety of uses and has been used
to construct medium to low-rise structures, including office blocks to sports centers. Cross-
laminated timber can be used to form the walls, floors, and roofs of structures and offers
strength and a level of insulation, making it a very efficient building material. If cross-
laminated timber has protection from the elements, it can last a long time. Cross-laminated
timber is a renewable construction material. The rules around reforestation in the
European Union, America, and Canada, where most timber for CLT production comes
from it, is a requirement that for every tree that is cut down, at least two trees get planted
in its place. Over time, this will result in more trees, not less. Cross-laminated timber offers
a material that is manufactured in large panels with large cross-sections. The end product

PAGE 15
has high stiffness and load-bearing characteristics. Cross-laminated timber is mostly
prefabricated, resulting in fast build times. With its low mass compared to steel and
concrete, cost savings on foundational works, transportation, and cranage are possible.
Below is a graphic of how cross-laminated timber panel boards are laid during
manufacture and two tables showing the versatility and range of sizes of CLT
panels.(‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, no date)

Figure 8; This graphic shows how a CLT panel is formed, e.g., panels layers running
perpendicular to the previous. ('Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf,' 2021)

Table 1 shows the availability of the individual boards that form a larger CLT panel. .
(‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-Handbook.pdf’, no date)

Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness 20 – 45 mm 20 – 60 mm

Width 80 – 200 mm 40 – 300 mm

Strength class C14 – C30 -

Width to thickness 4:1 -

PAGE 16
Table 2 shows the size availability of finished CLT panels. . (‘Swedish-Wood-CLT-
Handbook.pdf’, no date)

Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness 80 – 300 mm 60 – 500 mm

Width 1.20 – 3.60 m Up to 4.80 m

Length 20 m Up to 30 m

No. of layers 3, 5, 7, 9 Up to 25

Cross-laminated timbers structure of layers of timber boards running in opposite directions

to each other helps to alleviate natural differences in characteristics of wood.

Section 2.1.3.2: Glue-laminated timber.

Glue-laminated timber (GLT) is another engineered timber product and is much the same
as CLT, except the layers in a glue-laminated timber panel run parallel to the next. GLT
has been around for around a hundred years and is a reasonably well-known material that
can withstand the test of time. A GLT beam has higher strength than a regular-sawn timber
beam of the same cross-section, making it a more attractive option as a construction
material. Glulam has one of the highest strength-to-weight ratios of any construction
material on the market; even today, this low-weight-to-high-strength ratio allows for
shallower and lighter foundations and provides savings on transportation and costs.
Environmentally it performs very well with the raw material timber, being renewable, and
the growth timber sequesters carbon; at the end of the life of the structure, glulam
members can be resized and reused if the member is still in a serviceable state. If the
member does not meet functional state requirements, it can be used as fuel to recover
some energy.

Section 2.1.4: Non-standard Composite floor slab design.

Non-standard composite floors have been around for a long time. Techniques such as
steel decks form the formwork for concrete pours but remain in place and add to the
structural strength of the floor slab. The benefit of using this floor slab is that reinforcement

PAGE 17
can be prefabricated and installed onto the steel deck. Recently there have been some
exciting additions to this market, with several timber-concrete composites now becoming
available. Most of these slab types offer easy construction, faster build times, and lower
embodied carbon. There are so many non-standard composite floor slab systems on the
market today that it would be impossible to review the literature on all. For this report, we
will focus on only the most promising concerning embodied carbon or the most well-known
for ease of installation.

Section 2.3: Method for measurement of embodied carbon.

The measurement of embodied carbon is very important in the construction industry. The
construction industry is responsible for forty percent of the energy we produce through the
energy usage of buildings and thirty percent of greenhouse gas emissions through
construction activities. The energy usage of buildings is dropping all the time leading to
the operational embodied carbon becoming an ever-smaller proportion of the overall
embodied carbon. The construction industry will be responsible for an ever-larger
proportion of overall embodied carbon if action is not taken immediately. There are
however still a few issues. Like any new technology there were competing camps with
different methodologies, different data, and conflicting regulations. The European Union’s
European Standards Committee introduced TC350 standards which set out the stages of
a construction projects. (De Wolf, Pomponi and Moncaster, 2017) The stages A1 – A5
covers, raw material supply, transport to factory, manufacturing, transport to site, and the
construction and installation process. Stages B1 – B7 look at, use, maintenance, repair,
refurbishment, operational energy use, and operational water use. Stages C1 – C4
handles demolition or deconstruction, transport, waste processing, and the disposal of any
waste materials. There is a lesser used stage D that looks at any recycling that can be
done and any recoverable materials that are reusable. Recoverable and reusable
materials embodied carbon can then be subtracted from the total life-cycle embodied
carbon. See figure 2. (Moncaster and Symons, 2013). The standardization of the stages
to be measured has allowed industry and academia to move in a similar direction so that
methodologies are becoming harmonized.

Plans for literature review

There are some sections that I would like to add to before calling my literature review
complete. The sections that I feel need most work is the several sections covering

PAGE 18
alternative floor slabs. I would like to look a little deeper into the technical side of the
materials and get some information on the performance figures for the specific materials
and designs.

Section 3: Design chapter.

Plans for design chapter below

Due to my current knowledge of design, I will need to consult with my thesis supervisor.
Decisions on span lengths is to be made. With the literature reviewed to date I am
considering testing the slab types which result in the lowest embodied carbon over two
different span lengths. The literature reviewed so far has stated that column spacing has
the biggest impact on embodied carbon. I would like to demonstrate this in my design
chapter. I plan to do one standard reinforced concrete floor slab design to use as a control
and compare the embodied carbon of the standard reinforced concrete floor slab. I will
then compare the level of embodied carbon from the two alternative floor slab designs that
have the lowest embodied carbon at the outset.

Section 3.1: Selection of design and choice of materials.

Section 3.2: Design No. 1. (Typical design for control).

Section 3.3: Design No. 2.

Section 3.4: Design No.3.

Section 4: Results & Conclusions.

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