Fundamentals of Ecology

UNIT 9 MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Major Biomes of World
9.4 Classification of Biomes
9.4.1 Aquatic Biomes
9.4.1.1 Freshwater Biomes
9.4.1.2 Marine Biomes
9.4.2 Terrestrial Biomes
9.4.2.1 Forest Biomes
9.4.2.2 Grassland Biomes
9.4.2.3 Woodlands and Shrublands
9.4.2.4 Taiga
9.4.2.5 Tundra
9.4.2.6 Desert
9.5 Let Us Sum Up
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Suggested Further Reading/References
9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Biomes are large geographical areas. Biomes are defined as “the world’s major
communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized
by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment”. Biomes are also
defined by factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses),
leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland,
savanna), and climate. In this unit, we would be discussing the major biomes of
world and characteristic features of the aquatic and terrestrial biomes.

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the major biomes of world;
• classify the biomes; and
• explain the aquatic and terrestrial biomes.

9.3 MAJOR BIOMES OF WORLD

Biomes are basically large geographical areas. Within a biome, there are many
interrelated ecosystems. Ecosystems can be classified into biomes because
climate, along with other factors, determines the plant growth form best suited
to an area, and because plants with particular growth forms are restricted to
particular climates. These principles establish the close relationship between
172
climate and vegetation. Different physical conditions characterize each biome Major Biomes of the World
and its inhabitants are adapted to live under those conditions. Biomes are defined
as “the world’s major communities, classified according to the predominant
vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment”. A biome (from the Greek “bios” life), also called bioclimatic
landscape or biotic areas is a particular part of the planet that shares the climate,
flora and fauna. Biomes are defined by factors such as plant structures (such as
trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant
spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate.

Many different environmental factors play a role in determining which biomes

are found where. Two key parameters are available moisture and temperature.
These biomes generally differ in their latitude, weather and relative humidity,
amount of sunlight, and topography. Each biome has a unique set of plants and
animals that thrive in its climate. A biome is different from an ecosystem. An
ecosystem is the interaction of living and non-living things in an environment. A
biome is a specific geographic area notable for the species living there. A biome
can be made up of many ecosystems. Similar biomes can occur in widely divergent
places as long as the environmental conditions are appropriate for their
development.

9.4 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMES

Not all scientists classify biomes in the same way. Some use broad classifications
and count as few as five biomes. These are forest, grassland, freshwater, marine,
desert, and tundra.

Other scientists use more precise classifications and list dozens of different biomes.
For example, they consider different kinds of forests to be different biomes. Many
classification schemes for biomes exist. Biomes are fundamentally classified into a)
Terrestrial (land) biomes and b) Aquatic biomes (including freshwater biomes

Fig. 9.1: Whittaker’s Classification of Biomes (Source: Whittaker, 1975) 173

Fundamentals of Ecology and marine biomes). Robert H. Whittaker defined biomes first by their vegetation
type, and then devised a simple climate diagram. (Fig. 9.1) He based his
classification scheme on two abiotic factors namely precipitation and temperature.
Heinrich Walter classification scheme (Fig. 9.2) considers the seasonality of
temperature and precipitation. In this scheme, nine major biome types with
characteristic climate traits and vegetation types are defined. The biome boundaries
correlate to the conditions of cold stress and moisture. In fact, the moisture and
cold stress are determinants of plant form. So, the vegetation defines the region.
However, extreme conditions like flooding can create different kinds of
communities within the same biome.

Fig. 9.2: Heinrich Walter classification scheme (Source: Walter and Box, 1976)

9.4.1 Aquatic Biomes

The aquatic biome can be broken down into two basic regions namely freshwater
biomes and marine biomes. Freshwater biome consists of the lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams, and wetlands. The marine regions include oceans, coral reefs and
estuaries. The marine biome consists of the oceans, seas, coral reefs and estuaries.
These are habitats with high saline conditions. In these habitats we find
mangroves, salt marshes, and mudflats. Marine habitats consist of five zones -
intertidal, neritic, oceanic pelagic, abyssal and benthic zones. Freshwater biomes
are aquatic habitats with low saline conditions. The freshwater habitat is classified
into lotic (moving water bodies) and lentic (standing water bodies). Lotic
form includes streams and rivers. Lentic forms include bogs, lakes, ponds, and
inland wetlands. Freshwater habitats are also influenced by land of the surrounding
areas, the pattern and speed of water flow and the climatic condition.

