FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 1-59

October 2013
Interim Revision October 2014
Page 1 of 18

FABRIC AND MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Superseded Information .................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 3
2.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Construction and Location ................................................................................................................. 3
2.2.1 Wind ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.2 Roof Gravity Loads (Snow, Ice, Rain, and Roof Live Load) ................................................... 4
2.2.3 Hail ........................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.4 Bracing and Structural Stability .............................................................................................. 5
2.2.5 Fabric and Membrane Seams ................................................................................................. 5
2.2.6 Safety Factors for Fabric and Membrane ............................................................................... 5
2.2.7 Fabric and Membrane: Mechanical Testing ............................................................................ 6
2.2.8 Mock-Up Test Panels .............................................................................................................. 7
2.2.9 Exterior Fire Exposure ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.10 Fire Resistance .................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Fire Protection Systems .................................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Equipment and Processes ................................................................................................................ 9
2.4.1 Inflation Systems for Air-Supported Structures and Pneumatic Membrane Systems ............ 9
2.5 Operation and Maintenance .............................................................................................................. 9
2.6 Human Factor ................................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Contingency Planning ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.8 Electrical ......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 10
3.1 Wind Speeds and Loads ................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings ......................................................................... 10
3.3 Wind Tunnel Tests ........................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Roof Gravity Loads (Snow, Ice, Rain, and Roof Live Load) .......................................................... 11
3.5 Bracing and Stability ....................................................................................................................... 11
3.6 Safety Factors for Fabric and Membrane ........................................................................................ 11
3.7 Mock-up Panels .............................................................................................................................. 11
3.8 Orientation of Fabric Yarns .............................................................................................................. 11
3.9 Pre-Stressing and Re-Tensioning .................................................................................................... 13
3.10 Fire, Fire Protection, and Exterior Fire Exposure ......................................................................... 14
3.11 Air-Supported Structures ................................................................................................................ 15
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 FM Global ....................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Others .............................................................................................................................................. 16
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 16
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 18

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Typical roll of fabric showing warp (machine) and fill (cross or weft) directions. ............................. 12
Fig. 2. Typical fabric yarns showing warp and fill (weft) orientation. ........................................................... 12
Fig. 3. Membrane covered structure under construction. ............................................................................. 13

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Fig. 4. Mast-supported tensioned membrane structure. ............................................................................... 13

Fig. 5. Saddle-shaped (hypoid) tensioned membrane structures. ............................................................... 13
Fig. 6. Arch-shaped tensioned membrane structures. .................................................................................. 14
Fig. 7. Tensioned membrane structure with a folded configuration. ............................................................ 14
Fig. 8. Example of an air-supported building. ............................................................................................... 15

List of Tables
Table 1. Load Combinations and Safety Factors for Fabric or Membrane Tension at the Start
of Service Life .................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2. Load Combinations and Safety Factors for Fabric or Membrane Tension During Service Life ...... 6
Table 3. Mechanical Test Sampling Frequency for Fabric or Membrane ....................................................... 7

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Fabric and Membrane Structures 1-59
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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet is applicable to fabric and membrane structures, which include tensioned fabric or tensioned
membrane structures (tensile surface structures), tensegrity structures, fabric- or membrane-covered (-clad)
structures, cable-supported structures with fabric or membrane covering, and air-supported structures.

1.1 Changes
October 2014. Interim revision to Section 2.3, Fire Protection Systems and Section 3.10, Fire, Fire Protection,
and Exterior Fire Exposure.

1.2 Superseded Information

The recommendations in this document supersede the recommendations related to fabric and membrane
structures and air-supported structures previously contained in Data Sheet 1-14, Construction Systems. Data
Sheet 1-14 has been withdrawn.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 General
Use fabric and membrane structures, including air-supported structures, only for temporary structures or
where building contents are of low value, easily replaceable, or not easily damaged.
Do not use fabric or membrane structures for occupancies with combustible storage or ignitable liquids. Refer
to Section 2.3, Fire Protection Systems, for additional guidance.

2.2 Construction and Location

2.2.1 Wind
Wind-related recommendations apply only to cladding (fabric or membrane covering) and components
(structural members that directly support the fabric or membrane). For loads on primary structural framing
and main lateral force resisting systems, use ASCE 7 or another nationally recognized standard or code
applicable to the jurisdiction.
Avoid the use of fabric and membrane structures, including air-supported structures, in hurricane-prone
regions (which include tropical cyclone-prone and typhoon-prone regions). Refer to Data Sheet 1-28, Wind
Design, for the definition of hurricane-prone regions.

2.2.1.1 Wind Speed and Pressure

A. Use the design wind speeds from Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design.
B. Determine design wind pressures in accordance with Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design, for the appropriate
building shapes. If the building shapes are irregular and the traditional building shapes addressed in Data
Sheet 1-28 are not representative of the structure under consideration, then use design wind pressures
from an appropriate boundary layer wind tunnel test (see Section 2.2.1.6).

2.2.1.2 Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings

A. For the purposes of determining design wind pressures and wind loads, classify both “Enclosed” and
“Partially Enclosed” fabric and membrane structures as Partially Enclosed for all wind regions. This
recommendation applies regardless of any tests performed on the building envelope that indicate adequate
resistance to wind-borne debris.
B. For the purposes of determining design wind pressures and wind loads, classify “Open” buildings as
Open.
Refer to Data Sheet 1-28 for the definitions of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open buildings.

