Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The cell...........................................................................................................................4
Cellular exchanges.........................................................................................................8
Definition:..................................................................................................................8
Types of solutions......................................................................................................8
Diffusion.....................................................................................................................9
Importance of diffusion........................................................................................10
Osmosis....................................................................................................................11
Importance of Osmosis.........................................................................................13
Active transport........................................................................................................13
Facilitated Diffusion.................................................................................................14
Food..............................................................................................................................15
Definition.................................................................................................................15
Food Hygiene...........................................................................................................15
Food preservation.....................................................................................................15
Clothing........................................................................................................................15
Definition.................................................................................................................15
Types of Fabrics.......................................................................................................15
Importance of clothes...............................................................................................18
How to take care of your clothes..............................................................................19
Housing........................................................................................................................20
Definition.................................................................................................................20
Ventilating a house...................................................................................................24
Lighting a house.......................................................................................................25
Heating a house........................................................................................................25
Female genitalia...................................................................................................27
Production of gametes..............................................................................................28
First aid.........................................................................................................................40
Ecology.........................................................................................................................42
Intoduction...............................................................................................................42
Habitat..................................................................................................................43
The Biosphere.......................................................................................................43
Niches...................................................................................................................43
Types of Habitats......................................................................................................44
Levels of Organization.............................................................................................44
Population.............................................................................................................44
Community...........................................................................................................45
Symbiosis.................................................................................................................46
Food chains..........................................................................................................47
Food web..............................................................................................................48
Cycles in Nature.......................................................................................................49
Water cycle...........................................................................................................49
Carbon cycle.........................................................................................................50
Nitrogen cycle......................................................................................................51
Phosphorous cycle................................................................................................52
Primary succession...............................................................................................54
Secondary succession...........................................................................................54
Biomes......................................................................................................................54
Types of biomes...................................................................................................54
Pollution...................................................................................................................57
Types of pollution................................................................................................57
Water............................................................................................................................63
Introduction..............................................................................................................63
Sources of water.......................................................................................................63
1) Wells....................................................................................................................63
Hardness of water.................................................................................................64
Purification of water.............................................................................................65
The cell
Definition: A cell is the basic (smallest) structural and functional unit of living things.
The internal structure(ultra-Structure) of an animal cell
Cilia and Flagella: For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential
for the locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia
function to move fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell
or group of cells.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the
cytoplasm of every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power
generators, converting oxygen and nutrients into energy.
Plasma Membrane: All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their
contents. In prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection
surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane
to contain and protect their contents. These membranes also regulate the passage
of molecules in and out of the cells.
Cellular exchanges
Definition:
Cellular exchange is the movement of substances in and out of the cell. This occurs
through the following processes: Diffusion, osmosis, active transport and facilitated
diffusion.
1) A solute: This is a substance that dissolves in a solid. E.g. sugar, salt etc.
2) A solvent: This is any liquid in which the solute dissolves. E.g. water, kerosine,
alcohol etc
Types of solutions
Procedure:
Observation
The colour of water in the beaker changed from colourless to blue as seen on the
diagram below
Explanation
Precautions:
Importance of diffusion
1) It is used in the absorption of useful substances from the small intestine after
digestion.
6) It helps in the uptake of water and mineral salts by plants through their roots.
Definition: This is the movement of water molecules only from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration across a selectively permeable
membrane. Osmosis in a sugar solution is demonstrated in the diagram below.
Requirements: Beaker, water, sugar, boiled and unboiled potato tubers, knife, 4
paper pins.
Procedure:
A sugar solution is put into the born cavities of the potato tubers up to a quarter of
the space.
The initial levels of water are marked with the paper pins.
The boiled potato is placed in a beaker of water (A) and the unboiled potato
placed in another beaker of water (B) with the born part of the tubers facing up.
Setup (diagram):
Observation:
The level of solution in ‘B’ rises above the initial level, while the volume of solution
in ‘A’ remains the same.
Explanation:
Water level inside the living potato increased because water moved by osmosis from
the region of higher water potential (beaker) to the region of lower water potential
(the cavity of the potato tuber) across a selectively permeable membrane (living
potato tissue). There was no change in ‘B’ because boiling destroyed the cell of the
potato and hence no osmosis.
1) Plasmolysis: This is a situation which comes about when a plant cell is placed in
a hypertonic solution. Water leaves the cell into the solution. The cytoplasm
shrinks from the cell wall and the cell becomes flaccid.
2) Turgidity: This is a situation which comes about when a plant cell is put in a
hypotonic solution. The cell pulls in water into the cell vacuole which swells and
develops a force against the cell wall.
3) Crenation: This is a situation which comes about when an animal cell is placed
in a hypertonic solution Water moves from the cell cytoplasm across the cell
membrane into the solution. The cell membrane crinkles and shrinks, hence, it
becomes shrivelled.
