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Napoleon - The Corsican Eagle Flown Into Legend
Napoleon - The Corsican Eagle Flown Into Legend
CORSICAN EAGLE
FLOWN INTO
LEGEND
The irresistible rise and rapid fall of the man who shook Europe in
less than twenty years
by Mario Galloni
In the Capital, the young Corsican met the high society: he went to the
theater, organized dinners, and stepped into the influential salons. He was
captivated by the charm of Josephine Tasher, widow Beauharnais, a great
lady with a thousand connections, older than him, in debt, but still the
owner of a rich income. She bet on the magnetic-eyed soldier; he on a
refined woman capable of polishing his manners. On March 9, 1796, he
married her and, on the 27th of the same month, was already in Nice
commanding the Army of Italy, ready to battle Austria, the leader of the
coalition among the major European monarchies terrified by the specter
of the “revolutionary plague.” The campaign began on April 12; on May
14, Napoleon entered Milan as a conqueror. In just over a month, the
young military man, having delivered to legend, took everyone by surprise
by attacking from Liguria, dividing the enemy front, and routing first the
Piedmontese and then the Austrians of the old general Beaulieu, literally
at the mercy of the rival’s strategic choices. Leading an exhausted, poorly
paid, scarcely equipped, outnumbered army, Napoleon accomplished his
first masterpiece, built on the innovative management of troops,
meticulous preparation of battles, selection of officers as courageous and
bold as him, and the ability to revitalize the army by instilling a common
sentiment that becomes a shared dream of glory when the bond between
troop and leader solidifies into fanatic devotion to the commander.
Returning home, he found the Directory in crisis and the army in tatters.
There was no choice but a coup. On November 9, 1799 (according to the
revolutionary calendar, 18 Brumaire), Bonaparte dissolved the Chambers,
power passed to three consuls who introduced a new constitution, then
ratified by a plebiscite. Appointed First Consul, the general had the
country in his hands and shaped it on a model of strong administrative
centralization: the country was divided into departments with the new
figure of the prefect at the helm. He also resolved the long-standing
dispute with the Church, signing the concordat that established the state’s
secularity. He founded the National Bank and reorganized the educational
system, including the lycée, the forge of the new ruling class.
But if France was his, Italy was slipping away. The second anti-French
coalition had overturned some of the republics born from the first
expedition, so the First Consul returned to war and victory, first at
Montebello and then at Marengo, on June 14, 1800. From the triumph
was born, in 1802, the Italian Republic, of which Bonaparte became
president, while the Treaty of Amiens signed with the United Kingdom
granted two years of respite to Europe. At Notre-Dame, in 1804,
Napoleon received from Pope Pius VII the crown of French emperor; the
following year in Milan, in the Duomo, he placed the Iron Crown of King
of Italy on his head.
At the height of glory and power, he targeted England. But the planned
invasion of the island clashed with the disproportion of naval forces and
foundered after the annihilation of the fleet at Trafalgar by Nelson. In
1805, Napoleon faced the third anti-French coalition, which this time
involved England, Austria, and Russia, sending his most valiant marshal,
Andrea Massena, to “disturb” the Austrians in Italy, while he personally
took command of the “Grande Armée.” It was the eve of Austerlitz,
Bonaparte’s strategic masterpiece: on December 3, 1805, on the
anniversary of his coronation, he defeated the Austro-Russians. The
following year he also defeated Frederick William II’s Prussia at Jena and
made his triumphant entrance into Berlin. In 1807 at Friedland, the army
of Tsar Alexander capitulated. Practically unbeatable, leading an army
drunk with success, the emperor now imposed the Continental Blockade,
forbidding ships flying the English flag from docking at any port, thus
hoping to bend the British economy. To the pope who refused to adhere,
he responded with the capture of Rome and the annexation of the Papal
States to the empire, and when the excommunication bull arrived, he had
the pontiff arrested, who was then transferred to France, first to Grenoble
and then to Fontainebleau.
