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Burte 1990
Burte 1990
Introduction
Heat transfer and friction play important roles in a variety been largely overlooked in both simulative tests designed to
of metal cutting and metal forming processes. In metal cut- provide quantitative measures of heat transfer or friction coef-
ting, heat generated by deformation in the chip and friction ficients as well as actual forming or cutting processes. This is
between the chip and tool is transferred across a surprising in view of the increasing use of analytical tools such
coolant/lubricant interface, causing heating of the cutting as the finite element method which rely on input data such as
tool. Such temperature increases have a strong effect on tool characteristics of the interface to predict metal flow patterns,
wear and thus tool life [1, 2]. In turn, tool wear influences the temperature fields, and die loading conditions.
morphology of the chip and surface finish and part shape An examination of the literature reveals that moderate to
tolerances that can be achieved in such operations. extensive efforts have been taken to investigate heat transfer
In metal forming, interface heat transfer and friction effects and friction individually. For examle, the ring test has been
are of particular importance in conventional hot working pro- widely used, and is generally accepted, as a test for quantify-
cesses such as forging, extrusion, and rolling. In these opera- ing friction [6, 7]. On the other hand, determination of the in-
tions, a hot workpiece is deformed using tooling whose initial terface heat transfer coefficient has been investigated to only a
temperature is often considerably lower. The workpiece moderate degree, probably because of the experimental dif-
material in contact with the dies or rolls is "chilled," leading ficulties associated with such measurements. Vigor and Hor-
to an increased flow stress because of the strong temperature naday [8] and Kellow et al. [9, 10] designed high-response
dependence of deformation resistance of most metals in the thermocouples and measured surface and near-surface
hot-working regime [3]. The amount and extent of chilling are temperatures during nonisothermal upsetting of medium car-
a function of the interface heat-transfer coefficient, the defor- bon steel cylinders. They studied the effects of process
mation rate and the initial temperature difference, among parameters such as lubrication, speed, and percent reduction
other things. Chilling as well as friction have a great influence on die heating but did not attempt to estimate heat transfer
on the overall metal flow pattern, the working loads, and the coefficients from their data. This is primarily because the in-
tendency to form metal flow defects such as laps and flow- fluences of deformation heating and heat transport in the
through defects [3, 4]. With respect to the dies, heat transfer specimen on the one hand and interfacial frictional heating on
and friction play a critical role in failure mechanisms such as the other are difficult to quantify. In similar work, Dadras
abrasive wear, thermal fatigue, and plastic deformation [5]. and Wells [11] measured both billet and die temperatures dur-
To the present time, the possible interaction of heat transfer ing upsetting of OFHC copper, 1042 steel, and 304 stainless
and frictional effects during metal fabrication processes has steel cylinders. With these data, they obtained estimates of
heat-transfer coefficients by using a two-dimensional finite
difference approach for the analysis of heat conduction,
which however neglected the effects of heat generation.
Dadras, Burte, and Stone [12] and Im [13] conducted exten-
Contributed by the Production Engineering Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY. Manuscript received March 1989.
sions to the work of Dadras and Wells. Dadras et al. [12] car-
Nomenclature
Dry 0 0.75 0.9 Dry Isothermal \.Q (0.04) 24.6 / 16.9 52.0 / 61.5
Dry 0.85 (0.12) 1.8 2.5 Dry Nonisothermal 56 (2.2) 24.9 / 20.8 48.4 / 56.8
Dry 14. (2.) 7.5 7.0 Dry Nonisothermal 1.0 (0.04) 245 / 16.3 48.4 / 52.0
Dry 35. (12.) 8.5 7.5 Lubncated tsothermai 56 (2.2) 25.4 / 14.2 50.4 / 58.1
Dry 150. (22.) 9.0 7.5 Lubncated Isothermal 1.0 (0.04) 2 2 8 / 13-5 5 1 5 1 60.7
Lubncated 0.85 (0.12) 6.0 11.0 Lubricated Nonisothermal 1.0 (0.04) 25.0 / -7.0 4 9 2 / 3.2
Lubncated 150. (22.) 18.0 12.5 properties of the tool steel dies in the determination of the
calibration curves. Further work is needed to verify this.
Nevertheless, based on the work in Reference [16], it is unlike-
ly that refinement of the analysis to include variable thermal
results suggest that the heat transfer coefficient varies little properties would substantially change the predicted values of
during a given experiment and that essentially the same value K
of h0 is predicted by both the near-surface and deeper ther-
mocouple measurements: the latter observation adds credibili- Ring Test Results. Results from the ring tests consisted of
ty to the measurements. This general behavior was mirrored measurements of the changes in the dimensions of the rings
by all of the other results as well. and temperature-versus-time data from the thermocouples
placed in the lower die.
