‘ACS'R: Rao fal NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS }9 Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 9.1 INTRODUCTION Iris a well established fact that when a material is stressed, it undergoes strain. Soil is no exception. When a soil is loaded because of the construction of a structure, its volume will decrease due to a rearrangement of soil particles. If it is assumed that both the soil particles and the water in the voids are incompressible and the soil is completely saturated, the change in volume of the soil can occur only if water is forced out of the voids. The vertical downward displacement brought about by this volume change shows itself as the settlement of the structure standing over the soil. Since the rate at which the water moves out of the voids is dependent on the permeability of the soil, the settlement of the structure itself is a function of the permeability of the soil and is, thus, time-dependent. While the rate of volume change is related directly to the permeability of the soil, the amount of deformation per unit increase in stress depends on a property of the soil called its compressibility, aan engineering property of the soil. The total vertical deformation of a soil layer under stress is, thus, directly proportional to (a) the compressibility of the soil, (b) the magnitude of stress increase, and (e) the volume of the soil or the thickness of the Layer. The first one is a soil property, the second, a loading condition, and the third, a subsoil boundary condition. In conclusion, it can be said that the problems in soil engineering related to volume change of soil have two questions that need answering—how much is going to be the magnitude of volume change, and how long, will t take for this change to manifest. The first question has already been answeredin the preceding paragraph. As for the other, permeability has already been seen to figure in a big way. The volume of water that must exit ‘out of the saturated soil in the deformation process and the boundary conditions are also important considera- tions that decide the rate of deformation, 9.2 COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT A geotechnical engineer is called upon to predict the magnitude of settlement and rate of settlement of foundations due to structural loads, Ifthe settlement is excessive, meaning more than what is permissible for the structure, it may cause structural damage or malfunctioning, especially when the rate of such settlement is rapid. The total settlement S,, of a loaded soil can be recognised as having three components: the immediate222 Basie and Applied Soil Mechanics settlement S, the settlementdue to primary consolidation S, and the settlement due to secondary consolidation or creep S, S,= S;+5.+5, @.1) The immediate settlement or distortion settlement occurs almost immediately after the load is imposed, as a result of distortion of the soil without any volume change. This is, of course, an idealised condition. There is such a negligible flow of water out of the soil mass that the volume remains essentially the same unless the soil iseither partially saturated or extremely pervious. The immediate settlement is usually determined by using the elastic theory, even though the deformation itself is not truly elastic. In the design of shallow foundations, ‘computation of immediate settlement has to be made. This will be discussed in Chapter 15. ‘The squeezing aut of pore water from a loaded saturated soil causing a time-dependent decrease in volume is known as primary consolidation. Here, the rate of flow is controlled by the pore pressure, the permeability and the compressibility of the soil. With the passing of time, as the pore pressures dissipate, the rate of flow will decrease and eventually, the flow ceases altogether, leading toa condition of constant effective stress. This signifies the end of primary consolidation. Some soils exhibit time-dependent settlement at constant effective stress in the post-primary consolidation period. This is knawn as secondary consolidation or creep settlement. ‘Secondary consolidation becomes important for certain types of soil, such as peats and soft organic clays. For stiff clays or preconsolidated clays, this component is relatively minor, as primary consolidation accounts for ‘a major share of the total settlement. For such cases, S, = S, + S..This chapter deals with predicting both the ‘magnitude and rate of consolidation settlement. 9.3 COMPRESSIBILITY The compressibility of a soil will determine how much compression shall take place in that soil upon loading. ‘The soil particles rearrange themselves into a stable, denser configuration as the pore water is forced out. The amount of rearrangement and the ensuing compression is a function of the rigidity of the soil skeleton which again is directly related to the soil type and its structure. Any soil deposit existing in nature will have acertain geological origin and stress history. This can also be expected to influence the compressibility of the sail. Also, for a particular soil deposit, compressibility is related to the magnitude of the effective stress acting on the soil at that time. The significance of these factors is outlined in the following paragraphs. It should be understood that only one-dimensional compression is being discussed. The one-dimensional compression means that the deformation occurs only in the vertical direction — a condition which is realised when the loaded area is very large. The situation becomes slightly different when deformations are produced by loads acting over finite areas. Effects of Soil Type Granular materials exhibit a compressibility behaviour quite distinct from that of a clay. Figure 9.1 (a) shows the results of a compressibility test on a sand, It is plotted in the form of an effective stress-void ratio relationship. The rate of compression decreases as the load increases. The time vs, compression curve of Fig. 9.1 (b) shows that the major part of compression occurs almost instantaneously. Because of the very high permeability of sand, it does not take much time for pore water to drain out. This is the reason why a structure: ona sand soil experiences very little settlement after it has been constructed. Most of the settlement will already have taken place by the time the structure is complete. Even then, if a structure:is considered sensitive to rapid settlements, settlement computation has to be carried out in the design of foundations. In the case of granular soils, for reasons explained later (Chapter 15), more reliance is placed on field tests than on laboratory tests: for estimating setilements, For granular soils, S, = 5;Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 23 Q rr & # a 8 5 E60) & 80) r 100) 05050 40-80 — 00 100 o 1 23 4 5 6 7 Ettective stress &skM im? Time {rnin} @ te) Fig. 9.1 Void ratio-effective stress and compression-time plots for sand Itcan also be seen from Fig. 9.1(a) that dense sands are much less compressible than loose sands. For saturated fine-grained soils, the major factor is the escape of pore water from the soil. In contrast to granular soils where the expulsion of pore water takes place unimpeded and with only a small time lag, a much longer time is needed in fine-grained soils for pore: water to escape. Thus, there is a considerable time lag in slay soils between the load application and resulting deformation. Indeed, it may take many months or even years for deformation to be completed. The magnitude of time lag is primarily influenced by the permeability of the soil. All other conditions being the same, smaller the permeability, greater the time of consolidation. Figure 9.2 shows the void ratio-effective stress relationship for a clay soil. It can be seen that not only is the decrease in void ratio during consolidation rather large compared to a sand soil (Fig. 9.2(a)], but the conso- lidation also continues for a long time (Fig. 9.2(b)]. Void ratio, ¢ ee © 3.5 8 3 ; J Effective stress OF kN/m2 ° tenia) ° " fa) tb) Fig-9.2 Void ratio-effective stress and compression-time plots for clay ‘The basic difference in the compression behaviour of a granular soil and