Experiment no: Date:

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

Aim
1. To determine total of composite wall.

2. To plot temperature gradient along composite walls.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND:

If the temperature varies with location in some stationary medium be it a solid or a fluid then a
“temperature gradient” is said to exist in that medium. Energy in transit due to such a temperature
gradient is conduction heat transfer. The degree of temperature variation within a conducting
medium is quantified using the mathematical tools of vector calculus; in particular, the magnitude
of the temperature gradient is found from the derivative of temperature with respect to distance,
and the gradient points in the direction of steepest temperature increase. In this laboratory exercise,
you will study conduction heat transfer in detail, exploring the relationship between heat flux and
temperature gradient, geometrical effects, composite structures, and interfacial resistance.

The mode of conduction heat transfer differs from radiation, where the heat transfer rate
depends on the fourth-power temperature difference, and it differs from convection, where at least
one heat transfer medium is in motion. As you consider conduction heat transfer in this laboratory,
you may find it useful to contrast conduction with the other modes of heat transfer. You may also
find it useful to draw analogy between the conduction of heat and that of electricity. You should
use this laboratory exercise to develop a feel for the physics of conduction heat transfer as well as
a sense of its practical application.
This mode of heat transfer is extremely important in industry, with applications in automotive
systems, aerospace systems, chemical and materials processing, electronics cooling, space
conditioning and environmental control, and medicine. In order to concentrate on the fundamentals
of conduction, your experiments will be restricted to one-dimensional, steady state conditions,
where the heat transfer occurs in only a single coordinate direction and is independent of time.

1
 Heat is always transferred when temperature difference exists between two bodies. There are
three basic modes of heat transfer:

Conduction involves the transfer of heat by interactions of atoms or molecules of a material

through which the heat is being transferred.
Convection involves the transfer of heat by mixing and motion of macroscopic portions of
fluid.
Radiation or radiant heat transfer involves the heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation that
arises due to the temperature of the body.

THEORY:
In conduction heat transfer problems, the object being studied is usually a solid. Convection
problems involve a fluid medium. Radiation heat transfer problems involve either solid or fluid
surfaces, separated by a gas, vapor, or vacuum. There are several ways to correlate the geometry,
physical properties, and temperature difference of an object with the rate of heat transfer through
the object. In conduction heat transfer, the most common means of correlation is through Fourier’s
Law of Conduction. The law, in its equation form, is used most often in its rectangular or cyclic.
Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to form a composite
structure like the composite wall. Let's also assume that the cross-sectional area normal to the flow
of heat transfer is constant and the periphery is insulated so that heat flow is one-dimensional.
Taking only one of the slabs for now, the heat transfer is governed by Fourier's Law: cyclic form
(pipes and cylinders), both of which are presented below..
Fourier's Law
The fundamental relation between the heat flux, q, and the temperature gradient, ∇T, for
conduction heat transfer in an isotropic† medium is
q" = − k∇T 2
where k (W/(m.K)), is an important property of the material called the thermal conductivity.
This relationship is based on observations, and as such we refer to it as “phenomenological”; it is
named Fourier’s Law.

Thoughtful inspection of Fourier’s Law can tell you a lot about conduction heat transfer.
Namely, the conductive heat flux is a vector—it has a magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the conductive heat flux is proportional to the temperature gradient, and its direction is coincident
with the temperature gradient. Since the temperature gradient is in the direction of maximum
temperature change, the heat flux is in the direction of maximum temperature change; i.e., it is

2
perpendicular to the isotherms. The minus sign means the conduction heat flux is in the direction
of decreasing temperature. Many engineers
regard Fourier’s law as defining the thermal conductivity; this is a healthy point of view that
you may find useful.
In Cartesian (x, y, z) and cylindrical (r, Φ, z) coordinates, Fourier's Law can be expressed

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
q’’ = iqx’’+jqy’’+kqz’’= - k∇𝑇 = - k(𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 ) 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

where qx, is the heat transfer rate in the x-direction, , is the thermal conductivity of the material,
Ax is the cross-sectional area of the material normal to the x-direction, and dT/ dx, is the
temperature gradient in the x-direction.

One-Dimensional Conduction in a Cartesian System

Consider the situation shown in Figure 1, where a cylinder of constant cross-sectional area has
a
high temperature T1 imposed on its left end and a lower temperature T2 on its right end.

Assuming negligible heat loss from the cylinder periphery and that the x-coordinate is aligned
with the cylinder axis, the heat transfer and temperature gradient will occur in the x-direction only
(i.e., heat transfer is by one-dimensional conduction). For steady state conditions (∂T/∂t = 0) with
no heat generation, the heat diffusion equation reduces to

3
 𝑑qx
=0 4
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
( )=0 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The first form states that under these conditions the heat flux, q’’x. is a constant, independent of
d2 T
x, If the thermal conductivity can be assumed to be constant, the second form reduces to =
𝑑x2

0 6

This can be integrated twice to obtain the general form of the temperature distribution.

T(x)= C1x+C2 7

Applying the boundary condition T(0)=T, at the left end gives

C2=T1 8
Likewise, applying the boundary condition at the right end gives
(𝑇2−𝑇1)
C1 = 9
𝐿
Substituting into the general solution for T(x):

𝑇(𝑥)−𝑇1 𝑥
=
𝑇2−𝑇1 𝐿

10
This result demonstrates the well-known finding that for steady one dimensional heat
conduction through a plane wall with constant thermal conductivity and no volumetric heat
generation, the temperature varies linearly with x.
Now using Fourier’s law to relate the heat flux to the temperature gradient
𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇 −𝑘(𝑇1−𝑇2)
qx'= = −𝑘 = 11
𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝐿
qx, is the heat transfer rate in the x-direction , and A, is the cross-sectional area normal to the
x-direction. Rearranging for qx
𝑘(𝑇1−𝑇2)
qx =
𝐿

12
Note that by solving this equation for (T1-T2)/L and substituting into the solution for T(x), the
temperature distribution may also be expressed in the form

4
 𝑞𝑥
T(x) = T1- 𝑥
𝑘𝐴

13
∆𝐸
In analogy with Ohm’s law for electrical resistance Relec = , the thermal resistance is defined
𝐼
as the ratio of the driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate qx. For steady heat transfer
through a plane wall, the thermal resistance for conduction is therefore given by

(𝑇1−𝑇2) 𝐿
Rcond = = 14
𝑞𝑥 𝑘𝐴

Equivalent Resistance Method:

There is an analogy between the conduction of electricity and the conduction of heat. Since
electrical resistance is associated with the conductance of electricity, there is also a thermal
resistance associated with the conduction of heat. Composite fluids and solids behave much like
series and parallel combinations of resistors in an electrical circuit. Using this approach we can add
up the thermal resistances to find the overall resistance and heat transfer coefficient.
It is possible to compare heat transfer to current flow in electrical circuits. The heat transfer
rate may be considered as a current flow and the combination of thermal conductivity, thickness of
material, and area as a resistance to this flow. The temperature difference is the potential or driving
function for the heat flow, resulting in the Fourier equation being written in a form similar to
Ohm’s Law of Electrical Circuit Theory. If the thermal resistance term Dx/k is written as a
resistance term where the resistance is the reciprocal of the thermal conductivity divided by the
thickness of the material, the result is the conduction equation being analogous to electrical
systems or networks. The electrical analogy may be used to solve complex problems involving
both series and parallel thermal resistances. The student is referred to Figure 2, showing the
equivalent resistance circuit. A typical conduction problem in its analogous electrical form is given
in the following example, where the "electrical" Fourier equation may be written as follows.