9.4.1.1 Freshwater Biomes

Freshwater biomes have a salt content (or salinity) of less than 0.05%. On the
174 other hand, marine biomes have a salinity of 3.5% or greater. Freshwater biomes
are classified according to the movement of its water. Biomes in which the water Major Biomes of the World
is not flowing are classified as lentic freshwater biomes while those that contain
freely flowing water are known as lotic freshwater biomes Examples of lentic
freshwater biomes are lakes and pond. Examples of lotic freshwater biomes are
rivers and streams.

9.4.1.2 Marine Biomes

Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface. It includes oceans,
coral reefs, and estuaries. The largest of all the ecosystems, oceans are very large
bodies of water that dominate the Earth’s surface. Like ponds and lakes, the
ocean regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and
benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species. It is said that the ocean
contains the richest diversity of species even though it contains fewer species
than there are on land. Estuaries are bodies of water where salt and freshwater
mix. Apart from having considerable scientific interest because of their unusual
properties, they are very important to humans. Estuaries frequently make good
ports. They tend to be very productive and have large fish and shellfish yields.
Coral reefs are widely distributed in warm shallow waters. They can be found as
barriers along continents (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef off Australia), fringing
islands, and atolls. Naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals.
Corals consist of both algae (zooxanthellae) and tissues of animal polyp. Since
reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, corals obtain nutrients through the algae
via photosynthesis and also by extending tentacles to obtain plankton from the
water. Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms,
invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars.

9.4.2 Terrestrial Biomes

9.4.2.1 Forest Biomes

i) Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical forests are distributed in areas of the world near the equator and between
the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer. Regions which receive heavy
rainfall all year round, with no distinct dry season, are referred to as tropical
rainforests. One of the major characteristics of tropical forests is their distinct
seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry).
They are characterized by very hot temperatures and high average annual rainfall
(greater than 1500 mm per annum). They form habitat for a wide variety of species.
There are extensive tropical rain forests in South America, Africa, and Southeast
Asia. Soil in rainforest is highly acidic, the type of clay particles present in tropical
rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing
away, the dead organic matter decompose quickly leading to low nutrient content
of the soil. Canopy in tropical forests is multilayered and continuous, allowing
little light penetration. Vegetation is dominated by a continuous canopy of tall
evergreen trees rising to 30–40 m. Occasional emergent trees rise above the
canopy to heights of 55 m or so. Climbing lianas, or woody vines, and epiphytes,
plants that grow on the branches of other plants and are not rooted in soil are
prominent in the forest canopy itself.
Rainforest can be further classified on the basis of seasonal distribution of rainfall:
Evergreen rainforest: with no dry season; Seasonal rainforest: short dry period
in a very wet tropical region; Semi-evergreen forest: longer dry season (the 175
Fundamentals of Ecology upper tree storey consists of deciduous trees, while the lower storey is still
evergreen); Moist/dry deciduous forest (monsoon): the length of the dry season
increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous). Broad-leaved
evergreen trees; ferns; large woody vines and climbing plants; orchids and
bromeliads are commonly found. Dominant wildlife includes herbivores such
as sloths, tapirs, and capybaras; predators such as jaguars; anteaters; monkeys;
birds such as toucans, parrots, and parakeets; insects such as butterflies,
ants, and beetles; piranhas and other freshwater fishes; reptiles such as frogs,
Caymans, boa constrictors, and anacondas.

