Structural Engineer - Notes To Carry

LOADS
SW
Table 2.9c
Typical self-weights of concrete floors
Material Area load Material Area load
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
Precast concrete solid units (100 mm) 2.40 Ribbed slab (325 mm) 4.40
Precast concrete hollowcore units (150 mm) 2.40 Ribbed slab (350 mm) 4.70
Precast concrete hollowcore units (350 mm) 4.45 Waffle slab – standard moulds (325 mm) 6.00
Ribbed slab (250 mm) 4.00 Waffle slab – standard moulds (450 mm) 7.70
Ribbed slab (275 mm) 4.20 Waffle slab – standard moulds (525 mm) 8.60
Ribbed slab (300 mm) 4.30
SDL
(if not given )
Office Floors/ Schools - 0.8 kPa + 1 kPa for dry wall
*Carpet+Raised floor+Ceiling+Services
Residential/ Hospital - 2.0 kPa + 2.5 kPa (approx)
*Tiles+Screed+Ceiling+Services
Flat Roof/ External Terrace - 3.3 kPa
For Solid Block,
Light weight Roof - 0.7 kPa For Lightweight Block
1.5
WIND LOAD:
Vb will be given in the paper
2.2.2.1 General
The site wind speed Vs for any particular direction should be calculated from where
Vs = Vb × Sa × Sd × Ss × Sp
Assume Sa, attitude factor - 1

Sd = 1, unknown direction
Ss = 1
sp = 1for 50 years return period
Then Vs = Vb
2.2.3 Effective wind speed
2.2.3.1 The effective wind speed Ve should be calculated from:
Ve = Vs × Sb
where
Vs is the site wind speed obtained from 2.2.2, for the range Ú = ±45° around the notional orthogonal
wind directions defined with the pressure coefficient data for each form of building;
Sb is the terrain and building factor obtained from 2.2.3.3.
Table 4 — Factor Sb for standard method

Site in country or up to 2 km into town Site in town, extending U 2 km upwind from the site
Effective height Closest distance to sea upwind Effective height Closest distance to sea upwind
He He
km km
m k 0.1 2 10 U 100 m 2 10 U 100
k2 1.48 1.40 1.35 1.26 k2 1.18 1.15 1.07
5 1.65 1.62 1.57 1.45 5 1.50 1.45 1.36
10 1.78 1.78 1.73 1.62 10 1.73 1.69 1.58
15 1.85 1.85 1.82 1.71 15 1.85 1.82 1.71
20 1.90 1.90 1.89 1.77 20 1.90 1.89 1.77
30 1.96 1.96 1.96 1.85 30 1.96 1.96 1.85
50 2.04 2.04 2.04 1.95 50 2.04 2.04 1.95
100 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.07 100 2.12 2.12 2.07
NOTE 1 Interpolation may be used within each table.
NOTE 2 The figures in this table have been derived from reference [5].
NOTE 3 Values assume a diagonal dimension a = 5 m.
direction
NOTE 4 Ifused.
He > 100 m use the directional method of Section 3.
2.1.2 Dynamic pressure

2.1.2.1 The value of the dynamic pressure qs of the standard method is given by
qs = 0.613Ve2
where
qs is the dynamic pressure (in Pa3));
Ve is the effective wind speed from 2.2.3 (in m/s).
2.1.3.3 Net surface pressures

The net pressure p acting across a surface is given by the following.
a) For enclosed buildings
p = pe – pi
2.1.3.1 External surface pressures

The pressure acting on the external surface of a building pe is given by
pe = qsCpeCa
where
qs is the dynamic pressure from 2.1.2;
Cpe is the external pressure coefficient for the building surface given in 2.4 and 2.5;
Ca is the size effect factor for external pressures defined in 2.1.3.4.
2.1.3.2 Internal surface pressures

The pressure acting on the internal surface of a building, pi, is given by
pi = qsCpiCa
where
qs is the dynamic pressure from 2.1.2;
Cpi is the internal pressure coefficient for the building given in 2.6;
Ca is the size effect factor for internal pressures defined in 2.1.3.4.
Key to lines on Figure 4
Effective height Site in country: closest distance to sea Site in town: closest distance to sea
He
(km) (km)
m 0 to < 2 2 to < 10 10 to < 100 U 100 2 to < 10 10 to < 100 U100
k2 A B B B C C C
> 2 to 5 A B B B C C C
> 5 to 10 A A B B A C C
> 10 to 15 A A B B A B B
> 15 to 20 A A B B A B B
> 20 to 30 A A A B A A B
> 30 to 50 A A A B A A B
> 50 A A A B A A B
Figure 4 — Size effect factor Ca of standard method

D
WIND a= H2+D2
H
Table 5 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for vertical walls

Vertical wall face Span ratio of building Vertical wall face Exposure case
D/H k 1 D/H U 4 Isolated Funnelling
Windward (front) +0.85 +0.6 Side Zone A –1.3 –1.6
Leeward (rear) –0.5 –0.5 Zone B –0.8 –0.9
Zone C –0.5 –0.9
NOTE Interpolation may be used in the range 1 < D/H < 4. See 2.4.1.4 for interpolation between isolated and funnelling.
To calculate the interpolation , Cpe = 0.933 - 0.083D/H

2.4.6 Circular-plan buildings
The distribution of external pressure coefficient around the periphery of a circular-plan building is given
in Table 7. These pressure coefficients are also applicable to silos, tanks, stacks and chimneys.
Table 7 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for walls of circular-plan buildings
Position on periphery Surface rough or with projections Surface smooth
Ú H/d U 10 H/d k 2.5 H/d U 10 H/d k 2.5
0° +1.0 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0

10° +0.9 +0.9 +0.9 +0.9
20° +0.7 +0.7 +0.7 +0.7
30° +0.4 +0.4 +0.35 +0.35
40° 0 0 0 0
50° –0.5 –0.4 –0.7 –0.5
60° –0.95 –0.8 –1.2 –1.05
70° –1.25 –1.1 –1.4 –1.25
80° –1.2 –1.05 –1.45 –1.3
90° –1.0 –0.85 –1.4 –1.2
100° –0.8 –0.65 –1.1 –0.85
120° –0.5 –0.35 –0.6 –0.4
140° –0.4 –0.3 –0.35 –0.25
160° –0.4 –0.3 –0.35 –0.25
180° –0.4 –0.3 –0.35 –0.25
NOTE 1 Interpolation may be used in the range 2.5 < H/d < 10.
NOTE 2 Valid for diameters greater than d = 1 m.
NOTE 3 The position on the periphery at Ú = 40° where Cpe = 0 is a region where the pressure will change rapidly with time,
due to fluctuations in wind direction caused by atmospheric turbulence, over the range Cpe = ±0.7. It is therefore the region with
the highest risk of fatigue damage to cladding fixings.
Figure 16 — Key for flat roofs
The roof should be subdivided into zones behind each upwind eaves/verge as shown in Figure 16 for a
rectangular roof. The loaded zones, shown in Figure 16, are defined in terms of the scaling length b given
by b = B or b = 2H, whichever is the smaller, where B is the crosswind breadth of the building, which is
equal to W or L, depending on the wind direction being considered, as defined in Figure 16a), and H is the
height of the wall, including any parapet.
Table 8 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for flat roofs of buildings
Flat roof type Zone
A B C D
Sharp eaves –2.0 –1.4 –0.7 ±0.2
With parapets h/b = 0.05 –1.9 –1.3 –0.7 ±0.2
h/b = 0.1 –1.85 –1.3 –0.7 ±0.2
h/b U 0.2 –1.4 –1.0 –0.7 ±0.2
Curved eaves r/b = 0.05 –1.05 –1.2 –0.4 ±0.2
r/b = 0.1 –0.75 –0.8 –0.3 ±0.2
r/b = 0.2 –0.55 –0.55 –0.3 ±0.2
Mansard eaves µ = 30° –0.95 –1.0 –0.3 ±0.2
µ = 45° –1.2 –1.3 –0.4 ±0.2
µ = 60° –1.35 –1.25 –0.6 ±0.2
NOTE 1 For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, interpolation may be used for intermediate values of h/b and r/b.
NOTE 2 For roofs with mansard eaves, interpolation between µ = 30° and µ = 60° may be used. For µ > 60° interpolate between
the values for µ = 60° and the values for flat roofs with sharp eaves.
NOTE 3 In zone D, where both positive and negative values are given, both values should be considered.
NOTE 4 Values of coefficients for other wind directions are given in 3.3.2.
NOTE 5 For pitched roofs with curved or mansard eaves, the values in this table may be compared with the appropriate values
in Table 9, Table 10 or Table 11 and the least negative values used.
Figure 19 — Key for monopitch roofs

Figure 20 — Key for duopitch roofs
Table 9 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for monopitch roofs of buildings
Pitch angle µ Zone for Ú = 0° Zone for Ú = 90° Zone for Ú = 180°
A B C AU AL B C D A B C
5° –1.8 –1.2 –0.6 –2.2 –2.1 –1.1 –0.7 –0.7 –2.4 –1.1 –0.8
+0.0 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0 +0.0
15° –1.1 –0.8 –0.4 –2.6 –1.6 –1.1 –0.8 –0.8 –2.6 –1.0 –0.9
+0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.2
30° –0.5 –0.5 –0.2 –1.7 –1.3 –1.2 –1.0 –0.8 –1.7 –1.0 –0.9
+0.8 +0.5 +0.4 +0.5 +0.5 +0.4 +0.3 +0.2
45° –0.0 –0.0 –0.0 –1.5 –1.3 –1.2 –1.0 –0.9 –0.9 –0.8 –0.9
+0.8 +0.6 +0.7 +0.6 +0.6 +0.5 +0.4 +0.3
60° –1.2 –1.2 –1.2 –0.4 –0.2 –1.0 –0.7 –0.7
+0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.7 +0.7 +0.7 +0.5 +0.5
75° –1.2 –1.2 –1.2 –0.4 –0.2 –1.1 –0.7 –0.7
+0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.7 +0.6
NOTE 1 At Ú = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values in the range of pitch angles +5° < µ < +45°.
At Ú = 90° the pressure changes between positive and negative with fluctuations of wind direction. In these cases two sets of values
are given and they should be treated as separate load cases.
NOTE 2 Interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values with the same sign.
Table 10 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for duopitch roofs of buildings

Pitch angle µ Zone for Ú = 0° Zone for Ú = 90°
A B C E F G A B C D
–45° –0.9 –0.8 –0.9 –1.1 –0.7 –0.7 –1.5 –1.3 –1.0 –0.9
–30° –1.7 –1.0 –0.9 –0.8 –0.7 –0.7 –1.7 –1.3 –1.0 –0.8
–15° –2.6 –1.0 –0.9 –0.7 –0.5 –0.5 –2.6 –1.4 –0.8 –0.8
–5° –2.4 –1.2 –0.8 –0.5 –0.3 –0.5 –2.2 –1.5 –0.7 –0.7
+5° –1.8 –1.2 –0.6 –0.9 –0.3 –0.4 –2.0 –1.1 –0.6 –0.5
+0.0 +0.0 +0.0 –0.9 –0.3 –0.4
+15° –1.1 –0.8 –0.4 –1.3 –0.9 –0.5 –1.6 –1.5 –0.6 –0.4
+0.2 +0.2 +0.2 –1.3 –0.9 –0.5
+30° –0.5 –0.5 –0.2 –0.9 –0.5 –0.5 –1.2 –1.1 –0.6 –0.5
+0.8 +0.5 +0.4 –0.9 –0.5 –0.5
+45° –0.0 –0.0 –0.0 –0.4 –0.3 –0.3 –1.2 –1.2 –0.6 –0.4
+0.8 +0.6 +0.7 –0.4 –0.3 –0.3
+60° +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 –0.8 –0.7 –0.6 –1.2 –1.2 –0.7 –0.6
+75° +0.8 +0.8 +0.8 –0.9 –0.6 –0.8 –1.2 –1.2 –1.15 –0.6
NOTE 1 At Ú = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values in the range of pitch angles +5° < µ < +45°.
Two sets of values are given at these pitch angles and they should be treated as separate load cases.
NOTE 2 Interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values with the same sign. Between pitch angles +5°
and –5°interpolation is not permitted and the data for flat roofs in 2.5.1 should be used instead.
Table 16 — Internal pressure coefficients Cpi for enclosed buildings

Type of walls Cpi
Two opposite walls equally permeable; other faces impermeable
— Wind normal to permeable face +0.2
— Wind normal to impermeable face –0.3
Four walls equally permeable; roof impermeable –0.3
2.6.1.2
2.6.2 Where anwith
Buildings enclosed building
dominant is subdivided into rooms with internal doors which are not at least
openings
An opening will be dominant, and control the internal pressure coefficients, when its area is equal to, or
(c) BSI
greater than, twice the sum of the openings in other faces which contribute porosity to the internal volume
containing the opening.4)
Table
Internal 17 —coefficients
pressure Internal pressure coefficients
C are given in Table 17Cpi
asfor buildings
a fraction with
of the dominant
average openings
external pressure C
Ratio of dominant opening area to sum of remaining Cpi
openings and distributed porosities
2 0.75 × Cpe
3 0.9 × Cpe
2.1.3.6 Overall loads
The overall load P on a building is taken as the sum of the loads on individual surfaces with allowances for
non-simultaneous action between faces and for mildly dynamic response.
The overall horizontal loads are given by
P = 0.85(CPfront – CPrear) (1 + Cr) (7)
where
CPfront is the horizontal component of surface load summed over the windward-facing walls and roofs;
CPrear is the horizontal component of surface load summed over the leeward-facing walls and roofs;
Cr is the dynamic augmentation factor from 1.6.1;
Figure 3 — Dynamic augmentation factor Cr

construction of the building.
The dynamic augmentation factor Cr is given for typical buildings in Figure 3.
Table 1 — Building-type factor Kb
Type of building Kb
Welded steel unclad flames 8
Bolted steel and reinforced concrete unclad frames 4
Portal sheds and similar light structures with few internal walls 2
Framed buildings with structural walls around lifts and stairs only 1
(e.g. office buildings of open plan or with partitioning)
Framed buildings with structural walls around lifts and stairs with additional 0.5
masonry subdivision walls (e.g. apartment buildings), buildings of masonry
construction and timber-framed housing
LOAD COMBINATIONS:
Partial safety factors for loads (Values in brackets are for H.K.)
Load combination Load type

(including earth and water Dead, Gk Imposed, Qk Earth and
Wind W k
loading where present) adverse beneficial adverse beneficial water, En
1. Dead and imposed 1.4 (1.5) 1.0 1.6 (1.7) 0 1.4* -
2. Dead and wind 1.4 1.0 - - 1.4* 1.4
3. Dead, wind and imposed 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
* For pressures arising from accidental head of water at ground level, a partial factor of 1.2 may
be used.
Note : The HK dead & imposed factors can be reduced to 1.4 & 1.6 provided the procedure
outlined in - PNAP 18F is followed.
The 'adverse' and 'beneficial' factors should be used so as to produce the most onerous
condition. ULS:
1.4D+1.4SD+1.6L+1.2H+1.0Hw
1D+1SD+1.4W+1.2H+1.0Hw
1.4D+A.4SD+14W+1.2H+1.0Hw
1.2D+1.2SD+1.2L+1.2W+1.2H+1.0Hw
PRELIMINARY
SIZING-
CONCRETE
FIRE RESISTANCE
If no information is given, use 2 hrs fire rating for any office, residential
and commercial buildings
Table 3.4 — Nominal cover to all reinforcement (including links) to meet specified periods of
fire resistance (see NOTE 1 and NOTE 2)
Fire resistance Nominal cover
mm
Beams a Floors Ribs Columnsa
Simply Continuous Simply Continuous Simply Continuous
supported supported supported
h
0.5 20b 20b 20b 20b 20b 20b 20b
1 20b 20b 20 20 20 20b 20b
1.5 20 20b 25 20 35 20 20
2 40 30 35 25 45 35 25
3 60 40 45 35 55 45 25
4 70 50 55 45 65 55 25
NOTE 1 The nominal covers given relate specifically to the minimum member dimensions given in Figure 3.2. Guidance on
increased covers necessary if smaller members are used is given in Section 4 of BS 8110-2:1985.
NOTE 2 Cases that lie below the bold line require attention to the additional measures necessary to reduce the risks of spalling
(see Section 4 of BS 8110-2:1985).
a For the purposes of assessing a nominal cover for beams and columns, the cover to main bars which would have been obtained
from Table 4.2 and Table 4.3 of BS 8110-2:1985 has been reduced by a notional allowance for stirrups of 10 mm to cover the
range 8 mm to 12 mm (see also 3.3.6).
b These covers may be reduced to 15 mm provided that the nominal maximum size of aggregate does not exceed 15 mm
(see 3.3.1.3).
Fire Minimum Rib Minimum Column width (b) Minimum wall thickness
resistance beam width(b) thickness of
width (b) floors (h) Fully 50 % One face p < 0.4 % 0.4 % < p < 1 % p>1%
exposed exposed exposed
h mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.5 200 125 75 150 125 100 150 100 75

1 200 125 95 200 160 120 150 120 75
1.5 200 125 110 250 200 140 175 140 100
2 200 125 125 300 200 160 — 160 100
3 240 150 150 400 300 200 — 200 150
4 280 175 170 450 350 240 — 240 180
NOTE 1 These minimum dimensions relate specifically to the covers given in Table 3.4 and Table 4.9.
NOTE 2 p is the area of steel relative to that of concrete.
Figure 3.2 — Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete members for fire resistance
Table 3.3 — Nominal cover to all reinforcement (including links) to meet durability
requirements (see NOTE 1)
Conditions of exposure Nominal cover
FOR COLUMNS
(see 3.3.4) mm
Mild 25 20 20a 20a 20a

Moderate — 35 30 25 20
Severe — — 40 30 25
Very severe — — 50b 40b 30
Most severe — — — — 50
Abrasive — — — See NOTE 3 See NOTE 3
Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum cement content (kg/m3) 275 300 325 350 400
Lowest grade of concrete C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
NOTE 1 This table relates to normal-weight aggregate of 20 mm nominal size. Adjustments to minimum cement contents for
SLABS
Choosing the right slab system
2.4.2 THE CHOICE

Concrete floor slabs: typical economic span ranges
LONGER SPAN, m
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0
RC beams with ribbed or

solid one-way RC slabs
RC flat slabs
RC troughed slabs
RC band beams with solid or

ribbed one-way RC slabs
Two-way RC slabs with

RC beams
RC waffle slabs with,

beyond 12 m, RC beams
Precast: hollow core slabs

with precast (or RC) beams
PT band beams with solid or

ribbed one-way PT slabs
PT flat slabs
KEY
Square panels, aspect ratio 1.0
Rectangular panels, aspect ratio 1.25
Rectangular panels, aspect ratio 1.5
RC = reinforced concrete PT = post-tensioned concrete
Note: All subject to market conditions and project specific requirements
Either use values from below table or economic concrete book design
The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.14 may be used for spans in the range 4 to 10 m.
Table 2.14
Span-to-depth ratios for one-way spanning slabs
Imposed load, Qk Single span Multiple span Cantilever
(kN/m2)
2.5 27 32 10
5.0 25 30 9
7.5 24 28 8
10.0 23 27 7
The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.15 may be used where the longest span is in the range 4 to 12 m.
Table 2.15
Span-to-depth ratios for two-way spanning slabs
Imposed load, 1:1 panel 2:1 panel (based on shorter span)
Qk (kN/m2)
Single span Multiple span Single span Multiple span
2.5 34 39 30 34
5.0 32 37 28 32
7.5 30 35 26 30
10.0 28 34 25 29
The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.16 may be used where the spans are in the range 4 to 10 m.
Table 2.16
Span-to-depth ratios for flat slabs
Imposed load, Qk (kN/m2) Multiple span
2.5 28
5.0 26
7.5 25
10.0 23
Note
This table assumes a 3 x 3 bay layout. Where there are only 2 bays in one direction the ratio will need to
be decreased.
Punching shear is often a governing criterion for flat slabs and should be checked at the initial
stages of design. Table 2.17 gives the maximum floor area for a selection of imposed loads and
column sizes. It assumes a superimposed dead load of 1.5 kN/m2, internal conditions, a value for
vc of 0.75 N/mm2, with v limited to 1.6vc.
Table 2.17
Punching shear: maximum panel areas for flat slabs (m2)
Overall slab Imposed load (kN/m2) Overall slab Imposed load (kN/m2)
depth, h (mm) depth, h (mm)
2.5 5.0 7.5 10 2.5 5.0 7.5 10
300 x 300 column 450 x 450 column
200 38.6 29.4 23.8 19.9 200 46.2 35.2 28.4 23.9
225 46.2 35.7 29.1 24.6 225 54.5 42.1 34.3 29.0
250 54.0 42.3 34.8 29.5 250 62.8 49.3 40.5 34.4
275 59.7 47.3 39.2 33.5 275 68.9 54.6 45.3 38.6
300 67.7 54.3 45.3 38.9 300 77.4 62.1 51.8 44.4
325 75.9 61.4 51.6 44.5 325 86.0 69.6 58.5 50.4
350 x 350 column 500 x 500 column
200 41.1 31.3 25.3 21.2 200 48.7 37.1 30.0 25.2
225 49.0 37.9 30.9 26.1 225 57.2 44.2 36.1 30.5
250 56.9 44.6 36.7 31.2 250 65.8 51.6 42.4 36.0
275 62.8 49.8 41.2 35.2 275 71.9 57.1 47.3 40.4
300 70.9 56.9 47.5 40.7 300 80.6 64.6 53.9 46.3
325 79.2 64.2 53.9 46.5 325 89.4 72.4 60.8 52.4
400 x 400 column Notes
200 43.7 33.3 26.9 22.5 1 Superimposed load of 1.5 kN/m2 included.
2 Cover of 25 mm has been assumed.
225 51.7 40.0 32.6 27.5
3 vc for main reinforcement is 0.75 N/mm2.
250 59.9 46.9 38.6 32.8 4 v for punching reinforcement is limited to 1.6 vc.
5 Shear links should be provided in accordance
275 65.8 52.2 43.3 36.9
with BS 8110.
300 74.2 59.5 49.6 42.6
325 82.6 66.9 56.2 48.5
Superimposed dead
2
How to use this table
load =1.5 kN/m
Imposed load
For example:
300 x 300 column
250 thick slab
h 5 kN/m2 imposed load
From table maximum area that
can be supported = 42.3 m2
(e.g. 6.5 x 6.5 m grid)
Square column
Ribbed slabs should be orientated with the ribs running parallel to the longest edge. The most
economic ratio of the spans is 4:3.
Table 2.18
Span-to-depth ratios for ribbed slabs
Imposed load, Supported by beamsa Ribs integral
Qk (kN/m2) with band beam
Single span Multiple span
<11 m
<12 m <10 m 10 – 12 m
2.5 24 29 27 25
5.0 21 27 24 23
7.5 19 25 21 21
10.0 17 23 17 18
Key
a Refer to Section 2.10.1 to determine depth of beams
Waffle slabs
Table 2.19
Span-to-depth ratios for waffle slabs
Imposed load, Qk (kN/m2) 1:1 panel 1.5:1 panel
(depth based on shorter span)
Multiple span Multiple span
2.5 23 17
5.0 21 16
7.5 19 15
10.0 18 14
Table 2.20 can be used for initial sizing of post-tensioned slabs, where the spans are in the range
6 to 13 m.
Table 2.20
Span-to-depth ratios for post-tensioned slabs and beams
Imposed Flat slab Flat slab with band Ribbed Waffle slab One-way slab on
load, Qk beams slab (with solid deep beam
(kN/m2) slab at
Slab Beam column head) Slab Beam
2.5 40 45 25 30 28 42 18
5.0 36 40 22 27 26 38 16
10.0 30 35 18 24 23 34 13
Voided slab Flat slab with drop
Slab depth (mm) 500
400
Owen Brooker
30019.09.06
Figure 2.13
Version 2
200
100
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Span (m)
Key
Note post-tensioned Characteristic imposed load (IL)
Solid 2 2
tt with
2
topping 2
Depth excludes
Precast topping
hollow core slab 2.5 kN/m 5.0 kN/m Composite
7.5 kN/m
hollow
10.0 kN/m
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.12
Precast hollowcore slabs
From economic concrete design book
#Thickness provided for C35 concrete