We now must introduce the concept of thermal resistance for conduction. Resistance in general
is defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate. As transfer rate goes to zero, the
resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the driving potential goes to zero, resistance fails to
exist. By using Fourier's Law and the definition of resistance, we can derive the thermal resistance
for conduction as:
Rcond = lA / kA A + lB / kB A + lC / kC A 15

5
SPECIFICATIONS:

Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, 2 Amp.

Table for set-up support.

TECHNICAL DETAILS:

Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of heater.

Slab Material : Slab Size

Cast Iron : 250 mm dia. & 20mm thick.

Bakelite : 250 mm dia. & 15 mm thick.

Press Wood : 250 mm dia. & 12 mm thick.

Heater : Nichrome wire.

CONTROL PANEL COMPRISING OF

Digital Voltmeter : 0-300 Volts.

Digital Ammeter : 0-2 Amp.

Variac : 0-230 V, 2Amp.

Digital Temp.Indicator : 0-200° C, with multi-channel switch

Temperature Sensors : RTD PT-100 type.

6
 APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a central heater sandwiched between two sheets. Three types of slabs
are provided both sides of heater, which forms a composite structure. A small hand press frame is
provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A dimmerstat is provided for varying the
input to the heater and measurement of input is carried out by a voltmeter, ammeter.
Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of the slabs, to read the temperature at the
surface.
.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1) See that plates are symmetrically arranged on both sides of the heater plates.

2) Operate the hand press properly to ensure perfect contact between the plates.

3) Close the box by cover sheet to achieve steady environmental

4) Start the supply of heater by varying the dimmerstat; adjust the input at the desired value.

7
 5) Take readings of all the thermocouples at an interval of 10 minutes until fairly steady
temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible.
6) Note down the reading in observation table.

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Keep the dimmer stat at zero before switching on the power supply.

2) Do not disturb the thermocouples while testing.

3) Do not increase the power supply above 150v.

4) Increase the voltage slowly.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

OBSERVATION TABLE

SL. VOLTAGE CURR TEMPERATURE (ºC)

.NO (V) ENT (I)

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Wall thickness of composite slab = 0.045m

Bakelite:

Diameter = 25cm

Thickness = 10mm

Brass:

Diameter = 25cm

Thickness = 10mm

8
Mild Steel:

Diameter = 25cm

Thickness = 25mm

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Mean temperature readings:

TA = (T1 + T2) / 2=

= ---------ºC

TB = (T3 + T4) / 2=

= --------- ºC

TC = (T5 + T6) / 2=

= --------- ºC

TD = (T7 + T8) / 2=

= ---------- ºC

Area of the plates A = πd2 / 4

Where,

d = diameter of the plates

A = (π*0.252) / 4

= 0.04906 m2

Heat supplied Q = V * I (watts)

Hence Q = -------------

= ------W

Heat Flux q = Q/A (W/m2)

= -------- W/m2

Average total thermal resistance Rtotal = (TA – TD) / q

Where,

TA and TD are the mean temperature readings,

Q, is the heat flux

9
Therefore using the above formula

Rtotal = ---------------m2 K/ W

Average total thermal resistance Rtotal = (TA – TD) / q

Rtotal =

= ---------- m2 K/ W

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

10
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

11
12
 Experiment no: Date:

FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS

AIM
1. To find the heat transfer coefficient
2. To verify the Dittus-Boelter equation

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

In many practical situations, we invariably deal with flow of fluids in tubes e.g. boiler, super
heaters and condensers of a power plant, automobile radiators, water and air heaters or coolers etc.
the knowledge and evolution of forced convection heat transfer coefficient for fluid flow in tubes
is essentially a prerequisite for an optional design of all thermal system.
Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of fluid with the
other. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of
medium itself.
In forced convection, fluid motion is principally produced by some superimposed velocity field
like a fan, blower or a pump, the energy transport is said due to forced convection.

THEORY
The essential ingredients of forced convection heat transfer analysis are given by Newton's Law of
Cooling,

Q = kA(Tw-T∞) = hA∆T

The rate of heat Q0 transferred to the surrounding fluid is proportional to the object's exposed area
A, and the difference between the object temperature Tw and the fluid free-stream temperature T∞.

The constant of proportionality h is termed the convection heat-transfer coefficient. Other terms
describing h include film coefficient and film conductance. The Dittus–Bolter correlation (1930) is a

13
common and particularly simple correlation useful for many applications. This correlation is applicable
when forced convection is the only mode of heat transfer; i.e., there is no boiling, condensation,
significant radiation, etc. The accuracy of this correlation is anticipated to be ±15%.

The Dittus- Bolter equation, has two forms as follows:

Nu= 0.023 Re0.8Pr0.4 , for ‘heating’ (temperature of wall > temperature of fluid), and

Nu = 0.026 Re0.8Pr0.3 , for ‘cooling’ (temperature of wall < temperature of fluid)

FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of a blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is surrounded by a
Nichrome band heater. Four thermocouples are embedded on the test section and two thermocouples
are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test section to measure the air temperature.
Test pipe is connected to the delivery side of the blower along with the orifice to measure flow of air
through the pipe. Input to the heater is given through a dimmerstat and measured by meters.

It is to be noted that only a part of the total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air. A temperature
indicator with cold junction compensation is provided to measure temperatures of pipe wall at various
points in the test section. Airflow is measured with the help of orifice meter and the water manometer
fitted on the board.

SPECIFICATIONS

Test pipe = 33mm internal diameter, 500mm long

Diameter of pipe =22mm

Cd =0.64

Cross sectional area of pipe =8.3 × 10-4m2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Switch ON the mains system

2. Switch ON blower.
3. Adjust the flow by means of gate valve to some desired difference in the manometer level.
4. Switch ON heater
5. Start the heating of the test section with the help of dimmerstat and adjust desired heat
input with the help of Voltmeter and Ammeter.

14
 6. Take readings of all the six thermocouples at an interval of 10 min until the steady state is
reached.
7. Note down the heater input.
8. Repeat the experiment for different air flow rate or power rates
DIAGRAM

FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS

PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep the dimmer stat at zero position before switching ON the power supply.
2. Increase the voltmeter gradually.
3. Do not stop the blower in between the testing period.
4. Do not disturb thermocouples while testing. Operate selector switch of the thermocouple gently.
Don’t exceed 200 watts
5. Operate selector switch of the temperature indicator gently.