4) Hymolysis: This is situation which comes about when an animal cell is placed in
a hypotonic solution. Water moves from the solution through the cell membrane
into the cytoplasm of the cell. The cell swells and eventually burst to release its
contents.
Importance of Osmosis
1) Enable plants to take in water and minerals from the soil through their roots.
5) It enables movement of water from one living cell to another within the plant.
6) Osmosis helps plant cells retain water, hence maintaining their shape.
Active transport
1. Active transport helps in the absorption of nitrate ions (NO3-) from the soil.
2. Active transport helps in the absorption of some food molecules such as glucose
from the intestines.
Facilitated Diffusion
Definition: This is the process whereby; substances are carried across a cell
membrane by carrier proteins which are specific for the substance they carry. It is a
faster mode of diffusion.
Food
Definition
Food is any nutritious substance that living things take into their bodies in order to
maintain life and growth.
Food Hygiene
1) Prevent contaminating food with mixing chemicals, spreading from people, and
animals.
2) Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.
3) Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature
to kill pathogens.
Food preservation
Clothing
Definition
These are fabrics, animal hair, or a combination of these used to cover the human
body.
Types of Fabrics
1. Brocade Fabric:
2. Cambric Fabric:
3. Chambray Fabric:
Chambray is a lightweight plain weave cotton woven fabric. It has a white weft and
colored warp. Chambray produces a blotchy appearance. It is used in women’s and
children’s garments, shirts and sportswear.
4. Chintz Fabric:
Chintz fabric is a highly lustrous plain weave cotton fabric. Chintz fabric is normally
finished with calendaring to give luster. Chintz fabric is used in manufacturing
sportswear and furnishing.
5. Chiffon Fabric:
Chiffon is a very lightweight, delicate and sheer fabric. Chiffon was originally
produced by using of silk yarns, but now even man-made fibers such as polyester are
being used to produce chiffon fabric. It is used in blouses, dresses and gowns.
6. Denim Fabric:
Denim is a durable woven cotton twill fabric. Normally, it was indigo dyed and warp
was yarn dyed with un-dyed weft yarn. It is used in leisure wear and work-wear.
7. Double Cloth:
Double cloth is also called double face as it is reversible in nature. Two component
fabrics are held together by the means of the following methods – self-stitching,
center-stitching or interchanging. Double cloth is used in coats, dresses, jackets and
furnishings.
8. Flannel Fabric:
Flannel fabric is a plain or twill weaves fabrics that are lightweight or medium
weight. Normally flannel fabric is made in wool. It might be slightly raised. Flannel
fabric is used in shirts and nightwear manufacturing.
9. Fleece Fabric:
Fleece is a woven fabric which is made from woolen yarn that has a raised pile on its
surface. Fleece fabric is used in jackets and coats manufacturing.
Interlock fabric is a fine, weft knitted fabric which has good stretch characteristics and
is also reversible in nature. Interlock fabric is used in blouses, dresses, T-shirts and
underwear.
Oxford fabric is a plain weave cotton fabric. The fabric has two warp ends woven as
one. Oxford fabric is used in manufacturing of blouses and shirts.
Organza fabric is a thin transparent, plain weave fabric, with a stiff finish. It is
generally produced by using silk yarn. Organza fabric is used in formal wear,
interlinings and blouses.
15. Poplin Fabric:
Poplin fabric is a plain weave cotton fabric. The fabric is produced by using dense
warp over a coarse weft, which give a design of fine weft way ribs. Poplin fabric is
used in manufacturing of jackets, shirts, blouses, trousers and coats.
Rib jersey fabric is a weft-knitted double-sided fabric. Rib jersey fabric is used in the
collars of t-shirts and cuffs.
Voile is a lightweight and plain weave fabric. The fabric is produced from highly fine
yarns. Voile fabric is used in blouses and dresses.
Importance of clothes
1. It provides protection from heat, cold, wind, and rain. We all know extreme
weathers can affect our skin and body.
3. Some clothes serve as uniforms (a specific cloth worn by all the people of an
organization), thereby making it easy to identify which organization one belongs
to.
4. Many people wear special styles and colors of clothing for special occasions in
their lives.
5. Clothes are one of the important factors that represent the status symbol of an
individual.
9. Some clothes are used as nsignias (badges or emblems that show membership in
a group).
10. Certain types of clothing, colors, and accessories have become representative of
certain groups, activities, and occupations.
2. Follow the instructions written on the tag found on the neck or down the side
seam of your shirt.
5. Wash dresses with metal parts separately when using a washing machine.
Separate the rest of your clothes into whites and dark or colored groups.
Turn T-shirts inside out to prevent the outside from wearing out and fading.