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2.2.1.3 Mean Roof Height

Refer to Data Sheet 1-28 to determine mean roof height for the purposes of calculating design wind pressures.
For irregularly shaped structures, where the shape does not conform to the traditional shapes indicated in
Data Sheet 1-28, mean roof height may not be meaningful; therefore, determine design wind pressures based
on an appropriate boundary layer wind tunnel test.

2.2.1.4 Importance Factor

Use a wind load importance factor (Iw) of 1.15.

2.2.1.5 Building Fenestrations

For design wind pressures on building fenestrations (e.g., windows and doors), refer to Data Sheet 1-28,
Wind Design.

2.2.1.6 Wind Tunnel Tests

Fabric and membrane structures often do not conform to traditional building shapes (e.g., flat, gable, or hip
roofed structures), so boundary-layer wind tunnel tests will often be needed to accurately determine the
design wind pressures for these irregularly shaped structures.
For fabric and membrane structures with irregular shapes, or where structures are subjected to channeling
or buffeting from adjacent or upwind structures or obstructions, do the following:
A. Adhere to the wind tunnel recommendations in Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design, for the use of wind
tunnel tests, including the use of a 1.15 importance factor for design wind pressure on fabric or membrane,
and secondary framing and structural components.
B. Except for Open structures, use a Partially Enclosed building model; or, if an Enclosed building model
is used, increase the prescriptive interior pressures to properly account for a Partially Enclosed building
condition.
C. Account for wind-structure interaction, including the effects of the entire structure and of local behavior
of the fabric or membrane. If a static building model is assumed, verify the structure is sufficiently rigid,
based on its calculated fundamental frequency, to preclude dynamic interaction and amplification of the
wind pressures from wind tunnel tests. If the structure is not sufficiently rigid based on its calculated
fundamental frequency, then use appropriate dynamic amplification of wind pressures from the wind tunnel
tests.

2.2.2 Roof Gravity Loads (Snow, Ice, Rain, and Roof Live Load)
2.2.2.1 Do not use flat or low-sloped roofs. Refer to Appendix A for definitions of flat and low-sloped roofs.
2.2.2.2 Where snow or icing can occur, situate fabric or membrane structures so they will not be exposed to
sliding or drifting snow load, or falling or sliding ice. This includes snow drifts at low roofs, roof projections
and parapets, roof valleys, or snow drifts due to adjacent structures or terrain features; as well as snow or ice
from an adjacent high roof, rooftop equipment, exterior cables, or other overhanging support members. (This
recommendation includes all types of sliding and drifting snow load, but does not include unbalanced snow
load on hip, gable, curved, and dome roofs as described in Data Sheet 1-54.)
2.2.2.3 Refer to Data Sheet 1-54 to determine the design snow, ice, rain, rain-on-snow, and roof live loads
for the appropriate building shapes. For all fabric and membrane structures, including air-supported structures,
use the recommendations in Data Sheet 1-54 but with the following changes:
A. Use a Roof Slope Factor (Cs) for “Cold Roof” for all structures.
B. Use a Roof Slope Factor (Cs) for “All Other Surfaces” (not “Unobstructed Slippery Surface”) for all
structures.
C. When determining the sliding snow load on a lower roof from an upper fabric or membrane roof, consider
the upper fabric or membrane roof surface to be “slippery.”
2.2.2.4 If the standard roof shapes in Data Sheet 1-54 are not representative of the building under
consideration, then use snow loads from an appropriate boundary layer wind tunnel test, water flume model,
or other appropriate test or model to determine the design snow loads.

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2.2.2.5 Do not reduce the design snow loads based on any type of snow or ice melting systems or removal
system.
2.2.2.6 For pneumatic membrane systems where multilayer membrane panels or cushions are inflated by
a mechanical air pressure system, base the snow, rain, or ice loading on the assumption that the membrane
panels or cushions are inflated as designed, and deflated to atmospheric pressure. Ensure the shapes of
the inflated and deflated panels or cushions are accounted for when determining loads, including any increase
or concentration of loading due to snow sliding or drifting, or ponding rainwater.

2.2.3 Hail
Provide fabric or membrane that adequately resists hail damage. Refer to Data Sheet 1-34, Hail Damage,
for specific recommendations related to hail damage. Provide building fenestrations and any exposed
equipment, such as rooftop equipment, that adequately resists hail damage or has adequate hail damage
protection (e.g., hail screens or hail guards) in accordance with the recommendations in Data Sheet 1-34.

2.2.4 Bracing and Structural Stability

Do not use the fabric or membrane to provide bracing for the structural framing, including primary framing
(e.g., girders or columns) and secondary framing members and components (e.g., purlins, rafters, girts, or
studs).

2.2.5 Fabric and Membrane Seams

Use high-frequency welded seams, heat-welded seams, or other similar seam detailing to ensure the seam
strength is not less than the fabric or membrane tensile strength.