15
 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

V
Sl. I(A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
(volts hw
No ) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)
)
1
2
3

ρao =

ρa =

Ts =(T1+T7)/2

ha =hw(ρw/ρa)

Ta =(T2+T3+T4+T5+T6)/5=

Q =Cd×ao×√2gha=

ma = Q× ρa=

-4
ap =8.3×10 mm2

V =Q/ap=

Q =maCp(T7-T1)=

16
A =3.14×D×L=

Ɛ =0.4

q1 =σ ƐA(TS4-Ta4)

Actual heat loss=

hexp =(q-q1)/A(Ts-Ta)

K =

Nu =hD/k

NRe =ρvd/μ

NPr = μCp/k

From Dittus-Boelter equation,

Nu =0.023(NRe).8(NPr)n

hth =

Where

ρao Density of air at 273 K

ρa Density of air at inlet temperature

ρw Density of water at room temperature

ha Head of air
17
hw Head of water

Q Volumetric flow rate of air

Cd Coefficient of discharge of orifice=0.64

Cp Specific heat of air at ambient temperature

μ Dynamic viscosity of air at ambient temperature =19.05×10-6 Ns/m2

d Diameter of orifice=22 mm

ao Cross section area of orifice

ap Cross section area of pipe

ma Mass flow rate

V Velocity of air

q Heat gained by air

D Internal diameter of test pipe=33 mm

L Length of the test pipe=500 mm

A Lateral surface area of test pipe

Ɛ Emissivity of test pipe

q1 Heat loss by radiation

σ Stefan Boltzmann constant=5.672×10-8 W/m2K4

Ts Surface temperature

Ta Ambient temperature

hexp Experimental heat transfer coefficient

k Thermal conductivity of air at ambient temperature

NRe Reynolds number

Nu Nusselt number

NPr Prandtl number

18
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Sl. No. hexp(W/m2k) hcal(W/m2k)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

19
20
 Experiment No: Date:

NATURAL CONVECTION
AIM:

1. To determine the heat transfer coefficient

2. To plot a graph between local heat transfer coefficients and length of cylinder

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

CONVECTION

Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids (i.e. liquids, gases). It cannot take place in
solids, since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids.
Convective heat transfer is a mechanism of heat transfer occurring because of bulk motion of fluids.
Heat is the entity of interest being carried and dispersed. This can be contrasted with conductive heat
transfer, which is the transfer of energy by vibrations at a molecular level through a solid or fluid and
radiative heat transfer, the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves. Heat is transferred by
convection in numerous examples of naturally occurring fluid flow, such as: wind, oceanic currents,
and movements within the Earth's mantle. Convection is also used in engineering practices to provide
desired temperature changes, as in heating of homes, industrial processes, cooling of equipment, etc.

CONVECTION MECHANISMS

Natural convection
Natural convection or free convection occurs due to temperature differences which affect the
density and thus relative buoyancy of the fluid. Heavier components will fall while lighter components
rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational
field. A common example of natural convection is a pot of boiling water in which the hot and less-
dense water on the bottom layer moves upwards in plumes and the cool and denser water near the top
of the pot likewise sinks.

21
 Forced convection
In forced convection, fluid movement results from external surface forces such as a fan or pump.
Forced convection is typically used to increase the rate of heat exchange. Many types of mixing also
utilize forced convection to distribute one substance within another. Forced convection also occurs as a
by-product to other processes, such as the action of a propeller in a fluid or aerodynamic heating. Fluid
radiator systems and also heating and cooling of parts of the body by blood circulation are other
familiar examples of forced convection. Forced convection may produce results more quickly than free
convection. For instance, a convection oven works by forced convection, as a fan which rapidly
circulates hot air forces heat into food faster than would naturally happen due to simple heating without
the fan.

NATURAL CONVECTION
Natural convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport, in which the fluid motion is not
generated by any external source but only by density differences in the fluid occurring due to
temperature gradients. In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes
less dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then
heated and the process continues, forming convection current; this process transfers heat energy from
the bottom of the convection cell to top. The driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result
of differences in fluid density. Because of this, the presence of a proper acceleration such as arises from
resistance to gravity, or an equivalent force is essential for natural convection. For example, natural
convection essentially does not operate in free-fall (inertial) environments, such as that of the orbiting
International Space Station, where other heat transfer mechanisms are required to prevent electronic
components from overheating.

Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence
both in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air rising above
sunlight-warmed land or water are a major feature of all weather systems. Convection is also seen in
the rising plume of hot air from fire. In engineering applications, convection is commonly visualized in
the formation of microstructures during the cooling of molten metals, and fluid flows around shrouded
heat-dissipation fins, and solar ponds. A very common industrial application of natural convection is
free air cooling without the aid of fans: this can happen on small scales to large scale process
equipment.

22
 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Grashof number
The Grashof number Gr is a dimensionless number which approximates the ratio of the buoyancy to
viscous force acting on a fluid. It frequently arises in the study of situations involving natural
convection. It is named after the German engineer Franz Grashof.

𝑔𝛽𝐿3 ( 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Gr =
𝜐2
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

β = volumetric thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)

Ts = surface temperature (K)

Ta= ambient temperature (K)

L = length of cylinder (m)

υ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Prandtl number
The Prandtl number Pr approximates the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. It is
named after the German physicist Ludwig Prandtl.

𝜐 𝜇 𝐶𝑝
Pr = =
⍺ 𝐾
υ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
⍺ = thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
𝝁 = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
Cp = specific heat (J/kgK)
K = thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Nusselt number
In heat transfer at a boundary within a fluid, the Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to
conductive heat transfer across (normal to) the boundary. Named after Wilhelm Nusselt, it is a
dimensionless number.
ℎ𝐿
Nu =
𝐾

h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

23
 L = length of cylinder (m)
K = thermal conductivity of fluid (W/mK)
Stefan Boltzmann law
The Stefan–Boltzmann law, also known as Stefan's law, states that the total energy radiated per unit
surface area of a black body per unit time (known variously as the black-body irradiance, energy flux
density, radiant flux, or the emissive power) q , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black
body's thermodynamic temperature T (also called absolute temperature.

q = σ T4 A

Where:
q is the heat transfer per unit time (W)
T is the absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
A is the area of the emitting body (m2)
The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant in Imperial Units
σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4)
Natural convection apparatus
The unit consists of a vertical brass pipe heated by a cartridge heater inside it. The pipe loses heat to
atmosphere by natural convection. It is fitted in an enclosure to provide undisturbed natural convection
currents. Thermocouples are attached on the pipe to measure local temperatures. Heater input is
measured on voltmeter and ammeter. Thus students can determine overall heat transfer coefficient and
local transfer coefficients in natural convection at various heat transfer rates.

PROCEDURE
• Put on the supply and adjust the dimmer stat to obtain required heat input.
• Wait till fairly steady state is reached, which is confirmed from temperature readings.
• Note down the temperature at various points.
• Repeat the experiment for different power readings.

FORMULAE USED
Q
havg =[ [As ×(Ts−T∞)], where Ts is the Average surface temperature and T∞ is ambient temperature

As = π ×D×L, where D and L are diameter and length of the tube respectively

∑Ti
Ts= , where N is the no. of thermostats being used
N

24
 (Ts+T∞)
Tf= , Tm.f.is the mean film temperature.
2

1
β= K-1, β is volumetric coefficient of expansion
(273+Tf)

Grashof number
[L3 ×β×ΔT×g]
Gr =
𝜈2

Nusselt number
0.67×(Gr×Pr)0.25
Nu = {0.68 + 0.492 0.5625 0.4
} for Gr×Pr< 104
[1+( ) ]
𝑃𝑟

{0.59 + (𝐺𝑟 × Pr )0.25 }, For 104<Gr×Pr<109

Heat transfer coefficient

̅̅̅̅
𝐾 ×𝑁𝑢
havg=
𝐷

OBSERVATIONS
Sl. Volt Curre Temperatures (ºC) Prand Grash
No. age nt tl of no. hth hexp
(W/m2 (W/m
(V) (I)(A) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T 7 T8 No. (Gr)
K) 2
)
K
(Vo (Pr)
lts)