10. Pre-treat any stained items with a stain removing spray or pen and follow the
rules below:
Don't clean stains with hot water, as this will set the stain. Try to get to the stain
before it dries, while it is still wet.
Don't put stained clothes into the dryer as this will make the stain permanent.
Redo the stain treatment, then wash the garment again.
Be aware that it may not be possible to remove all stains entirely. In this case,
fade the stain as much as possible.
11. Wear aprons or old "junk" clothes while cleaning and cooking.
12. Add detergent and fabric softener (if desired) to the washing machine.
13. If you used an automatic dryer it is important to remove clothes from the dryer
immediately.
14. Practice good hygiene such as showering daily, wearing deodorant, and using
proper undergarments.
15. Learn to complete basic repairs on your clothing such as replacing a loose thread
or a missing button.
16. Always use the right heat level for the type of fabric you’re ironing or invest in a
steamer.
18. Practice good storage habits; fold heavy sweaters on a shelf, button buttons and
zip zippers, invest in better hangers, space your clothes, and your closet should be
“cool and dry.” Never store clothes in a humid bathroom or moist basement
closet.
Housing
Definition
5) The house should have access to water supply, roads, schools and hospitals.
1) The house should have extended leaves or wide veranda to provide shade. The
veranda has the following functions.
2) The walls of the house should be painted white. This is because white reflects
light and does not absorb heat.
3) There should be canopy projecting over the windows to prevent direct sunlight
rays.
4) The walls must be double, with an air space between the outer and inner walls to
act as an insulator.
swampy region
Houses in this type of area are not good for human habitation because moisture
promotes the breeding of bacterial and fungal spores. The moist nature of the house
can cause chills and hypothermia in elderly persons when abandoned in such homes.
So, for the above reasons, houses in marshy or swampy areas should be constructed as
follows:
4) The house should have a good drainage system or enough gutters to channel
runoffs away from the house.
5) Trees should be planted away from the house to prevent the leaves of the trees
from directing water to the walls of the house.
6) The doors and windows should be facing the East-West direction to allow sun’s
rays to enter the house and provide warm conditions.
7) The lower section of the doors must be at least 50cm in height to prevent water
from entering through the doors.
2) A metal flange should be fixed around each pillar to prevent rats from climbing
into the house.
4) The foundation must be sufficiently deep into the ground to prevent rats from
digging below it.
5) The house should be properly lighted since rats are partially nocturnal organisms.
5) The doors and windows should have mesh to prevent the entry of flies which are
potential contaminants.
6) Doors and windows must be tight-fitting to prevent rats and insects from entering.
Ventilating a house
This is the act of creating air current in a house to comfort the occupants i.e. those
staying inside. Air that does not move (stagnant air) is more often hot because of
water vapour from the lungs and heat from the skin. People living in this type of
environment feel tired and inattentive. The three main aims of ventilation are: to keep
the air moving, cool and dry.
In artificial ventilation systems, a fan or air conditioner is used to increase the speed
of the air circulation to cause further cooling. Artificial ventilation in large buildings
is achieved effectively through three main systems which are:
i. Propulsive system: In this system, fresh air is blown into the building by fans
and hot air escapes through the large windows and doors.
ii. Extractive system: With this method, the hot, stagnant and lighter air is
extracted by the fan and fresh air enters through the windows.
iii. Balanced system: In this system, the propulsive fan is there to blow in fresh
air and the extractive fan is also available to remove the hot, less dense air out
of the hall.
Lighting a house
Enough lighting indoors is very important for safety in places such as stairs and to
avoid eye strain when reading or writing. Lighting can be achieved by using either
natural or artificial light.
Natural light comes from the sun and enters the house through the doors and
windows created on the walls. The windows and doors in tropical regions should not
face the sun directly, while in temperate regions, the windows should face the
direction of sunrise.
Heating a house
Natural heating:
1) The house should have short leaves to allow sun’s rays enter the house.
2) There should be large windows and doors facing the direction of sunrise i.e. East-
West direction.
3) The wall plastering and rooting material should be good insulating and absorbing
materials of heat.
Artificial heating:
1) Burning of firewood and coal to produce heat to keep the house warm. The
advantages of this method is that fire wood is cheap and the disadvantage is that it
produces smoke which disturbs our eyes and also stains our dress and makes them
stink of smoke.
Introduction
The male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside the body and
around the pelvis region of a male that contribute towards the reproduction process.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The
first category produces and stores sperm (spermatozoa). These are produced in the
testes, which are housed in the temperature-regulating scrotum; immature sperm then
travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The second category are the
ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the Cowper's gland (also called
bulbo-urethral gland), seminal vesicles, prostate, and vas deferens. The final category
are those used for copulation and deposition of the sperm within the female; these
include the penis, urethra, and vas deferens.