# loads are given in characteristic load
# Loads are based on the 1.5 kPa SDL
# if SDL varies from 1.5 kPa LL to be adjusted.
# 2 kPa SDL means ,
# 1.4/1.6*(2-1.5) = 0.44 kPa to be added to LL
using Table: 8x6m panels

Check for Span = 6m , SDL= 4 kPa, lL = 4 kPa
To check the table,Adjusted loads
SDL = 1.5
LL = 4+1.4/1.6*(4-1.5) = 6.2 kPa
t = 192+12/2.5*(1.2) = 197.76 ~ 200mm
Fire resistance = 2 hr, add 20mm

Slab thickness =220 mm
MULTIPLE SPAN, m 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
THICKNESS, mm
IL = 2.5 kN/m2 125 150 178 208 244 282 318 362 416
IL = 5.0 kN/m2 134 162 192 226 262 300 340 386 438
IL = 7.5 kN/m2 142 172 204 240 278 318 358 406 462
IL = 10.0 kN/m2 148 180 214 250 290 332 374 422 482
ULTIMATE LOAD TO SUPPORTING BEAMS, INTERNAL (END), kN/m

BEAMS
Table 2.13
Span-to-depth ratios for beams
Condition Span-to-depth ratio
Simply supported 15
End-bay 17
Cantilever 6
from previous example,

Beam Span = 8m
Load on Beam = 6*(1.4*4+1.4*0.22*24+1.6*4) =
113 kN/m
selecting 600mm
4.0
wide
5.0
beam,
6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
SPAN, m
KEY Ultimate applied udl
= 50 kN/m = 100 kN/m = 200 kN/m = 400 kN/m
MULTIPLE SPAN, m 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
DEPTH, mm
uaudl = 50 kN/m 252 258 298 340 376 418 456 498 602
uaudl = 100 kN/m 278 328 376 426 496 618 738 880
uaudl = 200 kN/m 356 426 540 704 876
uaudl = 400 kN/m 480 702 952
D = 420+(380/100*13) = 469.4mm + 5mm for 2 hrs fire rating

Allow 600mm (W) x 475mm (D) beam
TRANSFER BEAMS
d = √V, where V is in newtons (N) for shear stress of 2 N/mm2
limit to this
d = √(V/2) for shear stress of 4 N/mm2
COLUMNS
Ultimate load = 113 kN/m*8+0.6*0.475*8*24 = 959 kN
Total floor 4
Total Load = 959*4 = 3836 kN
2 2
Column area where fcu = 35 N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm is as follows (N is axial force in
Newtons):-
1% steel : Area = N/15

Approximate method for allowing for moments: multiply the axial load from the floor
immediately above the column being considered) by:
1.25-interior columns
1.50-edge columns
2.00-corner columns
but keep the columns to constant size for the top two storeys.
Ultimate resistance of braced stocky columns (fcu = 35)
Area of
Column size & braced, clear storey height limit (mm)
section p=1% p=2% p=3% p=4%*
2
(mm x (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
< 3530 < 4411 < 5294 < 6176 < 7059 3
10 )
200 x 450 250 x 360 300 x 300 90 1369 1635 1901 2168
200 x 525 250 x 420 300 x 350 105 1597 1908 2218 2529
200 x 615 250 x 490 300 x 410 350 x 350 122.5 1863 2225 2588 2950
200 x 700 250 x 560 300 x 470 350 x 400 140 2129 2543 2958 3372
200 x 800 250 x 640 300 x 540 350 x 460 400 x 400 160 2433 2907 3380 3854
200 x 900 250 x 720 300 x 600 350 x 520 400 x 450 180 2737 3270 3803 4335
200 x1000 250 x 800 300 x 670 350 x 575 400 x 500 200 3041 3633 4225 4817
200 x1200 250 x 960 300 x 800 350 x 690 400 x 600 240 3650 4360 5070 5781
* Note : Scheme design based on 4% rebar should be avoided if possible.
Table 2.21
Initial sizing for internal square columns (mm)
Percentage of Ultimate axial load, kN (Class C28/35 concrete)
reinforcement
1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8000 10000
1.0% 240 295 345 420 485 540 595 685 765
2.0% 225 270 310 380 440 490 540 620 695
3.0% 225 250 285 350 405 455 500 570 640
4.0% 225 230 270 330 380 425 465 535 595
Table 2.22
Initial sizing for square edge columns (mm)
Ultimate axial load, kN (3% rebar, class C28/35 concrete)
400 800 1200 1600 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
2 storeys 230 305 380 450 505
3 storeys 225 235 280 340 400 505 575
4 storeys 225 225 260 305 345 435 505 555
6 storeys 225 225 250 280 315 395 455 515 560
Table 2.23
Initial sizing for square corner columns (mm)
Ultimate axial load, kN (3% rebar, class C28/35 concrete)
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 3000
2 storeys 265 315 410 485 555 – – – –
3 storeys 245 255 305 375 435 485 574 – –
4 storeys 245 235 270 300 360 410 490 559 –
6 storeys 240 225 225 240 275 315 385 450 569
WALLS
Typical wall thickness
At least 200mm thick (usually 300mm) for normal loads - if less than 1000mm high then 150mm
thick is usually allowable.
Internal walls: Thickness > Height/15 (unrestrained at top)

Thickness > Height/30 (restrained at top)
2
Minimum size of elements
6
Where different, values for Hong Kong are in brackets.
Table 2.24
Recommended minimum thicknesses for shear walls
Thickness (mm) Maximum clear height (m)

200 3.5
215 3.8
250 4.4
300 5.3
Table 4.1 Wall types for temporary and permanent soil support in basement construction
Wall construction Temporary/permanent Typical Typical Usual installation Advantages/disadvantages Remarks
support wall depth retained height tolerance: verticality
King post wall: Usually only King posts 3.5m as 1:100 Generally only used where (Also known as post-and-lagging
steel UC soldiers temporary support typically cantilever groundwater is below or Berlinoise.) Where good
and timber or r.c. 6 to 20m 12 to 15m formationlevel. Not feasible construction tolerances apply
(or p.c./p-s.c. + anchored in soft and loose soils. the wall surface may, be
grouting) skin used as a permanent back
shoring
wall/lagging shutter to an r.c. wall.
Steel sheet piling Temporary or Typically 8 to 12m 1:75 Vibration and noise can be Re-use of sheet piles
permanent support 10 to 15m. as single overcome in some soils will often determine
(e.g. in car park Max pile propped wall by use of hydraulic cost viability of
basements). length ~30m. press equipment. Risk temporary sheet piling.
of declutching by obstructions.
R.C. Piles Temporary and 12 to 20m 6 to 15m, 1:100 Cheapest form of r.c. piles Can be used with jet grouting
Contiguous piles permanent support propped when installed by cfa to provide permanent water
(where r.c. facing or anchored equipment. Not a water and soil exclusion.
wall is used). resistant wall.
R.C. Piles Temporary and 12 to 20m 6 to 15m, 1:125 The use of a weak concrete May only be considered water
Hard/soft secant permanent support, propped or mix to allow economical resistant in the short term.
see note regarding anchored excavation of secant by male
durability. piles may also have durability
disadvantages long term.
R.C. Piles The use of a stronger mix for
Hard/firm secant female piles than that used
As for hard/soft secant for hard/soft secants may
improve water resistance and
durability long term.
R.C. Piles Temporary and 15 to 30m 10 to 20m, 1:125 to 1:200 Depth limited by vertical Female pile may be reinforced
Hard/hard secant permanent support, propped or tolerances which influence with UB section, male by UB
usually permanent. anchored depth of cut secant joint, or circular rebar cage. Shear
and their water resistance. plates may be welded to UBs
Avoids the use of slurry. before insertion for
floor connections.
Diaphragm walls Permanent 15 to 30m 12 to 25m, 1:125 Heavy installation plant and Solution to deep walls in
Installed by grab (if temporary, propped or increasing difficulties in variable soil conditions with
then left in place) anchored disposal of slurry pose water retention. Difficulties
disadvantages. may arise with excavation of
obstructions, natural or
otherwise. The wall surface
Diaphragm walls Permanent 15 to 50m 12 to 35m, 1:400 Improved installation
may serve as the final finished
Installed by cutter (if temporary, propped or tolerances but minimum job
surface for some applications.
then left in place) anchored size influenced by large
mobilisation and
demobilisation costs.
Water tight structure
Steel sheet piling
clay with no ground water,
insitu concrete lining or jet
grouting required
Contiguous bored pile wall
granular soil , no ground

Secant pile wall
water, depth 12m-20m
Soft piles
granular soil, clay,ground
water,lining wall required
where ground water
presents
Interlocking pile wall
very deep structure,

Diaphragm wall upto 60m
wo (C+A or C+B), of three types:
A Structure requiring the protection of an
King post - impervious membrane (i.e. tanked)
B Structure without a membrane (i.e. integral)
Used as temporary conditions C Drained cavity (for use with Type A or Type B
structure or alone)
Table 11.1 Combinations of water-resisting methods
(c) Pin piles
Water-resisting Type A Neither A nor B Type B
methods
(form of protection)
Type A or B or C alone A: With membrane C: Drained cavity B: Integral: without

alone (avoid) membrane
Type C with A or B CA: Drained cavity CB: Drained cavity:

Void with membrane without membrane
Pin piles
Table 11.2 Provisions for Performance Grades
From Table 1 of BS 8102: 199011.11 Abbreviated
Grade Basement usage Performance Form of protection commentary
level* given by CIRIA
Report 3911.10
(d) Partial soil bearing slab
Grade 1 Car-parking; plant Some seepage Type B with Visible water
Basic rooms (excluding. and damp patches RC design to and BS 8110 crack
utility electrical equipment); tolerable BS 811011.1. width may not be
workshops acceptable. May
not meet Building
Regulations for
workshops. Beware
chemicals in
groundwater.
Void Grade 2 Workshops and plant No water penetration Type A or Type B Membranes in
Better rooms requiring drier but moisture vapour with RC design multiple layers with
Soil stress utility environment; retail tolerable to BS 800711.3. well lapped joints.
storage Requires no serious
defects and higher
grade of supervision.
(e) Extend into stronger soil Beware chemicals
in groundwater.
Grade 3 Ventilated residential Dry environment Type A or Type B As Grade 2. In highly

Habitable and working, incl. with RC design to permeable ground,
offices, restaurants, BS 8007, plus Type C multi-element systems
leisure centres with wall and floor (possibly including
cavities and DPM. active precautions,
and/or permanent
and maintainable
under-drainage)
Void probably necessary.
Grade 4 Archives and stores Totally dry Type A or Type B with As Grade 3.
Special requiring controlled environment RC design to BS 8007
environment and a vapour-proof
membrane, plus
Stronger soil Type C with ventilated
wall cavity and
vapour barrier to
inner skin and floor
cavity with DPM.
* See CIRIA Report 13911.9 for limits on environmental parameters

FOUNDATIONS
Choosing a right foundation option below
Table 2.2
Foundation solutions
Soil conditions Suitable foundations Comments
Rock, hard sound chalk, sand or Shallow foundations: strips, pads, rafts Avoid the base of the foundation being below groundwater level
gravel to great depth Minimum depth to underside of foundation to avoid frost heave:
450 mm
Deep foundation may be required where there are uplift conditions
Uniform firm and stiff clays to Shallow foundations: strips, pads, rafts Minimum depth to protect against shrinkage/heave – 900 mm
great depth, without significant Trench fill can be economic
trees in the vicinity
Uniform firm and stiff clays to Options: Refer to Table 2.3 for strip foundation depths in proximity of trees
great depth, where vegetation 1. Piles Use suspended floors with void formers
could impact on the shrinkage/ 2. Deep trench fill (strips)
expansion of the clay 3. Rafts
4. Piers
Firm clay to shallow depth over For lightweight structures, strips, pads or For shallow foundations ensure the load is distributed over a
soft clay to great depth rafts may be appropriate large enough area for the soft clay to support it
For heavy structures deep foundations
will be required
Loose sand to great depth Options: Vibration and groundwater changes can induce settlement after
1. Raft construction
2. Ground improvement with shallow Driven piles will increase the density of the sand
foundations
3. Piles
Soft clay Options: Strip foundations may need reinforcement
1. Piles Service entries into building should be flexible
2. Wide strip foundation Rafts may not be suitable for highly shrinkable soils
3. Rafts
4. Ground improvement with shallow
foundations
Peat Options: Suitable piles: bored in-situ with casing, driven in-situ, driven precast
1. Piles Allow for drag on piles caused by peat consolidation
2. Ground improvement Soils may be acidic
Fill Options: Specially selected and well compacted fill will have greater load
1. Piles bearing capacity
2. Wide strip foundation Service entries into building should be flexible
3. Rafts Consider effects of contaminants in the fill
4. Ground improvement with shallow
foundations
5. Piers
Clay, increasing in strength as Piles preferred, but a raft may be suitable Settlement is likely to govern the pile design
depth increases (from soft to for a basement
stiff clay)
Soft clay over rock at depth Use deep foundations Negative skin friction may add to the loads on piles
Dense sand or stiff clay over Deep foundations generally required
layer of soft clay, over stiff clay except for light loads. Ground
to great depth improvement technique could be used
with shallow foundations.
Mining and subsidence areas Slip-plane raft Piles not suitable
Sloping site Foundations to suit soil conditions Consider overall stability as well as local stability
but the effects of the slope should be Groundwater will increase instability of site
considered
Site with high groundwater level All foundation types may be appropriate In sand and gravel keep foundations above groundwater level
Dewatering may be used, but consider Consider uplift forces
affects on surrounding structures Stability of excavations should be considered
Bored piles require casing or support fluid
Continuous flight auger piles suitable
Ground conditions may be aggressive
FOUNDATIONS
Simplified equations for allowable bearing capacity after Brinch
Hansen
For very preliminary design, Terzaghi’s equation can be simplified for uniform soil in thick
layers.
Spread footing on clay
qallowable ⫽ 2Cu Spread footing on undrained cohesive soil (␥f ⫽ 2.5)
Spread footing on gravel
qallowable ⫽ 10N Pad footing on dry soil (␥f ⫽ 3)
qallowable ⫽ 7N Strip footing on dry soil (␥f ⫽ 3)
qwet allowable ⫽ qallowable /2 Spread foundation at or below the water table
Where N is the SPT value.
Required Area = N/ (2Cu or 10N or 7N)

Required depth = 2.5*column perimeter/N
PILE DESIGN
Bearing Capacity of Single Piles
Qu For equilibrium:
Q u + W = Qb + Q s
Where:
W Qu = ultimate load that can be

Qs applied to pile
Qb = base capacity
Qs = side frictional resistance
W = weight of pile
Qb See also:
BS 8004: 7.5.3 and
EN 1997−1:2004: 7.6.2.3
base C will be given
3
Single bored piles in clay

average shear strength from
given values
Nc Abc base ␣c As
Qallow ⫽ ␥f base ⫹ ␥f shaft
Where Ab is the area of the pile base, As is the surface area of the pile shaft in the clay, c
is the average value of shear strength over the pile length and is derived from undrained
triaxial tests, where ␣ ⫽ 0.3 to 0.6 depending on the time that the pile boring is left
open. Typically ␣ ⫽ 0.3 for heavily fissured clay and ␣ ⫽ 0.45–0.5 for firm to stiff clays
(e.g. London clay). Nc ⫽ 9 where the embedment of the tip of the pile into the clay is
more than five diameters. The factors of safety are generally taken as 2.5 for the base
and 3.0 for the shaft.
Number of Piles required = N/Q allow

Piles in granular soil
The allowable bearing capacity of a pile in granular material is given by:
Nq*Abqó + Asqó,meanks tan d
Qa =
gf
where
Nq* = pile bearing capacity factor (see Table 3.29)
Ab = area of the pile base
qó = effective overburden pressure
As = surface area of the pile shaft in the granular soil
qó,mean= mean overburden pressure
ks = horizontal coefficient of earth pressure (see Table 3.30)
d = angle of friction between the soil and the pile face (see Table 3.29)
γf = factor of safety (2.5 to 3.0)
Table 3.29
Typical values of pile bearing capacity factor, Nq*
Angle of internal Ratio of pile length/pile diameter
friction, φ (°)
5 20 70
25 16 11 7
30 29 24 20
35 69 53 45
40 175 148 130
Based on charts by Berezantsev for Nq
Angle of Angle of friction between the soil Horizontal coefficient of earth pressure, ks
internal and the pile face, δ (°)
friction, φ (°)
In-situ concrete Precast In-situ Large driven Small driven
piles concrete piles concrete piles piles piles
26 26 23.4 0.393 – 0.562 0.562 – 1.123 0.421 – 0.702
27 27 24.3 0.382 – 0.546 0.546 – 1.092 0.410 – 0.683
28 28 25.2 0.371 – 0.531 0.531 – 1.061 0.398 – 0.663
29 29 26.1 0.361 – 0.515 0.515 – 1.030 0.386 – 0.644
30 30 27.0 0.350 – 0.500 0.500 – 1.000 0.375 – 0.625
31 31 27.0a 0.339 – 0.485 0.485 – 0.970 0.364 – 0.606
32 32 27.0a 0.329 – 0.470 0.470 – 0.940 0.353 – 0.588
33 33 27.0a 0.319 – 0.455 0.455 – 0.911 0.342 – 0.569
34 34 27.0a 0.309 – 0.441 0.441 – 0.882 0.331 – 0.551
35 35 27.0a 0.298 – 0.426 0.426 – 0.853 0.320 – 0.533
36 36 27.0a 0.289 – 0.412 0.412 – 0.824 0.309 – 0.515
37 37 27.0a 0.279 – 0.398 0.398 – 0.796 0.299 – 0.498
38 38 27.0a 0.269 – 0.384 0.384 – 0.769 0.288 – 0.480
39 39 27.0a 0.259 – 0.371 0.371 – 0.741 0.278 – 0.463
40 40 27.0a 0.250 – 0.357 0.357 – 0.714 0.268 – 0.447
41 41 27.0a 0.241 – 0.344 0.344 – 0.688 0.258 – 0.430
42 42 27.0a 0.232 – 0.331 0.331 – 0.662 0.248 – 0.414
43 43 27.0a 0.223 – 0.318 0.318 – 0.636 0.239 – 0.398
44 44 27.0a 0.214 – 0.305 0.305 – 0.611 0.229 – 0.382
45 45 27.0a 0.205 – 0.293 0.293 – 0.586 0.220 – 0.366
46 46 27.0a 0.196 – 0.281 0.281 – 0.561 0.210 – 0.351
Table 3.31
Soil properties for granular soils
Description SPT ‘N’ blows Effective angle of Bulk density (kN/m3)
internal friction, φ´ (°)
Very loose 0–4 26 – 28 <16
Loose 4 – 10 28 – 30 16 – 18
Medium dense 10 – 30 30 – 36 18 – 19
Dense 30 – 50 36 – 42 19 – 21
Very dense >50 42 – 46 21
ROBUSTNESS
Concrete
The requirement of building regulations for disproportionate collapse will
generally be satisfied by providing peripheral and internal ties in
accordance with appropriate clause of BS 8110.
All joints will be monolithic with continuous columns and beams

connected by means of full tension lapping of reinforcement. The column
and pile cap connection will be considered as fixed end
Steel
The structure will comply with BS 5950-1(CLAUSE 2.4.1.5) structural
integrity.Adequate ties will be incorporated into the frame to reduce
possibilities of progressive collapse as required by the building regulations.
All beam to column connections will be secured by minimum 4 no of M20
bolts and end plates, while at column connections to foundations are
pinned with holding down bolts.
CALCULATIONS
- CONCRETE
REBAR AREA
Maximum moments Maximum deflection