2.2.6 Safety Factors for Fabric and Membrane

2.2.6.1 Refer to Table 1 for recommended minimum safety factors for fabric or membrane strength at the
start of service life (i.e., new fabric or membrane). These safety factors apply to the initial tensile strength of
the fabric or membrane, and do not include a life-cycle factor; however, the minimum safety factors are based
on the condition that at least 75% of the initial strength of the fabric or membrane will be retained over
intended service life of the structure (i.e., a life-cycle factor of 0.75).
If it is expected that less than 75% of the initial strength will be retained, then the safety factors in Table 1
should be increased proportionally.
For example, if the fabric or membrane will be subjected to repeated handling or folding, as with a deployable
or seasonal structure, where it could be expected to retain only 60% of its initial strength over its service
life, then apply a factor of 1.25 (75% / 60%= 1.25) to the safety factors in Table 1. However, if the safety factors
in Table 1 are based on fabric or membrane tensile strength tests that already account for handling and folding
(e.g., flex-fold test samples), then additional factors need not be applied to increase these safety factors.

Table 1. Load Combinations and Safety Factors for Fabric or Membrane Tension at the Start of Service Life
No. Load Combination Minimum Safety Factor*
1 P+D 8.0
2 P + D + (L, S, or R) 5.0
3 P+D+W 5.0
4 P+D+T 5.0
Key:
P = pre-stress load for fabric or membrane
D = dead load (including collateral load)
L = live load
S = snow load (including ice load)
R = rain load
W = wind load (including 1.15 importance factor)
T = thermal expansion or contraction effects on self-restraining loads
*Safety factors do not include a life-cycle factor, but are based on the condition that at least 75% of the initial strength will be retained
over the service life of the structure.

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2.2.6.2 The life-cycle factor accounts for the loss of initial material strength over the service life of the structure
due to the effects of exposure, aging, weathering, handling, and folding.
Use a life-cycle factor based on test data from the manufacturer and the judgment of the design engineer,
but not greater than 0.60 for fabric or membrane that will be subjected to repeated handling or folding (as with
a deployable or seasonal structure) or 0.75 for all other fabric or membrane.
The following equation describes the relationship between life-cycle factor and safety factors for fabric or
membrane:

Safety factor at Safety factor at

Life-cycle factor
end of service life start of service life

2.2.6.3 Refer to Table 2 for the recommended minimum safety factors for fabric or membrane strength over
the service life of the structure (i.e., aged, exposed and weathered fabric or membrane). These minimum
safety factors include all life-cycle factors and are not intended to be reduced further for any reason.

Table 2. Load Combinations and Safety Factors for Fabric or Membrane Tension During Service Life
No. Load Combination Minimum Safety Factor*
1 P+D 6.0
2 P + D + (L, S, or R) 3.7
3 P+D+W 3.7
4 P+D+T 3.7
Key:
P = pre-stress load for fabric or membrane
D = dead load (including collateral load)
L = live load
S = snow load (including ice load)
R = rain load
W = wind load (including 1.15 importance factor)
T = thermal expansion or contraction effects on self-restraining loads
*Safety factors represent the minimum values that are acceptable over the service life of the structure.

2.2.6.4 Refer to Sections 2.2.7 and 2.2.8 for recommendations related to material tensile tests and mock-up
panels to determine life-cycle factors.
Refer to Section 3.6 for additional information regarding safety factors.

2.2.7 Fabric and Membrane: Mechanical Testing

2.2.7.1 Tensile Strength Tests

A. Use a uniaxial or biaxial tensile test to determine the strength and elastic modulus of the new (virgin)
fabric or membrane material.
B. For most structures, the biaxial test will be a more appropriate representation of the in-situ conditions,
where the fabric or membrane is subjected simultaneously to tensile forces in two orthogonal (i.e., warp
and fill) directions. If a uniaxial tensile test is used, test the fabric or membrane in both the warp and fill
directions.
C. Where the fabric or membrane is to be creased or folded during installation, or while in service, base
the tensile strength on test samples that have been creased or folded (i.e., flexfold) prior to testing. Use
the creased or folded tensile strength unless the contractor or design engineer can demonstrate that the
fabric or membrane will be installed without folding or creasing, or will not experience folding or creasing
during service.

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D. Use a uniaxial or biaxial tensile test to determine the strength of the fabric or membrane material
subjected to ultra-violet (UV) weathering representative of the design life of the structure. Compare the
test results of the UV weathered material to the new material. Use a life-cycle factor based on the ratio of
weathered to new tensile strength, but not to exceed 0.75. If UV weathering tests are not performed,
assume a life-cycle factor of not more than 0.6.
E. Perform tensile strength tests in conformance with ASTM D4851 or another nationally recognized test
standard specific to fabric or membrane structures.
F. Provide the total number of tensile tests based on the recommended sampling frequency in Table 3,
and on a minimum of 10 test strips (5 in the warp direction, 5 in the fill direction) per roll sample.

Table 3. Mechanical Test Sampling Frequency for Fabric or Membrane

Rolls of Material Used Number of Rolls Sampled for Testing
1 to 3 All
4 to 24 4
25 to 50 5
Over 50 10% of the rolls, but need not exceed 10 rolls

2.2.7.2 Elongation and Tear Tests

A. Use trapezoidal tear tests to determine the resistance of the fabric or membrane to tear propagation.
B. Use elongation tests to determine the modulus of elasticity of the fabric or membrane in both the warp
and fill directions.
C. Perform tear and elongation tests in conformance with ASTM D4851, or another nationally recognized
test standard specific to fabric or membrane structures.

2.2.7.3 UV Weathering Tests

Perform accelerated ultraviolet (UV) weathering testing in conformance with either ASTM G151 or ASTM
G154, or another nationally recognized standard specific to fabric or membrane structures, which is
representative of the intended service life.
Refer to Sections 2.2.7.1 and 2.2.7.2 for tensile, tear, and elongation tests of UV weathered samples.