Major Male secondary sexual characteristics
These include: larger, more muscular stature, deepened voice, facial and body hair,
broad shoulders, and development of an ‘Adam's apple’.
The male reproductive system has one function: to produce and deposit sperm.
The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside
the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the
reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main
parts: the vulva, which leads to the vagina, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the
uterus, which holds the developing foetus; and the ovaries, which produce the
female's ova. Each ovary contains hundreds of egg cells or ova (singular ovum).
Female genitalia
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and
urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is
attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes.
Approximately every 28 days, the pituitary gland releases a hormone that stimulates
some of the ova to develop and grow. One ovum is released and it passes through the
Fallopian tube into the uterus. Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus
to receive the ovum. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and un-
fertilised ova are shed each cycle through the process of menstruation. If the ovum is
fertilised by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the foetus develops.
Production of gametes
Gametes are produced within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis.
This occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal
diploid number of chromosomes (n=46) into haploid cells containing only 23
chromosomes.
In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis, and takes place only after puberty
in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoa or sperm are then
sent to the epididymis, where they gain a tail, enabling motility. Each of the original
diploid germ cells or primary spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is
each forever young[clarification needed]. The production and survival of sperms
require a temperature below the normal core body temperature. Since the scrotum,
where the testes is present, is situated outside the body cavity, it provides a
temperature about 3 °C below normal body temperature.
Human ovary
In this process, the male inserts his penis into the female's vagina and
ejaculatessemen, which contains sperm. During intercourse the female genitalia is
lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands.
Fertilisation
Proceeding copulation, after ejaculation, a small proportion of the sperm pass through
the cervix into the uterus, and then into the Fallopian tubes for fertilization of the
ovum.
Only one sperm is required to fertilise the ovum. Upon successful fertilization, the
fertilised ovum, or zygote, travels out of the Fallopian tube and into the uterus, where
it implants in the uterine wall. This marks the beginning of gestation.
Gestation (pregnancy)
This is the nine months period during which the foetus develops. At the end of
gestation is the process ofchildbirth, which involveslabour.
Labour
During labour, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the
course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly
helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for
comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula
feeding.
2. Cancers.
6. Endometriosis in females.
7. Turner syndrome.
8. Klinefelter's syndrome.
9. Cystic fibrosis.
Family planning
Definitions
Family planning is the term given to activities which enable individuals to determine
freely the number and spacing of their children and to select the means by which this
may be achieved".
1. Some family planning methods, such as condoms, help prevent the transmission
of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.
5. Family planning allows people to attain their desired number of children and
determine the spacing of pregnancies.
6. It prevents pregnancy-related health risks in women
7. Family planning can prevent closely spaced and ill-timed pregnancies and births,
which contribute to some of the world’s highest infant mortality rates.
8. Family planning reduces the risk of unintended pregnancies among women living
with HIV, resulting in fewer infected babies and orphans.
9. Family planning enables people to make informed choices about their sexual and
reproductive health.
10. Family planning is key to slowing unsustainable population growth and the
resulting negative impacts on the economy, environment, and national and
regional development efforts.
Contraceptive methods
Modern methods
Traditional methods
First aid
First aid is the help given to someone who is injured or ill, to keep them safe until
they can get more advanced medical treatment by seeing a doctor, health professional
or go to hospital.
A person who is involved in an accident is called a casualty and the person who offers
first aid is called a first aider.
These are the tasks to be performed for every case that needs first aid treatment.
Suck out the venom with the mouth and spit it out immediately.
Enlarge the wound by cutting it deep to allow the blood carry out the venom
freely.
Tie the bitten portion above and below to slow down blood circulation.
Calm the victim by re-assuring him/her that he/she will not die.
Do not give the patient alcohol.
Rush with the patient to the hospital with either the killed snake or name of the
species to facilitate treatment of the casualty.
Do not touch or even go near a casualty who is unconscious and still connected to
the source of current electricity.
Switch off the current at the source before touching the unconscious person.
If breathing is stopped, then resuscitation should be done i.e. “giving the kiss of
life”.
If you suspect that a person, especially a child has swallowed a harmful substance,
ask at once what it was or try to get a sample so that a suitable antidote can be
prepared at the hospital. If the patient is conscious, he should be given water or
milk to drink so as to dilute the poison. The casualty should be persuaded to
vomit.
Ecology
Intoduction
Ecology is the study of the relationships of living things to their surroundings and to
one another i.e. how living things and non-living things in the environment affect
each other.
Abiotic factors
The relationships amongst organisms are the biotic factors. Everything that happens
among organisms in relation to their surroundings is taken into account when studying
an ecosystem i.e. a section of the biosphere in which living and non-living things
interact and inter-relate.