Loading condition
P PL3
P RA ⫽ RB ⫽ PL
Mmidspan ⫽ dmidspan ⫽
2 4 48EI
RA RB
When a ⬎ b,
P Pb
RA ⫽ Pab
L Mc ⫽ Pab( L ⫹ b)
a b L dx ⫽ 3a( L ⫹ b)
Pa 27EIL
c RB ⫽
RA RB L a(L ⫹ b)
at x ⫽ from A
3
Loading condition
Reactions Maximum moments Maximum deflection
P P
RA ⫽ RB ⫽ P Mc ⫽ Pa
PL3  3a  a  
3
b a
a dmidspan ⫽  ⫺    
6EI  4L  L  

C C
RA RB
L PL 23PL3
Third points: a ⫽ M ⫽ d ⫽
3 3 648EI
W
W WL 5WL3
RA ⫽ RB ⫽ Mmidspan ⫽ dmidspan ⫽
2 8 384EI
P RA ⫽ P MA ⫽ ⫺Pa Pa3  3b 
dtip ⫽ 1 ⫹ 
3EI  2a 
a b
Pa3
dB ⫽
B C 3EI
RA
L
Loading condition Reactions Maximum moments Maximum deflection

RA ⫽ W ⫺WL WL3
W MA ⫽ dmidspan ⫽
2 8EI
RA B
P RA ⫽ P ⫺ RB ⫺Pb( L2 ⫺ b2 ) Pa3 b2
MA ⫽ dc ⫽ ( 4 L ⫺ a)
2L2 12EIL3
Pa2 (2L ⫹ b)
RB ⫽
a b 2L3 Pb  3b b3 
MC ⫽ 2 ⫺ ⫹ 3 
c 2  L L 
RA RB
W 5W ⫺WL WL3
RA ⫽ MA ⫽ dmax ⫽ at 0.58L from A
8 8 185EI
3W 9WL
RB ⫽ MD ⫽ at 0.62L from A
RA c RB 8 128
P
a b ⫺3Pb Pb Pb2  4 b 
RA ⫽ MA ⫽ dD ⫽ a ⫹ 
2a 2 4EI  3 
RA D RB c
L P  3b  MB ⫽ ⫺Pb ⫽ ⫺2MA ⫺Pa2 b

RB ⫽ a ⫹  dD ⫽ at 0.66a
a  2  27EI
P Pb2 ( L ⫹ 2a) ⫺Pab2 2Pa3 b2
RA ⫽ MA ⫽ dmax ⫽
L3 L2 3EI ( L ⫹ 2a)2
a b
Pb2 ( L ⫹ 2b) ⫺Pba2 L2
C RB ⫽ MB ⫽ when x ⫽
L3 L2 3L ⫺ 2a
RA RB
2Pa2 b2 Pa3 b3
MC ⫽ dc ⫽
L3 3EIL3
a⬎b
W W ⫺WL WL3
RA ⫽ RB ⫽ MA ⫽ MB ⫽ dmidspan ⫽
2 12 384EI
WL
MC ⫽
RA C RB 24
P RA ⫽ P MA ⫽ ⫺Pa Pa3  3b 
dtip ⫽ 1 ⫹ 
3EI  2a 
a b
Pa3
dB ⫽
B C 3EI
RA
L
Strength Reduction factor
Table 3.3 Values of γm for the ultimate limit
state (Table 2.2, BS 8110)
Material/Stress type Partial safety

factor, γ m
Reinforcement 1.15
Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.50
Concrete shear strength without shear 1.25
reinforcement
Concrete bond strength 1.40
Concrete, others (e.g. bearing stress) ≥ 1.50
Multiple Span Moment coefficient

Load Dead load (all spans loaded) Imposed load (maximum of alternate spans loaded or
all spans loaded)
0.125 0.125
0.070 0.070 0.096 0.096
Uniformly distributed
0.100 0.100 0.117 0.117

0.080 0.025 0.080 0.101 0.075 0.101
0.107 0.071 0.107 0.121 0.107 0.121

0.077 0.036 0.036 0.077 0.099 0.081 0.081 0.099
0.105 0.079 0.079 0.105 0.120 0.111 0.111 0.120

0.078 0.033 0.046 0.033 0.078 0.100 0.079 0.086 0.079 0.100
Design shear force factors for continuous beams with approximately equal spans
all spans loaded)
0.375 0.625 0.438 0.625

0.625 0.375 0.625 0.438
0.400 0.500 0.600 0.450 0.583 0.617

0.600 0.500 0.400 0.617 0.583 0.450
0.393 0.536 0.464 0.607 0.446 0.603 0.571 0.621

0.607 0.464 0.536 0.393 0.621 0.571 0.603 0.446
0.395 0.526 0.500 0.474 0.605 0.447 0.598 0.591 0.576 0.620
0.605 0.474 0.500 0.526 0.395 0.620 0.576 0.591 0.598 0.447
Table C.3
Design moment and shear force factors for spans of unequal length
all spans loaded)
Moment
0.277 0.277 0.277 0.277
0.025 0.223 0.025 0.109 0.257 0.109
l 2l l l 2l l
Shear
0.223 1.000 0.777 0.466 1.000 0.534

0.777 1.000 0.223 0.534 1.000 0.466
Moment
0.311 0.311 0.311 0.311
0.357 0.186 0.357 0.373 0.273 0373
2l l 2l 2l l 2l
Shear
0.845 0.500 1.155 0.864 0.500 1.136
1.155 0.500 0.845 1.136 0.500 0.864
BEAMS
Typical Bending Rebar Calculation
Singly Reinforced Member
2
For high-tensile reinforcement: fy = 460 N/mm
2
For mild steel: fy = 250 N/mm
Bending
2
Mu = 0.156 fcubd
If: M < Mu → no compression steel

M
As =
0.87 f y 0.8 d
If: M > Mu → compression steel required
M - 0.15 f cu b d2
As ' =
0.87 f y (d - d′)
Mu
As = + A s'
0.87 f y 0.8 d
where b equals:
Simply Continuous Cantilever

supported
T-Beam bw + L / 5 bw + L / 7.14 bw
L-Beam bw + L / 10 bw + L / 14.29 bw
and ≤ (i) actual flange width, (ii) beam spacing
NOTE: If M > 0.4 fcubfhf(d-0.5hf) for flanged beams, then the neutral axis is in the web
and the above formulae are not correct.
b 0.0035 0.45f cu
b εcu = 0.0035 0.67fcu/γγ mc

Fsc
d′
A ′s x = d /2 s = 0.9x
Fcc
x 0.9x Fcc Neutral
d axis z
ε sc
d
z As
ε st Fst
Section Strains Stress block

Fst
Fig. 3.33 Section with compression reinforcement.
ε st
3.4.4.5 Design formulae for flanged beams where the neutral axis falls below the flange
Provided that the design ultimate moment is less than ¶ffcubd2 and that not more than 10 % of
redistribution has been carried out, the required area of tension steel may be calculated using the following
equation:
equation 1
A flanged beam may be treated as a rectangular beam, of full width, b, when the neutral axis is within
the flange. In this case the moment of resistance in compression of the section is:
MR = 0.45fc u b h f (d – h f /2)
Rectangular beams with overall dimensions b and h 0.002 bh

Flanged beams (web in tension) : bw/b < 0.4 0.0018 bwh
bw/b > 0.4 0.0013 bwh
Flanged beams (flange in tension T - beam 0.0026 bwh
over a continuous support): L - beam 0.0020 bwh
Transverse reinforcement in flanges of flanged beams 0.0015 hf per metre
(may be slab reinforcement) width
Minimum compression reinforcement: Rectangular beam 0.002 bh

Flanged beam web in compression: 0.002 bwh
Maximum reinforcement (tension and compression): 0.04 bwh

Normally main bars in beams should be not less than 16mm diameter.
Deflection
Permissible Span/Depth ratio:
w
Table 3.9 — Basic span/effective depth ratio for rectangular or flanged beams
Support conditions Rectangular section Flanged beams with
bw
----- # 0.3
b
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8
3.4.6.4 Long spans
The above values to be multiplied by the modification factor according to the
reinforcement provided
The design service stress in tension reinforcement in a member may be

estimated from the equation:
2f y A s req 1 redistribution ratio

fs = ------------------- ´ ----
3A s prov
¶b
( 477 – f ) s
Modification factor = 0.55 + ------------------------------------
# 2.0 -
M
120 æ 0.9 + ---------2-ö
è bd ø
Required Span / Depth Ratio = L/d*modification factor > Actual Span/Depth
ratio
The compression reinforcement also influence deflection and the value of span/
depth ratio.
Modification factor for compression reinforcement:
100A 9 s prov æ 100A 9 s provö

M.F =
= 1 + -----------------------
- ¤ 3 + ------------------------
- # 1.5
bd è bd ø
Typical Shear Rebar Calculation
Shear Stress , v = V/bd N/mm2
In any case , shear stress v shall not exceed 0.8sqrt(fcu) or 5 N/mm 2
Shear Capacity:
0.79{100As/(bvd)}% (400/d)!/¾m
where ¾m of 1.25.
100A s
------------- should not be taken as greater than 3;
bv d
1
---
æ 400
--------ö 4 should not be taken as less than 0.67 for members without shear reinforcement;
è d ø
1
---
æ 400
--------ö 4 should not be taken as less than 1 for members with shear reinforcement providing a design shear resistance of
è d ø
U0.4 N/mm2.
For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm 2, the values in this table may be multiplied by (fcu/25)%. The value of
fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
if effective depth is less than 400, use the following table directly
100A s Effective depth
------------- mm
bv d
125 150 175 200 225 250 300 400
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
k0.15 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34
0.25 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40
0.50 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.50
0.75 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.57
1.00 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.63
1.50 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72
2.00 1.06 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.80
U 3.00 1.22 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.98 0.91
NOTE 1 Allowance has been made in these figures for a ¾m of 1.25.
NOTE 2 The values in the table are derived from the expression:
0.79{100As/(bvd)}% (400/d)!/¾m
where
100A s
------------- should not be taken as greater than 3;
bv d
1
---
æ 400
--------ö 4 should not be taken as less than 0.67 for members without shear reinforcement;
è d ø
--1-
æ 400
--------ö 4 should not be taken as less than 1 for members with shear reinforcement providing a design shear resistance of
è d ø
U0.4 N/mm2.
For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm 2, the values in this table may be multiplied by (fcu/25)%. The value of
fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
The truss should be arranged so that and are both greater than or equal to 45° giving a maximum value
if v > vc
Table 3.7 — Form and area of shear reinforcement in beams
Value of v Form of shear reinforcement to be Area of shear reinforcement to be
provided provided
N/mm2
Less than 0.5vc throughout the See NOTE 1 —
beam
0.5vc < v < (vc+ 0.4) Minimum links for whole length of Asv U 0.4bvsv/0.95fyv
beam (see NOTE 2)
(vc+ 0.4) < v < 0.8Æfcu or 5 N/mm Links or links combined with
2 Where links only provided:
bent-up bars. Not more than 50 % Asv U bvsv(v – vc)/0.95fyv
of the shear resistance provided Where links and bent-up bars
by the steel may be in the form of provided: see 3.4.5.6
bent-up bars (see NOTE 3)
NOTE 1 While minimum links should be provided in all beams of structural importance, it will be satisfactory to omit them in
Gk = 1500 kN, Qk = 1000 kN
1.5 m 9.0 m
Initial sizing Shear stress not to exceed 4 N/mm2

(to avoid reinforcement congestion).
Ultimate load = 1.4 x 1500 + 1.6 x 1000 = 3700 kN
(ignoring self-weight)
Take b = 600
3 Eqn 3, BS 8110
∴ d = V = 3700 x 10 = 1542 mm
vb 4 x 600
Take overall depth as 1650 mm (d = 1550)
Bending Mmax = 3700 x 1.5 = 5550 kNm
For Mmax = 5550, b = 600, d = 1550, fcu = 40 N/mm2
K = 0.096, As = 9370 mm2
Use 8 H40 (10100 mm2) in 2 layers.
Shear 100As = 100 x 10100 = 1.09

Slab
bv d 600 x 1550 8H40bars reinforcement
∴ vc = 0.75 N/mm2 Table 3.8, BS 8110
Asv bv (v – vc) Table 3.7, BS 8110
≥
sv 0.87fyv
≥ 600 (4.0 – 0.75)
0.87 x 500
1650
≥ 4.48 mm
Try H12 links 4 H12 links
@ 100 ctrs
sv = 452/4.48 = 101 mm
Say 4 H12 links @100 mm ctrs
600
Comments Remember to check headroom beneath the beam

H40 bars will be heavy; if there is no reasonable alternative, ensure
that the contractor is aware so he may take steps to safeguard
the health and safety of the steel fixers.
SLAB
ONEWAY SLAB
Wherever possible use the coefficients presented in Table 3.10, which are appropriate provided
the following conditions are met (note that 20% redistribution is included in the coefficients):
1 The area of the slab exceeds 30 m2 (e.g. 5 m x 6 m).
2 The ratio of characteristic imposed load to characteristic dead load does not exceed 1.25.
3 The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
4 The spans are approximately equal. (This is generally assumed to mean that variations in
the span lengh must not exceed 15% of the longest, but is not specified in the Code).
5 Redistribution of 20% is included in the figures (therefore K´ = 0.149).
The requirements of conditions 1 and 2 will usually be met with most building designs.
Table 3.10
Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces for slabs
End support/slab connections At first At middle At interior
interior of interior supports
Simply supported Continuous
support spans
At outer Near middle At outer Near middle
support of end span support of end span
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04FL 0.075Fl – 0.086Fl 0.063Fl – 0.063Fl
Shear 0.40F — 0.46F — 0.60F — 0.50F
Notes
1 l is the effective span; F is the total design ultimate load (1.4Gk+ 1.6Qk).
2 No redistribution of the moments calculated from this table should be made.
Imposed load = 2.5 kN/m2
Superimposed dead load
6000 6000 6000 6000 = 1.5 kN/m2
Concrete class C28/35
Cover = 25 mm
Initial sizing From Economic concrete frame elements – 178, say 200 mm
or 6000/32 = 187.5, say 200 mm
Loading ULS = 1.4 (0.2 x 24 + 1.5) + 1.6 x 2.5 = 12.8 kN/m2
Bending Check first support from end
M = – 0.086Fl
= – 0.086 x 12.8 x 62
= – 39.6 kNm
For b = 1000, d = 200 − 25 − 10 = 165, fcu = 35
Then K = 0.041, As, req = 581 mm2
Use H12 @ 175 ctrs (As,prov = 646 mm2)
Shear V = 0.6F = 0.6 x 12.8 x 6 = 46.1 kN
3
v = V = 46.1 x 10 = 0.28 N/mm2
bd 1000 x 165

100 As
= 100 x 646 = 0.39
bd 1000 x 165
∴ vc = 0.64
v < vc ∴ no shear links required
c
Deflection Maximum sagging moment = 0.075 Fl
= 0.075 x 12.8 x 62 = 34.56 kNm
For fcu = 35, d = 165, b = 1000
Then K = 0.036, As,req = 507 mm2
Use H12s @ 200 ctrs (As = 566 mm2)
Span/depth = 6000/165 = 36.4
2 fyAs req
fs = = 2 x 500 x 500 = 294 N/mm2
3As, prov 3 x 566
M/(bd 2) = 0.036 x 35 = 1.26
∴ MF = 1.25
Allowable l/d = 1.25 x 26 = 32.5 < 36.4
∴ use H12s @ 175 ctrs As,prov = 646 mm2
fs = 257 MF = 1.40
Allow l/d = 1.40 x 26 = 36.4 _> 36.4 OK
TWOWAY SLAB
The maximum bending moments per unit width for a slab restrained at each corner are given
by the following equations:
m sx = β sx nl x2
m sy = β sy nl x2
lx = length of shorter side

ly = length of longer side
msx = maximum design ultimate moments of unit width and span lx
msy = maximum design ultimate moments of unit width and span ly
n = total design ultimate load per unit area (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk)
The maximum shear force per unit width is given by the following equations:
v sx = β vxnl x
v sy = β vynl x
The coefficients βvx and βvy are obtained from Table 3.13.
Table 3.12
Bending moment coefficients for rectangular panels supported on four sides with provision for torsion at corners (from table 3.14
of BS 8110)
Type of panel and moments Short span coefficients, bsx Values of ly/lx Long span
considered coefficients, bsy for
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2
all values of ly/lx
Interior panels
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.031 0.037 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
Positive moment at mid-span 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
One short edge discontinuous
One long edge discontinuous
Two adjacent edges discontinuous
Two short edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.062 0.067 0.070 —
Two long edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.045
Three edges discontinuous (one long edge continuous)
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.057 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.081 0.084 0.092 0.098 —
Three edges discontinuous (one short edge continuous)
Negative moment at continuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.058
Four edges discontinuous
Table 3.13
Shear force coefficients for rectangular panels supported on four sides with provision for torsion
at corners (from table 3.15 of BS 8110)
Type of panel and bvx for values of ly/lx bvy
location
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2
Four edges continuous
Continuous edge 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.5 0.33
One short edge discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
Discontinuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.24
One long edge discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
Discontinuous edge 0.24 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 —
Two adjacent edges discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
Discontinuous edge 0.26 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.26
Two short edges discontinuous
Continuous edge 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 —
Discontinuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.26
Two long edges discontinuous
Continuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.40
Discontinuous edge 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 —
Three edges discontinuous (one long edge discontinuous)
Continuous edge 0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 —
Three edges discontinuous (one short edge discontinuous)
Continuous edge — — — — — — — — 0.45
Four edges discontinuous
Superimposed dead load = 1.5 kN/m2
9000
Imposed load = 5 kN/m2
Cover = 25 mm
l y = 9000
l x =7200 7200 7200 7200
Initial sizing From Economic concrete frame elements: 210 mm

Worked example 3 or 9000/36 = 250 mm say 250 mm
Loads
Owen Brooker n = 1.4 (1.5 + 6) + 1.6 x 5 = 18.5 kN/m2 (ULS)
31.07.06
Check example
Worked short span d 2= 250 − 25 − 8 = 217 mm
3 Version
ly 9.0
= = 1.3
lx 7.2
βsx = – 0.069 and βsx = 0.051
Support moment msx = βsx n lx2 = – 0.069 x 18.5 x 7.22 = – 66.2 kNm/m
critical in bending For msx = 66.2, b = 1000, d = 217, fcu = 35
Then As = 738 mm2/m (K = 0.040)
Use H12s @ 150 ctrs (As,prov = 754 mm2/m)
Shear βvx = 0.50
Vsx = βvx n lx
= 0.5 x 18.5 x 7.2
= 66.6 kN/m width
3
v = V = 66.6 x 10 = 0.31 N/mm2
bd 1000 x 217
100 As 100 x 754
= = 0.35
bd 1000 x 217
∴ vc = 0.58 N/mm2 > 0.31 ∴ no shear links required
Deflection Maximum sagging moment = 0.051 x 18.5 x 7.22 = 48.9 kN/m
For b = 1000, d = 217, fcu = 35
Then K = 0.030, As req = 543 mm2
Try As,prov = 646 mm2
Actual span/depth = 7200/217 = 33.2
2fy As,req 2 x 500 x 543 M
fs = = = 280 N/mm2, = 1.04
3 As,prov 3 x 646 bd2
∴ MF = 1.39
Allowable span/depth = 1.39 x 26 = 36.2 > 33.2 OK
Use H12s @ 175 (As,prov = 646 mm2)
FLAT SLAB
Wherever possible use the coefficients presented in Table 3.14. These are appropriate provided
the following conditions are met (note that 20% redistribution is included in the coefficients):
■ The area of the slab exceeds 30 m2 (i.e. 5 m x 6 m).
■ The ratio of characteristic imposed load to characteristic dead load does not exceed 1.25.
■ The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
■ The spans are approximately equal (generally assumed to be 15% of the longest span, but
not specified in the Code).
■ Redistribution of 20% is included in the figures (therefore K´ = 0.149).
Table 3.14
Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces for slabs
End support/slab connections At first At middle At interior
interior of interior supports
Simply supported Continuous
support spans
At outer Near middle At outer Near middle
support of end span support of end span
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04FL 0.075Fl – 0.086Fl 0.063Fl – 0.063Fl
Shear 0.40F — 0.46F — 0.60F — 0.50F
Notes
1 l is the effective span; F is the total design ultimate load (1.4Gk+ 1.6Qk).
2 No redistribution of the moments calculated from this table should be made.
Table 3.15
Distribution of design moments in panels of flat slabs
Design moment expressed as percentages of the Apportionment between column and middle strip
total negative or positive design moment
Column strip, % Middle strip, %
Negative 75 25
Positive 55 45
Note
For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop, and the middle strip is thereby
increased in width, the design moments to be resisted by the middle strip should be increased in proportion to its increased
width. The design moments to be resisted by the column strip may be decreased by an amount such that the total positive
and the total negative design moments resisted by the column strip and middle strip together are unchanged.
PUNCHING SHEAR
The design shear stress at a particular perimeter (v) can be calculated as follows:
Veff
v=
ud
where
Veff = design effective shear force as calculated from Figure 3.3
u = length of the perimeter
Corner
column
Veff= 1.25 Vt
Veff= 1.4 Vt
Edge
column Internal
column
Veff= 1.25 Vt
Veff= 1.15 Vt
Figure 3.3
Determining effective
shear force