Values for h0 from all of the two-die experiments are sum-
marized in Table 3. The magnitude of these heat transfer coef- Friction Observations. Dimension change data (Table 4)
ficients from tool-steel die experiments are very similar to were examined in the raw form to get a general idea of the ef-
previous ones obtained with IN-100 dies [16]. Moreover, the fects of deformation rate and lubrication on friction. The
effects of pressure and lubrication on h0 deduced in the pres- results reveal basically two friction regimes. Conditions of
ent work are very similar to those found previously. These high friction, or the first regime, can be inferred from the data
trends may be summarized as follows: in Table 4 for all of the experiments conducted without
• The heat transfer coefficient increases with pressure for lubrication, irrespective of deformation rate and whether the
both lubricated and unlubricated conditions. experiment was conducted under nominally iosthermal or
• At all pressure levels, the hQ values for lubricated condi- nonisothermal conditions. In each case the percent decrease in
tions are slightly higher than for dry conditions. ring I. D. was between 15 and 20 percent (at approximately 25
• Above a certain pressure, the value of h0 remains un- percent height reduction) or between 50 and 65 percent (at ap-
changed. This critical, or threshold, forging pressure is ap- proximately 50 percent height reduction). Thus the presence or
proximately 14 MPa (2 ksi) for dry conditions and between absence of substantial heat transfer between the ring and dies
0.85 and 14 MPa (0.12 and 2 ksi) for lubricated conditions. does not appear to influence the gross metal flow pattern, at
• Under light pressures, typical of a workpiece resting freely least not for the present geometry and test conditions.
on a die, the heat transfer coefficient is an order of Moreover, as will be discussed further below, the time scale
magnitude smaller than under high-pressure conditions. over which heat transfer takes place (i.e., during the entire
The above trends can be readily explained qualitatively with deformation for the rapid tests or primarily at the beginning
resort to the simplified model of an interface consisting of an of the test for the slow tests) does not affect the apparent fric-
interface layer of a certain (unknown) thermal conductivity tion characteristics.
and certain (unknown) thickness. As the interface pressure is Frictional behavior similar to that observed for all the dry
increased, the size of asperities on the die surfaces is de- experiments was also found for lubricated tests under isother-
creased, and the effective interface layer thickness is dimin- mal conditions (Table 4). This finding can be deduced to be a
ished, thereby increasing the heat transfer coefficient, as is result of the fact that the water-based graphite lubricant used
observed. Similarly, the use of a lubricant increases the ther- was ineffective at the die temperature employed, i.e., 420°C
mal conductivity (in comparison to dry conditions), thereby (790°F), resulting in an interface behavior analogous to dry
also increasing ha, a trend in line with observations as well. At conditions. In fact, it was observed that when the lubricant
a given pressure level, lubricated conditions may also be more was sprayed onto the dies at this temperature, the water carrier
effective than dry conditions in promoting the microscopic evaporated rapidly leaving a rough or irregular appearing
metal flow required to reduce asperities; with this assumption, coating of powdered graphite.
it might be concluded that the critical pressure level under The other, or lower, friction regime observed in the present
lubricated conditions would be less than that under dry condi- work was found in lubricated, nonisothermal experiments
tions. This behavior is indeed observed as shown by the data in (Table 4). Here, the percentage decrease in ring I. D. was con-
Table 3. siderably less at each reduction level in comparison to the high
The results in Table 3 also reveal a rather small or negligible friction cases described above. It is also seen from the data
effect of initial die temperature and temperature difference on that the friction results for lubricated. Nonisothermal tests
the value of h0 for given values of pressure and lubrication. were essentially the same irrespective of test speed. Thus, as in
Part of this effect may be a result of the assumption of fixed 'the dry, nonisothermal tests, the time scale over which heat
values (i.e., independent of temperature) for the thermal transfer takes place does not affect the friction behavior.
o
o . . i
From these results, it appears that the frictional effects are in- pressure above which the heat transfer coefficient reaches a
dependent of heat transfer, and therefore friction and heat maximum value and becomes insensitive to further increases
transfer can be decoupled in the analysis of nonisothermal in pressure.
metalworking processes.
Ring Test Simulations. The ring test FEM simulations
Temperature-Versus-Time Data. The temperature- confirmed the hypothesis that frictional and heat transfer ef-
vs.-time data also suggest that heat transfer effects can be fects can be decoupled, at least to a first order. The simula-
decoupled from (i.e., are independent of) frictional in- tions described below are for two values of the friction shear
fluences. Sample near-surface temperature measurements factor, m = 0.2 and m = 0.8, two crosshead speeds, and values
from the nonisothermal ring tests are shown in Figs. 4-7. Note of h0 ranging from 0 to 40 kW/m2K. Several isothermal
the differences in time scale between Figs. 4, 6 (rapid tests) and simulations, in which deformation and interface frictional
5, 7 (slow tests). If the data for t-Q s to f = 0.12 s are exam- heating were neglected, are also included. As mentioned
ined in each case, a remarkable similarity among the before, the values of m selected for the parametric study were
measurements is found. To be specific, the heat transfer based on a comparison of the measured ring data for percent
trends are almost identical irrespective of lubrication condi- decrease in I. D. vs. reduction with friction factor calibration
tion (i.e., high or low friction) and the time scale over which curves derived previously for 6:3:2 rings [23]. During the pre-
heat transfer takes place relative to the time over which defor- sent nonisothermal forging parametric studies, however, it
mation takes place. In both the rapid and slow tests, the major was found that the choice of m = 0.2 indeed modeled the low-
heat transfer took place in the first 0.1 s. By contrast, the total friction behavior well, and that m in the range of 0.8 to 0.9
deformation time was approximately 0.11 s for the rapid tests modeled the high-friction flow behavior to a reasonable
and 6 s for the slow tests. degree.