Producers grow, Consumers eat producers and/or some producers and Decomposers
cause decay. The consumers that feed on plants only are called herbivores, and those
that feed on animals only are called carnivores. The consumers that feed on both
plants and animals are called omnivores. Some organisms bring about the
decomposition or decay of living organisms that have died. They are called
decomposers.
Habitat
The place where an organism lives i.e. where it is most frequently found, is called its
habitat. All organisms depend on their surroundings for support for the activities of
life, so nature ensures that organisms develop features which help them to adapt to
and survive in the prevailing conditions of their habitats. One such feature is a change
of colour to that which blends in with the colour scheme of the habitat. This feature is
called camouflage, for example, a stick insect among twigs or a green iguana in a
tree.
The Biosphere
The biosphere is the portion of Earth that supports living things. It includes the air,
land, and water where organisms can be found. The biosphere supports a wide variety
of organisms in a wide range of conditions. Climates, soils, plants, and animals can be
very different in different parts of the world. All over the world, though, living things
are affected by both the physical, nonliving environment and by other living things.
Niches
A niche is all strategies and adaptations a species uses in its environment. It is how
the species meets its specific needs for food and shelter. It is how and where the
species survives and reproduces. A species’ niche includes all its interactions with the
biotic and abiotic parts of its habitat
Types of Habitats
There are aquatic habitats like fresh-water lakes, ponds and streams; salt-water seas or
oceans; and terrestrial habitats which are on land.
Levels of Organization
Population
Definition
Example of a population
Note that competition occurs when there are limited materials and every organism has
to work 'against' other organisms to meet its needs.
Community
Life in a Community
Light :
Plants must have light to make food. Some, such as the sunflower need more light
than others. Some organisms avoid light and seek dark habitats. Some animals are
active during the day and rest at night. These are diurnal animals. Those that are
active only in the night are called nocturnal animals.
Temperature :
Heat and cold affect the growth and behaviour of plants and animals. Humans and
some other animals, for example, birds are homoiothermic, that is, they can keep their
body temperature fairly constant, despite temperature changes in the environment.
Some animals, such as lizards are poikilothermic, that is, they cannot control their
body temperature, which varies with the temperature of the environment. In extremes
of heat or cold such animals are very inactive.
Water :
Water is essential for life. Adequate supplies of fresh water in the environment are
maintained by the water cycle.
Wind :
Symbiosis
People once thought that animals in the same environment fought each other for
survival. In reality, most species survive because of the relationships they have with
other species. A relationship in which there is a close and permanent association
between organisms of different species is called symbiosis. Symbiosis means living
together. There are three major kinds of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and
parasitism.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a relationship between two species that live together in which both
species benefit.
Examples of mutualism
The relationship between ants and an acacia tree. The ants protect the tree by
attacking any animal that tries to feed on the tree. The tree provides nectar as a food
for the ants. The tree also provides a home for the ants.
A mycorrhiza is in which a fungus lives symbiotically with a plant. Most of the fungi
that form mycorrhizae are basidiomycotes. Fine, thread-like hyphae grow around the
plant’s roots without harming the plant. More nutrients can enter the plant’s roots
because the hyphae increase the absorptive surface of the plant’s roots. Minerals in
the soil are absorbed by the hyphae and then released into the roots. The hyphae help
to maintain water around the roots. The fungus benefits from the relationship too. The
fungus receives organic nutrients such as amino acids andsugars from the plant.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship in which only one species benefits and the other
species is not harmed or helped. For example, mosses sometimes grow on the
branches of trees. This does not help or hurt the trees, but the mosses get a good
habitat.
Parasitism
Food chains
Ecologists study feeding relationships and symbiotic relationships to learn how matter
and energy flow in ecosystems. These scientists sometimes use a simple model called
a food chain. Food chains show how matter and energy move through an ecosystem.
In a food chain, nutrients and energy move from autotrophs to heterotrophs to, in the
end, decomposers. A food chain is drawn using arrows. The arrows show the direction
in which energy is transferred. An example of a simple food chain in a forest
ecosystem is shown below.
Most food chains are made up of two, three, or four transfers, or steps. Each organism
in a food chain represents a feeding step,or trophic level, in the transfer of energy and
matter. The amount of energy in the last transfer is only a small part of what was
available at the first transfer. At each transfer, some of the energy is given off as heat.
Food web
Food webs are models that show all possible feeding relationships at each trophic
level in a community. A food web is a more realistic model than a food chain
A food chain shows only one possible path for the transfer of matter and energy
through an ecosystem. Many other paths may exist because many different species
can be on each trophic level.For instance, in the food chain example on the previous
page, there are many animals in the forest other than mice that ea berries. Also, many
different kinds of organisms eat more than one type of food. This means that a single
species may feed at several different trophic levels. because most organisms depend
on more than one type of organism for food.