2.2.8 Mock-Up Test Panels

A. Provide mock-up test panels of the fabric or membrane material for the purpose of testing to determine
the life-cycle factor and the effect on safety factor, over the service life of the structure.
B. Locate the mock-up test panels in close proximity to the structure and provide permanent marking of
the month and year when the mock-up test panels were installed, which should be the same approximate
date the fabric or membrane structure was constructed.
C. Construct and orient the mock-up panels so the fabric or membrane condition and exposure is the
same, or as similar as practical, as the most severe condition for the structure; this includes material
pre-stress, orientation of warp and fill yarns, and exposure to sun, wind, and other environmental effects.
It is not necessary to construct mock-up panels with any curvature intended to represent the shape of
the fabric or membrane surface of the structure.
D. Provide mock-up test panels of an adequate number and size to allow test samples to be harvested
over the intended service life of the structure.
E. Perform tensile tests on test strips cut from the mock-up test panels at least every 5 years.
F. Perform tensile tests in accordance with Section 2.2.7.1; however, the total number of tensile tests
need not exceed 20 (10 in the warp direction and 10 in the fill direction) for each test. Compare the results
with the initial test results from when the structure was first erected, and consider the fabric or membrane
to be at the end of its service life when the test results indicate the safety factors specified in Table 2
are no longer retained.

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2.2.9 Exterior Fire Exposure

Follow the recommendations in Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure, with exceptions
and modifications as follows:
A. Provide a fabric or membrane roof that has passed the ASTM E108 Class A as recommended in Data
Sheet 1-20; however, only the burning brand test per ASTM E108 need be applied.
B. When evaluating or determining separation distances and other criteria based on combustible or
noncombustible construction in Data Sheet 1-20, consider that even fabric or membrane that is
noncombustible will soften or melt when exposed to fire and fall away from its supporting members, thereby
exposing, or allowing exposure from, the building contents.

2.2.10 Fire Resistance

2.2.10.1 Do not use fabric or membrane where fire resistance rated construction or a fire barrier is needed.
2.2.10.2 Use fabric or membrane that is either noncombustible or will not self-propagate fire.
A. Fabrics can be considered noncombustible when the material has passed ASTM E136, or ASTM E2652
with ASTM E136 pass/fail criteria, both of which are applicable to materials made up of fibers (yarns)
that are not thermoplastic; and not applicable for laminated or composite materials such as most
membranes or coated fabrics.
PTFE-coated fiberglass can be considered noncombustible.
B. Determine whether or not the fabric or membrane will self-propagate fire based on NFPA 701 (Method
2).
2.2.10.3 Use fabric or membrane that has a flame spread index (FSI) of 25 or less in accordance with ASTM
E84.

2.3 Fire Protection Systems

Fabric and membrane materials that are exposed to fire can fail (lose integrity, melt, or burn through) and
create holes or openings in the building envelope or ceiling and allowing heat (hot gas) to vent. Automatic
sprinklers rely on heat from fire exposure for proper actuation, and therefore venting can delay sprinkler
response and result in inadequate protection (refer to Section 3.10 for additional explanation and background).
This is among the fire-related hazards addressed by the recommendations in Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2.
2.3.1 Provide automatic sprinkler protection, where appropriate for the occupancy, per the following (with
additional provisions and restrictions as noted in Section 2.3.2):
A. As recommended in the relevant 2-series (sprinkler) Data Sheets.
B. With a water supply as recommended in the relevant 3-series (water supply) Data Sheets.
C. For concealed spaces formed by fabric or membrane, as recommended in Data Sheet 1-12, Ceiling
and Concealed Spaces. When determining the need for sprinkler protection per DS 1-12:
1. Use the suspended ceiling construction classification in Table 1 of DS 1-12.
2. Fabric or membrane that is determined to be noncombustible or to not self-propagate fire (based
on the recommendations in Section 2.2.10, Fire Resistance) should be considered equivalent to
noncombustible floor, roof, or wall construction; or equivalent to Class 1 ceiling construction.
3. Fabric or membrane that is not determined to be noncombustible or to not self-propagate fire (based
on the recommendations in Section 2.2.10, Fire Resistance) should be considered equivalent to
combustible roof, floor, or wall construction; or equivalent to Class 2 ceiling construction.
2.3.2 Additional Provisions and Restrictions Related in Section 2.3.1
2.3.2.1 Provide all of the following to help ensure adequate performance of automatic sprinkler systems:
A. FM Approved nonstorage, quick-response, standard coverage sprinklers with the lowest nominally
rated temperature as recommended in Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers,
but not greater than a nominal temperature rating of 160°F (70°C).

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B. Fabric or membrane construction that has undergone full-scale fire testing with automatic sprinklers,
where test results demonstrate that the proposed sprinklers (including sprinkler orientation, temperature
rating, and K-factor) will perform satisfactorily and sprinkler actuation will not be delayed or otherwise
adversely affected. Automatic sprinkler systems for full-scale fire testing do not necessarily have to be
connected to a water source, but must demonstrate that sprinkler actuation (e.g., fusing) will occur prior
to failure (creation of any holes or openings) in the fabric or membrane that could vent heat. For dry-pipe
sprinkler systems, account for the expected delay between sprinkler actuation and initial water flow from
the sprinkler by ensuring the sprinklers will actuate at least 1 minute before the fabric or membrane fails.
Submit test results to FM Global for review.
C. Fabric or membrane that has been determined to be noncombustible, or to not self-propagate fire,
based on the recommendations in Section 2.2.10 Fire Resistance.
D. Check that fabric or membrane roof slopes or ceiling slopes do not exceed the recommended slopes
for the automatic sprinkler system. Refer to Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic
Sprinklers.
E. Do not use fabric or membrane structures for occupancies with combustible storage or ignitable liquids.
2.3.2.2 Ensure the maximum ambient temperature at the sprinkler level will not exceed the recommended
maximum value based on the nominal temperature rating of the installed sprinklers as indicated in Table 1 of
DS 2-0.
2.3.3 Provide smoke or heat detection that, when activated, will shut down the air-handling system. Refer
to Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection.