that of a fine-grained soil can, therefore, be expressed thus: a granular soil compresses almost immediately upon loading but the compression2A Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics is relatively small, whereas a fine-grained soil exhibits time-dependent consolidation and the compression is rather large. Role of Stress History Soils tend to retain the effects of stress changes that have taken place in their geological history, in the form of theirstructure, A soi! whichis subjected to acertain effective stress for the firsttime in its geological history will, obviously, be more compressible than when it has been subjected to a larger effective stress in its earlier history, butis now relieved of that effective stress due to some reason. When a soil is stressed to a level greater than the maximum stress to which it was ever subjected in the past, perhaps some kind of a breakdown in the soil structure occurs, resulting in a much higher compressibility, indicated by a steep void ratio-effective stress(e-@) curve [Fig.9.3 (a)]. The initial flatter portion of the e-G curve is called the recampression curve and the steeper portion after the break in the curve (attributed to a breakdown in structure) is called the virgin compression curve, because the soil is experiencing first time stresses in this part. Somewhere between these two parts of the curve lies the point (point A) corresponding to the maximum value of stress the soil has ever experienced, called preconsolidation stress, 6. A soil is said to be normally consolidated when the existing effective stress is the maximum that it has ever experienced in its stress history. In other words, G = A soil is said to be preconsolidated or overconsolidated, if the existing effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress, that is, <&;. verconsolidation ratio, OCR, is the ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the present vertical effective stress; that is, (9.2) For a normally consolidated soil, OCR=1 and for a preconsolidated soil OCR > 1. Soils which are yet to consolidate under the existing overburden pressure, asin the case of arecently placed fill, are sometimes referred to as underconsolidated soils. For these soils, OCR < 1. Preconsolidation of a soil stratum may occur due to several reasons. For example, a clay stratum that originally consolidated under a large pressure, may later have been relieved of some load following some erosion of the overburden, Here, a change in total load caused the effective stress to change and converted a normally consolidated soil to an overconsolidated one. Similarly, a glacier, while itis over a soil, imposes load. When it moves away and the load is withdrawn, the soil deposit is transformed into a preconsolidated deposit. Change in pore water pressure due to (i) desiccation of the upper layers due to surface drying; (ii) change in clevation of water table; (ii) desiccation due to plant life, and (iv) removal of construction are some other factors responsible for preconsolidation, Some interesting facts emerge from a study of the plots in Fig. 9.3(a) and 9.3(b), obtained by testing a clay sample ina consolidometer. Branch AB of the plot represents a soil that has never been subjected to compressive loads. On the semi-logarithmic plot [Fig. 9.3 (b)], this appears as a straight line. After the load has reached value represented by point B, the soil sample is unloaded in stages. Corresponding to this release of load, an expansion curve BC is obtained. It can be scen that the unloading has not restored the soil to the original state, There isa permanent deformation due to an irreversible alteration in the soil structure. The part of deformation thatis recovered is attributed to the elastic rebound of the soil skeleton. The specimen is loaded again after the unloading. The reloading curve lies slightly above the rebound curve and the two meet just before point B. It is also quite evident that the reloaded soil is not compressed as much as the soil that was not loaded before. On the semi-logarithmic plot, this portion of the reloading curve for the now preconsolidated soil has a convexCompressibility of Soil and Consotidation 2s Recompression for a consolidometer simple virgin compression ane Unloading Fig. 93 Void ratio-effective stress curve on arithmetic and semi-logarithmic plots and determination of C, curvature upwards, A hysteresis Jaop is formed between the expansion and reloading curves. If the-loading is now resumed beyond point B, the curve merges smoothly into the straight line DE that would have been obtained had the loading not been interrupted at B. An empirical observation that can be made here is that a plot of void ratio vs. logarithm of effective stress (e-log) is always a straight line for a normally consolidated clay, while the e- log G plot for an overconsolidated clay is always seen to have a convex curvature upward. ‘This observation is borne out by a large number of experiments carried out on different soil samples. For a normally consolidated clay, itis, therefore, possible to express the compressibility property of the ‘soil by noting the slope of the straight line portion of the ¢ vs. log & plot. This parameter is known as the compression index, C, and is given by the equation 93)226 Basic and Applied Soit Mechanics It should be noted that the compression index is a meaningful parameter only for normally consolidated soils. Its value, however, is a constant for a given soil and is not a function of the effective stress. Higher the compression index value, larger the resulting vertical deformation in a clay. ‘The slope of the expansion curve [branch BC in Fig. 9.3(b)} is also sometimes determined. It is called the swelling index, C, The swelling index can be determined using the equation ¢, = ¢,+ C, log (61/03) where epi the void ratio at a stress G after arelease in stress from 0}. The swelling index is a measure of the volume increase in a soil consequent to release of stress. Itwill be of great value for a geotechnical engineer to know the magnitude of the maximum preconsolida- tion stress. It would then be known whether a soil stratum in the ficld would exhibit the wait of a normally consolidated soil over the stress range relevant to the soil stratum, To determine the preconsolidation stress, several empirical procedures have been proposed. The most popular is the one suggested by A. Casagrande (1936). Casagrande studied the shapes of several e vs. log & curves and gave the following procedure. It is illustrated in Fig. 9.4, log Fig.94. Casagrande construction for determining preconsolidation siress (i) By judgementof eye, point A, the point of maximum curvature on the consolidation curve, is located. (ii) AtA, a horizontal line is drawn . Gii) A tangent is drawn to the curve ata. iv) The angle obtained by steps (b) and (c) is bisected. (v) The straight line part of the curve is extended back to meet the bisector line obtained in step (4). The point of intersection of these lines (point 8) gives the preconsolidation stress G.. To obtain the value of G- , itis best to test an undisturbed, initially overconsolidated specimen. Role of Effective Stress Ithas been mentioned earlier that when a stress is applied to a saturated soil, there is flow of water out of the pores. This flaw will continue only as long as the hydraulic gradient induced by the pore water pressures that are set up, is present. Such a flow is called transient flow. Under transient flow, volume reduction occurs. and‘Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 29 ‘effective stress is increased. The volume reduction at any instant of time is, in fact, directly related to the ‘effective stress at that time and not to the applied total stress. Ifa soil is subjected to a certain increment of stress, AG, it will undergo a decrease in void ratio equal to Ae; . In the process, the soil is somewhat densified. If the soil is again subjected to the same magnitude of stress ‘increment, that is, A, this time around, the reduction in void ratio will not be equal to Ae). It will be equal to ‘Ae, smallerthan Ae; (Fig. 9.5). Thus, it can be said that the compressibility of a soil