ii) Temperate Evergreen Forest

These are characterized with mild winters, heavy winter rains, and summer
fog create conditions that support extremely tall evergreen forests. Forests in
the northern hemisphere are dominated by oaks, laurels and camphor, while
species of southern beech and eucalypts dominate the south. Soil is fertile,
enriched with decaying litter. Canopy is moderately dense and allows light
to penetrate, resulting in well-developed and richly diversified understory
vegetation and stratification of animals. temperate forests have just two layers
of vegetation. The tallest trees have their foliage generally about 15-30 m
above ground and a layer of shrubs and smaller trees underneath, at
approximately 5-10 m. This is why the soil receives more light than in tropical
forests and the undergrowth is luxuriant: ferns, mosses and lichens, especially
in very rainy areas. Temperate-mixed evergreen forests represent a broad
transitional zone between temperate deciduous forests to the south and taiga
to the north.

iii) Temperate Deciduous Forest

Mild climates (warm summers and cool winters) and plentiful rains promote
the growth of deciduous (hardwood) forests in Eurasia, the northeastern United
States, and eastern Canada. It has four distinct seasons: winter, spring, summer
and fall. Winters are cold and summers are warm. The average annual
temperature in a deciduous forest is 50° F. The average rainfall is 30 to 60
inches a year. Soil tends to be slightly acidic and moderately leached, and
are brown in color owing to abundant organic matter. Warmer and drier parts
of the temperate seasonal forest biome, especially where soils are sandy and
nutrient poor, tend to develop needle-leaved forests dominated by pines.
Conifers like spruce, fir and pine trees can also be found mixed in with the
hardwood trees in this biome. Higher species diversity than coniferous forest
deer, wolf, bear, foxes, many migratory birds, squirrels, rabbits, etc. are
commonly found. Some species hibernate in winter.

9.4.2.2 Grassland Biomes

i) Temperate Grassland
Temperate grasslands are characterized as having grasses as the dominant
vegetation. Trees and large shrubs are absent. rainfall ranges between 30
and 85 cm per year, Summer temperatures can reach over 38 °C, while in
the winter are cold they can sometimes reaching below -40 °C. Precipitation
is infrequent, so organic detritus does not decompose rapidly, and the soils
are rich in organic matter Extensive grasslands are also found in central Asia,
where they are called steppes. Steppes are dry areas of grassland with hot
176 summers and cold winters. In North America, grassland is called a prairie.
 In South America, it is called a pampas. And in Australia, grassland is called Major Biomes of the World
an outback. Prairies are grasslands with tall grasses while steppes are
grasslands with short grasses.

ii) Tropical Grassland/Savanna Biomes

Savannas are found in parts of the tropics where there is not enough rainfall
throughout the year to create a rainforest. Savanna is grassland with scattered
individual trees. On a global scale, the savanna biome is transitional between
tropical rain forest and desert. They are always found in climates with
relatively hot, wet summers and warm, dry winters where the annual rainfall
is typically 90–150 cm per year, but the driest three or four months bring
less than 5 cm each. Different savannas support different grasses depending
on the amount of rainfall received and soil conditions. The soil of the savanna
is porous, with rapid drainage of water. Nutrients in soil are present mainly
due to a thin layer of humus. Fire and grazing undoubtedly play important
roles in maintaining the character of the savanna biome. The woody trees
are very limited and usually do not get very tall. Grasslands usually support
large numbers of both small and large wildlife predators such as lions,
leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and jackals; aardvarks; herbivores such as
elephants, giraffes, antelopes, and zebras; baboons; birds such as eagles,
ostriches, weaver birds, and storks; insects such as termites

9.4.2.3 Woodlands and Shrublands

This biome actually goes by several names. It is found surrounding large parts of
the Mediterranean Sea and is thus sometimes called the Mediterranean Biome,
others call it a Woodland Biome, while others call it a Shrub or Chaparral Biome.
Temperate woodlands and shrublands are located in Western coastal regions
between 30° and 40° North and South latitude. Around the Mediterranean Sea,
southern parts of Australia, and Mexico. The soil type is quite fertile, rich in
minerals and other nutrients. The most dominate plant life includes aromatic
herbs such as: sage, rosemary, and thyme, as well as shrubs and other grasses.
Some prominent wildlife are coyotes, wild goats, mule deer, and the
Mediterranean gecko. During the dry season lightning started wildfires wreak
havoc on the shrublands. Because of this some plants have adapted to have fire
resistant capabilities, by holding on the more moisture in their leaves. Some
plants only release these seeds during fires, the heat cracks them open and they
begin to grow. The shrublands are also known as Chaparral. It is from the Spanish
word “chapa” or scrub oak