7000
Superimposed dead load

= 1.5 kN/m2
7000
Cover = 25 mm
9000 9000 9000 9000
Initial sizing Using Economic concrete frame elements: 300 mm

Or 8000/26 = 307 mm, say 300 mm
Loading ULS = 1.4 (1.5 + 0.3 x 24) + 1.6 x 5 = 20.2 kN/m2

4
Bending Check long span end bay condition
M = – 0.086Fl = – 0.086 x 20.2 x 7 x 92 = – 985 kNm
Centre strip Design moment = 0.75 x 985 = 739 kNm
critical
For b = 3500, d = 300 − 25 −12.5 = 262 mm, fcu = 35
4 Version 2
Then K = 0.088, As = 7280 mm2
Centre column strip = 4853 mm2 (2773 mm2/m)
Use T20 @ 100 ctrs (As,prov = 3140 mm2/m)
Outer column strip = 2417 mm2 (1389 mm2/m)
Use T20 @ 200 ctrs (As,prov = 1570 mm2/m)
Punching shear Vt = 20.2 x 7.0 x 9.0 = 1273 kN
Veff = 1.15 Vt = 1.15 x 1273 = 1464 kN
Assume 350 sq columns
V 1464 x 103
At column face v = eff = = 4.2 < 4.73
uo d 4 x 350 x 250
100As 100 x 3140
Shear resistance without links: =
bd 1000 x 250
∴ vc = 0.85 N/mm2
First perimeter: Length = (350 + 2 (1.5 x 250)) x 4 = 4400
3
v = 1464 x 10 = 1.33 < 2vc (1.7)
4400 x 250
∴ Can be designed for punching shear.
= 0.075 x 20.2 x 7 x 92
= 859 kNm
Punching shear Vt = 20.2 x 7.0 x 9.0 = 1273 kN

Veff = 1.15 Vt = 1.15 x 1273 = 1464 kN
Assume 350 sq columns
V 1464 x 103
At column face v = eff = = 4.2 < 4.73
uo d 4 x 350 x 250
Shear resistance without links: 100As = 100 x 3140

bd 1000 x 250
∴ vc = 0.85 N/mm2
First perimeter: Length = (350 + 2 (1.5 x 250)) x 4 = 4400
3
v = 1464 x 10 = 1.33 < 2vc (1.7)
4400 x 250
∴ Can be designed for punching shear.
= 0.075 x 20.2 x 7 x 92
= 859 kNm
PT SLAB
commonly used strands and their characteristic strength
Specification of commonly used strand in the UK
Strand Nominal Nominal Cross- Characteristic Maximum Characteristic
type tensile diameter sectional value of value of value of 0.1%
strength (mm) area (mm2) maximum maximum proof force
(MPa) force (kN) force (kN) (kN)
12.9 ‘Super’ 1860 12.9 100 186 213 160
15.7 ‘Super’ 1770 15.7 150 265 302 228
15.7 ‘Euro’ 1860 15.7 150 279 319 240
15.2 ‘Drawn’ 1820 15.2 165 300 342 258
UDL due to parabolic profile: w = 8aPav /s2

where
a = drape of tendon measured at centre of profile between points of inflection
Pav = average prestressing force in tendon
s = distance between points of inflection
Fig 3.9 31.07.06
The stress
Version 2 in the element can be calculated as follows:
M
Stress at the top of the section, st = P + b
Ac Zt
M
Stress at the bottom of the section, sb = P + b
Ac Zb
where
Ac = area of the concrete
Ma = balanced moment (i.e. including post-tensioning effects)
Zt = section modulus - top
Zb = section modulus - bottom
P = prestress force
Table 3.17
Design flexural stresses for post-tensioned members (N/mm2) (Based on tables 4.1 to 4.3 of BS 8110)
Concrete class
C25/30 C32/40 4 C40/50
Compressive stresses
In span and at cantilever supports 9.9 13.2 16.5
At support (except cantilevers) 12.0 16.0 20.0
Tensile stresses
Class 1a 0.0 0.0 0.0
Class 2b 2.1 2.3 2.6
Class 3c Crack width (mm) Member depth (mm)
0.2 200 4.18 5.50 6.38
400 3.80 5.00 5.80
600 3.42 4.50 5.22
800 3.04 4.00 4.64
≥1000 2.66 3.50 4.06
0.1 200 3.52 4.51 5.28
400 3.20 4.10 4.80
600 2.88 3.69 4.32
800 2.56 3.28 3.84
≥1000 2.24 2.87 3.36
Key
a Class 1 serviceability condition does not allow flexural tensile stresses
b Class 2 serviceability condition allows flexural tensile stresses but no visible cracking
c Class 3 serviceability condition allows flexural tensile stresses with maximum crack width of 0.1 mm for
exposure classes XS2, XS3, XD2, XD3, XF3 and XF4, otherwise a crack width of 0.2 mm may be used
The serviceability condition is usually the critical design criterion. At the initial stages it is
reasonable to check the stresses at SLS and assume that the ULS requirements can be met in
detailed design. Modern design software will allow further iteration and potentially a reduction
in reinforcement. The following prestresses (i.e. P/A) are a good guide for initial design:
Slabs: 1.4 – 2.5 N/mm2
Beams: 2.5 – 4.5 N/mm2

7000
Superimposed dead load = 1.5 kN/m2

7000
9000 9000 9000 9000
Initial sizing 9000/36 = 250 mm thick

Geometry Area of concrete, Ac = 7000 x 250 = 1750 x 103 mm3
Second moment of area, Ic = 7000 x 2503/12 = 9.11 x 109 mm4
Distance to extreme fibres from neutral axis, yb = yt = 125 mm
Section modulus, Zb = Zt = 9.11 x 109/125 = 72.9 x 106
Strand diameter = 12.9 mm
Minimum cover = 20 mm 125 60
Design for class 3 serviceability condition a
125
Distance to centre of strand = 60 mm
4 Version 2 Tendon profile for end span (most critical): 60
Idealised tendon
shape for initial a = 250 – 60– 60 – 65 = 98
2
design only
Number of Characteristic value of maximum force, 186 kN
strands required Initial prestress = 0.8 x 186 = 149 kN (allow for 80% of characteristic force)
Prestress in service condition = 0.7 x 149 = 104 kN (allow for 10% loss
at transfer and 20% loss at service, checkWorked example
in detailed 7b
design)
SW only
Balance dead loads with prestressing Owen Brooker
04.09.06
P = ws2/(8a) = 7 x 6 x 92/(8 x 0.098) = 4339
WorkedkN
Example 7b Version 2
∴ No. of tendons required = 4339/104 = 41.7, try 8 x 5 strands per duct
Total force = 4160 kN
Moments (SLS) Applied loads wa = 7 x (6 + 1.5 x 5) = 87.5 kN/m
Balancing load wb = 8aP/s2 = 8 x 0.098 x 4160 / 92 = 40.2 kN/m
Balanced moment M ≈ (wa – wb) l2/10 = (87.5 – 40.2) x 92/10 = 383.1 kNm
Stresses 3 6
σt = P + M = 4160 x 10 3 + 383.1 x 106 = 2.4 + 5.3 = 7.7 N/mm2 0.33fcu
Act Zt 1750 x 10 72.9 x 10
For class C32/40 allowable compressive stress is 13.2 N/mm2 ∴ OK
3 6
σb = P – M = 4160 x 10 3 – 383.1 x 106 = 2.4 – 5.3 = 2.9 N/mm2
Act Zb 1750 x 10 72.9 x 10
For class C32/40 allowable tensile stress is 5.5 N/mm2 ∴ OK
Comments This leaves scope for reducing the number of tendons in detailed design
Punching shear should also be checked at this stage for a flat slab
(see 3.12.3)
It is assumed that deflection, the ULS requirements and transfer requirements can be met
with passively stressed reinforcement in detailed design, as is usually the case.
Columns
3.8.1.3 Short and slender columns
A column may be considered as short when both the ratios lex/h and ley/b are less than 15 (braced) and 10
(unbraced). It should otherwise be considered as slender.
Table 3.19 — Values of ¶ for braced columns

End condition at top End condition at bottom
1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90
2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
Table 3.20 — Values of ¶ for unbraced columnsforunbacedlms
End condition at top End condition at bottom
1 2 3
1 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 1.6 1.8 —
4 2.2 — —
3.8.1.7 Slenderness limits for columns

Generally, the clear distance, lo, between end restraints should not exceed 60 times the minimum thickness
of a column.
3.8.1.8 Slenderness of unbraced columns
If, in any given plane, one end of an unbraced column is unrestrained (e.g. a cantilever column), its clear
height, lo, should satisfy the following:
2
100b equation 31
l o # 60b or ---------------- ; whichever is less.
h
NOTE In equation 31 h and b are respectively the larger and smaller dimensions of the column.
7500 300 Superimposed load

= 1.5 kN/m2
Concrete class: C32/40
Cover = 25 mm
7500
Colum n
9000 9000
Loads Column supports 4 storeys

Ultimate load per floor = 1.4 (0.3 x 24 + 1.5) + 1.6 x 5 = 20.2 kN/m2
Total ultimate axial load = 4 x 20.2 x 7 x 9
N = 5085 kN
Initial sizing Using Economic concrete frame elements – 450 mm square
Column design N − 0.35fcubh
Asc =
0.67 fy
3 2
= 5085 x 10 − 0.35 x 40 x 450
0.67 x 500
ersion 2
= 6716 mm2 (use 10 H32s − 8040 mm2)
Comments This is 4% reinforcement in the bottom storey, which will be reduced
throughout its height
H8 links
@ 300 ctrs
450
H32
450
Approximate method of calculating reinforcement for moment

Example:
Walls
Symmetric arrangement of walls (equal stiffness) can be designed by
dividing the force equal to all walls and design as below:
consider loads as UDL for
non symmetric structure
Wk Assume critical combination is 1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk
40 kN gk = 35 kN/m ft =N − M
Lt (tL2/6)
N = 1.0 x 35 x 4 x 2.5 = 350 kN
75 kN gk = 35 kN/m M = 1.4 (40 x 12 + 75 (9 + 6 + 3)) = 2562 kNm

350 x 103 − 2562 x 106
ft =
2500 x 200 (200 x 25002/6)
gk = 35 kN/m = 0.70 − 12.3

75 kN
= − 11.6 N/mm2
Assume that the tension is resisted byFigure
1 m at the end of the
3.11
gk = 35 kN/m wall. Shear centre for
75 kN stability walls
0.5 ft Lt t
As =
0.87 fyv
0.5 x 11.6 x 1000 x 200 = 2667 mm2 or 1333 mm2/face
=
0.87 x 500
2.5 m Use T16s @ 150 ctrs (1340 mm2/face)
Asymmetric arrangement of walls (unequal stiffness) can be designed by

dividing the force according rigidity and design the wall as above
60.0
y 5.0
W4 8.0
Shear W2
centre
25.0
W1
10.0
W3
5.0 e
W ind force
2
Worked example 10 Take wind pressure as 1.0 kN/m
The relative stiffness of the walls can be calculated as follows (note as the
walls are rectangular and the same thickness we can use the depth only)
Owen Brooker W1 = 103 = 1000 m3
11.09.06
W2 = 83 = 512 m3
Worked Example 10 Version 2
Total = 1512 m3
y = 0.1 x 1000 + 59.9 x 512 = 20.3 m

1512 25-0.2(wall thickness)
Eccentricity, e = 30 – 20.3 = 9.7 m
Twisting moment, Mt = 9.7 x 1.0 x 60 x 3.6 = 2095 kNm per floor
In the worst case this moment can be resisted by the walls W3 and W4 only,
the force (F) in each wall is:
F = 2095/24.8 = 84.5 kN per floor
To check for the critical case the direct design force on the walls W3 and W4
from the wind parallel to these walls = 1.0 x 3.6 x 25/2 = 45 kN, and
therefore the forces imposed by the twisting action are more onerous and
should be used for design.
Comments This layout is not particularly eccentric and yet still imposes
large torsional forces.
foundation
Ground-bearing slabs
For the purpose of design, ground-bearing slabs can be divided into two categories:
1 Normally loaded slabs for general use for which shrinkage is the governing criterion.
2 Heavily loaded slabs for industrial use.
Industrial ground floors are not considered further in this handbook, and reference should be
made to TR34, Concrete industrial ground floors[21].
For normally loaded slabs with an imposed load up to 10 kN/m2 the following guidance can
be used:
■ Use concrete Class C25/30.
■ Slab should be placed on a slip membrane (e.g. 0.2 mm polythene sheet).
■ Use a well-compacted sub-base not less than 150 mm thick.
■ Isolation joints to be provided at the junction with external walls and around internal
columns. See Figure 4.5.
■ Depth, reinforcement and joint spacing requirements can be determined from Table 3.21.
Note that the thicker the slab the closer the movement joints should be.
Table 3.21
Maximum spacing of movement joints for ground bearing slabs (m)
Fabric reinforcement Slab thickness (mm)
125 150 175 200 225
A142 25 21 18 16 14
A193 34 28 25 21 19
A252 44 37 31 28 25
A393 69 58 49 44 38
Unreinforced – 6 6 6 6
Shallow Foundation
■ Settlement often controls the design.
■ Foundations in clay, silt and chalk should be founded at 450 mm or below to avoid damage
due to frost action.
■ Foundations in shrinkable clay should be founded at 900 mm or below to protect against
shrinkage/heave. Where trees are present this depth may have to be increased, see Table 2.3.
■ The groundwater level will be crucial in the design; a high groundwater level will reduce the
soil bearing capacity and may make the structure buoyant. The level adjacent to rivers and
the sea can be expected to fluctuate.
Sizing done in preliminary

Self-weight of footing
Assume the overall depth of footing (h) = 600 mm
Self weight of footing = area × h × density of concrete
= 9 × 0.6 × 24 = 129.6 kN < assumed (130 kN)
BENDING REINFORCEMENT
Design moment, M
Total ultimate load (W ) = 1.4G k + 1.6Q k
= 1.4 × 1050 + 1.6 × 300 = 1950 kN
W 1950
Earth pressure ( ps ) = = = 217 kNm−2
plan area of base 9
1300 400 1300
217 kN/m2
psb 2 217 × 1.300 2

Maximum design moment occurs at face of column (M ) = =
2 2
= 183 kNm/m width of slab
= − −Φ= − − =
Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2 = 0.156 × 35 × 103 × 5302
= 1534 × 106 Nmm = 1534 kNm
Since Mu > M no compression reinforcement is required.
Main steel
M 183 × 106
K = = = 0.0186
fcubd 2 35 × 1000 × 5302
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9)]
= d[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.0186/0.9)]
= 0.979d ≤ 0.95d = 0.95 × 530 = 504 mm
M 183 × 106
As = = = 835 mm2 /m
0.87f y z 0.87 × 500 × 504
Minimum steel area is
0.13%bh = 780 mm2/m < A s OK
Hence from Table 3.22, provide H20 at 300 mm centres (A s = 1050 mm /m) distributed uniformly across the full width
2
of the footing parallel to the x–x and y–y axis (see clause 3.11.3.2, BS 8110).
Punching shear
Critical
1.5d
perimeter
Critical perimeter, pcrit, is

= column perimeter + 8 × 1.5d
= 4 × 400 + 8 × 1.5 × 530 = 7960 mm
Area within perimeter is
(400 + 3d)2 = (400 + 3 × 530)2 = 3.96 × 106 mm2
Ultimate punching force, V, is
V = load on shaded area = 217 × (9 − 3.96) = 1094 kN
Design punching shear stress, υ, is
V 1094 × 103
υ= = = 0.26 Nmm−2
p critd 7960 × 530
100 A s 100 × 1050
= = 0.198
bd 103 × 530
Hence from Table 3.11, design concrete shear stress, υc, is
υc = (35/25)1/3 × 0.37 = 0.41 Nmm−2
Since υc > υ, punching failure is unlikely and a 600 mm depth of slab is acceptable.
Face shear
Maximum shear stress (υmax) occurs at face of column. Hence
W 1950 × 103
υmax = = = 2.3 Nmm−2 < permissible (= 0.8 35 = 4.73 Nmm−2)
column perimeter × d (4 × 400) × 530
Transverse shear 770 mm 530 mm
Ultimate shear force (V ) = load on shaded area = ps × area = 217(3 × 0.770) = 501 kN
Design shear stress, υ, is
V 501 × 103
υ= = = 0.32 Nmm−2 υc
bd 3 × 10 × 530
3
Hence no shear reinforcement is required.
REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
The sketch below shows the main reinforcement requirements for the pad footing.
01-11H20-300
alternate bars
reversed
A A
01-11H20-300
alternate bars
reversed
75 kicker
Column starter
bars (not designed)
01 01
01 01 01 01
Section A–A
Raft Foundation
(a) slab with top reinforcement only

(b) transverse reinforcement in thickening
tw a
P tw
P
hS
hs
45° hb
p ≤ pa 45°
Bb
B = t w + 2hS
only suitable for P Bpa

p
(t w + 2hS) p a
(b) slab with top and bottom reinforcement B = B b + 2(h b – h S)

only suitable for P Bpa
P
[Bb + 2(h b – h S)]pa
Fig. 13.2 Bearing pressure design for internal beam thickenings.
p = pa
B = P/pa
bottom reinforcement must be capable of

resisting moment
Mu = (γp p) (B/2)2/2 = γpP 2/8pa
and shear force
Vu = (γp p) (B/2) = γpP/2
Example 12.7 Raft Foundation

Design a raft foundation for the layout of columns shown in Figure 12.C.19(a). All columns are
of square shape of size 40 40 cm. ADSP ¼ 80 kN/m3. Use M 15 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Assume 10% as the load of raft and soil above.
A. Design of Raft Slab

Total vertical column load ¼ ð600 þ 1600 þ 2000 þ 600 þ 800 þ 1800 þ 2000
þ 1000 þ 800 þ 1000 þ 1200 þ 600Þ ¼ 14000
Eccentricity along the x direction is obtained by taking moment of column loads about the
grid 1–1
½6ð1600 þ 1800 þ 1000Þ þ 12ð2000 þ 2000 þ 1200Þ þ 18ð600 þ 1000 þ 600Þ
x ¼
14000
¼ 9:1714 m
ex ¼ 9:1714ð6 þ 3Þ ¼ 0:1714 m
Eccentricity along the y direction is obtained by taking moment of column loads about the
grid C–C
½5ð800 þ 1800 þ 2000 þ 1000Þ þ 10ð600 þ 1600 þ 2000 þ 600Þ
y¼ ¼ 5:4285 m
14000
ey ¼ 5:42855 ¼ 0:4285 m
19:4 11:43
Ix ¼ ¼ 2395:16 m4
12
11:4 19:43
Iy ¼ ¼ 6936:31 m4
12
A ¼ 19:4 11:4 ¼ 221:16 m2
Mx ¼ pey ¼ 14000 0:4285 ¼ 6000 kNm ð12:C:65Þ
My ¼ pex ¼ 14000 0:1714 ¼ 2400 kNm ð12:C:66Þ
P 14000
¼ ¼ 63:302 kN=m2
A 221:16
Soil pressure at different points is as follows

P My Mx
s¼ x y ð12:C:67Þ
A Iy Ix
2400 6000
s ¼ 63:302 x y ¼ 63:158 1:5269x 0:4745y
6936:31 2395:16
In the x direction, the raft is divided in three strips, that is three equivalent beams:
1. Beam A–A with 3.2 m width and soil pressure of 80 kN=m2

2. Beam B–B with 5.0 m width and soil pressure of ð80 þ266:65Þ ¼ 73:32 kN=m2
ð66:65 þ 52:38Þ
3. Beam C–C with 5.0 m width and soil pressure of 2 ¼ 59:52 kN=m2 .
The bending moment is obtained by using a coefficient 1/10 and L as the center to center of
column distance
wL2
þ M ¼ M ¼ ð12:C:68Þ
10
For strip A–A
80 62
Maximum moment ¼ ¼ 288 kNm=m
10
For strip B–B
73:32 62
Maximum moment ¼ ¼ 263:95 kNm=m
10
For strip C–C
59:52 62
Maximum moment ¼ ¼ 214:272 kNm=m
10
2
For any strip in the y direction, take M ¼ wL8 since there is only a two-span equivalent beam.
For strip 4–4
80 52
Maximum moment ¼ ¼ 250 kNm=m
8
The depth of the raft is governed by two-way shear at one of the exterior columns. If the location
of critical shear is not obvious, it may be necessary p
pffiffiffiffiffi toffiffiffiffiffi
check all possible locations.
Shear strength of concrete, tc ¼ 0:25 fck ¼ 0:25 15 ¼ 0:97N=mm2
For a corner column (say C–1)

Perimeter bo ¼ 2 d2 þ 900 ¼ d þ 1800 mm (Figure 12.C.19(b))
Vu 1:5 800 1000
tv ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:97
bo d ðd þ 1800Þd
1200000
¼ ¼ 0:97
ðd þ 1800Þd
) d 2 þ 1800d1237113:40 ¼ 0
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1800 ð18002 þ 4 1 1237113:40Þ
d¼ ¼ 530:773 mm
21
For a corner column (say A–2)
d
Perimeter bo ¼ 2 þ 900 þ ðd þ 400Þ ¼ 2d þ 2200 mm
2
Vu 1:5 1600 1000

tv ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:97
bo d ð2d þ 2200Þd
d 2 þ 1100d1237113:40 ¼ 0 ð12:C:69Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1100 ð11002 þ 4 1 1237113:40Þ
)d¼ ¼ 690:811 mm
21
However, adopt an effective depth of 750 mm and overall depth of 800 mm
Reinforcement in the longitudinal direction is given by (considering a 1 m wide strip)
2 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3
15 4 4:6 288 106 5
At ¼ 0:5 1 1 1000 750 ¼ 1109:51 mm2
415 15 1000 750 2
Use 20 mm bars, Af ¼ 314:151 mm2