25
SAMPLE CALCULATION

∑Ti
Ts= = ºC
N

T∞= ºC

(Ts+T∞)
Tf = = = ºC
2

1
β= = K-1
(273+Tf)

ΔT = Ts − T∞ = ºC

[D3 ×β×ΔT×g]
So, Gr = =
𝜈2

𝜇×𝐶𝑝 𝜇×𝐶𝑝
And Pr = = =
𝑘 𝑘

So Gr ×Pr =

𝐺𝑟×𝑃𝑟)0.167
̅̅̅̅̅̅= {0.6 + 0.387 × {
So, NuD 0.296 } } for 10-4<Gr×Pr<1012
0.559 0.56
{1+( ) }
𝑃𝑟

̅̅̅̅̅̅=
NuD

ℎ×𝑙
̅̅̅̅̅̅
NuD =
𝑘

NuD ×k
hexp. = =
𝑙

Theoretical heat supplied = Q×I =

= Watts

26
 Qradiation = σ×A×ε× (Ts4-T∞4)

= Watts

Qconvection= Q-Qradiation

= ------------------

So, Qconvection = htheoretical×A×ΔT

Qconvection
=>htheoretical= =
A×ΔT

Sl. Area Qradiatio Q- hth(W/ Length

No. n Qradiation m2k) (m)

27
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Theoretical heat Experimental heat

S.no transfer coefficient; hth transfer coefficient; hexp.
(W/m2K) (W/m2K)

28
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

29
30
 Experiment No: Date:

STEFAN-BOLTZMAN CONSTANT
AIM
To find the Stefan –Boltzmann constant.

INTRODUCTION
Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged
particles in matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation.
The energy transfer by conduction and convection requires some material carrier, but the transfer of
energy by radiation can take place in a vacuum without a material carrier between the heat source and
the receiver.

Black body:
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation.
Because of this perfect absorptivity at all wavelengths, a black body is also the best possible emitter of
thermal radiation, which it radiates incandescently in a characteristic, continuous spectrum that depends
on the body's temperature. At Earth-ambient temperatures this emission is in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum and is not visible. The object appears black, since it does not reflect or emit
any visible light.

Absorptivity,
If the amounts of radiation energy absorbed, reflected, and transmitted when radiation strikes a
surface are measured in percentage of the total energy in the incident electromagnetic waves. The total
energy would be divided into three groups, they are called Absorptivity (α), Reflectivity (ρ) , and
Transmissivity (t).

α+ρ+t=1 (1)

31
 Absorption: It is the fraction of irradiation absorbed by a surface.
Reflectivity: It is the fraction reflected by the surface.

Transmissivity: It is the fraction transmitted by the surface.

A body is considered transmit some of the radiation waves falling on its surface. If
electromagnetic waves are not transmitted through the substance it is therefore called opaque. When
radiation waves hit the surface of an opaque body, some of the waves are reflected back while the other
waves are absorbed by a thin layer of the material close to the surface. For engineering purposes all
materials are thick enough that they can be considered opaque reducing Equation 1 to:

α+ρ=1 (2)

Emissivity:
The emissivity of a material (usually written ε or e) is the relative ability of its surface to emit
energy by radiation. It is the ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to energy radiated by a
black body at the same temperature. A true black body would have ε = 1 while any real object would
have ε < 1. Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity.

Stefan Boltzmann law:

The Stefan–Boltzmann law, also known as Stefan's law, states that the total energy radiated
per unit surface area of a black body per unit time (known variously as the black-body irradiance,
energy flux density, radiant flux, or the emissive power) q , is directly proportional to the fourth power
of the black body's thermodynamic temperature T (also called absolute temperature):

q = σ T4 A (3)

32
 where
q = heat transfer per unit time (W)
σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)

The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant in Imperial Units

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4)
= 0.1714 10-8 ( Btu/(h ft2 oR4) )
= 0.119 10-10 ( Btu/(h in2 oR4) )

Planck’s law:
The Planck law gives the intensity radiated by a blackbody as a function of frequency (or
wavelength). Let a blackbody have temperature T. Let be the energy density per unit solid angle so that

then the blackbody radiates at a frequency with spectral energy density

where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and k is Boltzmann's constant.

Wien’s Displacement law:

The wavelength corresponding to the peak emission in various black body spectra as a function
of temperature. Wien's displacement law states that there is an inverse relationship between the
wavelength of the peak of the emission of a black body and its temperature.

λmax = b/T

where, λmax, is the peak wavelength in meters,

T , is the temperature of the blackbody in Kelvin (K),

and b is a constant of proportionality,

called Wien's displacement constant and equals 2.8976 × 10–3 m K

33
 Kirchhoff’s law:

An object at some non-zero temperature radiates electromagnetic energy. If it is a perfect black

body, absorbing all light that strikes it, it radiates energy according to the black-body radiation formula.
More generally, it is a "grey body" that radiates with some emissivity multiplied by the black-body
formula. Kirchhoff's law states that:

At thermal equilibrium, the emissivity of a body (or surface) equals its absorptivity.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus:

The apparatus consist of a water heater jacket of hemisphere shape. A copper test
disc is fitted at the center of jacket. The hot water is obtained from hot water tank, fitted to the panel in
which water is heated by an electric heater. The hot water is taken around the hemisphere, so that
hemisphere temperature rises. The test disc is then inserted at the center. Thermocouple is fitted inside
hemisphere to find the average hemisphere temperature. Another thermocouple is fitted at the center of
the test disc which measure the temperature of the test disc.

A timer with a small buzzer is provided to note down the disc temperature at the time
interval of 5 sec.

34
 Procedure:

• The Stefan –Boltzmann constant is an important constant in heat transfer. The apparatus
determine Stefan –Boltzmann constant.
• The apparatus consists of a hemisphere surrounded by hot water.
• Hot water is obtained from a water heating tank.
• When the blackened disc is inserted at the centre of the hemisphere, heat is transferred to the disc
from hemisphere by radiation and its temperature begins to rise and from temperature rise rate (it is be
the intervals of 5 seconds) ,Stefan –Boltzmann constant is determined.

According to Stefan –Boltzmann law, energy radiated by a body per unit area per unit time is given
by

R = εσT4 , Where R = energy radiated per unit area per time

ε = emissivity of the material
σ = Stefan –Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8W/m2K4
T = temperature in Kelvin scale.
For a black body emissivity =1, hence, R =sigma x T4
In the given experiment set up the net heat transfer to the disc per second is
∆Q/∆t = m cpdT/ dt
= ΣA[Th4 –Td4]

35
 Where m = mass of the disc only
cp = specific heat of material of the disc
A = area of the disc
dT/dt =slope of the temperature –time graph of the hemisphere
Td = steady state temperature of the disc in Kelvin
Th = steady state temperature of the hemisphere in Kelvin

From the above equation

σ = (mcpdT/dt)/(A[Th4-Td4]

Experimental observation and calculations:

Time (Sec) Temperature

( ˚C )
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70

36
Temperature reading of four thermocouple on the hemisphere

1 2 3 4

Calculations:

Temperature of sphere =

Initial disc temperature = T5 sec+273.15K =

σ = (mcpdT/dt)/(A[Th4-Td4]

= W/m2K4

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

37
38
 Experiment No: Date:

EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

INTRODUCTION:

All substances at all temperature emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic
wave and does not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies can emit radiation and have
also the capacity to absorb all or part of the radiation coming from the surroundings towards it.