decreases as the effective stress increases. A parameter called the coefficient of compressibitity, a, is used to indicate the slope of the €-Grelationship by the equation, Ae aS (4) 4, will be negative as the void ratio decreases with increase in stress. When the stress increment is small, the curve can be approximated to a straight Itne and a,can be computed using the relation, Ae (95) ie Itis obvious that the coefficient of compressibility decreases with increase in effective stress. Etfective stress Fig.9.5 Effective stress-void ratio plot 9.4, TIME-RATE OF CONSOLIDATION Tt bas been mentioned earlier that computation of the total settlement that the foundation of a structure undergoes is but one part of the solution to the problem of soil compression under structural loads. The second aspect of the problem is the rate of settlement under the applied load. The time required for the settlement to occur vis-a-vis the life span of the structure, is an important consideration. It will give us an idea of how much settlement a structure will undergo after it is constructed and whether such a settlement will impair its functioning or not. Certain types of structures, such as a R.C. framed structure, have little tolerance to rapid settlements; while some flexible structures can take large settlements without apparent distress. Needless to say, structures on clay soils are more prone to settlement—induced problems than those supported by granular soils. In fact, in the latter case, most of the settlement will have occurred by the time the structure is completed. ‘The discussion that follows will focus on the appropriate theories for estimating the time-rate of both primary and secondary compression for fine-grained soil~“ 28 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics Mechanics of Consolidation ‘Terzaghi (1922) demonstrated with the help of amechanistic model, the process of consolidation and the factors controlling the phenomenon. A study of this model will help develop a feel for the interplay of various factors involved in consolidation. . The model consists of a cylindrical vessel with a scrics of pistons scparated by springs (Fig. 9.6). The space between the springs is filled with water and the pistons are perforated so as to allow through communication to water. Piezometers are inserted at the centres of each of the compartments to measure pressure heads due to excess pore water pressures. Terzaghi has shown that the consolidation process in a clay soil subjected to loading is analogous to the behaviour of the spring—piston model. The springs surrounded by water represent the saturated soil. The springs represent the soil skeleton—the network of soil grains anit the water in the vessel represents the water filling the voids in the soil. The perforations in the pistons analogous to the voids that impart permeability to the soil. Since the area of the piston on which load is to placed is almost equal to the area of the vessel, the compression will be one-dimensional. Water can drain out only in the vertical direction; in the mode! discussed here, the flow can take place only upwards. Fig.9.6 Terzaghi's mechanical model to explain the process of consolidation Now let a pressure AG per unit area act on the topmost piston. Immediately upon application of the I the length of the springs remains unchanged because the time-elapse is not sufficient to allow escape of through the perforations, The springs cannot carry any load until they compress and, therefore, the e applied pressure Aor must be borne by the water in the vessel. This pore water pressure, Aicis called the ‘hydrostatic pressure, since it is in excess of the original hydrostatic pressure (say, 1). The initial excess hydrostatic pressure(at = 0), Au is cqual to Ad. The water in all the piczometric tubes rises to the same elevation h above the original water level in the vessel, where h=24=49, From the analogy. itis implied Ww tw that at ¢= 0, the applied total stress is carried entirely by pore water; neither the effective stress has changed nor has any volume decrease occurred. ‘After a certain small length of time has elapsed, flow of water through the perforations has begun but only progressively, beginning from the upper compartments. In the lower compartments, the amount of water remains unchanged, since the flow upward has not yet begun here. In the upper compartments where the decrease in volume has occurred because of flow, the springs have compressed a little, which means they are carrying a portion of the applied load while the excess pore water pressure has fallen correspondingly. If theGompressbitty of Soil and Consolidation 29 lapsed time is smal, say 1, ther i no decrease o dissipation of excess hydrostatic pressure inthe water of the lower compartments. A curve joining the water levels in the piczometers at any given time is called an isochrone. At = 0, the isochrone is a horizontal line at an elevation h=42, Ate= 1), the isochrone merges into the isochrone at elevation h. From the analogy, it is clear that the volume change of a soil takes Place as the effective stress changes. The shapes of isochrones at increasing values of time t =f, fy etc., in Fig. 9.6 indicate that as more and thore time passes, there is migration of water from the lower compartments toa, leading toa gradual Of passes, hydrostatic pressure and simultancous compression of springs. Finally, after a very long time, when the transient flow situation comes to a stop, an equilibrium condition results, The excess pore water pressure everywhere in the water is now zero and the entire load is carried by the springs. ‘The decrease in soil volume by the squeezing out of the pore water on account of gradual dissipation of excess hydrostatic pressure induced by an imposed total stress, is defined as consolidation. ‘Some facts concerning consolidation are worth noting here. Prior tothe application of total stress, the pore water pressure is the same as the hydrostatic pressure. Excess hydrostatic pressures are set up upon loading and these generate what is termed as the transient flaw condition. Consolidation progresses while the excess pore water pressure dissipates with time. This dissipation occurs first at locations close to the drainage face {the top most compartment in the analogy) and progresses gradually to locations far removed from the drainage face (the lower compartments). Consolidation or the volume decrease is concomitant with stress transfer from ‘water to soil grains. In other words, itis the effective stress which is the cause of volume change in a soil and ‘not the total stress. The time requried for final compression in the Terzaghi model, obviously, depends on the rate of escape of water through the perforations—in case of soils, consolidation is, thus, a function of their permeability. Also, if the springs were less stiff so that the same compression in these would be produced by smaller load, more water would have to leave the vessel to reach a given stage of consolidation. By analogy, ‘greater the compressibility of a soil, greater the volume decrease. In the spring-piston model, if the total compression of the set of springs after an elapsed time sis Ay and Ak the final compression, the ratio(Ah,/ Akt x 100) is called the degree of consolidation, U, and indicates the stage of consoli en time, The rate of consolidation of the spring-piston model can be ‘computed using principles of rheology. Figure 9.7 shows the theoretical relationship between the degree of ‘consolidation U and the elapsed time; However, the plot obtained by laboratory consolidation experiments ‘does not coincide with the theoretical curve all the way. There is a fair degree of convergence upto a degree Time t ‘Theoretical curve (primary Compression (secondary compression) ‘Fig-9.7 Consolidation curve—theoretical and experimental20 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics of consolidation of about 80 per cent, but beyond that, the experimental curve indicates continued compression ata slow rate, while the theoretical curve tends to become asymptotic. The additional delayed compression is ascribed to secondary compression, which occurs after