2.4 Equipment and Processes

2.4.1 Inflation Systems for Air-Supported Structures and Pneumatic Membrane Systems
2.4.1.1 Provide two inflation systems: a primary inflation system and an emergency backup inflation system,
with each system alone having the capacity to adequately maintain design inflation pressure with normal
air loss (leakage), including the air loss associated with the operation of the building’s entrances and exits
(including emergency exits) for air-supported structures.
2.4.1.2 Provide the emergency backup inflation system with an independent self-contained power source
that is not reliant on the power grid.
2.4.1.3 Provide an electrical interlock so the emergency backup inflation system will operate automatically
if the primary inflation system fails to operate.
2.4.1.4 For air-supported structures, base the assumed normal air loss (leakage) on the provisions of Annex
G of CSA S367-09, another nationally recognized standard, or calculations made by the design engineer.

2.5 Operation and Maintenance

See Section 2.2.8 for recommendations related to fabric and membrane tensile tests and safety factor
verification.
2.5.1 Provide re-tensioning of the fabric or membrane as recommended by the design engineer or
manufacturer, or if billowing or other visible signs are evident that the proper level of pre-tensioning has not
been maintained.
2.5.2 Provide re-tensioning of cable bracing as recommended by the design engineer or manufacturer, or if
there are indications that an adequate level of cable tensioning has not been maintained.

2.6 Human Factor

2.6.1 Provide thorough inspection and testing of fire alarm systems by adequately trained personnel at least
every six months, including the following:
A. System-activating devices, such as fusible links or heat or smoke detectors. Also check to ensure they
are not covered with residue, or are otherwise impaired.
B. Fire and smoke dampers at least annually to detect damage, obstructions, and corrosion.

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C. Heat and smoke detector systems: Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations in maintaining,
inspecting, and testing the equipment.
2.6.2 Maintain an up-to-date list of control valves, by type and location, for building automatic sprinkler piping
systems.

2.7 Contingency Planning

Have spare rolls of fabric or membrane readily available to be installed in the event the fabric or membrane
is damaged.
See Section 2.4 for recommendations regarding emergency backup inflation systems for pneumatic
membrane systems (e.g., ETFE panels or cushions) and air-supported structures.

2.8 Electrical
See Section 2.4 for recommendations regarding emergency backup power for inflation systems for pneumatic
membrane systems (e.g., ETFE panels or cushions) and air-supported structures.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Wind Speeds and Loads

The recommended wind speeds in Data Sheet 1-28 are the design wind speeds. The wind pressures resulting
from the design wind speeds are the characteristic wind pressures; that is, they are neither the factored wind
pressures nor the ultimate limit states wind pressures.

3.2 Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings

The recommendation to classify both “Enclosed” buildings and “Partially Enclosed” buildings as Partially
Enclosed for all wind regions when calculating design wind pressures is based on the susceptibility of fabric
and membrane to punctures and tearing from several sources, including from wind-borne debris, and from
deflecting membrane contacting internal supports or appurtenances.
The standard small and large missile tests for wind-borne debris exposure are intended for construction
materials such as glass and glazing, metal wall panels, wood sheathing, and masonry, but are not intended
for fabric and membrane structures that are subject to dynamic effects and tearing damage after the initial
puncture damage.

3.3 Wind Tunnel Tests

Fabric and membrane structures, particularly tensioned membrane structures, often do not conform to
traditional building shapes that are addressed by building codes and standards. Accurate determinations of
wind pressures on irregularly shaped buildings are best achieved by performing a boundary-layer wind tunnel
study.
Most wind tunnel studies for fabric and membrane structures will not use aeroelastic models; that is, the
model of the structure will be designed to represent the geometry and shape of the structures but not its
physical and structural characteristics. For this reason, it will generally be necessary to use some prescriptive
means of representing the dynamic effects of wind-structure interaction on wind pressures.
Wind-structure interaction can occur at two levels: the global level and the local level. The global level involves
the movement of the building frame, while the local level involves the movement of the fabric or membrane
spanning between structural supports. At the global level, the rigidity or stiffness of the structure, as
represented by the fundamental natural frequency of the structure, is a key characteristic. Rigid structures
have higher fundamental natural frequencies, while more flexible structures have lower frequencies.
Fundamental natural frequency is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). The inverse of fundamental
natural frequency is fundamental period, which is measured in seconds per cycle. Structures with shorter
natural periods are relatively rigid, while more flexible structures will have longer natural periods.
The fundamental natural frequency of fabric- or membrane-covered structures will often be significantly less
than that of a tensioned membrane structure of similar size. Therefore, it will not be uncommon for
fabric-covered structures to be classified as “flexible,” “non-rigid,” or “dynamic,” while many tensioned
membrane structures would qualify as “rigid” or “static.”