An idealised black surface is one which absorbs all the incident radiation with reflectivity and
transmissivity equal to zero. The radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit area from the surface of
the body is called the emissive power and is usually denoted by e. The emissivity of a surface is defined
as the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of the hypothetical black surface
at same temperature. It is denoted by ɛ.

Thus ɛ=

For a black body absorptivity = 1, and by the knowledge of Kirchoff’s Law emissivity of the
blackbody also becomes unity.

Emissivity being a property of the surface depends on the nature of the surface and temperature.

It is obvious from the Stefan-Boltzmann Law that the prediction of the emissive power of a surface
requires knowledge about the value of its emissivity and therefore much experimental research in
radiation has been concentrated on measuring the value of emissivity as a function of surface
temperature. The present experimental set up is designed and fabricated to measure the property of
emissivity of a test plate surface at various temperatures.

39
 Table-1 gives approximate values of emissivity for some common materials for ready references.
Table-1

Temperature Emissivity
Metal Polished copper, 0.15
Steel, Stainless Steel, Increase with
Nickel. temperature
0.2 to
Aluminium (oxidized) 900C 0.33
Non-metals Brick, Wood, 200C 0.8 to 1
Marble, Water.

APPARATUS:

The experimental set up consists of two circular Aluminium plates identical in size and provided
with heating coils at the bottom. The plates are mounted on an asbestos cement sheet and are kept in an
enclosure so as to provide undistributed natural convection surroundings.
The heat input to the heater is varied by separated dimmerstats and is measured by using an
ammeter and a voltmeter/wattmeter with the help of double pole double-throw switches. The
temperature of the plates is measured by thermocouples. Separated wires are connected to diametrically
opposite points to get the average surface temperatures of the plates. Another thermocouples is kept in
the enclosure to read the ambient temperature of enclosure.

Plate-1 is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealised black surface whereas the
plate-2 is the test plate whose emissivity to be determined. The heater inputs to the two plates are
dissipated from the plates by conduction, convection and radiation. The experimental set up is designed
in such a way that under steady state condition the heat dissipation by conduction and convection is
same for both the plates. When their surface temperatures are the same and the difference in the heater
input readings is because of the difference in radiation characteristics due to their different surface
emissivity. The schematic arrangement of the setup is shown in fig. 2.

40
THEORY:

Under steady state conditions.

Let W1 = Heater input to black plate, watts = V1. I1

W2 = Heater input to test plate, watts = V2.I2

A = Area of plates ( π4 d2)

TS = Temperature of black plate, in Kelvin

TD = Ambient temperature, in Kelvin

D = Diameter of Aluminium Discs

ε b = Emissivity of black plate

(To be assumed equal to unity)

ε = Emissivity of non-black test plate.

σ =Stefan-boltzmann constant.

By using Stefan-Boltzmann law:

W1-W2 = (εb- ε).A.σ.( T4S- T4D)/0.86

41
 CALCULATION AND OBSERVATION:
Sl. Black Plate type Test Plate Type Enclosure Emissivity
no V Tbmean V I Ts W
I celcius

Sl. Temperature Temperature of Ambient Heater

no of black body Test body temperature Input
V
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 1(v) I1(A)

42
 PROCEDURE:
1. Give power supply to temperature indicator (230 v single phase) and adjust the reading in it
equal to room temperature by rotating the compensation knob (Normally this is pre- adjusted)
2. Select the proper range of voltage on wattmeter/ voltmeter and Ammeter.
3. Gradually increase the power input to the heater of the black plate and adjust it to some value
30,50,75 watts and adjust the power input to the test plate to a slightly less value than the black plate
27,35,55 watts etc.
4. Check the temperatures of the two plates at small time intervals and adjust the power input of the
test plate only by means of the dimmerstat such that the two plates are maintained at the same
temperature.
5. This will require some trial and error and one has to wait sufficiently long (more than one hour
or so) to obtain the steady state condition.
6. After attaining the steady state record the reading of

W1, W2, TS and TD

Where W1 = V1 I1 and W2 = V2 I2

7. The same procedure is repeated for various plate surface temperatures in increasing
order.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Test plate = 160 mm. Ø

2. Black plate = 160 mm. Ø

3. Heater for (1) Nichrome strip wound on mica sheet and sandwitch between two mica sheets.

Heater for (2) , same as above

4. Dimmerstat for (1) 0- 2A, 0 -260 V

43
 5. Dimmerstat for (2) 0-2A, 0-260 V

6. Wattmeter for (1) 0- 2A, 0 – 37, 5/75-150 V or

Voltmeter 0- 100- 200 V, Ammeter -0- 2A

7. Enclosure size 58 cm x 30 cm 30 cm approx. With one side of Perspex.

8. Thermocouples - [Iron – constantan (3 NOS.)]

9. Temperature Indicator 0- 3000c with compensation for room – temperature which is to be

adjusted initially.

10. D.P.D.T. Switch.

44
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

45
46
 Experiment no: Date :

COMBINED RADIATION AND CONVECTION

Aim:

To determine the heat transfer due to radiation and convection from cylinder.

To find emissivity at different temperatures.

To find natural convection coefficient.

Introduction and Background:

Natural Convection and Radiation

If a surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in stationary air at the same
temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of natural convection to the air (air heated by
contact with the surface becomes less dense and rises) and radiation to the surroundings. A horizontal
cylinder is used in this exercise to provide a simple shape from which the heat transfer can be
calculated.

Note: Heat loss due to conduction is minimised by the design of the equipment and measurements
mid-way along the heated section of the cylinder can be assumed to be unaffected by conduction at the
ends of the cylinder. Heat loss by conduction would normally be included in the analysis of a real
application.

In the case of natural (free) convection the Nusselt number Nu depends on the Grashof and Prandtl
numbers and the heat transfer correlation can be expressed in the form:

Nusselt number,

Nu = f (Gr, Pr)

Rayleigh number,

47
 Ra = (Gr Pr)

The average heat transfer coefficient for radiation Hrm can be calculated using the following
relationship:

ΣζF (Ts4−Ta4)
Hrm= 𝑇𝑠−𝑇𝑎

The average heat transfer coefficient for natural convection Hcm can be calculated using the
following relationship:

𝑇𝑠+𝑇𝑎
Tfilm = 2

β = 1/Tfilm K-1

gβ (Ts−Ta)D3
Grd= 𝜐2

Rad= (Grd.Pr)

gβ (Ts−Ta)D3Pr
Rad= υ2

Num = b (Rad)n (c and n can be obtained from the table below)

𝑘𝑁 𝑢𝑚
Hfm = 𝐷

Note: k, Pr, and n are physical properties of the air taken at the film temperature Tfilm.

The actual power supplied to the heated cylinder

Qin = V I

48
 Table for c and n values for natural convection on horizontal cylinder.

Rad c N
10-9 to 10-2 0.675 0.058
10-2 to 102 1.02 0.148
102 to 104 0.850 0.188
104 to 107 0.480 0.250
107 to 1012 0.125 0.333

Alternatively a simplified equation may be used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient for free
convection

Hcm= 1.32(Ts-Ta/D)0.25 W/m2K

The value for Hcm should be calculated using both the original and simplified equations and the
values compared.