almost all the excess pore water pressure has dissipated. In the following paragraph, a theory of consolidation, first developed by Terzaghi, is presented. It is a one-dimensional theory and deals with primary compression. ‘Ter2nghi’s Theory of One-dimensional Consolidation ‘The rate of settlement is direcily related to the rate of dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Therefore, in order to predict the time-rate of consolidation of a consolidating layer, a theory which can predict the pore pressure at any elapsed time and at any location, is necessary. Terzaghi’s theory is one such theory and is the ‘most popular. The basic relationship can be established on the following assumptions: (a) Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical). (b) Darcy's law is valid. (©) The soil is homogeneous (@) The soil is completely saturated. (e) The soil grains and water are both incompressible. (O) Strains are small; that is, the applied load increment produces virtually no change in thickness, and and a, remain constant. (8) There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void ratio and effective stress, that is, de =—a, do, whilea, is assumed constant over the siress increment. This also implies that there is no secondary compression because if secondary compression were present, the relationship between void ratio and effective stress would not be unique, as secondary compression occurs at constant effective stress. In Fig. 9.8(a), a layer of clay is shown sandwiched between two sand strata. The clay layer is subjected to an increase in total vertical stress, Ac distributed uniformly over a semi-infinite area. At the instant of loading, that is, ¢= 0, the excess pore water pressure will increase uniformly by 1; (uj = 4c) over the thickness(2H) of v— (>) Fig. 9.8 (@) Section of clay layer (b) Excess pore pressure distributionCompressibility of Soil and Consolidation 2 the layer as shown by abcd in Fig. 9.8(b). After a time has elapsed, because of the drainage into the sand layers above and below, the distribution of excess pore water pressure will have changed to the shape shown by the unshaded portion in Fig. 9.8(b). ‘Weccan start by using the condition of conti ity of flow, which is applicable to all flow situations. During the process of consolidation, the most general situation would be the one in which flow occurs in all the three orthogonal directions, and the soil element volume also changes by a change in its dimensions in the three directions. ‘The left hand side of the continuity equation represents the amount of water flowing into a soil element, of dimensions dx, dy and dz, minus the amount of water leaving the soil element per unit time, The right hand is an expression for the rate of storage (or depletion) of water in the soil element per unit 'y equation assumes the form Terzaghi assumes a one-dimensional consolidation situation with one-dimensional flow, a situation which is often encountered in field. For flow in z direction, the equation reduces to (9.6) Oh and that the soil és homogeneous, that is ky # fc), ae oh a 7 ae Since fis the head which causes flow and the potential that produces flow during consolidation is the ‘excess pore water pressure u, h = u/‘fy ; again, assuming that Yy # f(z), Again, assuming that Darcy's law és vatid, my, ke eu eT Ye OF Eq. 9.6 can, thus, be written as ke Fu aw f: FY ae dyaz = 9.7 4 aeeen F 2) To obtain a convenient and usable expression for the right hand side of Eq. 9.7, you may recall that during consolidation process, as the water flows out of the voids, the soil volume decreases by an amount equal to the volume of water which flows out. ‘Thus, OW represents the change in volume of the element dx dy dz and ou element of volume V equal to dx dy dz at an initial void ratio eo, the volume of the voids V, = peo dxdy dz, 0 2 (dx dy dz). In a soil ‘When V, is to experience change, ¢ would be a variable and dx dy dz . ite A change in the volume of soil is on account of the change in the volume of voids. The volume of soil grains does not change and, thus,a Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics awa _a(e BW 8 cas dy dey (Faaee) Since the volume of soil grains which is a constant, is equal to = dx dy dz ca = dx dy de Be ar a reeerore) +e oF o8 From Eq. 9.5, for small changes in effective stress, de =—a, dG (—ve sign, because e decreases with increase in 8) . In the consolidation process, as the excess pore water pressure dissipates, the effective stress increases or d= —du Thus, de = ay du ‘Substituting for de in Eq. 9.8, QW _ dedyds De _ dedyde | Ou a lee GF Lee ar 6% Substituting for a of Eq. 9.9 in Eq. 9.7, ke Ou dedyde | du Ay = au Ye 9 They oF Ke(l+eq) Fu _ au * te ae Ot on Ifa soil parameter coefficient of consolidation, ¢, is defined such that k{1+e,) eh 9.11 ‘ we c » (9.12) Equation 9.12 is the Terzaghi one-dimensional consolidation equation. The coefficient of consolidation, c, is the soil parameter governing the time-rate of consolidation. It has units L? T~! ie, m/s or mé/day. The differential equation is analogous to a diffusion equation in Physics. The heat flow in asolid body, forexample, is governed by a similar equation. c, is not really a constant but is a function of the stress increment for a gi soil; but since both k and a, decrease with a decrease in void ratio, c, which is a function of the ratio k(1 +e) Femains more or less the same within a considerable pressure range. Solution of Eq. 9.12 for a givenCompressibility of Soll and Consolidation 233 Jet of boundary conditions, describes the distribution of excess pore water pressure u with respect to time elapsed, and location, z. Fora rigorous mathematical solution of the differential equation in term of a Fourier series expansion, the reader is referred to Taylor (1948). Here, the Terzaghi solution for a set of boundary conditions which are of practical utility, is deseribed. ‘Referring to Fig. 9:8, the boundary conditions and initial conditions for the case of one-dimensional consolidation are: (@) At ee |The distribution of initial excess pore pressure will be uniform along the thickness only when the loaded hea is large, relative to the thickness of the consolidating layer, | (b) Ast, u=0 forall z values (© t>0;2=0; u=0 | @)t>0; 222K: u=0 Hiisthe maximum distance that water has o travel to reach a drainage face; that is the lengthof the longest drainage path. If there are two drainage surfaces, one at the top and another at the bottom of the consolidating, ayer, itis acase of double drainage and H will then be equal to half the thickness of the clay layer. If there is lonly one drainage surface, itis a case of singte drainage and H will be equal to the thickness of the clay layer. ‘The problem of Fig. 9.8 concerns double drainage. Boundary conditions (c) and (d) are easy tounderstand, For 11> 0, transient flow begins and since at z=0 and z = 2H, water has to travel zero distance to reach the drainage face, the excess pore water pressure there dissipates instantaneously. In the Terzaghi solution, three non-dimensional factors are provided: the firstis the drainage path ratio which is related to the location, the second is time factor, related to the time elapsed, and the third, degree of consolidation, related to the excess pore water pressure. ), «=u, the initial excess pore water pressure, atall locations (thats, far all z values) and ‘So, the applied total pressure. Drainage path ratio, Z= 9.13) of Time factor T, =. 