The blockade, however, was a failure. Too many states circumvented it,
including Portugal, which was invaded in retaliation. Napoleon then took
advantage of the dynastic dispute between Charles IV and his son to force
both to abdicate and place his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain,
without, however, managing to tame the guerrillas or even to annihilate
the English expeditionary force that in the meantime had liberated the
Lusitanian state. Despite the difficulties, in 1809 he also bent the fifth
coalition (yet another alliance between the Austrian Empire and the
United Kingdom), defeated from a position of undisputed military
superiority. He occupied Vienna and the Schönbrunn Castle and dictated
a harsh peace to the Austrians. Meanwhile, he agreed with their prime
minister Metternich on a state marriage capable of definitively reconciling
France and Austria and, hopefully, of granting the emperor the longed-for
male heir. He had divorced Josephine, his beloved but unfaithful
companion, and now married Maria Luisa of Austria, niece of Marie
Antoinette. But the son born in 1811, Napoleon Francis, known as the
King of Rome, would never ascend the throne and would die at just 21
years old.
Determined to strike a final blow against Tsar Alexander, the Emperor
attempted the invasion of Russia, a titanic endeavor that ended in an
epochal defeat. The numbers don’t lie: the Emperor set off at the head of
an army of 700,000 men, of which over 400,000 would never return. The
defeat gave rise to the European powers. Napoleon, back in France,
worked night and day to rebuild the army, about 400,000 strong, largely
young recruits. The wounded old lion was enough to keep the Prussians at
bay, but not the bulk of the coalition, including the Austrians, who did
not seem to greatly respect the previous year’s marriage. The French army
capitulated at Leipzig. Napoleon entrusted the regency to his wife and the
capital to his brother, then took the lead of 60,000 veterans and for two
months kept the enemy forces at bay, eventually yielding to the Prussians.
On March 31, 1813, Tsar Alexander entered Paris. Napoleon was forced to
abdicate. After an attempted suicide with arsenic, miraculously thwarted,
and a moving farewell to the Old Guard, he reached Marseille and sailed
for his exile on Elba. On the island, he vented his hyperactivity by building
roads and infrastructure and kept a watchful eye on Paris where Louis
XVIII, back on the throne after his abdication, had already alienated the
favor of the people.
***
di Mario Galloni
Napoleone in Italia scopre dunque di avere una grandezza pari alla sua
ambizione. E comincia a servire entrambe. Il 5 agosto a Castiglione delle
Stiviere vince la sua prima grande battaglia campale spingendosi fino a
Venezia e costringendo l’Austria al trattato di Campoformio. Cinto
dall’alloro del trionfatore, in Francia diventa politicamente ingombrante.
Il Direttorio preferisce allontanarlo da Parigi affidandogli l’occupazione
dell’Egitto, volta a contrastare gli interessi economici inglesi sui mari. La
campagna sarà un fallimento: nonostante la vittoriosa battaglia delle
Piramidi combattuta il 21 luglio 1798, il condottiero dovrà assistere alla
completa distruzione della flotta per mano dell’ammiraglio inglese Horatio
Nelson e arrendersi all’impossibilità di prendere l’antica fortezza crociata
di San Giovanni d’Acri.
Il blocco è però un insuccesso. Troppi gli Stati che lo aggirano, fra questi il
Portogallo che per rappresaglia viene invaso. In seguito Napoleone
approfitta della disputa dinastica tra Carlo IV e il figlio per costringere
entrambi ad abdicare e porre sul trono di Spagna il fratello Giuseppe,
senza però riuscire a domare la guerriglia e nemmeno ad annientare il
corpo di spedizione inglese che nel frattempo ha liberato lo Stato lusitano.
Nonostante le difficoltà, nel 1809 piega anche la quinta coalizione
(ennesima alleanza fra Impero austriaco e Regno Unito), sconfitta dall’alto
di una indiscussa superiorità militare. Occupa Vienna e il castello di
Schönbrunn e detta agli austriaci una pace durissima. Intanto si accorda
con il loro primo ministro Metternich per un matrimonio di stato in
grado di conciliare definitivamente Francia e Austria e, sperabilmente, di
regalare all’imperatore l’agognato erede maschio. Aveva divorziato da
Giuseppina, adorata ma infedele compagna, ora impalma Maria Luisa
d’Austria, nipote di Maria Antonietta. Ma il figlio che nasce nel 1811,
Napoleone Francesco, detto il re di Roma, non salirà mai sul trono e
morirà a soli 21 anni.
SAGGI
Napoleone
Luigi Mascilli Migliorini
Salerno, 2021.