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3.4 Roof Gravity Loads (Snow, Ice, Rain, and Roof Live Load)
A Roof Slope Factor (Cs) for “Cold Roof” is recommended because the loss of heating for a building, due
to either the loss of electrical power or the loss of heated internal air from an opening (e.g., tearing or
breaching) in the membrane covering, would negate the potential reduction in snow loads that could be
applicable to a warm roof.
A Roof Slope Factor (Cs) for “All Other Surfaces” (not “Unobstructed Slippery Surface”) is recommended to
account for the effects of aging (including roughening of the membrane surface or fabric fraying), local
fabric/membrane deflection, actual roof shape (including valleys or other distortions created by support cables
for example), or obstructions.
The recommendation to consider the membrane roof surface slippery when determining sliding snow loads
(on a lower roof) is intended to account for conditions where the membrane is relatively new and has not
been substantially roughened or frayed, and the membrane has not deformed due to loss of tension or creep
deformation.
For fabric or membrane structures with two layers of membrane or fabric, the air space between the inner
and outer layers is sometimes used as a plenum for heated air, which is intended to heat the outer layer of
membrane to melt snow. This type of snow melting system is an example of a snow melting system that
should not be used to reduce snow or ice loads.
ASCE 55 does not allow design snow loads to be reduced by using snow melting or removal methods for
permanent structures.
For pneumatic membrane systems (e.g., pressurized multilayer ETFE panels), the inflated panels or cushions
can deflate due to a malfunction or loss of power to the inflation systems, or from physical damage to the
inflated panel or cushion (e.g., a cut, tear, or puncture of the membrane). Therefore, it is recommended that
two scenarios be evaluated to determine the more demanding (least favorable) condition: snow, ice, or rain
loads with the panels inflated as designed, and with the panels deflated. The deflated panel scenario in
particular could allow for increased or concentrated loading, for example from sliding snow or ponding
rainwater.

3.5 Bracing and Stability

Fabric or membrane is not an appropriate material to provide bracing for structural framing, including primary
framing (e.g., girders or columns) and secondary framing members and components (e.g., purlins, rafters,
girts, or studs).

3.6 Safety Factors for Fabric and Membrane

Table 1 represents the minimum recommended safety factors for new (virgin) fabric or membrane (without
a life-cycle factor), but is based on the assumption that the fabric or membrane will retain at least 75% of its
initial strength. Table 2 represents the minimum recommended safety factors that should be sustained over
the service life of the fabric or membrane structure. When the safety factors approach, or reach, the minimum
safety factors in Table 2, the structure is nearing, or has reached, the end of its useful service life.

3.7 Mock-up Panels

Mock-up panels are intended to supply test samples of fabric or membrane that have experienced the same
or similar exposures as the fabric or membrane structure. The mock-up panel will allow fabric or membrane
test samples to be taken without the need for cutting the samples from the fabric or membrane structure
itself (which would then require patching). Exposed fabric or membrane will lose strength over time, and the
periodic testing is intended to monitor the loss of strength, and the effects on safety factor, at reasonable
time intervals. The mock-up panels often can be incorporated into some architectural feature of, or adjacent
to, the structure.

3.8 Orientation of Fabric Yarns

Fabric yarns are generally oriented in either the warp or fill (weft) directions. When the fabric is tensioned
in both directions, the warp yarns become more deformed and curved (i.e., more warped), while the fill yarns
become straighter. The interaction between the warp and fill yarns has a significant effect on the mechanical

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properties of the fabric. The fabric is generally stronger in the warp direction than in the fill direction, and
the % elongation in the fill direction is generally greater than in the warp direction.
Refer to Figure 1 for a schematic view of the typical warp and fill yarn orientation on a fabric roll.
Refer to Figure 2 for a detailed view of the warp and fill yarns in a typical woven fabric.

Fill Fabric
roll

Warp

Fig. 1. Typical roll of fabric showing warp (machine) and fill (cross or weft) directions.

Fill (weft) yarns Warp yarns

(high level of crimp) (low level of crimp)
Fig. 2. Typical fabric yarns showing warp and fill (weft) orientation.

See Figure 3 for a typical large membrane-covered structure under construction. Note that the membrane
has not been installed at the near-side gable end wall, exposing the steel trust frame and the end wall steel
posts and girts. Also note the inner layer (liner) of fabric, which is often used as an acoustical barrier or to
create a space for mecanical, electrical, and/or pluming systems.
See Figures 4 through 7 for representations of some common shapes of tensioned membrane structures.

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Fig. 3. Membrane covered structure under construction.

Fig. 4. Mast-supported tensioned membrane structure.

Fig. 5. Saddle-shaped (hypoid) tensioned membrane structures.

3.9 Pre-Stressing and Re-Tensioning

Fabric and membrane is typically pre-stressed (pre-tensioned) when first installed to keep the material taut
and in the proper shape in order to prevent the material from billowing when subjected to wind action.
Pre-stressing also helps to ensure the proper load distribution throughout the fabric or membrane. Under
sustained stress such as pre-tensioning, the material will generally relax over time; that is, it will elongate and

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Fig. 6. Arch-shaped tensioned membrane structures.

Fig. 7. Tensioned membrane structure with a folded configuration.

therefore reduce the level of tension and tautness in the material. For this reason, many types of fabric or
membrane need to be re-tensioned over the service life of the structure.