9.4.2.4 Taiga

Stretching in a broad belt centered at about 50°N in North America and about
60°N in Europe and Asia lies the boreal forest biome, often called taiga. Long,
severe winters (up to six months with mean temperatures below freezing) and
short summers (50 to 100 frost-free days) are characteristic, as is a wide range of
temperatures between the lows of winter and highs of summer. The winters are
extremely harsh and can last as long as six months. Typically, the soil freezes
during the winter. This makes it difficult for animals to stay year-round.
Precipitation ranges between 25 and 100 centimeters (10 to 40 inches) per year.
Needle leaf coniferous trees are the dominant plants of the taiga biome. Coniferous
forests are mainly found in broad circumpolar belt across the northern hemisphere
177
Fundamentals of Ecology and on mountain ranges where low temperatures limit the growing season to a
few months each year - thus too unfavorable for most hardwoods. Spruce, fir,
pine, larch or tamarack, alder, birch, and aspen are common. Throughout the
southern half of Canada, parts of northern Europe, and much of Russia, there is an
evergreen coniferous forest.

9.4.2.5 Tundra

Tundra is the coldest biome on Earth. The word tundra comes from a Finnish
word for treeless land. There are two types of tundra—Arctic tundra, found in a
band around the Arctic Ocean, and alpine tundra, found high in mid-latitude
mountains. Arctic tundra has a growing season of only 50 to 60 days. The average
winter temperature is –34 °C. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 12 °C. As a
result of these cold temperatures, the ground is permanently frozen from 25
centimeters to about 100 centimeters below the surface. This frozen ground is
called permafrost. There is a thin layer of soil above the permafrost that does
thaw in summertime, but it is not deep enough to support the growth of trees.
Lichens, mosses, grasses, and a few woody shrubs are the most common plants in
the Arctic tundra.

Floral biodiversity includes low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts,

and grasses about 400 varieties of flowers, crustose and foliose lichen. Plants are
short and group together to resist the cold temperature. They can carry out
photosynthesis at low temperatures and low light intensities. The snow protects
them during the winter. The growing seasons are short, and most plants reproduce
by budding and division rather than sexually by flowering. The fauna in the arctic
is also diverse herbivores that include lemmings, voles, caribou, arctic hares and
squirrels’ Carnivorous mammals: arctic foxes, wolves, and polar bears. Migratory
birds: ravens, snow buntings, falcons, loons, ravens, sandpipers, terns, and snow
birds, and various species of gulls. Insects like mosquitoes, flies, moths,
grasshoppers, blackflies and arctic bumble bees. Fishes like cod, flatfish, salmon,
and trout. Animals are adapted to handle long cold winters and to breed and raise
young quickly in the summer. Animals such as mammals and birds also have
additional insulation such as fat. Many animals hibernate during the winter because
food is not abundant. Another alternative is to migrate south in the winter, like
birds do. Reptiles and amphibians are few or absent because of the extremely
cold temperature. Because of constant immigration and emigration, the population
continually oscillates.

9.4.2.6 Desert

A desert is a climate region that averages less than 35 centimeters of rainfall per
year. Most deserts are found between the latitudes of 30° N and 30° S. Because of
the lack of cloud cover, deserts receive more than twice as much incoming solar
radiation as humid regions. They also emit almost twice as much radiation at
night. As a result, deserts have large variations in daily high and low temperatures.
Soils are course-textured, shallow, rocky or gravely with good drainage and have
no subsurface water. They are coarse because there is less chemical weathering.
The finer dust and sand particles are blown elsewhere, leaving heavier pieces
behind. Soil tends to be well drained, with very little or absent organic matter.
However, they are rich in nitrogen and other minerals. There are 4 types of deserts
commonly found:
178
i) Hot and Dry Desert Major Biomes of the World

