Remedial Biology Notes On Unit 2

Unit Two
Molecules of
Life/Biomolecules
1/22/2024 By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024 1
Cont’d
About 90 % of human body is composed of four elements
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
These and other elements combine to form larger units called
molecules
Such molecules present with in living organisms are known as
biomolecules
There are two basic groups of molecules with in living organisms
Inorganic
Organic

Biomolecules
Organic Inorganic
Biomolecules with out C-C
Biomolecules with C-C or C-
or C-H bond
H bond
Water
Carbohydrate
Minerals (salt)
Lipid
Gases
Protein
Enzymes
Nucleic acids
Nucleotides
Vitamins
Organic Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates Lipids
Proteins Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrate
Principle Elements: C, H, & O
Name derived from the carbon and water
H:O = 2:1
Functional groups are hydroxyl groups (-OH) and carbonyl
group(C=O)
Monomers: Monosaccharides
Different monosaccharides have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulas
Polymers: Polysaccharides
Water Soluble
Grouped in to monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide
Monosaccharides
 Monosaccharides have the general molecular
formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, 5 or 6.
 They can be classified according to the number
of carbon atoms in a molecule:
n = 3 trioses, e.g. glyceraldehyde
pentoses, e.g. ribose, deoxyribose, and ribulose ('pent'
n=5
indicates 5)
hexoses, e.g. fructose, glucose and galactose ('hex'
n=6
1/22/2024
indicates 6) By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024 6
Chemical Formula
C6H12O6 C6H12O6
Structural
formula

Chemical Formula
C5H10O5 C5H10O5
Structural
formula
deoxyribose

Carbohydrates
Aldoses Ketoses
Reducing sugars Non reducing sugars
• E.g. • E.g.
Glucose Fructose
Galactose  Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose

Test for presence of reducing sugars >>>Benedict's
test & Fehling's test
 Reducing sugars to reduce copper from a valence of 2 (CuSO4) to a valence of 1

(Cu2O)
These form when two
monosaccharides react through:
Dehydration synthesis
Condensation reaction i.e.
endergonic reaction
Glycosidic linkage/s
Covalent bonding
Can be converted in to
monosaccharides through
hydrolysis
Lactose
glucose + galactose
Maltose
glucose + glucose
Sucrose
1/22/2024 By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024 glucose + fructose 13
glycogen

Cont’d
Uses of carbohydrates are:
Main fuel molecules for the cells especially glucose
A store of energy, e.g. Starch in plants
Forms large molecules (giant carbohydrates), e.g.
Cellulose in plants and glycogen in the human body
Components of other molecules e.g.
oDNA
oRNA
oATP
oGlycolipids
oGlycoproteins

Principle Elements: C, H, & O
Some With S, P
H:O >>> 2:1
E.g.
Diverse Group of Biological Molecules
 Fats,
Water Insoluble
 Oils,
Longer chains
 Waxes and
 More hydrophobic, less soluble
 Steroids
Double bonds increase solubility
Melting points depend on chain length and saturation

Cont’d

1/22/2024
By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024
Fats with more than one

double bond in the tail are
called polyunsaturated
21
fats.
• Triglycerides (neutral fats/adipocytes or lipocytes
• Phospholipids /polar lipids
• Sterols
• Waxes

Cont’d
• Principle Elements: C, H, O, & N sometimes S
• Monomers: Amino Acids
• Polymers: Polypeptides or Proteins
• Generally Water Soluble
• Functional Groups of Amino Acids
 Carboxylic Acid (-COOH)
 Amine (-NH2)
 R-Groups (variable - 20 different kinds)
Structure and organization of protein
1. Primary structure: It is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain.
2. Secondary structure: Polypeptide chains may be folded & twisted in various
ways. The most common ways are the coil to form a helix (α-helix), e.g.
keratin or to fold into sheets (β-sheets). These forms are referred to as
secondary structure of proteins.
3. Tertiary structure: Usually the polypeptide chain bends & folds extensively,
forming a precise, compact 'globular' shape. This is the protein's tertiary
structure & the shape is maintained by ionic, hydrogen & disulphide bonds
as well as hydrophobic interactions.
4. Quaternary structure: Many highly complex proteins consists of more than
one polypeptide chain. The separate chains are held together by
hydrophobic interactions & hydrogen & ionic bonds. Their precise
arrangement
1/22/2024
is known as the quaternary structure.
By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024 28
Principle elements: C, H, O, N, & P
Monomers: nucleotides
Polymers: nucleic acids
Polymer formation is through phosphodiester bond
Generally water soluble
Nucleotide components:
 Sugar
 Phosphate
 Nitrogenous base
Biologically important molecules containing nucleotides, and their
functions