Food chains and food webs deal with both matter and energy. An ecological pyrami
shows how energy flows through an ecosystem. There are different types of
ecological pyramids. Each pyramid has the autotrophs or first trophic layer, at the
bottom. Higher trophic layers are then layered on top of one another.
The pyramid of energy shows that the amount of available energy becomes less from
one trophic level to the next. The total energy transfer from one trophic level to the
next is only about ten percent because organisms do not use all the food energy in the
trophic level below them. An organism uses energy to do all the things necessary for
life. Organisms use energy to move, to interact with their environment, and to digest
their food. The also use energy to build body tissue. Some of this energy is given off
as heat. The law of conservation of energy states that energy in either lost nor gained.
Even though some of the energy transferred at each trophic level enters the
environment as heat, it is still energy. It is just in a different form.
A pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms eaten by the level above it. In
most cases, the number of organisms decreases at each higher trophic level.
Biomass is the total weight of living matter at each trophic level. A pyramid of
biomass shows the total dry weight of living material at each trophic level.
Cycles in Nature
Matter, in the form of food, moves through every organism. In this way, matter is
found at every trophic level. Matter is never made or destroyed. It just changes form
as it cycles through the different trophic levels. There is the same amount of matter
today as there was when life on Earth began.
Water cycle
Water also cycles through different stages. It is always moving between the
atmosphere and Earth. For instance, when you leave a glass of water out for a few
days, some of it seems to disappear. It has evaporated or changed into water vapor in
the air. Similarly, water from lakes and oceans evaporates. At some point, this water
vapor condenses, or comes together, and makes clouds. After even more
condensation, drops of water form. This water then falls back to Earth as rain, ice, or
snow.
Carbon cycle
All life on Earth is based on carbon, and all living organisms need carbon. The carbon
cycle starts with autotrophs. In photosynthesis, autotrophs use the sun’s energy to
change carbon dioxide gas into energy-rich forms of carbon.
Autotrophs use this carbon for growth and energy. Heterotrophs then feed on
autotrophs or feed on other animals that have already fed on autotrophs. The
heterotrophs then use the carbon for growth and energy. As autotrophs and
heterotrophs use this carbon, they release carbon dioxide into the air. The carbon
cycle continues very slowly. How rapidly it cycles depends upon whether the carbon
is found in soil, leaves, roots, in oil or coal, in animal fossils, or in calcium carbonate
reserves.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is another element important to living things. Although 78 percent of air is
nitrogen, plants cannot use this form well. There are bacteria, though, that change the
nitrogen from air to a form plants can better use. This form is found in the soil. Plants
use this nitrogen to make proteins. Animals eat the plants and change the plant
proteins into animal proteins. These proteins are used in building muscle and blood
cells. Urine is an animal waste that lets animals get rid of nitrogen they do not need.
This urine returns nitrogen to the soil. When organisms die and decay, nitrogen
returns to the soil. Plants then reuse this nitrogen. Soil bacteria also act on these dead
organisms and put nitrogen back into the air. In this way, nitrogen is always cycling
through the system.
Phosphorous cycle
Phosphorus also cycles through ecosystems. It is another element that all organisms
need. It cycles in two ways. In the short-term cycle, plants get phosphorus from the
soil. Animals get phosphorus from eating plants. When these animals die, their
decaying bodies release phosphorus back into the soil to be used again.
In the long-term cycle, materials containing phosphorus are washed into rivers and
oceans. As millions of years pass, the phosphorus becomes locked in rocks. Millions
of years later, as the environment changes, some of the rock is no longer covered. As
this rock wears away, the phosphorus is released back into the environment.
Limiting factor
Tolerance
The ability of living thingto survive the changes in theenvironment is called tolerance.
An organism reaches its limits of tolerance when igets too much or too little oan
environmental factor. Foexample, corn plants need warm, sunny weather and a
regular supply of water.
Succession is the process of gradual, natural change and species replacement that
takes place in the communities of an ecosystem over time. There are two types of
succession: primary and secondary.
Primary succession
Primary succession takes place on land where there are no living organisms. For
example, when lava flows from a volcano, it destroys everything around it. When it
cools, land forms, but there are no living organisms in the new land. The first species
to live in such an area is called a pioneer species. Decaying lichens, along with bits of
sediment in cracks and crevices of rock, make up the first stage of soil development.
Gradually, other life forms take hold. After some time, primary succession slows
down and the community becomes stable. Pioneer species eventually die. Once little
or no change occurs, the community is called a climax community. A climax
community can last for hundreds of years.