3.10 Fire, Fire Protection, and Exterior Fire Exposure

Fire poses several challenges for fabric and membrane structures. Exposed fabric or membrane could either
ignite, or soften and melt, early in a fire, which will create an opening in the material and allow hot gas and
smoke to vent to the outside. The venting of hot gas can delay activation of automatic sprinklers, which could
allow the fire to overwhelm the automatic sprinkler system and result in an uncontrolled fire.
For a two-layered fabric or membrane system (e.g., an acoustical interior fabric liner in addition to the exterior
membrane), the fire-induced opening in the fabric liner could vent hot gas and smoke to the air space
between the exterior membrane and fabric liner. The fabric liner typically acts as the ceiling when designing
or evaluating automatic sprinkler protection, and the potential danger is that the venting of hot gas could
cause automatic sprinkler activation to be delayed enough to allow the fire to overwhelm the sprinkler system,
resulting in an uncontrolled fire. In addition, two-layered fabric or membrane systems can create a concealed
space that may require additional automatic sprinkler protection.
As noted above in this section, fire-exposed fabric and membrane structures can impair or otherwise
negatively impact the performance of automatic sprinkler systems and therefore are not appropriate for all
occupancies.
Fabric and membrane structures often have substantial roof slopes or curvature in order to shed rain and
snow, or for architectural or occupational purposes. These large slopes may often exceed the maximum
recommended slopes for some automatic sprinkler systems.
Fabric and membrane structures can be susceptible to fire damage from exterior sources since the fabric
or membrane material can burn or melt away and expose building contents.
It may not be feasible to install automatic sprinkler protection in tensioned membrane structures due to the
lack of adequate support structure, which is needed for the proper hanging, bracing, and restraint of
automatic sprinkler system components.

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Solar transmission through some fabrics and membranes can contribute to increased ambient air
temperatures at ceiling levels. If the effects of solar transmission are not properly accounted for by the
building’s mechanical (HVAC) engineer, and coordinated with the fire protection engineer, it is possible that
ambient air temperatures could exceed the maximum recommended values in DS 2-0 for the specified
nominal temperature rating of the sprinklers, which could result in unintended sprinkler actuation.
Solar transmission could also affect flame detectors that are not properly arranged and shielded. The potential
hazard is that false alarms may be triggered. This hazard is addressed in DS 5-48.
ASTM E108 is composed of several types of tests, including the intermittent flame test, spread of flame test,
and burning brand test, and is generally intended for typical roof covers (e.g., simply-ply roofing membrane
on an insulated steel deck), not fabric or membrane structures. The ASTM E108 intermittent flame test and
spread of flame test are of limited value for fabric and membrane structures and difficult to use for comparisons
to traditional roof covers. However, the burning brand test is useful when determining whether or not the
contents of a fabric/membrane building are susceptible to exterior fire exposure - such as from an adjacent
building, yard storage, or brush fire.

3.11 Air-Supported Structures

The normal operating pressure for most air-supported structures is approximately 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kPa), with a
maximum operating pressure of approximately 10 to 15 lb/ft2 (0.48 to 0.72 kPa).
All air-supported structures experience air loss to a certain degree when inflated with positive pressure.
Pressure can be lost through a multitude of places, including the membrane skirt at the base of the building,
membrane junctions at fenestrations (e.g., doors, ducts or vents), airlocks, and membrane seams. Leakage
can be estimated based on calculations for a given building and inflation system; or based on typical air
loss rates provided in industry standards such as CSA S367 (for a given pressure), which are used as a
minimum loss rates due to the variations possible in calculated rates under different service conditions.
In addition, when people enter or exit the building, air leakage increases significantly, and most buildings
provide rotating doors or air-locks to minimize the air leakage.
Refer to Figure 8 for a sketch of an air-supported building.

Fabric / membrane
skirt

Revolving doors
Transport doors
Emergency exit
Inflation unit
Anchorage / foundation
Emergency back-up
inflation unit

Fig. 8. Example of an air-supported building.

4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-12, Ceiling and Concealed Spaces
Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure
Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design
Data Sheet 1-34, Hail Damage
Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction

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Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection

Applicable 2-series (sprinkler) data sheets
Applicable 3-series (water supply) data sheets
Applicable 8-series (storage) data sheets

4.2 Others
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Air-Supported Structures. ASCE 17-96.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
ASCE 7-05.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Structural Applications of Steel Cable for Buildings. ASCE/SEI
19-10.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Tensile Membrane Structures. ASCE 55-10.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Wind Tunnel Studies of Buildings and Structures. ASCE Manual
No. 67.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a
Tube Furnace with a Cone-shaped Airflow Stabilizer. ASTM E2652.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a
Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C. ASTM E136
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Roof Coverings.
ASTM E108.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Methods for Surface Burning
Characteristics of Building Materials. ASTM E84.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA). Air-, Cable-, and Frame-Supported Membrane Structures. CSA
S367-09.
Forster, B., and M. Mollaert. European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures. TensiNet, 2004.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard for Grandstands, Folding and Telescoping Seating,
Tents, and Membrane Structures. NFPA 102.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles
and Films. NFPA 701 (Method 2).
Shaeffer, R. E. (ed.). Tensioned Fabric Structures: A Practical Introduction. Task Committee on Tensioned
Fabric Structures. ASCE, 1996.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Air-Supported Structure: A structure where the membrane is supported not by structural members, but by
positive internal building pressure created by continuously operating fans blowing external air into the building.
Anticlastic: See Parabolic Hyperboloid.
Building Envelope: The cladding and supporting components, as well as the fenestrations, which separate
the inside of the building from the outside (sometimes referred to as the building shell).
Cladding: Fabric or membrane that comprises the building, roof, or canopy surface.
Components: Structural members such as roof purlins and rafters, wall studs and girts, or cables that directly
support the fabric or membrane.
Environmental Loads: A general category of structural loads that includes wind, snow, ice, and rain loads.
ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene): A synthetic fluoropolymer that has high transparency and is used as a
membrane (or film or foil) covering, without fiber reinforcing. Often used in a multilayer pneumatic system
where the panels or cushions are inflated by an air pressure system.
Fabric: The woven base material that is typically coated with a polymer substance to form a membrane. Often
used interchangeably with the term “membrane.”