Apparatus Required:

▪ Thermometer
▪ Heater
▪ Stopwatch
▪ Sand paper

49
 About the equipments to be used:

1. Thermometer: The thermometer is used to measure the room temperature and the temperature of
the cylindrical brass specimen at different time intervals.
2. Heater: The heater is used to increase the temperature of the brass specimen.
3. Stopwatch: Since we have to take the readings of the specimen at regular intervals so we need a
stop watch for the purpose.
4. Sand paper: The surface of the brass specimen is to be made smooth so for this purpose
sandpaper is used.

Procedure:

1. The surface of the cylindrical brass specimen is polished using the sand paper.
2. The dimensions of the cylinder are noted down.
3. Now with the help of thermometer the room temperature is noted.
4. The cylinder is now heated till it reaches a temperature of about 200 ̊ C.
5. Now with the help of tongs the cylinder is taken out of the heater and thermometer is inserted
into the space in the centre of it.
6. Now the temperature is noted at an interval of 1 minute till it drops down to 90 ̊ C.

50
Observation table:

Temperatu
Time Temperatu
re Time
(minutes) re
( ̊ C) (minutes)
( ̊ C)

51
Model Calculations:

For T= C,

Tfilm=(Ts+Ta)/2

= C

Properties of air at Tfilm= C;

Cp = J/kgK

μ= Ns/m2

ρ= kg/m3

k= W/m3

β = 1/Tfilm

= K-1

Prandtl number, Npr= Cpμ/k

Grashof number, Ngr

1. For lateral surface

Ngr= (L3ρ2gβ∆T)/μ2

=
52
 =

Hence Nusselt number,

Nu=0.59x( Ngrx Npr)0.25

Hence the convective heat transfer coefficient;

h = Nuxk/L

= W/m2K

2. Now for bottom and top;

Ngr=(D3ρ2gβ∆T)/μ2

Hence Nusselt number,

Nu bottom=0.27x( Ngrx Npr).25

Nu top=0.54x( Ngrx Npr).25

Hence the convective heat transfer coefficient;

htop =Nu topxk/D

= W/m2K

53
 hbottom=Nu bottomxk/D

= W/m2K

Qconv.= (htopx Atop+ hbottom xAbottom+hlateralx Alateral)x ∆T

= W

QTOTAL=mCp(dT/dt)

= W

QRAD.= QTOTAL- Qconv.

= W

Total area, AT=2πrh+2πr2

= m2

QRAD.=σϵ AT(Ts4-Ta4)

ϵ=

hr= QRAD/A∆T

= W/m2K

54
RESULT TABLE:

dT/
QCO QRA hr
TEMPERATURE dt
NV. D. (W/m2 ϵ
(̊ C) (slo
(W) (W) K)
pe)

RESULT:

CONCLUSIONS:

55
Experiment no: Date :
56
 DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM

1. To find the overall heat transfer coefficient

2. A graph is plotted between effectiveness and NTU for parallel and counter flows through a
double pipe heat exchanger.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat energy from one fluid to another. Typical
heat exchangers experienced by us in our daily lives include condensers and evaporators used in
air conditioning units and refrigerators. Boilers and condensers in thermal power plants are
examples of large industrial heat exchangers. There are heat exchangers in our automobiles in the
form of radiators and oil coolers. Heat exchangers are also abundant in chemical and process
industries. There is a wide variety of heat exchangers for diverse kinds of uses, hence the
construction also would differ widely. However, in spite of the variety, most heat exchangers can
be classified into some common types based on some fundamental design concepts.

1. Shell and tube heat exchangers: Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are fabricated with round
tubes mounted in cylindrical shells with their axes coaxial with the shell axis.

2. Compact heat exchangers: One variation of the fundamental compact exchanger element,
the core, the core consists of a pair of parallel plates with connecting metal members that are
bonded to the plates. The arrangement of plates and bonded members provides both a fluid-flow
channel and prime and extended surface.

3. Plate and fin heat exchanger: These exchangers are usually built of thin plates (all prime
surfaces). The plates are either smooth or have some form of corrugations, and they are either flat
or wound in an exchanger

4. Double pipe heat exchanger

57
 I
n
dou
ble
pip
e heat exchanger design, an important factor is the type of flow pattern in the heat exchanger. A
double pipe heat exchanger will typically be either counter flow or parallel flow. The flow pattern
and the required heat exchange duty allows calculation of the log mean temperature difference.
That together with an estimated overall heat transfer coefficient allows calculation of the required
heat transfer surface area. Then pipe sizes, pipe lengths and number of bends can be determined.

1) Counter flow: A counter flow heat exchanger is one in which the direction of the flow of
one of the working fluids is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid.
2) Parallel flow: A parallel flow heat exchanger is one in which the direction of the flow of
one working fluid is same to the direction to the flow of the other fluid.

58
 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of a tube in tube type heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot water which
is obtained from an insulated water bath using magnetic drive pump and it flows through the inner
tube while the cold water is cold fluid flowing through annular. Hot water always flows from one
direction and the flow rate of which is controlled by means of a valve. The cold water can be
admitted at one of the end enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow apparatus or
counter flow apparatus. This is done by valve operations. For the flow measurement rota meters
are provided at the inlet of cold water and outlet of hot water line. A magnetic drive pump is used
to collect the hot water from a recycled type water tank, which is fitted with heater and digital
temperature controller ( DTC ).

FORMULA USED :

Qh = mh x Cph x (Thi – Tho)

Qc = mc x Cpc x (Tco – Tci)

Mh = ( Fh X Ph X 10-3 ) / 3600
59
 Mc = ( Fc X Pc X 10-3 ) / 3600

QAVG = ( Qh + Qc ) / 2

Tm = (Tin – Tout) / ln (Ti / To) Where,

Tin = Thi - Tci in oC

Tout = Tho - Tco in oC

Effectiveness, ε = (Thi - Tho)/(Thi - Tci)

NTU = UA/Cmin

NOMENCLATURE :

Ai, Ao Inside ,outside heat transfer area in m2.

Di,Do Inside ,outside diameter of tube.

Cph,Cpc Specific heat of hot and cold fluid at mean temperature.

Fh,Fc Flow rate of hot and cold water in LPH.

L Length of tube in m.

Mh,Mc Mass flow rate of hot and cold water.

Ph,Pc Density of hot and cold water at mean temperature.

Ui,Uo Inside and outside overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 oC.

Q Avg. heat transfer from the system, W.

Qh Heat lost by hot water,W.

Qc Heat gained by cold water,W.

Th,Tc Mean temperature of hot and cold water .

Thi,Tho Inlet,outlet tempoerature of hot water.

Tci,Tco Inlet,outlet tempoerature of cold water.

Tm Logarithm mean temperature difference

PROCEDURE
1. Make the appropriate length measurements on the heat exchanger so you can calculate the
heat transfer area.
2. Turn on the system and set it up for parallel flow.

60
 3. Allow the system to come to steady state and record inlet, outlet, and intermediate
temperatures of the cold and hot water.
4. Repeat the experiment for at least five different flow rates of hot and cold water
while maintaining the same Cmin/Cmax ratio.
5. Repeat steps 3-5 with the exchanger in counter-flow configuration.