9.14) # ow Degree of consolidation (or consolidation ratio) U,= =" 1-e (0.15) 7 i Time factor 7, will be directly proportional to time elapsed 1 for a particular soil and the drainage conditions when c, and H are known values. The degree of consolidation U. represents the stage of consolidation at a certain location in the consoli- dating layer. The Terzaghi solution for U, comes out in terms of a Fourier series expansion of the form U=1-LAOAT) 0.16) ° The solution of this equation is presented in Fig. 9.9. The diagram includes the three important parameters ZT, and U,. From this diagram, itis possible to determine the degree of consolidation U, (or u therefrom) at any point (that is, for aknown 2/H value) for any value of rafter loading. One can calculate time factor T, from Eq.9.14 for a given value of time t, if one knows the value of c, for a given soil stratum, the thickness of the stratum and the drainage conditions (to determine H).2M Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics Fes} WE WA 20) ‘0 OF 62 03 0265 0607 Consolidation ratio, Uz Fig. 9.9 Consolidation ratio for any location and time factor in a doubly drained layer For 1=0,T,=0 and U, =0 forall values of Z. Fort r=, T,->= and U,= 1 forall values of Z, ‘The vertical on the left, thus, indicates that consolidation has not begun anywhere, while the vertical on the ‘Tight indicates that consolidation is complete everywhere. Fort >Oor T, > 0, the degree of consolidation U, is vitally related to the location of the point being considered, U, will be equal to | at the drainage surfaces (@H =O and 2) and will be minimum at the middle of the layer (2/H = 1), For example, For T, =0.5 ,U, =0.63 at midheight of the layer (2H = 1) while for the same time factor (or time), U, = 0.74 at 2/H=0.5 and equal to 0.86 at 7H = 0.25. U, indicates the degree of consolidation at a particular location. This is not something of practical interest. “What is more significant practically is how much the consolidating layer as a whole has consolidated. In other words, what the average degree of consolidation lis for the entire stratum. U can be readily evaluated for any value of T, as illustrated by Fig. 9.10. Suppose U is ta be determined for T, A patt of Fig. 9.9 is ‘reproduced in Fig. 9.1 0incorporating the T,= 0.6 curve. Since line ab represents 7, = 0 and line cd represents T,+=,Linesab anded represent the start of loading and end of consolidation respectively. Any intermediate isochrone of 7, records the progress of consolidation corresponding to a given time. As we move from ab to Excess pore pressure remaining Fig. 9.10 Determination of average degree of consolidation for T,=0.6Compressibility of Soit and Consolidation Bs ed, consolidation gradually progresses from © to 100 per cent. In Fig. 9.10, the shaded area represents the dissipation of pore water pressure, while the unshaded area on the right represents undissipated pore water pressure (consolidation yet to occur). Thus, the average degree of consolidation over the entire stratum for T,=00.6 is the ratio of the shaded area of Fig, 9.10 to the area of the rectangle abcd. It is equal to 82 per cent. Time factor corresponding to U = 82 per cent is written a5 Taz. Uiis obtained mathematically by an integration procedure using an equation of the general form U=fAT) ‘The above solution is for the case of constant or linear initial excess pore water pressure distribution. The results are shown in Tables as well as graphically. Taylor (1948) gave the following approximate relationship between 7), and U, which are quite handy: For U S 60 percent, 7, = (/4)U? O17) For U >60 percent, 7, = 1.781 —0.933 log (100 -U%) (9.18) ‘Table 9.1 gives values of T, corresponding to different values of U for (i) double drainage and all linear distributions of initial consolidation stress, and (ii) single drainage and uniform distribution of initial consoli- dation stress. Table 9.1 Values of T, Corresponding to Values of U u tv vu wv 5 0.002 58 0.238 10 0.008 oo 0.287 Is 0.018 65 0.342 20 0.031 70 0.403 25 0.049 w 0.477 30 oom 80 0.567 35 0.096 85 0.684 40 0.126 30 0.848 45 0.159 9s 1.163 50 0.197 100 = The data presented in Table 9.1 are plotted in Fig. 9.11. Fig. 9.11(a) shows U plotted versus log T.. while Fig. 9.11(b) shows U plotted versus VT,. These theoretical plots have certain features which make them useful. Graphical solutions of the consolidation equation for cases of single drainage with linear variation of initial excess pore water pressure in the clay layer are also available. Curves 1. 2 and 3 in Fig. 9.12 represent the solutions for corresponding cases indicated in Fig. 9.13,36 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics O01 Oo? OOS aL O2 as 1X20 > Log Ty Asymptote @ 9 1.60.1 To vv mptore (b) Fig. 9.11 U,, versus 7, (a) Log scale (b) Square-root seale ‘Fig-9.12 Relationship between average degree of consolidation and time factor PUA YI Curve! Curve) Curve F Curei Gave? Curve fa) Open layer (double drainage) (b) Malt closed layer (single drainage } Fig. 9.13 Initial distribution of excess pore water pressure with depthCompressibility of Soil and Consolidation 27 ‘Eq. 9.14 may be written in the form = 9.19) oy For a given degree of consolidation U, time factor 7, has a certain definite value, depending on the boundary conditions governing the problem, From Eq. 9.19, itis, thus, seen that the time required for a soil to reach a given degree of consolidation is directly proportional to the square of the length of drainage path and inversely proportional to the coefficient of consolidation; that is, # te (9.20) If the time taken to reach a certain degree of consolidation is measured in the laboratory by testing a soil sample taken from an in situ soil layer, the time which the consolidating layer in the field will take to reach the same degree of consolidation can be predicted from Eq. 9.20, c, being the same in the two cases. To work out the time rate of consolidation, that is, a1 U relationship, we need to determine values of 7, at different values of t. From Eq. 9.14, aot rr The drainage path H of the consolidating layer has to be established by proper borings and sampling. The value of c, has to be determined by a laboratory consolidometer test for the range of stress increment that the soil would be subjected to at the site. Once T, is determined using cy and H for a particular value of 1, the corresponding value of U can be obtained by using Table 9.1 or Fig. 9.11. Repeating the steps for different values of f, one can obiain a ¢ vs. U plot. The determination of c, from laboratory tests will be discussed in the following section. 9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST The consolidation parameter that controls the magnitude of consolidation in a soil is the coefficient of compressibility a,. The time-rate of consolidation is controlled by the coefficient of consolidation, c,. These two soil parameteres are vital inputs along with the relevant boundary conditions, in the prediction of the magnitude of consolidation and time-rate of consolidation in a field situation, The laboratory consolidation test carried out on a suitable undisturbed sample of the soil layer in question is meant to determine these consolidation properties, Besides, the permeability and the swelling behaviour of the soil can also bedetermined in this test. The test simulates one-dimensional consolidation with double drainage. The test is carried outin a special device called an oedometer ora consolidometer, which consists basically of a loading mechanism and a specimen container, known as the consolidation cell. An undisturbed soil specimen, representing the in situ soil layer is carefully trimmed and placed in a metallic confining ring which is the main component of the consolidation cell. The ring does not allow any lateral deformation of the Porous stone discs are provided at the top and bottom of the sample to allow drainage in the vertical direction, both ways. Two types of consolidation cell, the floating-ring cell and the fixed-ring cell, are commonly used. In the floating-ring test, compression occurs from both top and bottom, while in the fixed-ring test, the soil sample moves only downward, relative to the ring. In the floating-ring test, the friction between the ring and the soil is somewhat less than in the fixed-ring test. However, itis only in the fixed-ring test that drainage from the bottom porous stone can be measured or controlled. Hence, measurement of permeability of the soil can be made only in the fixed-ring test. A fixed-ring consolidation cell is shown in Fig. 9.14.238 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics Fig. 9.14 Fixed-ring consolidation cell Specimens with diameters ranging from 65 to 110 mm and thickness ranging from 15 to 30 mm are used. The ratio of the diameter to height of the specimen is between 2.5 and 5. There is evidence to suggest that