The seasons are generally warm throughout the year and very hot in the summer.
The winters usually bring little rainfall. Many mean annual temperatures range
from 20-25° C. The extreme maximum ranges from 43.5-49° C. Hot and dry
deserts are warm throughout the fall and spring seasons and very hot during
the summer. The winters usually have very little if any rainfall. Hot and dry
desert vegetation is very rare. Plants are almost all ground-hugging shrubs
and short woody trees. All of the leaves store nutrients. Some examples of
these kinds of plant are Turpentine Bush, Prickly Pears, and Brittle Bush. For
all of these plants to survive they have to have adaptations. Some of the
adaptations in this case are the ability to store water for long periods of time
and the ability to stand the hot weather. Animals include small nocturnal
carnivores. The dominant animals are burrowers. The animals stay inactive
in protected hideaways during the hot day and come out to forage at dusk,
dawn or at night, when the desert is cooler.

ii) Semi-arid Desert

The summers are moderately long and dry, and like hot deserts, the winters
normally bring low concentrations of rainfall. Summer temperatures usually
average between 21-27° C. It normally does not go above 38° C and evening
temperatures are cool, at around 10° C. Cool nights help both plants and
animals by reducing moisture loss from transpiration, sweating and breathing.
Furthermore, condensation of dew caused by night cooling may equal or
exceed the rainfall received by some deserts. As in the hot desert, rainfall is
often very low and/or concentrated. The average rainfall ranges from 2-4 cm
annually.

iii) Coastal Desert

These deserts occur in moderately cool to warm areas such as the Nearctic
and Neotropical realm. A good example is the Atacama of Chile. The cool
winters of coastal deserts are followed by moderately long, warm summers.
The average summer temperature ranges from 13-24° C; winter temperatures
are 5° C or below. The maximum annual temperature is about 35° C and the
minimum is about -4° C. In Chile, the temperature ranges from -2 to 5° C in
July and 21-25° C in January. The average rainfall measures 8-13 cm in
many areas. The maximum annual precipitation over a long period of years
has been 37 cm with a minimum of 5 cm.

iv) Cold desert

These deserts are characterized by cold winters with snowfall and high
overall rainfall throughout the winter and occasionally over the summer. They
occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the Nearctic realm. They have short,
moist, and moderately warm summers with fairly long, cold winters. The
mean winter temperature is between -2 to 4° C and the mean summer
temperature is between 21-26° C. Cold Deserts have quite a bit of snow
during winter. The summer and the beginning of the spring are barely warm
enough for a few lichens, grasses and mosses to grow. Most of the
precipitation comes in the form of snow or fog. Annual precipitation is less
than 250mm.More than 99% of the land area is covered by ice. Plant growth
is limited as there are few areas not covered by ice. There are no trees and
shrubs present at all. The only vegetation able to survive are liverworts,
179
Fundamentals of Ecology lichens and mosses, few amphibians, reptiles or mammals are native to cold
deserts, but humans have introduced some animals, such as rats and mice.
Native fauna includes spiders, earthworms, beetles and the Arctic fox.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the aquatic biomes.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2. What are the characteristic features of tropical rain forest?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3. Explain the characteristic features of temperate forests.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
4. List the characteristic features of temperate grassland biomes.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
5. Explain the characteristic features of desert biomes.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
180
 Major Biomes of the World
9.5 LET US SUM UP
Biomes are the world’s major communities, classified according to the predominant
vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment. Different environmental factors play a role in determining which
biomes are found where. Biomes generally differ in their latitude, weather and
relative humidity, amount of sunlight, and topography. Each biome has a unique
set of plants and animals that thrive in its climate. Similar biomes can occur in
widely divergent places as long as the environmental conditions are appropriate
for their development. In this unit, we discussed the major biomes of world and
characteristic features of the aquatic and terrestrial biomes.

9.6 KEY WORDS

Biome: A large geographical area with characteristic groups of organisms adapted
to that particular environment.
Taiga (boreal Forest): Terrestrial biome characterized by cold temperature,
moderate precipitation, and continuous forest.
Temperate Forest: Terrestrial biome characterized by moderate temperature,
substantial precipitation, and a moderately diverse assemblage of plant and animal
species.
Temperate Grassland: Biome in interior Eurasia and North America, with cold winters,
warm summers, and much grass.
Temperate Shrubland: Biome at 30–40° latitude on the southwest side of large
landmasses, with mild, wet winters, hot dry summers, occasional fires, and a
diverse community of drought-adapted shrubby plants.
Tropical Rain Forest: Terrestrial biome characterized by constant high
temperature and rainfall in a broadleaf evergreen forest with extraordinary species
diversity.