1109:51
Number of bars ¼ p 2
¼ 3:531 ffi 4 bars
4 20
1000 p4 202
Spacing of long bars ¼ ¼ 283:152 mm
1109:51
Provide 4–20 mm F bars for reinforcement @ 260 mm c/c at top and bottom in both directions.
Minimum reinforcement in the slabs ¼ 0:12%
0:12
¼ 800 1000
100
¼ 960 mm2 =m < 1109:51 mm2 =m
Minimum steel governs in the remaining raft. Critical sections in shear.
Pile Foundation
Pile cap reinforcement:
Pilecap layout Tension force in reinforcement

Ft = Pl/(2d)
where
P = load in the column
As req = Ft/0.87fy
l = distance from column to pile (see diagram)
2l d = effective depth
Ft(AB) = Ft(BC) = Ft(AC)

= 2Pl/(9d)
where
2l

d = effective depth
2l
Ft(AB) = Ft(AC) = Ft(BD)= Ft(CD)

A B
= Pl/(4d)
Force in longitudinal and transverse direction:
2l Ft = Pl/(2d)
where
C D
d = effective depth
2l
Notes
1 Where column size is taken into account there may be efficiencies to be gained.
2 It is usual to space piles at three times their diameter.
Load on Piles:
If it is more than 1 row or column, otherwise equally divide the force
The force in pil e ‘a’ is given by :

a
⎛ a ⎞⎟
ya ⎜ ±
a ⎜ ∑ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where
N = number of pi le s in g roup
P = t otal lo ad appli ed
M = bendi ng moment a ppli ed
y = local di stan ce of the pi l e
fr om the n eutral axis of the group
ya = loc al di stan ce of pi l e ‘a’
from the n eutral axis of the g roup
Piles in cohesive material
The allowable bearing capacity of a pile in cohesive material is given by:
Jl J[ α \ :l \ G :
JZ 6 $ 6 $ n \ [
γl γ[ γl γ[
where
α = adhesion factor. For bored piles use 0.3 for heavily fissured clay and 0.45 for firm
to stiff clay. For driven piles use Nordland’s adhesion factors (see Figure 3.14)
er c = average undrained shear strength over the length of the pile
As2 = surface area of the pile (π d l, where d = diameter of pile and l = length of pile)
Version
γs = factor of safety on the shaft (use 3.0)
cu = undisturbed shear strength at the base of the pile
Nc = Meyerhof’s bearing capacity factor (use 9.0)
Ab = area of the pile base (π r2)
γb = factor of safety on the base (use 2.5)
Group action – bored piles in clay

For a group of bored piles in a cohesive material the following expression can be used:
Qa,group = n Qa Ef
where
n = number of piles in group
Qa = capacity of a single pile
Ef = group efficiency ratio
( )
= 1 – tan –1 D m(n – 1) + n(m – 1)
s 90 m n
where
D = pile diameter
s = pile spacing
m = number of piles in one direction
n = number of piles in orthogonal direction
If s = 3D
18.43m(n – 1) + n(m – 1)
Ef = 1 –
90mn
The values of Ef can be obtained from Table 3.28.
Table 3.28
Values for Ef for piles spaced at three times diameter
Number of piles, m Number of piles, n
2 3 4 5 6
1 0.90 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83
2 0.80 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.73
3 – 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.69
4 – – 0.69 0.68 0.68
5 – – – 0.67 0.67
6 – – – – 0.66
Note
For other combinations use 0.65.
2
Find safe working load of a 450 mm diameter bored pile in clay
0m c u = 70 kN/m
Qf = α c As + cu Nc Ab
γs γb
Qf = 0.45 (70 + 170)/2 π x 0.45 x 10 + 170 x 9 x π x 0.2252
3.0 2.5
= 254 + 97.3
2
= 351 kN
10 m c u = 170 kN/m
Piles in granular soil
The allowable bearing capacity of a pile in granular material is given by:
Nq*Abqó + Asqó,meanks tan d
Qa =
gf
where
Nq* = pile bearing capacity factor (see Table 3.29)
qó = effective overburden pressure
As = surface area of the pile shaft in the granular soil
qó,mean= mean overburden pressure
ks = horizontal coefficient of earth pressure (see Table 3.30)
d = angle of friction between the soil and the pile face (see Table 3.29)
γf = factor of safety (2.5 to 3.0)
Find safe working load of a 450 mm diameter bored pile in sand

0m Nq* Ab qo´ + As qo´,mean ks tan δ
Qa =
γf
Take φ´ = 33°, l/d = 10000/450 = 22.2
Medium ∴ Nq* ≈ 41
dense
sand 41 x π x 0.2252 x 18 x 10 + π x 0.45 x 10 x 18 x 5 x 0.387 x tan 33
Qa =
3
1174 + 320
Qa =
3
10 m = 498 kN
3.21.5 Piles in chalk

The allowable bearing capacity of a pile in chalk is given by:
Qa = As Qa,s + As Qa,b
where
As = surface area of the pile shaft in the soil
Qa,s = allowable capacity of pile shaft skin friction (see Table 3.32)
Qa,b = allowable capacity of the pile base (see Table 3.32)
Table 3.32
Values for allowable capacity of pile shaft skin friction, Qa,s and allowable capacity of the pile base, Qa,b
for piles in chalk
SPT ‘N’ Pile shaft skin friction capacity Pile base capacity
blows
Unfactored, Factor of Allowable, Unfactored, Factor of Allowable,
Qu,s safety, γs Qa,s Qu,b safety,γb Qa,b
10 35 2 18 2500 5 500
15 70 2 35 3750 4 940
20 105 2 53 5000 3 1670
25 170 2 85 6250 3 2080
30 250 2 125 7500 3 2500
35 250 2 125 7750 3 2580
≥40 250 2 125 8000 3 2670
Retaining Walls
0.33
For soil at rest, k ⫽ ko, for active pressure, k ⫽ ka and for passive pressure, k ⫽ kp.
(1 ⫺ sin ␾) 1 (1 ⫹ sin ␾)
ko ≈ 1 ⫺ sin␾ ka ⫽ kp ⫽ ⫽
(1 ⫹ sin ␾) ka (1 ⫺ sin ␾)
Typical ko values are 0.35 for dense sand, 0.6 for loose sand, 0.5 to 0.6 for normally
consolidated clay and 1.0 to 2.8 for overconsolidated clays such as London clay. The
value of ko depends on the geological history of the soil and should be obtained from a
geotechnical engineer.
Retaining walls is designed for the permanent condition earth at rest

K0 = 0.5
Surcharge load = 10 kPa

Soil level
Water
level
Pmax = Pmax = 10*hw = Pmax = 10*5 =

0.5*18*h = 9h 10h kN/m run 5 kN/m run
kN/m run M = 5*h*h/2
M = 1/2*9h*h*1/3*h M = 10/6hw3
= 5/2h2
= 9/6h3 kN-m/mrun
V = 1/2*9h*h V = 1/2*10h*h V = 5*h
=9/2h2 kN/m run =5h2 kN/m run =5h kN/m run
Mult = 1.4*(9/6h3+10/6hw3)+1.6*5/2h2 kN-m/m run

Vult = 1.4*(9/2h2+5h2)+1.6*5h kN/m run
Bending Reinforcement: Shear Reinforcement:
v = V/bd N/mm2
M
K = Values of υ (N/mm 2) Area of shear reinforcement
fcubd 2
to be provided
z = d =[0.5 + +( 0.25 − K /0.9)]
υ < vc None required
υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) Minimum links in
M
As = areas where υ > υc
Asv ≥ 0.4bsv /0.87fyv
0.87f y z (υc + 0.4) < υ < 0.8 fcu Design links
or 5 N/mm2 Asv ≥ bsv(υ − υc )/0.87fyv
Crack width for service moment
d-(x/3)
buoyancy Check
Table 6.1 Example partial factors of safety for buoyancy calculation
Downward forces Upward forces
D U
Condition Partial factor of Partial factor of Partial factor of safety
safety on weights safety on friction either on water density
(γm ) ( γm ) or on displacement (γf)
(i.e. on sides, piles, anchors)
During construction Steel 1.00 2.0 1.01

Concrete 1.03
In service Steel 1.03 3.0 1.05
Concrete 1.05
Extreme event Steel 1.01 2.5 1.03
(flooding to 1m Concrete 1.04
above ground level)
Criterion
(for each condition) Σ(D/γm ) > Σ(U*γf )
Note: The 2% difference between the densities of fresh and sea water should be noted. If the
centre of (factored) buoyancy does not reasonably closely correspond in plan to the centre of
(factored) gravity, the eccentricity should be accounted for.
DRAWING A B C
150 3750 4250 150

150
600 dp x 300
1
250
500
150
200
400 dp x 300
600 dp x 300
150
7000
300 dp x 250
3450
200 1650
150
wall
600 dp x 300
SFL = 112.150
Up Down
1100
150
X X
2
400 dp x 300 Column
500 x 300
600 dp x 300
3000
150
150
600 dp x 300
3
150
FLOOR LAYOUT
All columns 300 x 300, centred on grid unless noted otherwise
SFL = 112.150
600 600 600

150
300
SECTION X - X
Example of GA
L-bars to provide anchorage,
attached to pile reinforcement
with couplers
Top of Pile cut down to
pilecap cut-off level
Damp-proof
membrane
75 mm Blinding 75 mm
Pile reinforcement
a) Pile and pilecap connection b) Pile and pilecap connection for

large diameter bars
Typical of Pile/ Pilecap Detail

Internal wall
In-situ concrete
Screed
Mesh reinforcement Damp-proof
FFL course Insulation
In-situ RC
slab Damp-proof
Insulation membrane
Blinding Blinding
Damp-proof Well compacted

membrane Well compacted
sub-base sub-base
Blinding
Blinding
a) Internal strip foundation b) Perimeter strip foundation
Façade
In-situ RC slab on sub-base

Damp-proof Reinforcement
course TOC
Insulation
Top of pilecap
Damp-proof
membrane
450
Blinding min 75
Well compacted
Blinding
sub-base
c) Typical perimeter pile cap and ground bearing f) Connection of column to pad foundation
slab interface
Longitudinal joint
Reinforced Reinforced concrete
concrete column Outline of column Proprietary joint sealant 20 mm wide
base below slab
Transverse joint Isolation joint

(where provided) (See Section
A A below) DPC Sub-base
Compressible filler board 20 mm wide
a) Isolation joint around concrete column: plan d) Wall isolation joint
RC wall
Existing
masonry Concrete foundation
Longitudinal joint
wall
Outline of base
below slab
Damp-proof
membrane
A A
Transverse joint
Blinding
Isolation joint (where provided)
Assumed foundation Mass concrete

to existing wall
b) Isolation joint at steel stanchion: plan e) New structure allowed to load existing building
foundations
Existing
20 mm soft joint masonry wall
Foundation
Compressible
Damp-proof material
membrane
Mass concrete
300 mm wide
granular backfill
Blinding
Mass concrete
Water-bar
50 mm soft joint Weep hole
filled with
compressible Drainage pipe
material Assumed foundation
to existing wall
f) New structure isolated from existing building
foundations
Non-absorbent
Sealing compound joint filter
Large radius bend Large radius bend

if required if required
No steel a) Reinforced concrete cantilever wall b) Reinforced concrete basement wall

continuity
Superstructure
Reinforced
Expansion type Initial gap for concrete Ground floor slab
waterstop expansion capping beam
Reinforced concrete
a) Expansion joint d column
Protection Z Z
Tanking Reinforced Waterproofing to internal
concrete or external surface of
Fillet basement wall basement wall as
Fillet required
Contiguous
150 pile wall
Basement slab
Stabilising beam
In-situ
concrete
infill
Pile
Pile cap
Isolated pile groups
b) Temporary contiguous pile wall
In-situ concrete
Secant pile
wall
300 mm wide
granular backfill
Section X X
Water-bar
Weep hole
Drainage pipe
Section Y Y
Large radius bend Large radius bend

if required if required
a) Reinforced concrete cantilever wall b) Reinforced concrete basement wall
Screed
New RC slab
X X Section Z Z
Existing column
15 mm soft joint
New reinforced
10 mm steel plate concrete slab
Plan c) Detailing to avoid new slab loading existing column Section X X

Landscape deck
Fig 5.8 Metal decking permanent shuttering Corrugated galvanised

metal water stop
150mm high wall kicker
R.C. slab
Blinding
General Notes on Drawings:
. All Dimensions are in millimeters, Levels are shown in meters
. Concrete Grade for all structure is ----
. All Reinforcement bars to have yield strength of 460 MPa
. Fire Resistance for all member is -- hr
. Minimum Concrete cover to main reinforcement to be:
Slabs 25 mm
Beams 30 mm
Columns/ Walls 40 mm
Pile caps 50 mm
Retaining Walls 75 mm
Piles 75 mm
Typical Reinforcement Ratio:
Table 3.7
Typical reinforcement rates (kg/m3)
Element Low High
Slabs, one-way 75 110
Slabs, two-way 65 110
Flat slabs 75 220
Ribbed slabs 70 140
RC pad footings 70 90
Pile caps 110 150
Rafts 60 115
Columns 100 450
Ground beams 225 330
Beams 90 330
Retaining walls 90 130
Stairs 100 150
Walls 40 100
Note
The actual reinforcement quantity in the element will vary according to detailing practice and efficiency
of the concrete element.
Notes on Bored Pile Foundation:

. All bored piles are ---mm
. Tentative Toe level of piles are expected to be --- m below ground Level, to be
confirmed in detailed design
. Concrete Grade for piles - ---
. No of Piles : -----
Notes on Shallow Foundation:
. All footings are ---mm thick
. Footings are to found on subsoil with allowable earing capacity of --- kPa
minimum
. Tentative founding level to be -- m below GF
. Concrete grade to be ----
Notes on Structural Steelworks:
. Steel members are to be grade 43 comply with BS 4360
. All welds are full penetration butt weld
. All fillet welds are minimum 6mm weld all around
. All bolts shall be grade 8.8
Notes on Water Resistance:
. Water stops shall be provided at all joints
. Curing should be continued until the concrete reaches, at least 2/3 of specified
cube strength, not less than 7 days from the time of casting
Method statement
Part 2e Method statement (WITH BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION)
1. Proceed site preparation including construction of temporary road access ramp,
sire drainage, tracing and clear marking of any existing utility. Service cables and
ducts.
2. Prepare hoarding against the site boundary for bulk excavation 0.5m below
ground.
3. Basement Construction
3a. Install sheet pile OR king post walls (Vibration and noise is not a problem)
3b.Bored piles AND Secant pile wall OR Diaphragm wall (In town)
4. Install dewatering by wellpoint system at maximum 5 meters apart
5. Excavate down to the underside of the raft/pilecaps/pads
5a. Excavate to formation level with slopes battened back 2H:1V. (Step 3a and 3b
not required)
6. All excavations including open pits, boreholes and pile excavtions should be
clearly marked
6a Lay waterproofing membrane with protective screed (Raft)
6b Lay waterproofing membrane with pile head treatment (Piled)
7. Lay reinforcement and cast the raft slab continuously in one pour by providing
4 concrete pumps. Supply from two batching plants. This is done to avoid cold
joints. (Raft)
8. Construct the basement and walls. Install water stops at the wall/raft junctions.
Install water bars at water face at construction joints in walls.
9. Construct basement columns and core walls
10. Build scaffolding and formwork for the construction of ground floor (Level1)
11. Repeat steps 9-10 for the construction of level 2
12. Repeat steps 9-10 for the construction of level 3 and prop the cantilever
transfer beam.
13. Repeat steps 9-10 for the construction of levels 4-6
14a. Construct light weight roof rafters, purlins, and sheeting.
14b. Construct roof slab and lay waterproofing membrane and protection screed.
15. Install stairs and other services
16. Dry wall partitions/ finishes / false ceilings
17. Install cladding
18. Complete MEP services, elevators, etc
19. Commissioning
Part 2e Method statement (WITHOUT BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION)

1. Proceed site preparation including construction of temporary road access ramp, sire
drainage, tracing and clear marking of any existing utility. Service cables and ducts.
2. Prepare hoarding against the site boundary for bulk excavation 0.5m below ground.
2a. Prepare piling mat as a stable working platform for piling by laying 300mm hard
core material and infill any soft spot (If piles utilized)
2b. Bore the ground, concrete the hole , and place the reinforcement cage (If piles
utilized)
2c.All excavations including open pits, boreholes and pile excavtions should be clearly
marked
3. Install dewatering by
3a. wellpoint system at maximum 5 meters apart
3b. Sump pumping (In granular soils) – ground water allowed to enter excavation then
collevted in a sump and pumped away
4. Excavate down to the underside of the raft/pilecaps/pads
5a. Lay waterproofing membrane with protective screed (Raft)
5b Lay waterproofing membrane with pile head treatment (Piled)
6. Construct pad/ pilecaps / raft
7. Stop dewatering
8. lay 150mm hardcore material, 50mm blinding, for ground floor slab construction
9. Place reinforcement, build the formwork and pour concrete
10. Construct ground floor columns and core walls
11. Build scaffolding and formwork for the construction of Level2
12. Repeat step 913. Repeat steps 10-12 for the construction of level 3 and prop the
cantilever transfer beam.
14. Repeat steps 10-12 for the construction of levels 4-6
14a. Construct light weight roof rafters, purlins, and sheeting.
14b. Construct roof slab and lay waterproofing membrane and protection screed.
15. Install stairs and other services
16. Dry wall partitions/ finishes / false ceilings
17. Install cladding
18. Complete MEP services, elevators, etc
19. Commissioning
20. External works and clear the site
Part 2e Method statement (with adjacent existing building)
1. Excavate at the ground floor of the existing fire station 1m and 5m away from
existing facade to form pad foundation at 3.75m c/c and fill with mass concrete
for the base of temporary scaffolding support.
2. Install temporary steel scaffolding to support the existing masonry facade inside
the existing fire station by penetrating the floor at 3.75 c/c
3. Partially demolish the liners of the existing fire station and retain the masonry
wall
4. Notify the tunnel owner and agree the term of construction before starting any
work at car park.
5. Prepare a survey and a follow-up summary report to conclude the condition and
identify the existence of the cracks or defeat in the tunnel ne50'e piling with the
approval of the owner.
6. Check the flexibility of the tunnel to withstand any vertical and horizontal stress
induced by the
7. Proceed site preparation including construction of temporary road access ramp,
sire drainage, tracing and clear marking of any existing utility. Service cables and
ducts.
8. Prepare hoarding against the site boundary for bulk excavation 0.5m below
ground.
9. Prepare pilling mat as the stable working platform for piling by laying 300mm
hard core material and infill any soil spot.
10. Mark safe zone build temporary bridge over tunnel and prevent piling machine
and other vehicle running on top of the tunnel.
11. Bore the ground and concreting the hole, place the reinforcement cage. All
piling must be at least 1.0m away from the tunnel, carefully monitor my instant
movement of the tunnel and anv defeat induced due to the construction work.
12. Construct the pile caps, and build the shaft of me core well.
13. Carefully excavate on the top or me tunnel and prevent exposure of the funnel
crown. Construct permanent formwork including 800mm deep steel beam with
shelf angle supporting precast concrete plank which bridge between pile caps for
the construction of transfer beam to avoid additional load acting on the
1 2 3 4
Construct perimeter walls. Excavate for roof. De-water to first basement. Cast first basement
Construct bored piles with Cast roof skeleton. Excavate to first basement. skeleton
plunge columns
7 8
5 6
Encase columns from second Line perimeter walls from
De-water to second basement. Cast whole of second basement. to first basement. first to second basement.
Excavate to second basement. Line perimeter walls from roof to Fill holes in first basement. Fill holes in roof.
first basement.
Soft
clay
(a) Extend walls
Hydrostatic
water
pressure Stronger
soil
9
No flow
Waterproof and backfill roof. Walls
Cease de-watering. Plan view
Excavation
1
(b) Construct in a series
Excavation
2 of excavations with
Excavation
reduced plan area
Hydrostatic 3
Water
pressure
Flow
Water or
bentonite mud (c) Excavate under water
or bentonite mud
Hydrostatic
Water
pressure
(d) Artificially increased
Permeable soil strength
layer
Zone of
increased
soil strength
Fig 6.3 Examples of reduction in effective
stress due to water flow
Excavate Excavate
(e) Unload soil adjacent

to excavation
Fig 5.8 Methods of extending excavation depth in soft clay

0.0 m Intermediate 0.0 m
Boring
steel column
Excavation 1st filled -1
Sand and Sand and
basement level -2
gravel gravel
Bracing -3
Clay Clay -4
-5
-20 m Excavation
Limestone
layer
1st stage 2nd stage

Initial excavation Reinforced concrete superstructure core
completed up to the ground level
+1 +1
0.0 m 0 0.0 m 0
-1 -1
Sand and -2 Sand and -2
Excavation
gravel gravel
E-2 and -3 -3 -3
Clay -4 Clay -4
-20 m -5 -20 m -5
3rd stage 4th stage

Excavation of remaining building pit Basement completed and entire raft concreted.
using top-down method Superstructure erected up to 12th storey
Programme
Construction type Construction rate
Establish site 2 weeks
Bored/CFA piled (600 mm dia. x 30 m long) 7 per day
Driven precast piles From 200 m/day hard ground to 1000 m/day soft ground
Note
Rates given are generic and intended only for guidance.
Site Setup - 2 weeks