test results are affected by specimen size. Specimens with large diameter to height ratios suffer from disturbance to soil structure duc to trimming, while those with smaller ratios have greater side friction, ‘The soil sample is loaded in increments of vertical stress. Under each stress increment, the sample is allowed to consolidate till there is litle or no further compression, with all the excess pore water pressure being compeletly dissipated. Usually, a load is kept for 24 hours. The stresses commonly used are 25,50, 100,200,400 and 800 kN/m?. Vertical deformation of the specimen is measured by means of a dial gauge. To determine the rate of compression under each stress increment, dial gauge readings are taken at different elapsed times after load is placed. One schedule of elapsed time that is adopted is 0.25, 1.00, 2.25, 4.00, 6.25, 9.00, 12.25, 16.00, 20.25, 25, 36, 49, 60, 120, 240 minutes, etc., tll the last reading is taken at 24 hours, Another schedule in common practice is 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120 minutes, etc. The 24 hour reading gives the final ‘compression under each stress increment. To obtain a void ratio vs. pressure relationship, the equilibrium void ratio is computed with the help of the 24 hour reading, After the consolidation under the last stress increment is over, the specimen is unloaded in two or three stages and the soil allowed to swell. Only the final swell readings are taken at each unloading stage and after the completion of swelling, the consolidation ring with the soil specimen is taken out, dried in an oven to determine the weight of solids and the final water content. ‘The test procedure used in India is according to the Indian Standard 1S:2720(Pant XV)-1965. Void Ratio-Effective Stress Relationship One of the outcomes of the load-deformation data is the plot of void ratio vs. the logarithm of effective consolidation stress (¢ vs. log ©). Sometimes, an e-G plot is also drawn. For computing equlibrium void ratio at each stress level, one of the two methods is, usually adopted: height of solids method and change in void ratio method. In the *height of solids” method, the height of solids, H, of the soil specimen is calculated from the equation Wy, GWA Hs (cm) = (9.21) where W, = weight of dry soil(g) G, = specific gravity of soil grains and Yo = unit weight of water = Ig/cm? ‘A = cross-sectional area of soil specimen(cm*) The equilibrium void ratio is then calculated from the equationCompressibility of Soit and Consolidation 29 eal = (9.22) where H = height of soil specimen at equilibrium under different applied stresses (in cm) as given by cquation H=H\ 4H (9.23) where Hy = initial height of the specimen at the beginning of test and AH = change in thickness of specimen under the stress increment, ‘The ‘height of solids’ method can be used even for unsaturated soils, and ifthe void ratio and water content at the beginning and the end of test are known, the degree of saturation values can also be worked out. In the ‘change in void ratio’ method, the void ratio of the saturated soil atthe end of the testis calculated from the equation = Gs (9.24) where wy is the final water content at the end of the test. Inone-dimensional compression, changein thickness, AH’ per unit of original thickness Hof the specimen isequal tochange in volume per unit of original volume. If the change in volume is a consequence of a decrease in void ratio of Ae (Fig. 9.15), it can be seen that, for an initial void ratio of eo, GH _ change in volume __ de “H~ original volume — 1 +e (9.25) T oer av B » TE aM av. te ty + Gr \ZZ I L Li te) @) Fig. 9.15 (a) Initial state of sample (b) After compression Substituting in Eg. 9.25 the known volumes of ¢, and H,at the end of the test, =f ato (9.26) ‘The change in void ratio Ae under each stress increment is calculated from Eq. 9.26, Working backwards from the known value of ¢, the equilibrium void ratio at the end of each stress increment can be deduced. From the e vs, & plot, the coefficient of compressibility can be determined for any desired stress range by approximating the curve in that stress range to a straight line, as shown in Fig. 9.16. From the ¢ vs. log & plot, preconsolidation pressure G, and the compression index C, can be determined as has been explained in Section 9.3.240 Basic and Applied Sait Meclanis void ratio, ¢ Eltective strese, & Fig. 9.16 Void-ratio-cffective stress plot from consolidation test Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation The coefficient of consolidation, c, can be determined by taking advantage of certain characteristics of the theoretical U vs. T, curves shown in Fig. 9.11. In fact, the curves of deformation vs. time obtained from laboratory tests are very similar to the theoretical U versus Ty curves. This fact is made use of in the empirica procedures suggested by Casagrande and Taylor. These are known asthe ‘curve-fitting’ methods. A. Casagrande’s Logarithm of Time Fitting Method The shapes of the theoretical U vs, log T, curve and the experimental dial reading vs log r curve are similar Compare the curve of Fig. 9.1 1a) with the plot of Fig. 9.17. In Fig. 9.11(a), the tangent and the asymptote intersect at U=100 per cent. Since the time corresponding to U = 100 per cent approaches infinity, Casagrande suggested that if two tangents are drawn to the experimental curve (Fig. 9.17), their intersection will give U = 100 per cent. The dial reading at U = 100 per cent is Rieo- ‘Casagrande’s method aims at finding Rsp so that rsa, the time corresponding to U = 50 per cent can be determined, Since Rigo is already defined, it remains to locate Ro, the dial reading corresponding to U'=0 per cent, before Rsg can be located midway between Ro and Ryo. To determine Ro, two values of time t, and f, are chosen on the initial part of the curve such that f2 = 4t,. The points corresponding to these values of time are marked on the curve and the vertical distance between them measured, say z. Now a horizontal line is drawn above the first point at the same vertical distance z. This line cuts the ordinate at Ro, called the ‘corrected zero'reading, The compression that occurs between Ro and Riog is the primary consolidation and from Rygy onwards, it is secondary consolidation. After locating Ro and Rigg, Rso is marked midway between these two points and the time corresponding to Reg is read Off as ts. From Fig. 9.18, ts9= 13 min From Eq. 9.14, nat Time factor T,, for U = 50 per centis 0.197 from Table 9.1. Ifthe average height of the specimenis, say, 18.00 mm during the stress increment in question, 4 = 9,00 mm = 0.9 cm (since there is double drainage during the test). Thus,Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 2a fe ah Sag _UxO'% Initial compression 5 [= lz a6 «a 5 Pri rimary oo consolidation Bax Secondary consolidation 2a ‘or O25 1 70 100 000) Time (min) Fig. 9.17 Determination of tsy fron Casagrande’ method Taylor's Square Root of Time Fitting Method Taylor’ s method also uses the similarity in shape between the theoretical curve of Uvs. VT, and dial readings vs. VF [Figs. 9.11 (b) and 9.18)). The theoretical curve is characterised by a straight line portion at least upto U= 60 percent. Taylor observed that the abscissa of the curve at U= 90 per cent was 1.15 times the abscissa of the extension of the straight line. Taylor used this characteristic feature to locate the 90 per cent consolidation point on the experimental plot. Figure 9.18 illustrates the procedure. A straight line can be drawn passing through the points on the initial part of the experimental curve of dial readings vs. square root of time, The straight line part is produced backward to intersect the ordinate at Ro. which is the corrected zero reading corresponding to U= 0 per cent. Starting from Ro, a second straight line is drawn such that its abscissa is 1.15 times the abscissa of the first line. The intersection of this line with the experimental curve identifies Rog and the time requried for 90 per cent consolidation, feq. is read off (Fig. 9.18), With foo thus determined, cy can be: computed by using Eq, 9.14, The two curve-fitting methods cannot be expected to show exact agreement. The