9.7 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
Campbell, N.A. 1996. Biology, Fourth Edition. The Benjamin/Cummings
Publishing
Company, Inc. Menlo Park, CA.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome
http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/
Jeffree, E. P., and C. E. Jeffree. 1994. Temperature and biogeographical
distributions of species. Functional Ecology, 8:640–650.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. 3rdEd. W.B. Saunders Company
USA

181
Fundamentals of Ecology Odum, E.P. and Barrett, G.W. 2001. Fundamentals of Ecology. 5thed. Thomson.
Brooks/Cole. 10.
Olson, D. M., et al. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new map of life
on earth. BioScience 51(11):933–938.
Perry, D.A. 1994. Forest Ecosystems. The Johns Hopkins University
Press.Baltimore.
Singer FD. 2016. Ecology in Action. Cambridge University Press, United
Kingdom.
Walter H. and Box E. 1976, Global classification of natural terrestrial ecosystems,
32 (2), 75–81
Whittaker R. H. 1975, Communities and Ecosystems, 2nd ed., Macmillan, New
York

9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Refer section 9.4.1
2. Refer section 9.4.2
3. Refer section 9.4.2
4. Refer section 9.4.2.2
5. Refer section 9.4.2.6

182
The Major Biomes

This map shows the locations of the world's major land biomes. Other parts of Earth's surface are clas-
sified as mountains or ice caps. Each biome has a characteristic climate and community of organisms.

Ecologists recognize at least ten different biomes. The world’s major land biomes include tropical
rain forest, tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate grassland, temperate woodland and
shrubland, temperate forest, northwestern coniferous forest, boreal forest, and tundra. Each of these
biomes is defined by a unique set of abiotic factors – particularly climate – and has a characteristic
ecological community. The map shows the natural geographic distribution of these major biomes. Be
aware, however; that this is just one of many different systems that are used to classify biomes. The
map does not take into account changes made by human activity.

The boundaries between the biomes may appear to be sharp on the map. On the ground, however,
there are often transitional areas between biomes. In these transitional areas, one biome's plants and
animals gradually become less frequent, while the organisms characteristic of the adjacent biome
become more frequent. In addition, the community structure of a particular biome will differ slightly,
depending on location and elevation above sea level. For this survey, you will study an example of
each major biome from a specific location and elevation. You will begin in the tropics and finish at
the poles.

1
Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical rain forests are
home to more species than
all other land biomes com-
bined. The leafy tops of tall
trees – extending up to 70
meters above the forest
floor – form a dense cover-
ing called a canopy. In the
shade below the canopy, a
second layer of shorter
trees and vines forms an
understory. Organic matter
that falls to the forest floor
quickly decomposes and
the nutrients are recycled.

• Abiotic factors: hot and wet year-round; thin, nutrient-poor soils

• Dominant plants: broad-leaved evergreen trees; ferns; large woody vines and
climbing plants; orchids and bromeliads

• Dominant wildlife: herbivores such as sloths, tapirs, and capybaras; predators

such as jaguars; anteaters; monkeys; birds such as toucans, parrots, and parakeets;
insects such as butterflies, ants, and beetles; piranhas and other freshwater fishes;
reptiles such as frogs, caymans, boa constrictors, and anacondas

• Geographic distribution: parts of South and Central America, Southeast Asia,

parts of Africa, southern India, and northeastern Australia

2
Tropical Dry Forest
Tropical dry forests grow in
places where rainfall is
highly seasonal rather than
year-round. During the dry
season, nearly all the trees
drop their leaves to con-
serve water. A tree that
sheds its leaves during a
particular season each year
is called deciduous.