OBSERVATIONS
PARALLEL FLOW

Hot fluid
S Thi Th Tco Tco Cold fluid
o o o o flow rate
l.No ( C) o ( C ) ( C) ( C) flow rate (LPH)
( LPH )

COUNTER FLOW

Hot fluid
S Thi Th Tco Tco Cold fluid flow
flow rate
l.No (oC) o(oC ) (oC) (oC) rate (LPH) D
( LPH )
A
T
A:

DI =

DO =

L =

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

For Sl. No.1 (Parallel Flow):

CPh = ------J/kg.K

Cpc = ----- J/kg.K

61
ρh = ------- kg/m3

ρc = ----------- kg/m3

mh= (Fx10-3xρ)/3600 = ----------- kg/s

mc = (Fx10-3xρ)/3600 = ------------ kg/s

Qh = mhCph (Thi - Tho) = ----------------- W

Qc = mcCpc (Tco - Tci) = ---------------- W

Qavg = (Qc+Qh)/2 = --------------- W

∆Tm = (∆T2-∆T1)/ln(∆T2/∆T1) = --------------------- K

U = Qavg/A ∆Tm = --------------W/m2.K

Cc = m Cpc = -----------------W/K

Ch = m Cph = -----------------W/K

Cmin = Ch = ------------W/K

E = (Thi - Tho)/(Thi - Tci) =

NTU = UA/Cmin =

For S.No.1 (Counter-current Flow):

CPh = ------- J/kg.K

Cpc = ------------ J/kg.K

ρh = ----------- kg/m3

ρc = ------------- kg/m3

mh= (Fx10-3xρ)/3600 = ------------------------- kg/s

mc = (Fx10-3xρ)/3600 = -------------------------- kg/s

Qh = mhCph (Thi - Tho) = --------------------------- W

Qc = mcCpc (Tco - Tci) = ------------------------------ W

Qavg = (Qc+Qh)/2 = ----------------------------- W

62
∆Tm = (∆T2-∆T1)/ln(∆T2/∆T1) = ----------------------------K

U = Qavg/A ∆Tm =--------------------W/m2.K

Cc = m Cpc = ---------------------- W/K

Ch = m Cph = ------------------- W/K

Cmin = Ch = ---------------- W/K

E = (Thi - Tho)/(Thi - Tci) = -

NTU = UA/Cmin= -

PARALLEL FLOW

Hot Cold fluid

S
fluid flow flow rate Tm E NTU
l.No
rate( LPH ) (LPH)

63
COUNTER FLOW

Hot Cold fluid

S
fluid flow flow rate Tm E NTU
l.No
rate( LPH ) (LPH)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

64
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

65
66
 Experiment No: Date:

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

AIM:
The experiment aims at the following points:

• Determining the heat transferred between the hot and the cold fluid.
• Finding out the internal and external overall coefficients of heat transfer.
• Determining the temperature efficiencies.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND:

A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in
direct contact. Shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most
common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is suited
for higher-pressure applications. This type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure
vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows
over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called
a tube bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. In
this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is an efficient way to conserve energy. Heat
exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each side can be called one-phase or single-
phase heat exchangers. Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to heat a liquid to boil it into a gas
(vapor), sometimes called boilers, or cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid (called condensers),
with the phase change usually occurring on the shell side. There are also single pass, and multi
pass exchangers, based on the number of passes of the shell side or tube side liquids.

We know that,

Q = m CP ∆T

Applying the same formula to the shell side and the tube side fluids,

Qe = mH CpH (THi - THo)

67
 Qa = mC CpC (TCo – TCi)

Where,

Qe = heat emitted by the hot fluid (W)

mH = mass flow rate of the hot fluid (Kg/s)

CpH = specific heat of the hot fluid at its average temperature (J/Kg K)

THi = inlet temperature of the hot fluid (K)

THo = outlet temperature of the hot fluid (K)

Qa = heat absorbed by the cold fluid (W)

mC = mass flow rate of the cold fluid (Kg/sec)

CpC = specific heat of the cold fluid at its average temperature (J/Kg K)

TCo = outlet temperature of the cold fluid (K)

TCi = inlet temperature of the cold fluid (K)

The average temperature is:

THi + THo
Tavg H = 2

TCi + TCo
Tavg C = 2

Where,

Tavg H is the average temperature of the hot fluid at which its properties have to be taken
(K)

Tavg C is the average temperature of the cold fluid at which its properties have to be taken
(K)

The temperature efficiencies are calculated as:

T –T
ηh = THi − THo × 100
Hi Ci

T –T
ηc = TCo− T Ci × 100
Hi Ci

68
 Where,

ηh is the temperature efficiency of the hot fluid

ηc is the temperature efficiency of the cold fluid

The mean temperature efficiency is calculated as:

ηc + ηh
ηm = 2

The logarithmic mean temperature difference is:

∆t1 − ∆t2
∆Tlm = ∆t
ln( 1 )
∆t2

Where,

∆t1 = THi - TCo

∆t2 = THo - TCi

The overall heat transfer coefficient is defined by the formula:

Q
U = A ∆Te
lm

Where,

A = the area of heat transfer (m2)

Qe = heat emitted from the hot fluid (J)

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE:

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus is a shell and tube heat exchanger itself. It has an external heater attached to it,
to heat the hot flow water. The liquids used in both the sides of the apparatus id water. Thus, water
is heated and sent into the hot water inlet at point 2, shown in fig.1. Cold water is sent into the cold
water inlet at point 1. Similarly, the hot water is removed from the hot water outlet at point 4. And
the cold water is removed from the cold water outlet at point 3.

69
 The hot water flows in the tubes, and the cold water flows in the shell. The baffles are provided
to promote the counter flow of the shell side liquid. The hot fluid is heated to a constant
temperature by an external heater. The cold fluid is let directly from the tap. To measure the
temperatures, there are four thermo couples at the points 1, 2, 3, 4. Their readings respectively give
the temperatures TCi, THi, TCo, THo. To measure the flow rate of the hot and cold fluids, two
rotameters are fixed to the apparatus. One measures the flow rate of the cold fluid as it enters, and
the other measures the flow rate of the hot fluid as it leaves. There is also a control valve and a
bypass valve to control the flow of the hot water. There is an indication panel where the readings
of the thermocouples can be read.

PROCEDURE:

• Fill water in the water bath and switch on the heaters.

• Adjust the required temperature of hot water.
• Adjust the control valve. Allow hot water to recycle in bath through by pass switching on
the magnetic pump.
• Start the flow through annulus and set the exchanger counter flow.
• Measure the flow rate of cold water and hot water by using rotameter.
• Keeping the flow sane, wait till steady state condition is reached.
• Record the temperature of the hot water and cold water side and also the flow rate
accurately.
• Now change the flow of the hot water using the control valve.
• Repeat the procedure again.

70
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

GIVEN DATA:

Internal area of the tube (Ai) = 3.187×10-3 m2

External area of the tube (Ao) = 4.827×10-3 m2

External diameter of the tube (D0) = 16mm

Internal diameter of the tube (Di) = 13mm

Diameter of the shell (Ds) = 220mm

Length of the shell (L) = 500mm

Number of tubes (N) = 24

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Hot Water Cold Water

No.
FH (in THi TH FC (in TCi TCo
LPH) (C) o (C) LPH) (C) (C)

1.

2.

3.