Secondary succession
Secondary succession is the pattern of changes that takes place after an existing
community is destroyed. The destruction can be caused by a forest fire or when a field
is plowed over and not replanted. During secondary succession, as in primary
succession, organisms come into the area and change gradually. But, because soil
already exists, the species involved in secondary succession are different from those
in primary succession. Secondary succession may take less time than primary
succession to reach the stage of a climax community.
Biomes
A biome is a large group of ecosystems that shares the same type of climax
community. All the ecosystems within the biome have similar climates and
organisms.
Types of biomes
Aquatic Biomes
Approximately 75 percent of Earth’s surface is covered with water. Most of that water
is salty. Salt water is found in oceans, seas, and some inland lakes. Freshwater is
found in rivers, streams, ponds, and most lakes.
Marine biomes
Most of the organisms that live in the marine (saltwater) biome are plankton. Plankton
are tiny organisms that float in the waters of the photic zone. The photic zone is the
area of the ocean that is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate. Plankton include
autotrophs (organisms that make their own nutrients), diatoms, eggs, and very young
marine animals. Plankton are important because they form the base of the entire
aquatic food chain. This means that every aquatic animal either eats plankton or eats
an animal thateats plankton.
Freshwater biomes
Bodies of freshwater are another kind of biome. Lakes and ponds serve as home to
many organisms. Plants grow around the shorelines and into the water. The shallow
waters where these plants grow are home to tadpoles, aquatic insects, worms, certain
fishes, and many other living things. All the life forms are part of the local food chain.
In deeper waters, it is colder and there are fewer species. Dead organisms drift to the
bottom. There, bacteria break down the organisms and recycle the nutrients.
Organisms decay more slowly at the bottom of a deep lake than in shallow water.
Estuaries
An estuary is a coastal body of water partly surrounded by land that forms where
rivers meet the ocean. Freshwater and salt water come together in an estuary. The
amount of salt in an estuary depends on how much freshwater the river brings into the
estuary. Grasses that can grow in salt water can become very thick in an estuary.
Their stems and roots trap food material for small organisms like snails, crabs, and
shrimp. These organisms feed on thetrapped, decaying materials. The nutrients in the
food pass through the food chain when these smaller organisms are eaten by larger
predators, including birds.
Terrestrial Biomes
Terrestrial biomes vary greatly. At the north pole, the weather is very cold and there
are no plants. As you move south, the weather gets warmer and there is a change in
the size, number, and kinds of plants that cover the ground. As you continue south,
the temperatures rise and you encounter forests. Still farther south are grasslands and
deserts, with high summer temperatures and little rainfall. Near the equator, you find
lush growth and much rainfall.
1. Tundra biome
2. Taiga biome
3. Desert biome
4. Grassland biome
Tropical rain forests have warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant growth.
They are located near the equator.
Climate is a group of abiotic factors that influences the kind of climax communities
that develop in an area. Climate includes wind, cloud cover, temperature, humidity,
and the amount of rain and snow an area receives. The most common terrestrial
biomes that result from differences in climate are tundras, taigas, deserts, grasslands,
temperate forests, and tropical rain forests.
Human impact on the ecosystem
Pollution
This is the accumulation of toxic waste substances or energy in quantities that are
harmful to the environment making it unfit for organisms. There are four types; noise,
air, land, and water pollution.
Types of pollution
1) Noise pollution
Causes:
Industrialization.
Poor urban planning.
Social events.
Transportation.
Construction activities.
Effects:
Hearing problems.
Psychological health issues.
Sleeping disorders.
Cardiovascular issues.
Trouble communicating.
Effect on wildlife.
Pale skin.
Control:
Source control:
Causes:
Effects:
The effect resulting the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere is known as Green
House Effect which increases the amount of heat retained within the earth’s
atmosphere resulting in increased temperatures and water levels.
CO2 from vehicle exhaust combine with hemoglobin hindering the transport of O2.
Radioactive contaminants like carbon-14 from nuclear energy reactors poison
reproductive cells causing genetic diseases.
SO2 from chemical industries gives rise to acidic rain which destroys houses and
crops.
Ozone discharged from industries irritates the eyes and also destroy plant foliage
thus, reducing crop yield.
Chloroflourocarbons from planes and refrigerators destroy the ozone layer.
CO2 brings about global warming.
Black lung disease is common due to breathing of coal dust from gold mines.
Control:
3) Water pollution
Causes
Effects:
Causes death of aquatic animals e.g. fish.
Reduces food supply from the sea.
Destroy aquatic habitat.
Destroy breeding grounds of marine birds.
Disrupt food chains.
Prevent the penetration of sunlight leading to the death of plankton.
Prevent the penetration of oxygen leading to suffocation.
Control:
Water catchments should be located uphill away from human settlement and away
from grazing animals to minimize their contamination.
Sewage should be treated before released into water.
Crude oil carries should avoid spillage as much as possible.
Enforcing strict regulations on crude oil companies.