• Genetic Instruction Set (DNA)
• Protein Synthesis (DNA & RNA)
• Energy Metabolism (ATP)

Vitamins
organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for
metabolic activities
Two types of vitamins  Eight B vitamins:
1. Thiamin (B-1)
• Fat-soluble
2. Riboflavin (B-2)
• Vitamin A, D, E and K
3. Niacin (B-3)
• Excess is stored in the liver and in body fat
4. Pyridoxine (B-4)
• Water-soluble 5. Cobalamin (B-12)
 Vitamins Bs and C 6. Folic acid
7. Pantothenic acid
8. Biotin

Vitamins
Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin.
Some B vitamins and vitamin K are produced by bacteria
living in the large intestine
Sufficient quantities of most vitamins cannot be made by the
body, but a well-balanced diet can provide the vitamins that
are needed.
Vitamin A — carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach
Vitamin b12 — meat, poultry, fish
Vitamin E — nuts, seeds, vegetable oils

Water
More than 70% of living organisms body is composed of water
Water is indispensable for various physiological activities of living
organisms:
• Transport
• Photosynthesis
• Excretion
• Temperature regulation
• Medium of reaction
• Universal solvent
• It is either reactant or product of different reactions
Properties of Water
It is uniquely suited for all above mentioned roles and others because of its:
 Physical properties
oState
Chemical properties
Thermal properties
The thermal properties of water ensure that it is in the liquid state over the
range of temperatures at which most biological reactions occur
This is important because most of these reactions can occur only in an
aqueous medium

Cont’d
The thermal properties of water also contribute to
temperature regulation, helping to ensure that living
organisms do not cool down or heat up too rapidly.
Water also has excellent solvent properties, making it a
suitable medium for the uptake and distribution of
molecules.

Minerals
Found in the body fluids and it is has diverse roles in living
creatures.
There are two major groups of minerals.

Major (macro) minerals
Mineral Function Sources
Sodium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle Table salt, milk, breads, vegetables, and
contraction unprocessed meats
Chloride Fluid balance, stomach acid Table salt, milk, meats, breads, and
vegetables
Potassium Fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables,
contraction whole grains, legumes
Calcium Bones and teeth formation; muscles relaxation Milk and milk products, fish, greens
and contraction; nerve functioning, blood (broccoli, mustard greens), legumes
clotting, blood pressure regulation, immune
system
Phosphorus Bones and teeth formation; found in every cell Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, processed
foods
Magnesium Found in bones; needed for making protein, Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy, green
muscle contraction, nerve transmission, immune vegetables; seafood; chocolate; drinking
system, component of the green pigment, water
chlorophyll
Sulfur 1/22/2024Found in protein molecules By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024
meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, legumes,
50
Trace minerals Function Sources
Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red blood Meats; fish; poultry; egg yolks; legumes; dried
Iron cells that carries oxygen in the body; needed for fruits; dark, leafy greens; iron-enriched breads
energy metabolism and cereals; and fortified cereals
Enzymes, protein and genetic material for; has a Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole grains,
Zinc function in taste perception, wound healing, fetal vegetables
development, production of sperm, growth and
sexual maturation, immune system
Found in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil, iodized
Iodine growth, development, and metabolism salt, bread, dairy products
Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains
Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for iron metabolism Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole grains, organ
meats, drinking water
Manganese Enzymes Widespread in foods, especially plant foods
Involved in formation of bones and teeth; helps Drinking water (either fluoridated or naturally
Fluoride prevent tooth decay containing fluoride), fish, and most teas
Chromium Works closely with insulin to regulate blood sugar Unrefined foods, especially liver, brewer's yeast,
(glucose) levels whole grains, nuts, cheeses
Molybdenum Enzymes Legumes; breads and grains; leafy greens; leafy,
green vegetables; milk; liver
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Unit Two

1/22/2024 By: Biology Remedial Teachers of SMU 2024 2

Proteins Nucleic Acids

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 Reducing sugars to reduce copper from a valence of 2 (CuSO4) to a valence of 1

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Melting points depend on chain length and saturation

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Fats with more than one

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