71
 SAMPLE CALCULATION:

Sl. Hot Water Cold Water

No.
Fh T Tho Fc Tci Tco
(m3/s) hi (C) (m3/s) (C) (C)
(C)

THi +THo 0
Tavg,H = = C
2

TCi + TCo 0
Tavg,C = = C
2

Mass flow rate is calculated as:

mH = FH×ρH = kg/s

mC = FC×ρC = kg/s

Heat transferred is calculated as:

QH = mH × CpH × (THi – THo) = kW

QC= mC× CpC × (TCo – TCi) = kW

Actual heat transferred is averaged as:

Qavg= (QH+QC)/2 = kW

Log mean temperature difference is calculated as:

∆T1 = THi – TCi = C

∆T2 = THo – TCo = C
∆Tlm= (∆T2-∆T1)/ln(∆T2/∆T1) = C
Overall heat co-efficients are calculated as:
U0 = (Qavg/∆TlmAo)

72
 = W/m2 0C

Ui = (Qavg/∆TmAi)
= W/m2 0C
Effectiveness is calculated as:

THi – THo
Єh = x 100
THi –TCi

TCo – TCi
Єc = x 100
THi − TCi

Єm = Єh + Єc
2
=

OVERALL CALCULATED DATA:

For hot flow, (table 1)

Tavg( ρh(kg/m Cph mh(kg/s Qh(k
0 3
C) ) (kJ/kg) ) W)

For cold flow, (table 2)

Tavg(0C ρc(kg/m Cpc mc(kg/s Qc(k
3
) ) (kJ/kg) ) W)

73
 Overall table, (table 3)

Sl. ∆Tm Qavg Uo Ui Єh Єh Єh

(0C) (kW)
No (W/m20C) (W/m20C)
.

1
.
2
.
3
.

74
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

75
76
Experiment No: Date:

TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION-I

Aim:
1. To determine the convective heat exchanger coefficient between a steel cylinder and air
during convective cooling assuming the body to be an infinite cylinder using distributed parameter
concept.
2. To determine the temperature profile within the cylinder using Heisler charts.

Introduction:
Unsteady state heat conduction is very common in many industrial process. A few example is
cited here. In the heat treatment of metal parts, the temperature of a body is raised to a desired
level followed by cooling at predetermined rate. The cooling process occurs at unsteady state. All
kinds of equipment pass through an unsteady state period following the start up until they
eventually attain the steady state operations conditions. A furnace takes several days to reach the
steady state condition following slow heating after startup. The recovery of energy from hot gases
is sometimes done by regenerators. The process has a heating cycle during which the hot gases
flow through a brickwork that absorbs a large portion of thermal energy of a gas. This is followed
by a cooling cycle when a cold gas flows through brickwork that release the heat stored in the
previous cycle. This is an example of unsteady heat transfer involving both conduction and
convection in a cycle or periodic mode. The analytical solutions of transient heat flow
phenomenon problem with boundary condition of practical importance have been obtained by
Heisler and results are presented in graphical form.

Most important are:-

1. Infinite plates, thickness is very small when compared to other dimensions.

2. Infinite cylinders ( 𝐿/(𝑟) > 10) or cylinders whose diameter is small when compared to
length. Heisler chart provide the temperature distribution in the body and energy transformed
through the following three different plots.
i) Plot of dimensionless temperature ratio ( (𝑇 − 𝑇 )/(𝑇 − 𝑇) ) at center versus Fr with 1⁄𝐵𝑖
as a parameter. To denote temperature at r=0 these plots can be used to determine the Centre
temperature from Bi and Fo.
ii) Plot of dimensionless temperature ratio versus 1⁄𝐵𝑖 with 𝑥⁄𝐿 or 𝑟⁄𝑟 as parameter.
These along with above plots, helps to determine the temperature at any location from knowledge
of Bi, Fo and 𝑥⁄𝐿 or 𝑟⁄𝑟 .
iii) Plot of dimensionless heat transfer ( 𝑄 ⁄𝑄 ) versus 𝐵𝑖 2 with Bi as a parameter.These
are helpful in estimating the energy transferred during the time interval t=0 and t=t from Bi and Fo.
Hence Q ̥ denotes the initial energy of the body with reference to ambient temperature Tₐ, and is
given by Q ̥=ᵨCV(𝑇 − 𝑇 ).

OBSERVATIONS
77
Sl. No. Time(min) Centre Line 𝑇−𝑇 Fo
Temp. 𝑇−𝑇
(°C)

78
 Procedure
Experimental setup consists of steel cylinder provided with thermocouple at center to measure
the center line temperature of the body. The body is heated upto 220°C in a burner. Then it is taken
out of the burner and the cooling is started. The initial temperature of body is noted and center line
temperature is noted against time until the temperature reaches about 90°C. The ambient
temperature is also noted.

Calculations
(1) The temperature ratio ϴ=(𝑇 − 𝑇 )/(𝑇 − 𝑇) where

𝑇 − Centre line temperature

𝑇 − Ambient temperature

𝑇 − Initial temperature

(2) Fourier No. Fo = αt⁄𝑟2 where

α − thermal diffusivity of solid
t − time
𝑟 − outer radius of cylinder

(3) Bi = ℎ 𝑟 ⁄𝑘 where
k − thermal conductivity of cylinder
Bi − Biot Number
𝑟 − outer radius of cylinder

The temperature profile within the solid can be obtained from the respective heisler chart
drawn with the parameter (𝑇 − 𝑇 )/(𝑇 − 𝑇) against 1⁄𝐵𝑖 with 𝑟⁄𝐿 as the parameter.Here 𝑟 is
the radial coordinate, the unknown temperature can be found out and plated out against the radial
distance.

79
 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑎 1 𝑟
S 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 𝐵𝑖 𝑟𝑜 T r
l.
No.

Data

Radius r0=

Mass=

Thermal Conductivity of Iron Ks=

Density of Iron ρs =

Ambient Temperature Ts=

Specific Heat of Iron Cp =

Initial Temperature T0=

Model Calculations

Fo = αt⁄𝑟2 α= k⁄ᵨC

At 60 sec,

Fo =

(𝑇 − 𝑇 )/(𝑇 − 𝑇)= ϴ =

1/𝐵𝑖=

𝑘/ℎ𝑟=

ℎ=

80
Observations

Sl.No Temperature (˚C) Time (min) (T-T∞/To-T∞)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

81
 TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION II

Aim:-
To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient between a brass cylinder and air during
convective cooling assuming the body to be an infinite cylinder using lumped capacity concept.

Procedure:-
The brass cylinder provided with the thermocouple/thermometer is heated to about 200˚C by
placing on a burner flame. The body is taken out of the burner and simultaneously start a
stopwatch. Note the initial temperature and the subsequently note the temperature against time
until steady state temperature is obtained. The ambient temperature is also noted.

82
Observations and Calculations:
Radius of the cylinder =
Length of the cylinder =
Volume of the cylinder = πr2h =
Area of the cylinder =
Characteristic Length, Lc =
Initial Temperature, To =
Ambient Temperature, T∞ =
Density of material =
Specific heat of material =

Sample Calculations:- ( t= )
Tc = T∞ = ; To =

(Tc-T∞/ To-T∞) =

From graph,

Slope =

-hA/ρCV =

h =

83
Result
Convective heat transfer coefficient between cylinder and air using lumped heat capacity is

The temperature profile within the solid cylinder is drawn.

84