Sub Structure with Basement
Piling Matt - 1 week
Secant Pile - 3 to 4 weeks (including mobilization)
Excavation / floor or 3000 m3 - 3 weeks
Piling Matt - 1 week
Install Piles - 7 per day
Foundation Slab - 4 weeks
Linerup Wall + Cap Beam - 4 weeks
Basement Columns - 3 weeks per floor
Basement Floors - 4 weeks per floor
Sub Structure without Basement
Removal of top soil - 2 weeks
Foundation Slab/ Footing - 4 weeks
Ground Slab preparation + drainage - 3 weeks
Ground Floor Slabs - 3 weeks
Super Structure
Columns and Walls - 3 weeks / floor
Slab - 4 weeks / floor
facade - 1.5 weeks/ floor
Steel Structure
Columns and Walls - 2 weeks / floor

Slab - 3 weeks / floor
facade - 1.5 weeks/ floor
A B C D
7500 7500 7500
1350 sq.m
1
7500
2 E F G H I
7500
7500 7500 7500 7500 7500
3
7500
4
7500
5
7500
Activity Duration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Site set up 2 weeks
Substructure 8 weeks
Owen Brooker
17.10.06
Typicaltopsoil
Remove Floor and reduced level dig 2 weeks
Pad foundations 4 weeks
Underslab drainage 3 weeks
Ground floor slab 3 weeks
Superstructure 10 weeks
Walls/columns grd to 1st 3 weeks
1st floor slab 4 weeks
Walls/columns 1st to 2nd 3 weeks
2nd floor slab 4 weeks
Walls/columns 2nd to 3rd 3 weeks
3rd floor slab 3 weeks
Roof upstands and bases 2 weeks

2268 sq.m
PRELIMINARY
SIZING- STEEL
Material properties
Other properties of steel to be used in calculations are:
––Modulus of Elasticity E=210 000 N/mm2
––Poisson’s ratio in the elastic range o=0.3
––Shear modulus G=E/(2(1+o)) . 81 000 N/mm2
––Coefficient of linear thermal expansion a=12x10 -6 per K (for TG100°C)
Note that for calculating the structural effects of unequal temperatures
in composite concrete-steel structures to EC44 the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion is taken as a=10×10 −6 per K.
BEAMS:
Element Typical Span/depth Typical Span (m)
Floor Beams (UB’s) 15-18 up to 12m

(including floor slab)
Plate girder 10-12
Slimfloor (steel only) 25-28 6-9m
Castellated UB’s* 14-17 12-20m
Lattice girders (RSA’s)+ 12-15 up to 35m
Lattice girders (Tubular) 15-18 up to 100m
Roof trusses (pitch>20O) 14-15 up to 17m
Space Frames 20-24 up to 60m
* Avoid if high point loads; increase Ireq by 1.3
+ Precamber by L/250
! Initial scheming chart
One-or-two spans:
Read depth directly
from chart
Multiple spans:
Deduct 50mm from depth
estimated by chart
To avoid bending failure, it is necessary to en-

sure that the design moment, M, does not exceed
the moment capacity of the section, Mc, i.e.
M < Mc (4.1)
Generally, the moment capacity for a steel sec-
tion is given by
M c = py S (4.2)
where
py is the assumed design strength of the steel
S is the plastic modulus of the section
Table 4.3 Design strengths py (Table 9,

BS 5950)
Steel grade Thickness, less than Design strength,

or equal to (mm) py (N/mm 2)
S275 16 275
40 265
63 255
80 245
100 235
150 225
Table 2.6 Nominal strengths of steels
S355 16 355
40 345 Steel grade Thickness less than or Yield strength Ultimate tensile
equal to fy strength fu
63 335
(mm) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
80 325
S275 16 275 410
100 315
40 265 410
150 295
63 255 410
S460 16 460 80 245 410
40 440 100 235 410
63 430
150 225 400
80 410
S355 16 355 470
100 400
40 345 470
63 335 470
80 325 470
100 315 470
150 295 450
composite beams:
Castellated Beams:
Castellated & cellular beams
Non-composite
slab
Imposed loading 5+1 kN/m2 d D
S S
SECONDARY BEAM SPAN (m)

6 9 12 15 18
Beam Size 356 x 171 x 45 457 x 191 x 67 533 x 210 x 92 686 x 254 x 125 838 x 292 x 176
Diameter 300 350 450 550 650
Spacing 450 525 675 825 975
0/A Depth 482 605 728 916 1116
MAIN BEAM SPAN (m)

6 9 12 15 18
Secondary Beam Size Beam Size Beam Size Beam Size Beam Size
Beam
Span (m) Dia. Spacing O/A Dia. Spacing O/A Dia. Spacing O/A Dia. Spacing O/A Dia. Spacing O/A
Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth
6 457 x 191 x 67 610 x 229 x 125 762 x 267 x 173 914 x 305 x 201 914 x 305 x 253
400 600 627 500 750 828 700 1000 1078 700 1000 1219 700 1000 1235
9 610 x 229 x 101 762 x 267 x 147 914 x 305 x 201 914 x 305 x 289
500 750 819 500 750 970 700 1000 1219 700 1000 1243
12 610 x 229 x 113 838 x 292 x 194 914 x 305 x 289
500 750 824 700 1000 1157 700 1000 1243
15 686 x 254 x 125 914 x 305 x 253
550 750 934 700 1000 1235
18 762 x 267 x 173 914 x 305 x 289
700 1000 1078 700 1000 1243
Assumptions
1. Secondary beam spacing 3m

2. 150mm thick concrete slab of normal weight concrete
3. All beams grade Fe 510
4. Beams laterally restrained by concrete slab.
COLUMNS:
! Columns
Preliminary design based on a concentric axial load (see section 4.4.4).
For top storey:

Prelim. design axial load = total axial load + 4 × difference in Y-Y axis load
+ 2 × difference in X-X axis load
For intermediate storey:

Prelim. design axial load = total axial load + 2 × difference in Y-Y axis load
+ 1 × difference in X-X axis load
Typical maximum column sizes for braced frames:
- 203 UC for buildings up to 3 storeys high.

- 356 UC for buildings from 8 to 12 storeys high.
BENDING
Universal GRADE 43 GRADE 50
Beams
D×b×Mass Mcx L1 L2 L3 L4 Pv Mcx L1 L2 L3 L4 Pv Intermediate
(mm×mm kNm m m m m kN kNm m m m m kN masses (kg/m)
×Kg/m) (1.0) (0.75) (0.5) (0.35) (1.0) (0.75) (0.5) (0.35)
914×419×388 4680 3.9 7.7 12.5 - 3150 6020 3.4 6.8 10.8 15.0 4100
914×419×343 4100 3.8 7.3 12.0 - 2810 5270 3.4 6.7 10.5 14.4 3660
914×305×289 3340 2.7 5.1 8.2 11.5 2890 4280 2.4 4.5 7.5 10.1 3760 253, 224
914×305×201 2220 2.5 4.7 7.2 9.7 2180 2840 2.2 4.3 6.4 8.5 2840
838×292×226 2430 2.5 4.8 7.7 10.7 2180 3110 2.3 4.3 6.8 9.2 2840 194
838×292×176 1800 2.4 4.6 7.0 9.4 1860 2320 2.1 4.2 5.3 8.2 2420
762×267×197 1900 2.4 4.6 7.1 9.9 1910 2440 2.1 4.0 6.2 8.6 2490 173
762×267×147 1370 2.2 4.3 6.4 8.6 1550 1760 2.0 3.7 5.7 7.8 2010
686×254×170 1490 2.3 4.3 6.9 9.7 1600 1910 2.0 4.1 6.1 8.4 2080 152, 140
686×254×125 1060 2.1 4.0 6.3 8.3 1260 1360 1.9 3.7 5.6 7.3 1640
610×305×238 1980 3.0 6.0 10.2 15.0 1870 2540 2.6 5.3 9.0 13.0 2440 179
610×305×149 1460 2.8 5.6 9.0 13.0 1150 1550 2.5 4.9 7.5 10.3 1500
610×229×140 1100 2.1 3.9 6.3 9.0 1290 1410 1.8 3.5 5.6 7.7 1670 125, 113
610×229×101 794 1.9 3.6 5.5 7.5 1050 1020 1.7 3.3 5.0 6.6 1360
533×210×122 849 1.9 3.7 6.1 8.1 1110 1090 1.7 3.3 5.3 7.3 1440 109, 101, 92
533×210×82 566 1.8 3.3 5.2 7.0 837 731 1.5 3.0 4.6 6.1 1080
457×191×98 592 1.8 3.5 5.8 7.6 847 777 1.6 2.9 5.0 7.0 1100 89, 82, 74
457×191×67 405 1.6 3.1 4.9 6.6 636 523 1.4 2.8 4.3 5.8 821
457×152×82 477 1.3 2.5 4.3 6.3 791 622 1.1 2.4 3.8 5.3 1030 74, 67, 60
457×152×52 301 1.2 2.3 3.7 4.9 564 389 1.1 2.1 3.2 4.3 728
406×178×74 415 1.6 3.2 5.1 7.3 661 536 1.4 2.8 4.5 6.3 853 67, 60
406×178×54 289 1.5 2.9 4.5 6.2 505 373 1.3 2.6 4.1 5.4 652
406×140×46 245 1.2 2.3 3.5 4.9 458 316 1.1 2.1 3.2 4.2 591
406×140×39 198 1.2 2.2 3.3 4.5 413 255 1.0 1.9 3.0 3.9 533
356×171×67 334 1.6 3.1 5.3 7.7 547 430 1.4 2.8 4.5 6.5 706 57, 51
356×171×45 213 1.5 2.8 4.5 6.1 401 244 1.3 2.4 4.0 5.3 517
356×127×39 180 1.1 2.0 3.3 4.4 378 232 0.9 1.7 2.9 3.8 488
356×127×33 148 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.1 339 192 0.9 1.8 2.8 3.6 438
305×165×54 232 1.6 3.1 5.2 7.8 395 300 1.4 2.8 4.5 6.5 510 46
305×165×40 172 1.5 2.9 4.7 6.5 306 222 1.3 2.6 4.1 5.6 395
305×127×48 194 1.1 2.3 3.7 5.5 456 251 1.0 2.0 3.2 4.7 588 42
305×127×37 149 1.1 2.1 3.3 4.7 361 192 0.9 1.8 2.9 4.1 466
305×102×33 132 0.9 1.7 2.7 3.7 341 170 0.8 1.5 2.3 3.3 440 28
305×102×25 92.4 0.8 1.5 2.3 3.2 292 120 0.7 1.3 2.1 2.7 377
254×146×43 156 1.4 2.8 4.9 7.3 313 202 1.2 2.5 4.2 5.4 404 37
254×146×31 109 1.3 2.5 4.2 5.8 253 125 1.2 2.6 4.1 5.6 327
254×102×28 97.4 0.9 1.7 2.8 4.0 275 127 0.8 1.6 2.5 3.5 355 25
254×102×22 71.6 0.8 1.6 2.5 3.4 243 93 0.7 1.4 2.3 3.0 314
203×133×30 86.2 1.3 2.6 4.4 6.6 215 111 1.1 2.4 3.9 5.4 278
203×133×25 71.2 1.3 2.4 4.1 5.9 194 82 1.1 1.7 2.8 4.0 251
Universal GRADE 43 GRADE 50
Columns
D×b×Mass Mcx L1 L2 L3 L4 Pv Mcx L1 L2 L3 L4 Pv Intermediate
(mm×mm kNm m m m m kN kNm m m m m kN masses
×Kg/m) (1.0) (0.75) (0.5) (0.35) (1.0) (0.75) (0.5) (0.35) (kg/m)
356×406×634 3490 8.7 - - - 3320 4520 6.8 - - - 4410 551, 467, 393,
356×406×235 1240 5.0 12.0 - - 1120 1620 4.2 16.0 - - 1460 & 340, 287
356×368×202 1050 4.8 10.5 - - 1000 1370 3.9 9.0 15.0 - 1300 177, 153
356×368×129 601 4.1 9.8 - - 605 782 4.8 8.7 14.0 - 788
305×305×283 1300 4.8 14.0 - - 1500 1730 4.4 11.5 - - 2000 240, 198, 158
305×305×97 397 3.2 6.8 12.2 - 503 512 4.0 6.0 10.2 - 649 & 137, 118
254×254×167 641 3.3 10.3 - - 883 834 3.0 8.7 - - 1150 132, 107, 89
254×254×73 272 2.3 6.0 11.0 - 360 318 3.4 6.2 10.6 15.0 465
203×203×86 259 2.7 7.0 14.0 - 459 338 2.2 5.9 12.0 - 598 71, 60, 52
203×203×46 137 2.2 4.8 8.7 13.7 245 159 2.7 5.0 8.2 12.5 316
152×152×37 85 1.8 4.1 8.1 - 216 110 1.7 3.5 6.8 10.8 279 30
152×152×23 45.4 1.5 3.3 5.6 8.8 153 58.6 2.0 3.5 5.6 8.2 198
Approximate Mb calculation
Table is to used in conjunction with the table on P. 4/23 to calculate approximate Mb.
Effective Length
Example : 533x210x82UB (py = 275 Mpa) with Le compression flange = 6m.
From table L4 = 7.0m = 0.35Mcx

L3 = 5.2m = 0.50Mcx
Mcx = 566 kNm
From graph Mb = 0.43Mcx (approx.), for Le = 6m.
= 243 kNm
4.4 Steel (Non-composite) (6/21)
Effective lengths of beam compression flanges

Rotational restraint on plan
Conditions of restraint at the ends Loading conditions

of the beams
Normal Destabilizing
Compression Both flanges fully 0.7L 0.85L

flange restrained
laterally against rotation
restrained; on plan
beam fully
Both flanges 0.85L 1.0L
1. Flanges fully restrained on plan restrained
partially
against
torsion restrained
against rotation
on plan
Both flanges free 1.0L 1.2L

to rotate on plan
Compression Restraint against 1.0L+2D 1.2L+2D

flange torsion provided
2. Flanges partially restrained on plan laterally only by positive
unrestrained; connection of
both flanges bottom flange to
free to rotate supports
on plan
Restraint against 1.2L+2D 1.4L+2D
torsion provided
only by dead
bearing of
bottom flange on
supports.
3. Flanges free to rotate on plan
STRUTS:
Struts and ties
Slenderness limits:
- members resisting load other than wind: 8#180

- members resisting self weight and wind only: 8#250
- members normally acting as a tie but subject to load reversal due to wind: 8#350
Minimum CHS sections which satisfy slenderness limits
Slenderness Effective Length (m)

Limit
4 6 8 10 12
180 76.1 x 3.2 114.3 x 3.6 139.7 x 5.0 168.3 x 5.0 193.7 x 5.0
250 60.6 x 3.2 76.1 x 3.2 114.3 x 3.6 139.7 x 5.0 139.7 x 5.0
350 42.2 x 4.6 60.3 x 3.2 76.1 x 3.2 88.9 x 3.2 114.3 x 3.6
truss:
PLATE GIRDERS:
TRUSS:
D/2
δ = 5WL3/384EI
uniform load
ARCH:
BRACING BAY:
p1
p2 Ft = Fc = M/D
Tension only Bracing = P/cos α
p3
I = Achord +D2/2 *0.8
(Allow for shear deformation)

p4 UDL
δ = WL3/8EI
p5
α
veerendeel truss: W kN/m
h
s
L
V3
V2 V1
V3/ V2/ V1/ V1

2 2 2 V2
V3
4 3 2 1
V3/ V2/ V1/

2 2 2
8 7 6 5
MOMENTS IN TOP & BOTTOM CHORD: M43 M21

M32
= Shear at any pin*S/2
Top and Bottom chord similar value
M12 = M21 = V1/2*s/2 4 3 2 1
M23 = M32 = V2/2*s/2
M34 = M43 = V3/2*s/2 M34 M23 M12
MOMENTS IN VERTICAL
M15=M51 = 0 4 3 2 1
M26=M62 = M23 + M21 M48 M26 M15
M37
M37= M73= M34+M32
M48=M84=M43
SHEAR IN VERTICAL
Vh = Mu/h/2
VH48 = M48/(h/2) 8 M84 7 M73 6 M62 5 M51
VH37=M37/(h/2)
VH26=M26/(h/2)
VH15=M15/(h/2) AXIAL IN VERTICAL
TOP CHORD AND BOTTOM CHORD AXIAL INTERNAL P =0
SUM OF HORIZONTAL SHEARS END MEMBERS = P = RA=RB
P34 = VH48
P23 = VH48+VH37
P12 = VH48+VH37+VH26
DEFLECTION DEFLECTION
I CHORD = ACHORD*D2/2 BEAM DESIGN T&M
T = C = M/D COLUMN DESIGN M + MINOR COMPRESSION
Moment Frame:
4m
8m 10m 10m 8m Contributing proportions w.r.t to bay width

Base Plate:
DESIGN OF RESTRAINED BEAMS
1) Compute the Ultimate Bending Moment

2) Compute the Ultimate shear force Fv
3) Find out the section classification
4) Find out the shear capacity Pv = 0.6*py*Av

5) Av= tD
6) Classify High shear or Low shear
If Pv <0.6 Fv .........................Low shear
Pv>=0.6 Fv ....................... High shear
Shear Plastic and Compact

Mc= Py.S Slender and Semi Compact
Low Mc= 1.2 Py.Z for SS and CL Mc =py.Z
Mc= 1.5 py.Z for others
High Mc= Py.(S-ρ Sv) Mc= Py.(S-ρ Sv/1.5)

ρ = [2Fv/Pv-1]^2
7) Check for deflection L/360 for Live load

DESIGN OF UN-RESTRAINED BEAMS
1) Compute the Ultimate Bending Moment

2) Compute the Ultimate shear force Fv
3) Find out the section classification
4) Find Effective length Le
5) β^0.5 * Le */ry and D/T

6) Find pb from Table 20 5950
7)Mb=pb * S
7) Check for deflection L/360 for Live load