Regular check of vessels and equipments transporting crude oil.
Imposing high penalties on defaulting companies.
Proper training of workers in such companies.
General mass education of the people on the dangers of water pollution.
Reduce fertilizer runoffs in the water bodies by not using fertilizers on sloppy
land.
Laws to protect water from pollution.
4) Land pollution
Causes:
Effects:
Control:
Refuse is the term given to accumulated solid waste as a result of domestic and
industrial activities. Examples of house hold refuse include: papers, tins, plastic bags,
containers, broken pots, broken plates, broken glasses etc.
Kitchen waste such as plantain, yams, and banana peelings, vegetables fruits etc are
called biodegradable pollutants or materials because they are easily broken down by
micro-organisms.
There are two main methods of sewage disposal namely: the dry conservancy method
and the water carriage method.
The walls of the lavatory pan are well polished to prevent accumulation of bacteria
and dirt on them.
N.B: A disinfectant cannot be introduced into the water system because it will kill all
the bacteria helping in the breakdown process.
1) Raw sewage from houses and factories is passed through metal grits to remove
papers and sticks, bottles, plastics etc.
2) The screened sewage enters the grit or detritus chamber where the large suspended
particles e.g. stones settle out as sewage moves slowly.
3) The sewage then runs into the sedimentation tank, where the smaller particles and
most organic matter settle out to the bottom as sludge.
4) The process of sedimentation is speeded up by the slow movement of the sewage
and the addition of alum.
5) The remaining liquid, now called effluent contains dissolved organic matter which
has to be oxidized.
6) When the effluent moves into the oxidation bed or chamber, it is spread over the
biological filter consisting of aerobic bacteria, algae and protozoans etc.
7) Spreading is carried out by a sprinkler and this enriches the effluent with the
oxygen needed by the aerobic bacteria to decompose the sewage into harmless
substances.
8) Algae also provide more oxygen.
9) The ciliates feed on the bacteria, while midges’ larvae feed on the ciliates.
10) The midge larvae later develop into adult flies and fly off.
11) The remaining liquid which is harmless can then be disposed of into water bodies
or reused.
B.F.M. A.S.M.
Is cheaper (advantageous) Is expensive (disadvantageous)
Takes a longer time (disadvantageous) Takes a shorter time (advantageous)
Water
Introduction
Sources of water
1) Wells
This is a hole sunk into the ground or it may simply be a shallow depression. There
are three main types of wells:
a) Deep wells: The water here is safe for drinking because it has been filtered
through many layers of the soil.
b) Surface wells: Here, the water is not sufficiently filtered and it is advised to boil
the water before drinking.
c) Artesian well: The water in this case flows right up to the surface under pressure.
It is a good source of drinking water.
Hardness of water
Hard water is water that does not easily lather or foam with soap because it contains
insoluble compounds of calcium and magnesium. There are two types of hardness of
water namely:
Temporal hardness can be removed by boiling. Heat breaks the bicarbonates and
releases CO2 i.e.
1) It wastes soap.
2) It causes skin irritation and intestinal disorder.
Purification of water
Purification is the process by which impure water is rendered pure and safe for
drinking. Water is purified at two levels, namely:
Some of the methods used in treating water for household use include boiling,
sedimentation, and filtration, adding of alum, chlorine, and exposure to sunlight.
Water that is clean is not necessarily pure. Clean water is water that does not contain
visible impurities, but may still contain microbes (germs) which are not visible to the
human eye. Pure water on the other hand does not contain any impurities or germs.
At town or city level, where there is increased demand for water, the source of the
water may be a polluted river or lake. So, the water must be treated before
consumption. Below is a summary of the processes and principles involved in the
purification of water for a village or community in Cameroon.
1) Water from the catchment area is passed through screens or iron grids to remove
sticks, rags, weeds, and dead animals.
2) The screened water then enters the sedimentation tank, where particles found in
water settle to the bottom as sludge.
3) The sedimentation process is speeded up by the addition of alum in the
coagulation tank.
4) The sedimentation tank is left open to allow U.V. light from the sun to strike the
water surface in order to kill germs.
5) From the coagulation tank, water passes into a filtration bed (chamber) where
suspended particles in water pass through layers of sand and stones.
6) The layer of algae on sand act as a biological filter by trapping bacteria.
7) The water now moves into a chlorination tank, where a calculated quantity of
chlorine is added to a calculated volume of water to kill bacteria i.e.
8) It is the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) that oxidizes bacteria when the active oxygen
in it is liberated.
9) From the chlorination chamber, water is pumped to a storage tank, which is
usually located up hill, to ease the distribution of water by gravity and to prevent
recontamination of water by domestic animals.
10) From the storage tank, water is distributed to various quarters and homes by pipes
underground.