• Abiotic factors: generally warm year-round; alternating wet and dry seasons; rich
soils subject to erosion

• Dominant plants: tall, deciduous trees that form a dense canopy during the wet
season; drought-tolerant orchids and bromeliads; aloes and other succulents

• Dominant wildlife: tigers; monkeys; herbivores such as elephants, Indian rhinoc-

eros, hog deer; birds such as great pied hornbill, pied harrier, and spot-billed peli-
can; insects such as termites; reptiles such as snakes and monitor lizards

• Geographic distribution: parts of Africa, South and Central America, Mexico,

India, Australia, and tropical islands

3
Tropical Savanna
Receiving more seasonal
rainfall than deserts but
less than tropical dry
forests, tropical savannas,
or grasslands, are charac-
terized by a cover of grass-
es. Savannas are spotted
with isolated trees and
small groves of trees and
shrubs. Compact soils, fair-
ly frequent fires, and the
action of large animals
such as rhinoceros prevent
some savanna areas from
turning into dry forest.

• Abiotic factors: warm temperatures; seasonal rainfall; compact soil; frequent

fires set by lightning

• Dominant plants: tall, perennial grasses; sometimes drought-tolerant and fire-

resistant trees or shrubs

• Dominant wildlife: predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and jack-
als; aardvarks; herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, antelopes, and zebras;
baboons; birds such as eagles, ostriches, weaver birds, and storks; insects such as
termites

• Geographic distribution: large parts of eastern Africa, southern Brazil, northern

Australia

4
Desert
All deserts are dry –- in
fact, a desert biome is
defined as having annual
precipitation of less than 25
centimeters. Beyond that,
deserts vary greatly,
depending on elevation and
latitude. Many undergo
extreme temperature
changes during the course
of a day, alternating
between hot and cold. The
organisms in this biome
can tolerate the extreme
conditions.

• Abiotic factors: low precipitation, variable temperatures; soils rich in minerals but
poor in organic material

• Dominant plants: cacti and other succulents; creosote bush and other plants with
short growth cycles

• Dominant wildlife: predators such as mountain lions, gray foxes, and bobcats;
herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn sheep, and kan-
garoo rats; bats; birds such as owls, hawks, and roadrunners; insects such as ants,
beetles, butterflies, flies, and wasps; reptiles such as tortoises, rattlesnakes, and
lizards

• Geographic distribution: Africa, Asia, the Middle East, United States, Mexico,
South America, and Australia

5
Temperate Grassland
Characterized by a rich mix
of grasses and underlaid by
some of the world's most
fertile soils, temperate
grasslands – such as plains
and prairies – once covered
vast areas of the midwest-
ern United States. Since the
development of the steel
plow, however, most have
been converted to agricul-
tural fields. Periodic fires
and heavy grazing by large
herbivores maintain the
characteristic plant commu-
nity.

• Abiotic factors: warm to hot summers; cold winters; moderate, seasonal precipi-
tation; fertile soils; occasional fires

• Dominant plants: lush, perennial grasses and herbs; most are resistant to
drought, fire, and cold

• Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes and badgers -- historically included

wolves and grizzly bears; herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, rab-
bits, prairie dogs, and introduced cattle -- historically included bison; birds such
as hawks, owls, bobwhite, prairie chicken, mountain plover; reptiles such as
snakes; insects such as ants and grasshoppers

• Geographic distribution: central Asia, North America, Australia, central Europe,

and upland plateaus of South America

6
Temperate Woodland
and Shrubland
This biome is characterized
by a semiarid climate and a
mix of shrub communities
and open woodlands. In the
open woodlands, large
areas of grasses and wild-
flowers such as poppies are
interspersed with oak trees.
Communities that are dom-
inated by shrubs are also
known as chaparral. The
growth of dense, low plants
that contain flammable oils
makes fires a constant
threat.