choice of the method depends mostly on convenience, the shape of the compression vs. time curve indicating which method is more suited. An advantage of the square root of time method is that the plotting of the curve can be done as the time Progresses. So one can stop a test as soon as it is possible to locate the 90 per cent consolidation point and proceed to place the next increment of stress, thus reducing the test duration to an appreciable degree.m2 U= 0% 33] Dial reading (mm Time (min) Fig. 9.18 Determination of t from Taylor's method Itis obvious that one value of coefficient of consoli- dation c, will be obtained for each one of the stress increments, c, obtained from any one of the curve fitting ‘methods can be plotted as ordinate with the average effec- tive stress as abscissa, Figure 9,19 shows such a plot. From this curve, the approximate c, value for any given stress increment can be read off and used as inputin the time-set- tlement computation. The Compression Ratios Itcan be seen from Figs. 9.17 and9.18 that Ro, the corrected dial reading corresponding to U = 0 per cent, does not correspond to the point R, representing the initial dial gauge reading. The compression Re ~ R; is due to many factors which include compression of small quantities of air in the Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics hnitial compression Primary consolidation ion Cy g 5 ; 5 i i oe Effective stress, kNém? Fig. 9.19 ¢,—3,, plot from consolidation test soil, imperfect saturation, vertical elastical compression of the soil specimen and lateral expansion of the soil speciman when imperfectly mounted. This compression is called the initial compression, The relative magnitudes of inital compression, primary consolidation and secondary consolidation are expressed by the following ratios (Fig. 9.17 and 9.18).Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 283 Initial compression ratio (9.27) Primary compression ratio (log time): (9.28) Primary compression ratio (root time): 9.29) Secondary compression ratio: = lth) (930) Indirect Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability ‘The coefficient of permeability of a fine-grained soil can be indirectly determined by the consolidation test. ‘The coefficient of permeability, k, can be calculated using Eq. 9.11. Hence, k=c, m, Ye (9.31) For each stress increment one value of k will be obtained and a plot of average effective stress versus permeability can be drawn. 9.6 COMPUTATION OF SETTLEMENT In this section, only the settlement due to primary consolidation and secondary consolidation is considered. Immediate settlement will be discussed in Chapter 15 on ‘Shallow Foundations.’ Primary consolidation settlement will be taken up first. Refer to Fig. 9.15 where the volume of solids V, is assumed as unity and the void volume equal to e, - the void ratio of the soil before compression, If ¢,is the void ratio after primary consolidation is complete, the decrease in voidratiois Ae =(eo~e7). Then AH, the changein height of the consolidating layer or its settlement is given by the equation AH Ae H, T+e, or AH = 5,=7 “Hy (9.32) T+e ‘When the consolidation test results are plotted between void ratio and effective stress arithmetically, the slope of the curve for the pertinent stress range, that is, the coefficient of compressibility a, can be used in settlement computation, Ae 4,=7@ and thus from Eq. 9.32, a = Se= GPa) Haas (9.33)Pry Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics In Eq. 9.33, the terms within the brackets are given the name coefficient of volume change or the coefficient of volume compressibility, m. (9.34) Combining with Eq. 9.33, S.=m, Hy AS (9.35) ‘ay’ and m, have units inverse of stress, ie., m'/KN or cm*/kgf ‘Thus, it can be seen that the magnitude of settlement is a function of the soil compressibility m,, boundary condition Hp (thickness) and the loading condition AG. If ¢ is plotted against log G, the slope of the virgin compression curve (straight line portion) is called the compression index, C... de Oo" gerag (9.36) Combining Eq. 9.31 and 9.36, he, _. Ho Se Tyg N= Cae, (937) Here, Gp is the presenteffective overburden pressure and G, = Gp + additional stress AG induced by an imposed Toad. Thus, (9:38) ‘Thus, the settlement can be computed by using Ae or m, or Cas input in Eq. 9.32 or 9.35 or 9.38. While 4, and m, are to be obtained for a particular stress range, C, isaconstant, independent of the stress increment. If there are different consolidation layers with different compressibility parameters, the settlement in each layer (not necessarily of the same thickness) is separately calculated. The total settlement is then the sum of settlement in different layers. Equation 9.38 can be used only if the soil is normally consolidated. If the soil is preconsolidated, the soil will not be under virgin compression; when loaded, it will undergo recompression. Hence, C. cannot be used to calculate the settlement. It becomes necessary, therefore, to find out whether the soil is normally consolidated or preconsolidated, In Section 9.3, the method of determining the preconsolidation pressure @, has been outlined. Once G, is known and it is found to be greater than G (which means the soil is preconsolidated), a further check to sce if - is greater than G,+AG is made. If G, is indeed greater thanG, + AG (Fig. 9.20(a)], the entire stress range is in the preconsolidation zone and the settlement is computed by substituting Cp recompression index, in place of C,, in Eq. 9.38. The recompression index is the average slope of the recompression part of the ¢ ws. log G curve [Fig. 9.21 (a)]. Thus, settlement S, is given by the equation. Ho G+ Ao Sem Cre, BB (9.39)Compressibility of Soil and Consolidation 245 ‘When the increase in stress extends beyond the preconsolidation pressure into the virgin compression region (Fig. 9.20(b)}, the settlement is computed in two parts, as follows: (8) for the stress increase from G9 to , on the recompression curve, settlement Sy is given by He sop Be Tee ae 940) (b) for the stress increase from G, to (p+ AG,) on the virgin curve, the settlement S) is given by Ho jog 90448 41) —sa —_—AaA —_—s e Be, | acy * 2 e z é 3 : o ‘Logarithm of efiective stress Logarithm of effective stress (a) Gr ae > Ae, in Fig. 9.20(6).246 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics 9.7 EXTRAPOLATION OF FIELD CONSOLIDATION CURVE ‘When a soil sample is taken out from its location at acertain depth in the field, it is in effect unloaded. ‘When the sample is loaded in the laboratory during consolidation testing, it is, in fact, subjected to reloading. Thus, even with every care exercised during sampling to avoid disturbance, the so called undisturbed sample produces a compression curve whose slope is flatter than that of the field compression curve. With increasing degree of disturbance of the soil sample, the curve gets flatter. Schmertmann (1955) observed that whatever may be the degree of disturbance in the soil sample, the straight line part of the compression curves, in all cases, intersect at a point corresponding to 0.42 times the in situ void ratio ¢,. Qn the basis of this empirical observation, Schmertmann gave a graphical procedure to predict the field consolidation curve. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 9.21. Figure 9.21(a) shows the e - log plot for a normally consolidated soil and Fig. 9.21(b) that for a preconsolidated soil. Laboratory”. \. “undisturbed” Field consolidation curve (a) Effective stress © (log scale) &% Slope=cr SUndisturbed” sample Field consolidation \ curve: ° 5 Woid ratiope é (8) Effective stress & (log seale) Fig. 9.21 Schmertmann's procedure to construct field consolidation curve (@) normally consolidated soil (b) preconsolidated soilCompressibility of Soil and Consolidation 247 For the normally consolidated soil, the field consolidation curve is constructed as follows: The preconsolidation pressure G. is evaluated using the Casagrande construction, Now, a horizontal line is drawn from a point a on the ordinate corresponding to the initial void ratio of the sample, ¢p (eo= w, G,). Extend the horizontal line upto point , corresponding to the preconsolidation pressure G,. Locate point c on the laboratory virgin compression curve by extending this portion, if necessary, such that atc, void ratio ¢ = 0.42 9. From Schmertmann’s empirical observation, the ficld consolidation curve will be defined by the line joining b and c. ‘The compression index, C, determined from the field virgin compression curve is used in settlement ‘computations. The Schmertmann correction will result in an increase in C, value by over 15 per cent even in the case of good samples of soft to medium clay soils (Ladd, 1971). The increase in settlement, as a consequence, may turn out to be quite crucial if the structure in question is sensitive to settlements. Figure 9.21(b) illuestrates the extrapolation procedure for an overconsolidated soil. If the soil is expected to be an averconsolidated soil, the soil should be allowed to partially rebound, then recompressed and loading further continued to define properly the straight portion of the e —log & plot. The unloading is begun only at a stage after the curvature of the plot has been properly outlined. The average slope of the rebound recompression curve, C, is determined. Ahorizontal line isdrawn from e, upto the point a which corresponds to the present overburden pressure, G, at the depth from where the sample is taken. Through a draw a line parallel to the average slope of the rebound-recompression curve, upto point corresponding to preconsolidation pressure G,. Join b tac, where c ‘corresponds to a void ratio ¢=0.42.¢q as defined for the normally consolidated soil. The field consolidation curve is now defined by the curve abc [Fig, 9.21(b)]. The slope of the line ab gives the recompression index C,, while the slope of the line be gives the compression index, C,..In a given problem, appropriate regions of the field consolidation curve can be made use of, depending on the range of the pertinent stress increment. 9.8 COMPRESSION INDEX — SOME EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS ‘The compression index, C, is sometimes approximately estimated by empirical equations relating C, to some simple index property of the soil. The compression index so determined ean be used for a preliminary estimate of settlement. However, most of the correlations are applicable only for soils existing in a particular region where the tests were carried out for the purpose of establishing these correlations. ‘One of the most widely used equations with 30 per cent error, is the one proposed by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) for undisturbed clays of low to medium sensitivity. C. = 0.009 (w;- 10) (9.43) in which w, is the liquid limit expressed in per cent. This equation can be used only for clays which are not very sensitive (S,< 4), whose liq greater than 100 per cent and which do not contain appreciable quantity of organic matter. For remoulded clays, the following equation is sometimes used: limit wz is not C.= 0.007 (w.-7) 9.44) Some of the other equations that have been proposed are: C.= 1.15 (= 0.35) for all clays (9.45)248 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics €.=0,30 (ey 0.27) for inorganic cohesive soils, clayey silt, silty clay (9.46) C.= 1.15% 107 w, for organic soils aT) C-=0.75 (ey~ 0.50) for soils of very low plasticity (9.48) Here, w, is the natural water content in per cent, Equations 9.44 10 9.48 were compiled by Azzouz et al. (1976). Bowles (1986) reported that the following equation, picked from Azzouz et al. (1976), has 86 per cent reliability, €.= 0.37 (€5 +0,008 w, + 0.0004 wy ~ 0.34) (9.49) It will be of interest to know that most of the normally consolidated, medium-sensitive clays have C, values of 0.2 to.0.5 while organic clays may have C, values exceeding 4. Some special soils such asthe Mexico City clay with C, values of 7 to 10 or peats with C, values of 10 to 15, are extreme cases of soils having very high compressibility. 9.9 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT In the preceding discussion, only primary consolidation settlement was analysed. Secondary consolidation (secondary compression or creep) continues much beyond primary consolidation and occurs at a much slower rate, Though there is some doubt regarding the point of time at which secondary consolidation can be said to begin. it is quite clear that it occurs at a constant effective stress and is not associated with the dissipation of excess pore water pressure. One line of thinking is that the secondary compression is due to gradual readjustment of the soil skeleton after the disturbance during primary consolidation. The rate of secondary compression is, perhaps, controlled by the highly viscous adsorbed layer surrounding the clay particles in a soil. “There is now general agreement that the magnitude of secondary compression can be expressed in terms of the secondary compression index C,, given by the equation be Blogs Ca= (9.50) where Ae is the decrease in void ratio in a plot of void ratio vs. logarithm of time, corresponding to a time interval Ar. Ca is measured as the slope of the straight line portion of the dial reading vs. logarithm of time curve, which is obtained after the primary consolidation is over, that is, after U = 100 per cent (Fig. 9.22). The compression is noted from the plot, usually for one log cycle of time; the corresponding Ae then gives the value of Gq. The secondary consolidation settlement is then worked out from Eq. 9.31, knowing H, and ¢, for a particular stress increment. . ‘Separating the primary and secondary compressions in a clear cut manner is rather tricky, especially if the soil layer is thick. In a thick layer, while parts of the layer which are near the drainage faces may have no excess pore water pressure in them and may, thus, already be under secondary compression, the parts of the soil layer near the middle of the layer are still a far way off from completing their primary consolidation, C, may decrease as the thickness of the layer increases. Another factor, namely, the ratio of the applied stress increment to the existing overburden pressure, SG/Gp. is.also said to influence the significance of secondaryCompressibility of Soil and Consolidation 249 ‘compression relative to primary compression. Greater the AG/Gp ratio, smaller the significance of secondary compression. Also, the value of C,,is itself, strictly, nota constant, but may change somewhat, with time. In spite of all these uncertainties, working values of C,. can be determined by assuming that the influence of the factors mentioned above is negligible. As long as the stress increment is large enough to go well beyond the preconsolidation stress G.. the ratio Cy‘, can be considered approximately constant over the normal range of engineering stresses (Mesti and Godlewski, 1977). Mesri and Godlewski gave values of Gc, ratio for a variety of natural soils. According to these authors, C/c, has a median value of about 0.05. The higher values of Gc, (upto about 0.11) were exibited by peats and certain organic soils while for inorganic soils, the range is from 0.025 to 0.06. Ladd (1976) suggested that for normally consolidated soils, (9.51) 24 23] a g 22] Stress increment :S0 to 100kN/m2 z an 201 OW 1.0 10 100 1000 10000 Time (min) Fig. 9.22 Determination of the rate of secondary compression, Ca ‘To compute the secondary compression settlement S,, Eq. 9.32 is used s,= ( 0. ‘Table 9.2. Computation of Time-Seitlement Re u o1 02 03 04 os 06 07 08 09 09s 1.00 It is required to determine the excess pore water pressure distribution with depth for U,, = 50 % or at elapsed time t sp. T, = 0.197 for Ug, = 50% , from Table 9.1. To determine the excess pore water pressure u, at a depth of say, 1.25 m from the top of clay stratum, Fig. 9.12 is used. For z= 1.25m, YH = 0.25; for 7, =0.197 and YH = 0.25, Excess pore water pressure u, = (1-U,) 4 Tv 0.008 0.031 oon 0.126 0.197 0.287 0.403 0567 0848 1163 +e 25 = (1 -0.70) 63 = 18.9 KN/m? Atz = 0 and z=10m, Values of u , at other values of z are similarly calculated and shown in Table 9.3. =0. 69.5 34 913 m2 125.1 132.0 139.0 (from Eq. 9.15) jonship toys) 02 086 197 3.50 SAT 197 119 15.75 2355 32.30 = 0.0 (From Fig. 9.12). itiates flow towards the