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Fabric Structures: See Membrane Structures.

Fenestration: Any opening in a building envelope covered with systems or elements such as doors, windows,
skylights, louvers, or similar.
Flat Roof (flat slope roof): A roof with a slope less than 5° (9%, or 1 on 12).
Frame-Supported Membrane (Fabric) Structure: See Membrane-Covered Structure.
Fill: The fabric yarns that are initially crimped when not tensioned, but straighten when tensioned; usually
oriented at right angles to the warp yarns. Also known as weft yarns, or cross direction, of a roll of fabric.
Hypoid (Hypar): See Parabolic Hyperboloid.
Hurricane-Prone Region (also Tropical Cyclone-Prone and Typhoon-Prone): See glossary in Data Sheet 1-28,
Wind Design.
Life-Cycle Factor: The factor that represents the retained strength of fabric or membrane over its service
life. The life-cycle factor is the ratio of tensile strength of exposed material (subjected to the effects of aging,
weathering, handling, and stress conditions over its service life) to the tensile strength of new material.
Low-Slope Roof: A shed (mono-slope), gable, hip, and similar roof with a slope less than 15° (27%, or 3.2
on 12), but greater than a flat slope roof. A curved roof with a vertical angle from the roof eave to roof crown
less than 10° (17.5%, or 2 on 12).
Membrane: A material typically made up of a polymer coating over a woven base material fabric. Some
membranes are made up of only a polymer skin and have no fiber reinforcing or base fabric. Often used
interchangeably with the term “fabric.”
Membrane (Fabric) Clad Structure: See Membrane (Fabric) Covered Structure.
Membrane (Fabric) Covered Structure: A membrane-covered structure where the membrane acts as cladding
but is not an integral part of the structure’s overall strength and stability. The membrane is tensioned enough
to prevent wind flutter but the membrane tensile forces are not part of the structure’s main force resisting
system. The structural framing is usually conventional, consisting of metal frameworks, including columns,
beams, trusses, and purlins.
Membrane (Fabric) Structure: A structure where all or part of the building envelope consists of membrane.
This includes tensioned membrane structures, membrane-covered structures, and air-supported structures.
MEP: Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems. Usually in reference to the MEP load imposed on a
building structure; often considered part of the collateral structural load.
Panel: A section of fabric or membrane area where the fabric or membrane is terminated, which allows the
panel to be removed and replaced without damage to the adjacent panels or sections.
Parabolic Hyperboloid: A membrane shaped with positive curvature in one direction and negative curvature
in the other direction; also known as a saddle shape.
Pneumatic Membrane System: A system with two or more layers of membrane (film or foil) forming individual
pneumatic cushions or panels that are inflated by a mechanical air pressure system. The pneumatic
membrane system is supported by structural framing.
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene): A synthetic fluoroploymer used as a coating over a fabric base (e.g., glass
fiber) to create a membrane.
Tensioned Membrane (Fabric) Structure: A membrane structure where the membrane is part of the structure’s
overall strength and stability. The membrane is tensioned so it is part of the structure’s main force resisting
system. Also known as a tensioned fabric structure or a tensile membrane structure. These structures usually
do not have a conventional metal framework.
Teflon: See PTFE.
Temporary Structure: A structure or building that is in place for no more than 180 days.
Tensile Surface Structure: See tensioned membrane structure.
Tensegrity Structure: A tensioned membrane structure that uses cables and struts as tension and compression
members, respectively.

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Service Life: The life span of a structure over which adequate performance is provided. The service life should
not exceed the intended design life.
Synclastic: A membrane shaped with positive curvature in both directions (i.e., a bubble or dome-shaped
surface).
Unbalanced Snow Loading: The snow load due to wind-driven snow distribution on the windward (upwind)
and leeward (downwind) roof areas of hip, gable, curved, and dome roofs. The unbalanced snow loading on
the windward roof area will be less than the uniform snow load on the same area, while the unbalanced
snow loading on the leeward roof area will be greater than the uniform snow load on the same area. Refer
to Data Sheet 1-54 for additional details.
Warp: The fabric yarns that are initially straight or near straight (not crimped) when not tensioned, but bend
or warp when tensioned; usually oriented at right angles to the fill (weft) yarns. Also known as the machine
direction of a roll of fabric.
Weft: See Fill.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

October 2014. Interim revision to Section 2.3, Fire Protection Systemsand Section 3.10, Fire, Fire Protection,
and Exterior Fire Exposure .
October 2013. This is the first publication of the document.

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