• Abiotic factors: hot, dry summers; cool, moist winters; thin, nutrient-poor soils;
periodic fires

• Dominant plants: woody evergreen shrubs with small, leathery leaves; fragrant,
oily herbs that grow during winter and die in summer

• Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes, foxes, bobcats, and mountain

lions; herbivores such as blacktailed deer, rabbits, squirrels, and mice; birds such
as hawks, California quail, western scrub jay, warblers and other songbirds; rep-
tiles such as lizards and snakes; butterflies; spiders

• Geographic distribution: western coasts of North and South America, areas

around the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, and Australia

7
Temperate Forest
Temperate forests contain a
mixture of deciduous and
coniferous (koh-NIF-ur-us)
trees. Coniferous trees, or
conifers, produce seed-bear-
ing cones and most have
leaves shaped like needles.
These forests have cold
winters that halt plant
growth for several months.
In autumn, the deciduous
trees shed their leaves. In
the spring, small plants
burst out of the ground and
flower. Soils of temperate
forests are often rich in
humus (HYOO-mus), a
material formed from
decaying leaves and other
organic matter that makes
soil fertile.

• Abiotic factors: cold to moderate winters; warm summers; year-round precipita-

tion; fertile soils

• Dominant plants: broadleaf deciduous trees; some conifers; flowering shrubs;

herbs; a ground layer of mosses and ferns

• Dominant wildlife: Deer; black bears; bobcats; nut and acorn feeders, such as
squirrels; omnivores such as raccoons and skunks; numerous songbirds; turkeys

• Geographic distribution: eastern United States; southeastern Canada; most of

Europe; and parts of Japan, China, and Australia

8
Northwestern
Coniferous Forest
Mild, moist air from the
Pacific Ocean provides
abundant rainfall to this
biome. The forest is made
up of a variety of conifers,
ranging from giant red-
woods, along the coast of
northern California. to
spruce, fir, and hemlock
farther north. Moss often
covers tree trunks and the
forest floor. Flowering trees
and shrubs such as dog-
wood and rhododendron
are also abundant. Because
of its lush vegetation, the
northwestern coniferous
forest is sometimes called a
"temperate rain forest.."

• Abiotic factors: mild temperatures; abundant precipitation during fall, winter, and
spring; relatively cool, dry summer; rocky, acidic soils

• Dominant plants: Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, western hemlock, redwood

• Dominant wildlife: bears; large herbivores such as elk and deer; beavers; preda-
tors such as owls, bobcats, and members of the weasel family

• Geographic distribution: Pacific coast of northwestern United States and

Canada, from northern California to AlaskaBoreal Forest

9
Boreal Forest
Along the northern edge of
the temperate zone are
dense evergreen forests of
coniferous trees. These
biomes are called boreal
forests, or taiga (TY-guh).
Winters are bitterly cold,
but summers are mild and
long enough to allow the
ground to thaw. The word
boreal comes from the
Greek word for "north,"
reflecting the fact that
boreal forests occur mostly
in the Northern
Hemisphere.

• Abiotic factors: long, cold winters; short, mild summers; moderate precipitation;
high humidity; acidic, nutrient-poor soils

• Dominant plants: needleleaf coniferous trees such as spruce and fir; some
broadleaf deciduous trees; small, berry-bearing shrubs

• Dominant wildlife: predators like lynx and timberwolves and members of the
weasel family; small herbivorous mammals; moose and other large herbivores;
beavers; songbirds and migratory birds

• Geographic distribution: North America, Asia, and northern Europe

10
Tundra
The tundra is characterized
by permafrost, a layer of
permanently frozen sub-
soil. During the short, cool
summer, the ground thaws
to a depth of a few cen-
timeters and becomes
soggy and wet. In winter,
the topsoil freezes again.
This cycle of thawing and
freezing, which rips and
crushes plant roots, is one
reason that tundra plants
are small and stunted. Cold
temperatures, high winds;
the short growing season,
and humus-poor soils also
limit plant height

• Abiotic factors: strong winds; low precipitation; short and soggy summers; long,
cold, and dark winters;. poorly developed soils; permafrost

• Dominant plants: ground-hugging plants such as mosses, lichens, sedges, and

short grasses

• Dominant wildlife: a few resident birds and mammals that can withstand the
harsh conditions; migratory waterfowl, shore birds, musk ox, Arctic foxes, and
caribou; lemmings and other small rodents

• Geographic distribution: northern North America, Asia, and Europe

Copyright © 2002 WGBH Educational Foundation. Original copyright © 2000 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
11