9780415467193_D02
486 Table B1 Dimensions and properties of steel universal beams (structural sections to BS 4: Part 1)
Dimensions Properties
Designation Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Ratios for Second moment Radius Elastic Plastic Buckling Torsional Warping Torsional Area
of of radius between local buckling of area of gyration modulus modulus parameter index constant constant of
Serial Mass section section Web Flange fillets section
size per Flange Web Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
486
metre D B t T r d b/T d/t x–x y–y x–x y–y x–x y–y x–x y–y u x H J A
(mm) (kg) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (cm 4) (cm 4) (cm) (cm) (cm 3) (cm 3) (cm 3) (cm 3) (dm 6) (cm 4) (cm 2)
914×419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 24.1 799.1 5.74 37.2 719 000 45 400 38.1 9.58 15 600 2160 17 700 3 340 0.884 26.7 88.7 1 730 494
343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 24.1 799.1 6.54 41.2 625 000 39 200 37.8 9.46 13 700 1870 15 500 2 890 0.883 30.1 75.7 1 190 437
914×305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 19.1 824.5 4.81 42.1 505 000 15 600 37.0 6.51 10 900 1010 12 600 1 600 0.867 31.9 31.2 929 369
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 824.5 5.47 47.7 437 000 13 300 36.8 6.42 9 510 872 10 900 1 370 0.866 36.2 26.4 627 323
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 824.5 6.36 51.9 376 000 11 200 36.3 6.27 8 260 738 9 520 1 160 0.861 41.3 22.0 421 285
201 903.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 19.1 824.5 7.51 54.2 326 000 9 430 35.6 6.06 7 210 621 8 360 983 0.853 46.8 18.4 293 256
838×292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 761.7 5.48 47.3 340 000 11 400 34.3 6.27 7 990 773 9 160 1 210 0.87 35.0 19.3 514 289
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 761.7 6.74 51.8 279 000 9 070 33.6 6.06 6 650 620 7 650 974 0.862 41.6 15.2 307 247
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 17.8 761.7 7.76 54.4 246 000 7 790 33.1 5.90 5 890 534 6 810 842 0.856 46.5 13.0 222 224
762×267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 16.5 685.8 5.28 44.0 240 000 8 170 30.9 5.71 6 230 610 7 170 959 0.869 33.2 11.3 405 251
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 685.8 6.17 48.0 205 000 6 850 30.5 5.57 5 390 513 6 200 807 0.864 38.1 9.38 267 220
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 16.5 685.8 7.58 53.2 169 000 5 470 30.0 5.39 4 480 412 5 170 649 0.857 45.1 7.41 161 188
686×254 170 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 615.1 5.40 42.4 170 000 6 620 28.0 5.53 4 910 518 5 620 810 0.872 31.8 7.41 307 217
152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 15.2 615.1 6.06 46.6 150 000 5 780 27.8 5.46 4 370 454 5 000 710 0.871 35.5 6.42 219 194
140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 15.2 615.1 6.68 49.6 136 000 5 180 27.6 5.38 3 990 408 4 560 638 0.868 38.7 5.72 169 179
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 615.1 7.81 52.6 118 000 4 380 27.2 5.24 3 480 346 4 000 542 0.862 43.9 4.79 116 160
610×305 238 633.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 537.2 4.96 28.9 208 000 15 800 26.1 7.22 6 560 1020 7 460 1 570 0.886 21.1 14.3 788 304
179 617.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 16.5 537.2 6.50 38.1 15 200 11 400 25.8 7.08 4 910 743 5 520 1 140 0.886 27.5 10.1 341 228
149 609.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 537.2 7.74 45.1 125 000 9 300 25.6 6.99 4 090 610 4 570 937 0.886 32.5 8.09 200 190
9/3/09, 4:54 PM
610×229 140 617.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 12.7 547.3 5.21 41.8 112 000 4 510 25.0 5.03 3 630 392 4 150 612 0.875 30.5 3.99 217 178
125 611.9 229.0 11.9 19.6 12.7 547.3 5.84 46.0 98 600 3 930 24.9 4.96 3 220 344 3 680 536 0.873 34.0 3.45 155 160
113 607.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 12.7 547.3 6.60 48.9 87 400 3 440 24.6 4.88 2 880 301 3 290 470 0.87 37.9 2.99 112 144
101 602.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 12.7 547.3 7.69 51.6 75 700 2 910 24.2 4.75 2 510 256 2 880 400 0.863 43.0 2.51 77.2 129
533×210 122 544.6 211.9 12.8 21.3 12.7 476.5 4.97 37.2 76 200 3 390 22.1 4.67 2 800 320 3 200 501 0.876 27.6 2.32 180 156
109 539.5 210.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 476.5 5.60 41.1 66 700 2 940 21.9 4.60 2 470 279 2 820 435 0.875 30.9 1.99 126 139
101 536.7 210.1 10.9 17.4 12.7 476.5 6.04 43.7 61 700 2 690 21.8 4.56 2 300 257 2 620 400 0.874 33.1 1.82 102 129
92 533.1 209.3 10.2 15.6 12.7 476.5 6.71 46.7 55 400 2 390 21.7 4.51 2 080 229 2 370 356 0.872 36.4 1.60 76.2 118
82 528.3 208.7 9.6 13.2 12.7 476.5 7.91 49.6 47 500 2 010 21.3 4.38 1 800 192 2 060 300 0.865 41.6 1.33 51.3 104
457×191 98 467.4 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 407.9 4.92 35.8 45 700 2 340 19.1 4.33 1 960 243 2 230 378 0.88 25.8 1.17 121 125
89 463.6 192.0 10.6 17.7 10.2 407.9 5.42 38.5 41 000 2 090 19.0 4.28 1 770 217 2 010 338 0.879 28.3 1.04 90.5 114
82 460.2 191.3 9.9 16.0 10.2 407.9 5.98 41.2 37 100 1 870 18.8 4.23 1 610 196 1 830 304 0.877 30.9 0.923 69.2 105
74 457.2 190.5 9.1 14.5 10.2 407.9 6.57 44.8 33 400 1 670 18.7 4.19 1 460 175 1 660 272 0.876 33.9 0.819 52.0 95.0
67 453.6 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 407.9 7.48 48.0 29 400 1 450 18.5 4.12 1 300 153 1 470 237 0.873 37.9 0.706 37.1 85.4
9780415467193_D02
457×152 82 465.1 153.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 407.0 4.06 38.0 36 200 1 140 18.6 3.31 1 560 149 1 800 235 0.872 27.3 0.569 89.3 104
487
74 461.3 152.7 9.9 17.0 10.2 407.0 4.49 41.1 32 400 1 010 18.5 3.26 1 410 133 1 620 209 0.87 30.0 0.499 66.6 95.0
67 457.2 151.9 9.1 15.0 10.2 407.0 5.06 44.7 28 600 878 18.3 3.21 1 250 116 1 440 182 0.867 33.6 0.429 47.5 85.4
60 454.7 152.9 8.0 13.3 10.2 407.7 5.75 51.0 25 500 794 18.3 3.23 1 120 104 1 280 163 0.869 37.5 0.387 33.6 75.9
52 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 10.2 407.7 6.99 53.6 21 300 645 17.9 3.11 949 84.6 1 090 133 0.859 43.9 0.311 21.3 66.5
406×178 74 412.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 10.2 360.5 5.62 37.2 27 300 1 540 17.0 4.03 1 320 172 1 500 267 0.881 27.6 0.608 63.0 95.0
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 360.5 6.25 41.0 24 300 1 360 16.9 4.00 1 190 153 1 350 237 0.88 30.5 0.533 46.0 85.5
60 406.4 177.8 7.8 12.8 10.2 360.5 6.95 46.2 21 500 1 200 16.8 3.97 1 060 135 1 190 208 0.88 33.9 0.464 32.9 76.0
54 402.6 177.6 7.6 10.9 10.2 360.5 8.15 47.4 18 600 1 020 16.5 3.85 925 114 1 050 177 0.872 38.5 0.39 22.7 68.4
406×140 46 402.3 142.4 6.9 11.2 10.2 359.7 6.36 52.1 15 600 539 16.3 3.02 778 75.7 888 118 0.87 38.8 0.206 19.2 59.0
39 397.3 141.8 6.3 8.6 10.2 359.7 8.24 57.1 12 500 411 15.9 2.89 627 58.0 721 91.1 0.859 47.4 0.155 10.6 49.4
356×171 67 364.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 312.3 5.52 34.3 19 500 1 360 15.1 3.99 1 070 157 1 210 243 0.887 24.4 0.413 55.5 85.4
57 358.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 10.2 312.3 6.62 39.0 16 100 1 110 14.9 3.92 896 129 1 010 199 0.884 28.9 0.331 33.1 72.2
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 10.2 312.3 7.46 42.8 14 200 968 14.8 3.87 796 113 895 174 0.882 32.2 0.286 23.6 64.6
45 352.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 312.3 8.81 45.3 12 100 812 14.6 3.78 687 95.0 774 147 0.875 36.9 0.238 15.7 57.0
356×127 39 352.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 10.2 311.2 5.89 47.9 10 100 357 14.3 2.69 572 56.6 654 88.7 0.872 35.3 0.104 14.9 49.4
33 348.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 10.2 311.2 7.38 52.7 8 200 280 14.0 2.59 471 44.7 540 70.2 0.864 42.2 0.081 8.68 41.8
305×165 54 310.9 166.8 7.7 13.7 8.9 265.7 6.09 34.5 11 700 1 060 13.1 3.94 753 127 845 195 0.89 23.7 0.234 34.5 68.4
46 307.1 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 265.7 7.02 39.7 9 950 897 3.0 3.90 648 108 723 166 0.89 27.2 0.196 22.3 58.9
40 303.8 165.1 6.1 10.2 8.9 265.7 8.09 43.6 8 520 763 12.9 3.85 561 92.4 624 141 0.888 31.1 0.164 14.7 51.5
305×127 48 310.4 125.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 264.6 4.47 29.7 9 500 460 12.5 2.75 612 73.5 706 116 0.874 23.3 0.101 31.4 60.8
42 306.6 124.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 264.6 5.14 33.1 8 140 388 12.4 2.70 531 62.5 610 98.2 0.872 26.5 0.0842 21.0 53.2
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 8.9 264.6 5.77 36.7 7 160 337 12.3 2.67 472 54.6 540 85.7 0.871 29.6 0.0724 14.9 47.5
9/3/09, 4:54 PM
305×102 33 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 7.6 275.9 4.74 41.8 6 490 193 12.5 2.15 415 37.8 480 59.8 0.866 31.7 0.0441 12.1 41.8
28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 7.6 275.9 5.72 45.2 5 420 157 12.2 2.08 351 30.8 407 48.9 0.858 37.0 0.0353 7.63 36.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 275.9 7.47 47.6 4 390 120 11.8 1.96 288 23.6 338 38.0 0.844 43.8 0.0266 4.65 31.4
254×146 43 259.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 7.6 218.9 5.80 30.0 6 560 677 10.9 3.51 505 92.0 568 141 0.889 21.1 0.103 24.1 55.1
37 256.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 7.6 218.9 6.72 34.2 5 560 571 10.8 3.47 434 78.1 485 120 0.889 24.3 0.0858 15.5 47.5
31 251.5 146.1 6.1 8.6 7.6 218.9 8.49 35.9 4 440 449 10.5 3.35 353 61.5 396 94.5 0.879 29.4 0.0662 8.73 40.0
254×102 28 260.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 7.6 225.1 5.10 35.2 4 010 178 10.5 2.22 308 34.9 353 54.8 0.873 27.5 0.0279 9.64 36.2
25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 7.6 225.1 6.07 36.9 3 410 148 10.3 2.14 265 29.0 306 45.8 0.864 31.4 0.0228 6.45 32.2
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 225.1 7.47 38.8 2 870 120 10.00 2.05 226 23.6 262 37.5 0.854 35.9 0.0183 4.31 28.4
203×133 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 7.6 172.3 6.97 27.3 2 890 384 8.72 3.18 279 57.4 313 88.1 0.882 21.5 0.0373 10.2 38.0
25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 7.6 172.3 8.55 29.7 2 360 310 8.54 3.10 232 46.4 260 71.4 0.876 25.4 0.0295 6.12 32.3
203×102 23 203.2 101.6 5.2 9.3 7.6 169.4 5.46 32.6 2 090 163 8.49 2.37 206 32.1 232 49.5 0.89 22.6 0.0153 6.87 29.0
178×102 19 177.8 101.6 4.7 7.9 7.6 146.8 6.43 31.2 1 360 138 7.49 2.39 153 27.2 171 41.9 0.889 22.6 0.00998 4.37 24.2
152×89 16 152.4 88.9 4.6 7.7 7.6 121.8 5.77 26.5 838 90.4 6.40 2.10 110 20.3 124 31.4 0.889 19.5 0.00473 3.61 20.5
127×76 13 127.0 76.2 4.2 7.6 7.6 96.6 5.01 23.0 477 56.2 5.33 1.83 75.1 14.7 85 22.7 0.893 16.2 0.002 2.92 16.8
487
9780415467193_D02
488 Table B2 Dimensions and properties of steel universal columns (structural sections to BS 4: Part 1)
488
356×406 634 474.7 424.1 47.6 77.0 15.2 290.2 2.75 6.10 275 000 98 200 18.5 11.0 11 600 4630 14 200 7110 0.843 5.46 38.8 13 700 808
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.2 3.10 6.91 227 000 82 700 18.0 10.9 9 960 3950 12 100 6060 0.841 6.05 31.1 9 240 702
467 436.6 412.4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.2 3.56 8.08 183 000 67 900 17.5 10.7 8 390 3290 10 000 5040 0.839 6.86 24.3 5 820 595
393 419.1 407.0 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 4.14 9.48 14 700 55 400 17.1 10.5 7 000 2720 8 230 4160 0.837 7.86 19.0 3 550 501
340 406.4 403.0 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.2 4.70 11.0 12 200 46 800 16.8 10.4 6 030 2320 6 990 3540 0.836 8.85 15.5 2 340 433
287 393.7 399.0 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 5.47 12.8 100 000 38 700 16.5 10.3 5 080 1940 5 820 2950 0.835 10.2 12.3 1 440 366
235 381.0 395.0 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.2 6.54 15.7 79 100 31 000 16.2 10.2 4 150 1570 4 690 2380 0.834 12.1 9.54 812 300
COLCORE 477 427.0 424.4 48.0 53.2 15.2 290.2 3.99 6.05 172 000 68 100 16.8 10.6 8 080 3210 9 700 4980 0.815 6.91 23.8 5 700 607
356×368 202 374.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 15.2 290.2 6.93 17.3 66 300 23 600 16.0 9.57 3 540 1260 3 980 1920 0.844 13.3 7.14 560 258
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.2 7.82 20.0 57 200 20 500 15.9 9.52 3 100 1100 3 460 1670 0.844 15.0 6.07 383 226
153 362.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 15.2 290.2 8.94 23.0 48 500 17 500 15.8 9.46 2 680 944 2 960 1430 0.844 17.0 5.09 251 195
129 355.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 15.2 290.2 10.5 27.1 40 200 14 600 15.6 9.39 2 260 790 2 480 1200 0.843 19.9 4.16 153 165
305×305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 246.6 3.65 9.17 78 800 24 500 14.8 8.25 4 310 1530 5 100 2340 0.855 7.65 6.33 2 030 360
240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 15.2 246.6 4.22 10.7 64 200 20 200 14.5 8.14 3 640 1270 4 250 1950 0.854 8.73 5.01 1 270 306
198 339.9 314.1 19.2 31.4 15.2 246.6 5.00 12.8 50 800 16 200 14.2 8.02 2 990 1030 3 440 1580 0.854 10.2 3.86 734 252
158 327.2 310.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 246.6 6.21 15.7 38 700 12 500 13.9 7.89 2 370 806 2 680 1230 0.852 12.5 2.86 379 201
137 320.5 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 7.11 17.9 32 800 10 700 13.7 7.82 2 050 691 2 300 1050 0.851 14.1 2.38 250 175
118 314.5 306.8 11.9 18.7 15.2 246.6 8.20 20.7 27 600 9 010 13.6 7.75 1 760 587 1 950 892 0.851 16.2 1.97 160 150
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 9.90 24.9 22 200 7 270 13.4 7.68 1 440 477 1 590 723 0.85 19.3 1.55 91.1 123
9/3/09, 4:54 PM
254×254 167 289.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 4.17 10.4 29 900 9 800 11.9 6.79 2 070 741 2 420 1130 0.852 8.49 1.62 625 212
132 276.4 261.0 15.6 25.3 12.7 200.3 5.16 12.8 22 600 7 520 11.6 6.67 1 630 576 1 870 879 0.85 10.3 1.18 322 169
107 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 12.7 200.3 6.30 15.4 17 500 5 900 11.3 6.57 1 310 457 1 490 695 0.848 12.4 0.894 173 137
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 12.7 200.3 7.40 19.1 14 300 4 850 11.2 6.52 1 100 379 1 230 575 0.849 14.4 0.716 104 114
73 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 8.94 23.3 11 400 3 870 11.1 6.46 894 305 989 462 0.849 17.3 0.557 57.3 92.9
203×203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 10.2 160.9 5.09 12.4 9 460 3 120 9.27 5.32 851 299 979 456 0.85 10.2 0.317 138 110
71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 10.2 160.9 5.96 15.6 7 650 2 540 9.16 5.28 708 246 802 374 0.852 11.9 0.25 81.5 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 10.2 160.9 7.23 17.3 6 090 2 040 8.96 5.19 581 199 652 303 0.847 14.1 0.195 46.6 75.8
52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.5 10.2 160.9 8.16 20.1 5 260 1 770 8.90 5.16 510 174 568 264 0.848 15.8 0.166 32.0 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 10.2 160.9 9.24 22.0 4 560 1 540 8.81 5.11 449 151 497 230 0.846 17.7 0.142 22.2 58.8
152×152 37 161.8 154.4 8.1 11.5 7.6 123.5 6.71 15.2 2 220 709 6.84 3.87 274 91.8 310 140 0.848 13.3 0.04 19.5 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 7.6 123.5 8.13 18.7 1 740 558 6.75 3.82 221 73.1 247 111 0.848 16.0 0.0306 10.5 38.2
23 152.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 7.6 123.5 11.2 20.2 1 260 403 6.51 3.68 166 52.9 184 80.9 0.837 20.4 0.0214 4.87 29.8
© BSI 2007 61
62 © BSI 2007
© BSI 2007 63
64 © BSI 2007
Design of Composite Beams
Table 4.18 Characteristic resistance, Q k, of headed studs in normal
Q p = 0.8Q k weight concrete (Table 5, BS 5950–3.1)
Shank diameter Height Characteristic strength (N/mm2)

(mm) (mm)
25 30 35 40
25 100 146 154 161 168 kN

22 100 119 126 132 139 kN
19 100 95 100 104 109 kN
19 75 82 87 91 96 kN
16 75 70 74 78 82 kN
13 65 44 47 49 52 kN
From Table 4.18, characteristic resistance, Q k, of headed studs 19 mm diameter × 100 mm high is 100 kN.
Design strength of shear connectors, Q p, is
Q p = 0.8Q k = 0.8 × 100 = 80 kN
Longitudinal force that needs to be transferred, Fc, is 2023.5 kN
R c 2023.5
Number of studs required = = ≥ 25.3
Qp 80
Provide 26 studs, evenly arranged in pairs, in each half span of beam.
4500
Spacing = = 375 mm, say 350 mm centres
12
DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Axial force only
1) Compute the Ultimate Axial load Fc
2) Select trial section
3) Determine rx ,ry and Ag from steel table
4) Determine effective lengths Lex and Ley using table 4.15
5) Calculate slenderness ratios λEY = Ley /ry & λEx = Lex /rx
6) Select suitable Strut curves from Table 4.12
7) Determine compressive strength ,pc using Table 4.13 and 4.14
8) Calculate Compression strength = Pc. Ag.Pc
9) Check Fc <= Pc
Refer Next page
Refer next pages

DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Design in structural steelwork to BS 5950
Whichever of the lines a–d is used depends appropriate to the section used. (Tables 24(b) and
on the shape of section and the axis of buckling. (c) of BS 5950 have been reproduced as Tables 4.13
Table 23 of BS 5950, part of which is reproduced and 4.14 respectively.) Alternatively, Appendix C
as Table 4.12, specifies which of the lines is appro- of BS 5950 gives the actual Perry-Robertson equa-
priate for the shape of section, and Tables 24(a), tions which may be used in place of the tables if
(b), (c) and (d) enable values of pc to be read off considered necessary.
Table 4.12 Strut table selection (based on Table 23, BS 5950)
Type of section Thickness a Axis of buckling
x–x y–y
Hot-finished structural hollow section 24(a) 24(a)

Rolled I-section Up to 40 mm 24(a) 24(b)
Rolled H-section Up to 40 mm 24(b)b 24(c)c
Over 40 mm 24(c) 24(d)
Notes. a For thicknesses between 40 and 50 mm the value of pc may be taken as the
average of the values for thicknesses up to 40 mm and over 40 mm.
b
Reproduced as Table 4.13.
c
Reproduced as Table 4.14.
Table 4.13 Compressive strength, pc (N/mm2) with λ < 110 for strut curve b
(Table 24(b), BS 5950)
λ Steel grade and design strength py (N/mm2)
S275 S355 S460
235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 400 410 430 440 460
15 235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 399 409 428 438 457
20 234 243 253 263 272 310 320 330 339 349 391 401 420 429 448
25 229 239 248 258 267 304 314 323 332 342 384 393 411 421 439
30 225 234 243 253 262 298 307 316 325 335 375 384 402 411 429
35 220 229 238 247 256 291 300 309 318 327 366 374 392 400 417
40 216 224 233 241 250 284 293 301 310 318 355 364 380 388 404
42 213 222 231 239 248 281 289 298 306 314 351 359 375 383 399
44 211 220 228 237 245 278 286 294 302 310 346 354 369 377 392
46 209 218 226 234 242 275 283 291 298 306 341 349 364 371 386
48 207 215 223 231 239 271 279 287 294 302 336 343 358 365 379
50 205 213 221 229 237 267 275 283 290 298 330 337 351 358 372
52 203 210 218 226 234 264 271 278 286 293 324 331 344 351 364
54 200 208 215 223 230 260 267 274 281 288 318 325 337 344 356
56 198 205 213 220 227 256 263 269 276 283 312 318 330 336 347
58 195 202 210 217 224 252 258 265 271 278 305 311 322 328 339
60 193 200 207 214 221 247 254 260 266 272 298 304 314 320 330
62 190 197 204 210 217 243 249 255 261 266 291 296 306 311 320
64 187 194 200 207 213 238 244 249 255 261 284 289 298 302 311
66 184 191 197 203 210 233 239 244 249 255 276 281 289 294 301
68 181 188 194 200 206 228 233 239 244 249 269 273 281 285 292
70 178 185 190 196 202 223 228 233 238 242 261 265 272 276 282
72 175 181 187 193 198 218 223 227 232 236 254 257 264 267 273
74 172 178 183 189 194 213 217 222 226 230 246 249 255 258 264
76 169 175 180 185 190 208 212 216 220 223 238 241 247 250 255
78 166 171 176 181 186 203 206 210 214 217 231 234 239 241 246
178
9780415467193_C04 178 9/3/09, 1:29 PM

Table 4.13 (cont’d )
S275 S355 S460
235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 400 410 430 440 460
80 163 168 172 177 181 197 201 204 208 211 224 226 231 233 237
82 160 164 169 173 177 192 196 199 202 205 217 219 223 225 229
84 156 161 165 169 173 187 190 193 196 199 210 212 216 218 221
86 153 157 161 165 169 182 185 188 190 193 203 205 208 210 213
88 150 154 158 161 165 177 180 182 185 187 196 198 201 203 206
90 146 150 154 157 161 172 175 177 179 181 190 192 195 196 199
92 143 147 150 153 156 167 170 172 174 176 184 185 188 189 192
94 140 143 147 150 152 162 165 167 169 171 178 179 182 183 185
96 137 140 143 146 148 158 160 162 164 165 172 173 176 177 179
98 134 137 139 142 145 153 155 157 159 160 167 168 170 171 173
100 130 133 136 138 141 149 151 152 154 155 161 162 164 165 167
102 127 130 132 135 137 145 146 148 149 151 156 157 159 160 162
104 124 127 129 131 133 141 142 144 145 146 151 152 154 155 156
106 121 124 126 128 130 137 138 139 141 142 147 148 149 150 151
108 118 121 123 125 126 133 134 135 137 138 142 143 144 145 147
110 115 118 120 121 123 129 130 131 133 134 138 139 140 141 142
112 113 115 117 118 120 125 127 128 129 130 134 134 136 136 138
114 110 112 114 115 117 122 123 124 125 126 130 130 132 132 133
116 107 109 111 112 114 119 120 121 122 122 126 126 128 128 129
118 105 106 108 109 111 115 116 117 118 119 122 123 124 124 125
120 102 104 105 107 108 112 113 114 115 116 119 119 120 121 122
122 100 101 103 104 105 109 110 111 112 112 115 116 117 117 118
124 97 99 100 101 102 106 107 108 109 109 112 112 113 114 115
126 95 96 98 99 100 103 104 105 106 106 109 109 110 111 111
128 93 94 95 96 97 101 101 102 103 103 106 106 107 107 108
130 90 92 93 94 95 98 99 99 100 101 103 103 104 105 105
135 85 86 87 88 89 92 93 93 94 94 96 97 97 98 98
140 80 81 82 83 84 86 87 87 88 88 90 90 91 91 92
145 76 77 78 78 79 81 82 82 83 83 84 85 85 86 86
150 72 72 73 74 74 76 77 77 78 78 79 80 80 80 81
155 68 69 69 70 70 72 72 73 73 73 75 75 75 76 76
160 64 65 65 66 66 68 68 69 69 69 70 71 71 71 72
165 61 62 62 62 63 64 65 65 65 65 66 67 67 67 68
170 58 58 59 59 60 61 61 61 62 62 63 63 63 64 64
175 55 55 56 56 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 60 60 60 60
180 52 53 53 53 54 55 55 55 56 56 56 57 57 57 57
185 50 50 51 51 51 52 52 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 54
190 48 48 48 48 49 50 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 52
195 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 49
200 43 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 47
210 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 43 43
220 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 39 39
230 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36
240 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 33
250 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
260 27 27 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
270 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26
280 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
290 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23
300 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21
310 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 –
320 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
330 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18
340 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
350 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
179
9780415467193_C04 179 9/3/09, 1:29 PM