The above behavior suggests that, as in the two-die ex- Simulation results for the friction calibration curves are
periments, interface pressure is the prime variable controlling summarized in Figs. 8-9. The major features of these curves
the heat transfer rate. In all the ring tests the average pressure are as follows:
was on the order of 70 MPa (10 ksi). This pressure is above the • At a given deformation speed and friction factor, the ef-
critical pressure found in the two-die experiments, i.e., the fects of the heat transfer coefficient h0 on the friction fac-
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tor calibration curve is small to negligible. This is true for a used in the present experiments. The following conclusions
wide range of hQ values from 0 to 40 kW/m2K, as well as can be drawn:
for isothermal conditions. • The heat transfer coefficient increases with pressure under
• At a given deformation speed, the effect of the friction both dry and lubricated conditions. At a given pressure,
shear factor on the friction factor calibration curves is though, and in the absence of deformation, lubrication
much greater than the effect of h0 on the calibration raises the value of h0 slightly.
curves. • Above a threshold pressure, the heat transfer coefficient is
• For a given friction shear factor, the friction shear factor insensitive to forging pressure. This threshold is slightly
curves are relatively insensitive to deformation rate, and lower under lubricated conditions than unlubricated
hence the time scale over which the majority of the heat conditions.
transfer takes place relative to the deformation time. • The heat transfer coefficient is an order of magnitude
The FEM predictions for the heat transfer coefficient smaller in low pressure and unloaded cases than under the
calibration curves (Figs. 4-7) also show a decoupling of m and high forging pressure conditions encountered during
h0; viz., the temperature-time curves are a strong function of deformation.
h0, but at most a very weak function of m. This is seen by • The die chilling effect on friction measurements in the ring
comparison of the h0 calibration curves at a given deforma- tests is small to negligible.
tion rate but for different friction conditions (e.g., Fig. 4 and • The effect of friction shear factor on the friction factor
Fig. 6 for high speed tests under different friction conditions calibration curves is much greater than the effect of heat
or Fig. 5 with Fig. 7 for low speed tests under different friction transfer coefficient on the friction factor calibration
conditions). The hQ calibration curves are also very insensitive curves. Likewise, the effect of friction shear factor on heat
to deformation rate as comparison of Figs. 4 and 5 or 6 and 7 transfer coefficient calibration curves was found to be
reveals. small. These simulation results and corroborating ex-
With the measured temperature-time data placed on the h0 perimental observations lead to the conjecture that heat
calibration curves, it is seen that values of approximately 25 to transfer and friction may be decoupled in the analysis of
30 kW/m2K for the heat transfer coefficient are obtained ir- hot-working processes with similar geometry and process-
respective of lubrication condition and deformation rate. ing conditions. Because the scope of this study was limited,
These values are approximately twice those found for the this hypothesis should be studied further under a wider
critical h0 in the two-die experiments (Table 3). As in previous range of processing conditions.
work, the higher values can most likely be ascribed to the
beneficial effects of deformation, in conjunction with high Acknowledgments
pressure, in smoothing interface asperities. The higher values
may also be partly a result of the fact that the ring tests were This work was carried out as part of the program of the
run on the dies after the two-die tests in which the starting Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing at
roughness of the dies was slightly reduced. the Ohio State University in conjunction with Battelle
Memorial Institute, Columbus Division. The assistance of
Messrs. N. Frey, W. Sunderland, M. Oliver, L. Taggart, D.
Summary and Conclusions Rider, and P. Vieth, all of Battelle's Columbus Division, in
conducting the experiments is gratefully acknowledged. En-
Interface heat transfer coefficients that pertain to couragements from and technical discussions with Dr. R.
metalworking conditions were determined by comparing Shivpuri and Messrs. G. Shen, J. Kim, Y. Chen, and J. Fan
measured temperatures with calibration curves generated are also sincerely appreciated.
analytically or numerically (using FEM techniques). These
calibration curves describe the temperature history at specific
subsurface die locations as a function of initial temperature References
conditions and the interface heat transfer coefficient. Isother- 1 Trent, E. M., Metal Cutting, Butterworths and Company, Ltd., London,
mal and nonisothermal friction calibration curves were also 1977.
generated during the finite element simulations. These later 2 Loewen, E. G., and Shaw, M. C , "On the Analysis of Cutting-Tool
curves were developed as a function of parametric values of Temperatures," Transactions ofthe ASME, Vol. 76, 1954, pp. 217-231.
f 3 Semiatin, S. L., "Workability in Forging," Workability Testing Tech-
the heat transfer coefficient in order to investigate possible niques, G. E. Dieter, ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
coupling between heat transfer and friction for the conditions 1984, pp. 197-247.
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