Table 4.14 Compressive strength, pc (N/mm2) for strut curve c (Table 24(c), BS 5950)
S275 S355 S460
235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 400 410 430 440 460
15 235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 398 408 427 436 455
20 233 242 252 261 271 308 317 326 336 345 387 396 414 424 442
25 226 235 245 254 263 299 308 317 326 335 375 384 402 410 428
30 220 228 237 246 255 289 298 307 315 324 363 371 388 396 413
35 213 221 230 238 247 280 288 296 305 313 349 357 374 382 397
40 206 214 222 230 238 270 278 285 293 301 335 343 358 365 380
42 203 211 219 227 235 266 273 281 288 296 329 337 351 358 373
44 200 208 216 224 231 261 269 276 284 291 323 330 344 351 365
46 197 205 213 220 228 257 264 271 279 286 317 324 337 344 357
48 195 202 209 217 224 253 260 267 274 280 311 317 330 337 349
50 192 199 206 213 220 248 255 262 268 275 304 310 323 329 341
52 189 196 203 210 217 244 250 257 263 270 297 303 315 321 333
54 186 193 199 206 213 239 245 252 258 264 291 296 308 313 324
56 183 189 196 202 209 234 240 246 252 258 284 289 300 305 315
58 179 186 192 199 205 229 235 241 247 252 277 282 292 297 306
60 176 183 189 195 201 225 230 236 241 247 270 274 284 289 298
62 173 179 185 191 197 220 225 230 236 241 262 267 276 280 289
64 170 176 182 188 193 215 220 225 230 235 255 260 268 272 280
66 167 173 178 184 189 210 215 220 224 229 248 252 260 264 271
68 164 169 175 180 185 205 210 214 219 223 241 245 252 256 262
70 161 166 171 176 181 200 204 209 213 217 234 238 244 248 254
72 157 163 168 172 177 195 199 203 207 211 227 231 237 240 246
74 154 159 164 169 173 190 194 198 202 205 220 223 229 232 238
76 151 156 160 165 169 185 189 193 196 200 214 217 222 225 230
78 148 152 157 161 165 180 184 187 191 194 207 210 215 217 222
80 145 149 153 157 161 176 179 182 185 188 201 203 208 210 215
82 142 146 150 154 157 171 174 177 180 183 195 197 201 203 207
84 139 142 146 150 154 167 169 172 175 178 189 191 195 197 201
86 135 139 143 146 150 162 165 168 170 173 183 185 189 190 194
88 132 136 139 143 146 158 160 163 165 168 177 179 183 184 187
90 129 133 136 139 142 153 156 158 161 163 172 173 177 178 181
92 126 130 133 136 139 149 152 154 156 158 166 168 171 173 175
94 124 127 130 133 135 145 147 149 151 153 161 163 166 167 170
96 121 124 127 129 132 141 143 145 147 149 156 158 160 162 164
98 118 121 123 126 129 137 139 141 143 145 151 153 155 157 159
100 115 118 120 123 125 134 135 137 139 140 147 148 151 152 154
102 113 115 118 120 122 130 132 133 135 136 143 144 146 147 149
104 110 112 115 117 119 126 128 130 131 133 138 139 142 142 144
106 107 110 112 114 116 123 125 126 127 129 134 135 137 138 140
108 105 107 109 111 113 120 121 123 124 125 130 131 133 134 136
110 102 104 106 108 110 116 118 119 120 122 126 127 129 130 132
112 100 102 104 106 107 113 115 116 117 118 123 124 125 126 128
114 98 100 101 103 105 110 112 113 114 115 119 120 122 123 124
116 95 97 99 101 102 108 109 110 111 112 116 117 118 119 120
118 93 95 97 98 100 105 106 107 108 109 113 114 115 116 117
120 91 93 94 96 97 102 103 104 105 106 110 110 112 112 113
180
9780415467193_C04 180 9/3/09, 1:29 PM

Design of compression members
Table 4.14 (cont’d )
S275 S355 S460
235 245 255 265 275 315 325 335 345 355 400 410 430 440 460
122 89 90 92 93 95 99 100 101 102 103 107 107 109 109 110
124 87 88 90 91 92 97 98 99 100 100 104 104 106 106 107
126 85 86 88 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 101 102 103 103 104
128 83 84 86 87 88 92 93 94 95 95 98 99 100 100 101
130 81 82 84 85 86 90 91 91 92 93 96 96 97 98 99
135 77 78 79 80 81 84 85 86 87 87 90 90 91 92 92
140 72 74 75 76 76 79 80 81 81 82 84 85 85 86 87
145 69 70 71 71 72 75 76 76 77 77 79 80 80 81 81
150 65 66 67 68 68 71 71 72 72 73 75 75 76 76 76
155 62 63 63 64 65 67 67 68 68 69 70 71 71 72 72
160 59 59 60 61 61 63 64 64 65 65 66 67 67 67 68
165 56 56 57 58 58 60 60 61 61 61 63 63 64 64 64
170 53 54 54 55 55 57 57 58 58 58 60 60 60 60 61
175 51 51 52 52 53 54 54 55 55 55 56 57 57 57 58
180 48 49 49 50 50 51 52 52 52 53 54 54 54 54 55
185 46 46 47 47 48 49 49 50 50 50 51 51 52 52 52
190 44 44 45 45 45 47 47 47 47 48 49 49 49 49 49
195 42 42 43 43 43 45 45 45 45 45 46 46 47 47 47
200 40 41 41 41 42 43 43 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 45
210 37 37 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41
220 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38
230 31 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 35
240 29 29 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 31 31 32 32 32
250 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 29 29 29
260 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27
270 23 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
280 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 24
290 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
300 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21
310 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20
320 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
330 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
340 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
350 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
4.9.2 EFFECTIVE LENGTH The concept of effective length was discussed in

As mentioned in section 4.9.1, the compressive section 4.8.11.1, in the context of lateral torsional
strength of struts is primarily related to their slen- buckling, and is similarly applicable to the design of
derness ratio. The slenderness ratio, λ, is given by struts and columns. The effective length is simply
a function of the actual length of the member and
L
λ= E (4.31) the restraint at the member ends.
r The formulae in Appendix C of BS 5950 and the
where graph in Fig. 4.23 relate to standard restraint con-
L E effective length of the member ditions in which each end is pinned. In reality each
r radius of gyration obtained from steel tables. end of the strut may be free, pinned, partially fixed,
181
9780415467193_C04 181 9/3/09, 1:29 PM

L E = (0.7) 0.85L
L E = (1.0) 1.0L
L E = (0.5) 0.7L
L E = 0.85L
L E = (1.0) 1.2L
L E = (2.0) 2.0L
L E = 1.5L
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Fig. 4.24
Table 4.15 Nominal effective length, L E, for a compression member (Table 22, BS 5950)
a) non-sway mode
Restraint (in the plane under consideration) by other parts of the structure LE
Effectively held in position at both ends Effectively restrained in direction at both ends (1) 0.7L
Partially restrained in direction at both ends (2) 0.85L
Restrained in direction at one end (3) 0.85L
Not restrained in direction at either end (4) 1.0L
b) sway mode
One end Other end
Effectively held in position and restrained Not held Effectively restrained in direction (5) 1.2L
in direction in position Partially restrained in direction (6) 1.5L
Not restrained in direction (7) 2.0L
or fully fixed (rotationally). Also, whether or not the that the design effective lengths are greater than
top of the strut is allowed to move laterally with the theoretical values where one or both ends of the
respect to the bottom end is important i.e. whether member are partially or wholly restrained. This is
the structure is braced or unbraced. Figure 4.24 because, in practice, it is difficult if not impossible
summarises these restraints, and Table 22 of BS to guarantee that some rotation of the member will
5950, reproduced above as Table 4.15 stipulates not take place. Furthermore, the effective lengths are
conservative assumptions of effective length L E from always less than the actual length of the compres-
which the slenderness λ can be calculated. Note sion member except when the structure is unbraced.
182
9780415467193_C04 182 9/3/09, 1:29 PM

6.2 Letter Checklist
The table below lists some common design changes which occur, and the implications which
each may have on the design:
Licensed copy. User:SIDDHANATHA BOOBATHI MUTHUSAMY, email:boobathi@gmail.com, 27-11-2022, IP: 86.96.31.249 © 2017, The Structural Exam
Extra load - Vertical structure check

- Foundation check
- Horizontal stability check
Column removal - Transfer structure

- Extra loads on foundations and vertical structure
- Stability
- Suspend structure instead?
Excavations and - Unexpected findings, e.g. boulders, aquifer, fault line

basement - Extra storey vs basement
- Buildability, ground water and temporary works
- Effect on adjacent building
- Underpinning required?
- Buoyancy
- Uplift/heave
Contamination - Health and safety during construction

- Extra site information
- Removal from site to landfill site.
- Containment onsite
- Leaching tests
- Negotiations to purchase nearby land. Cheaper site offset extra
costs of clean up
- Change sites if at all possible?
Quality control on site - Site inspections

- Contractor method statements
- Logistics meetings between design team and contractors
- Full site presence of qualified engineers
Lack of fit - Is component prefabricated or made in-situ?

- Dismantle and erect again?
- Able to splice a beam at the point of contra flexure?
- Flexibility of structure to use hydraulic jack
- Make bespoke interface structure or element. Highlight critical
details.
Reduced site time - Prefabricated elements

- Repetition
- Change foundations?
- Remove basement?
- Change cladding?
- Change framed concrete to steel?
www.thestructuralexam.com 6 Section 1b
IStructE Chartered Member Exam
Guidance Pack 51
6.2.1 Cost and Time
There will almost always be cost and time implications on the project due to the changes made
in section 1b. These could be caused by one of the following factors:
- Additional design time required for the design team

- Abortive design work which has already been carried out by the design team
- Abortive construction work which has already been carried out by the contractor
- Resubmission to Building Control / Planning / Environment Agency etc.
- Fabrication changes for prefabricated items
- Further investigation required on site e.g. ground investigation / inspecting existing
buildings
However, don’t always assume that the change will result in increased costs and time –
sometimes the proposed change can result in a simplification of the structure, which may result
in an overall saving of time and construction costs (additional design costs are still likely to be
incurred if the design is to be changed at a late stage).
6.2.2 Letter Template Notes
Text in triangular brackets should be written without change in your exam script. This is to ensure
anonymity of your script when marking – you must not write your own name anywhere on your
exam answer!
E.g. “<My name printed>” should be written as “<My name printed>”
Try to write the entire letter using non-engineering language (words like ‘lintel’, ‘column’ and
‘foundation’ are fine, but technical terms such as ‘partial-penetration weld’, and attempting to
explain engineering concepts like ‘bending moment’ is not desirable.)
“You must present your letter neatly and

professionally. You would never dream of
presenting some of the things I have seen
(sloppy calculations, colloquial English, or
full of abbreviations, messy crossings out
etc.) to your client, so you should not do it in
your IStructE Exam either!”
Bob Wilson’s
Examiner’s Thoughts
Guidance Pack 52
6.3 Letter Template
<My address>
<Client’s address>
<Date>
Dear <Client>,
RE: <Project reference number and name>
Further to our recent meeting regarding [proposed client change as described in Question
1b], we have the following comments:
I. [Bullet point list of comments, describing the issues with the client change]
II. [Make sure you use non-engineering language, understandable to non-technical
reader.]
III. [Make sure you number the bullet points.]
IV. [Include any sketches where appropriate]
We propose the following solutions:
1. [Details of 1st solution - including sketches where appropriate]

2. [Details of 2nd solution - including sketches where appropriate]
Please be aware that the proposed change could result in:
A. [Additional cost, explaining why]

B. [Delays, increase in scope or programme, explaining why]
Please let us know whether you wish to proceed with your proposed changes. We trust that
we have informed you sufficiently.
Yours sincerely,
<My signature>
<My name printed>
Cc: Architect, Q.S., Document Control, Contractor, M&E.
Guidance Pack 53
6.3.1 Example Letter
<My address>
<Client’s address>
<Date>
Dear <Client>,
RE: <Project reference number and name>
Further to our recent meeting regarding the suggested increase in the size of the sports hall, we
have the following comments:
I. This will increase the span of the primary roof beams from 18m to 21m.
II. The column height will be increased from 7.6m to 9.1m.
III. There will be additional wind load on the structure due to the increased size.
IV. The proposed change will, therefore, have an impact on the structural frame over the
sports hall, and a redesign of the structure will be required.
We propose the following two solutions:
1. Increase the section size of the primary roof beams and primary columns to achieve the
longer span of 21m and taller height of 9.1m. Similarly, increase the section size of the
bracing members as required to resist the additional lateral loads.
2. Reduce the grid spacing between primary beams and columns, thereby reducing the
load on each member, to counteract the increased span. This will result in an increased
number of structural members.
The design of the foundations will also be impacted by this design change, with additional
foundations required to cover the increased area, and increased size of foundations required to
support the increased load.
Please be aware that the proposed change could result in:
A. Additional cost to the project due to the increased number/size of structural members.
B. Possible resubmission to planning due to the change in building size – please consult
with the architect on this matter.
C. Additional design fees and additional design time to allow for a redesign of the sports
hall structure and design coordination between disciplines.
Guidance Pack 54
Please let us know whether you wish to proceed with your proposed changes. We trust that we
have informed you sufficiently.
Yours sincerely,
<My signature>
<My name printed>
Cc: Architect, Q.S., Document Control, Contractor, M&E.
Guidance Pack 55
5 Letter
react
to unforeseen circumstances at any stage of a project. The letter should be bespoke to the
Read the question carefully, the client can request your input
at any point in the project, and if the changes are post-construction the impacts will be very
different to if the request comes at scheme design stage.
The letter should be formatted as a formal letter and should consider the following issues:
Design Specific
o What needs to be done
o What impact will it have
o What it will cost
This should be in terms of time taken for redesign, time taken on site,
impact to programme, additional materials
o How long, or how much longer will it take
o Suggest two options and make a recommendation
o Further testing, monitoring, investigating, or work required
Additional Costs & Delays
o Resubmission of planning documents
Time for approval
Cost of redesign and any specialist subcontractors required
o Fabrication changes
o Cost of re-work if work already started
Some common changes requested are listed below, with the associated required additional
work:
Extra Load
o Vertical structure check
o Foundation check
o Horizontal stability check
Additional Basement level
o Use of basement will determine waterproofing
o Buildability
o Temporary works
o Impact on existing works
o Adjacent buildings
o Buoyancy and uplift
o Existing foundations
o Piling required
Contamination
o Health and Safety
o Additional Site Investigation
o Removal and disposal
o Contamination on-site
Leaching tests
Boundary wall
The Structural Exam Knowledge Folder 17
www.thestructuralexam.com
o Negotiations on land purchase to offset additional costs of clean-up
o Change of site or land use
Removal of column
o Transfer structure
o Additional load on foundations and vertical structure
o Stability
o Possibility of hanging structure
Earthquake zone
o Rigid superstructure
o No flex, absorbs energy
o Isolate base bearings, rubberised shock pads
o Additional ground investigation
o Adhere to local codes and National Annexes
o Vertical movement of slabs should be restricted
Quality Control on Site
o Site inspections
o Contractor method statement
o Logistics meetings
o Qualified engineer on site
Reduced Site Time
o Prefabricated elements
o Repetition
o Change foundations
o Remove basement
o Change cladding
o Change concrete frame to steel
A good example of the letter format can be found in the TSE Exam Guidance Pack and the
TSE Past Paper Solutions Pack. The general format of the letter has been replicated below
for quick reference:

Section 1b: Client Letter
___________________________________________________________________________
<My Address>
<Client Address>
<Date>
Dear <Client>
R.E. <Project Name> <Project Reference> <Issue>
<Introductory Paragraph Explaining Proposed Change>

- Brief explanation of the changes
-
<Paragraph 1: Proposed Solutions>

- Use non-engineering language throughout
- Bullet point comments
- Include sketches if appropriate
<Paragraph 2: Implications of Proposed Solutions>

- Additional costs
- Time delays
- Explanations for additional time and cost
<Sign-off paragraph>
-
Yours Sincerely,
<Signature>
<Printed Name>
C.C. Architect, QS, M&E, Contractor, Document Controller

___________________________________________________________________________
TSE Tip: The letter is often rushed by candidates who underscore on this section. The letter
represents 10 very achievable marks on the CM Exam but in our experience, candidates often
rush and score 4 or 5 marks. By taking a little bit more time and considering the context of the
site and scheme 8 or 9 marks out of 10 is an achievable score for most candidates. Further tips
for the letter include:
- and the
question is not testing your ability to do calculations (that is what Section 2c is for)
- Use gender neutral language. It is the 21st century so letters should be addressed <Dear
Client> or similar, not <Dear Sirs>.
- Avoid just stating the problem or solution. The letter is not a test of knowledge, it is a test
of judgement. The client is paying for your engineering judgement, not just a list of facts.

ASSUMED TO BE ON COMPANY LETTERHEAD
Date: 14 November 2035

Your reference: X437-GBD
Our reference: 87305
Organisation Limited
Organisation address line 1
Organisation address line 2
Organisation POST CODE
For the attention of A Contact Esq
Dear Sirs
NEW OFFICE BLOCK – PROPOSED CHANGES
Thank you for advising us that only one half of the building footprint is now to be constructed in an
initial phase.
The main structural implications of this change are as follows:
• Prior to the change the building utilised the strength of two “cores” to maintain its stability. Now
with only one single core, the new layout will be subject to torsion in the building due to a loss of
symmetry when constructing half of the building first. This will mean that the building structure
will require additional stability measures such as thicker core walls and/or more reinforcement in
the core walls, additional vertical bracing or additional shear walls.
• The structure will now have to support the floors along the proposed cut line in the centre of the
building (not on grid) so extra columns will be required at the centre.
• The retaining wall will need to be extended across the centre of the site. Provision will also have to be
made to remove part or all of it when phase two is implemented.
• The ramp and vehicle circulation will require revision.
• The entrance foyer will require relocation.
These additional factors will increase costs and extend the construction programme for the affected
elements. Thus, the overall cost of the project will increase significantly when the second half of the
building is constructed in a later stage. You will also appreciate that these changes will require some re-
design which will also have programme and budgetary implications.
Yours faithfully
Your Name
Your position
cc B Contact Esq, Organisation Limited

enc Sketch 8734-003 – locations of proposed shear walls.
The Engineer
1, Flintstone Drive
M1 1XX
Our ref: 1/2012/01
Mr. Client
ABC Company.
123, Business Street
M2 2YY
Dear Sirs
RE: Proposed Headquarters Extension
With reference to the above project we understand that it is your intention for us to review the
feasibility of some structural alterations to the existing scheme. It is our understanding that you would
like the existing building to be supported laterally by the new building.
Having reviewed your request, from a structural perspective we can advise that the following items are
likely to be affected.
• An increase in wind load on the current scheme would mean that existing bracing members and
stability frames must be increased.
• Column size and loading will be increased due to the additional lateral forces.
• Foundation will have to be reviewed due to the additional base shear forces.
• The existing building has insufficient linkage between the two buildings (apart from the linked
bridge), therefore additional steel members may be required. (see sketch).
• Linked bridge will have to be reviewed against high lateral forces in both directions, due to wind
loading from the existing building, particularly in the y-direction.
• The overall torsional effect on the current bracing system due to shifting the mass centre (vs
wind load) must be reviewed. Again this would mean current member sizes may increase
further more.
• All deflections and swaying behaviour must also be re-assessed due to the additional loading.
• These changes may require a new submission made to Building Control and project planning
application. This may well delay the targeting construction start date.
• There will also be additional cost to these alterations subject to further design verifications and
the associated architectural and M&E requirements.
We trust the above is of assistance. Should you require any further clarification on any of the above
items, please do not hesitate to contact the undersign.
Yours faithfully
The Engineer
cc. Architect, QS, M&E, CDM & Main Contractor
Key points
• Bracings/ stability frames muse be increased.

• Increase in column loadings.
• Foundation will have to be reviewed
• Insufficient linkage between the two buildings.
• Additional steel members required as linking system.
• Linked bridge will have to be reviewed against high laterally forces due to wind loading from
existing building, particularly in y-direction.
• Torsional effect on the current bracing system (overall).
• Deflections/ sway
IStructE RoI Branch
1.4 Example Letter
column removal
CWOD Associates Ltd.,
16 Plain Street,
Sandyford,
Co. Dublin.
19 February 2007
Mr. B. F. Client,
Isère House,
Ballsbridge,
Dublin 4.
Dear Mr. Client,
We have received with interest your request to remove the structural column denoted
C3 on the scheme drawings sent to you. As you may appreciate this column is a
critical element in the scheme presented. The implications of its removal are many,
and I outline some herein:
Design Issues:
Essentially, a complete redesign of the roof structure would be required. This is
because the depth of the trusses, as currently proposed, would be inappropriate for the
suggested revision. Approximately, trusses T1 would need to be about twice as deep
as they are at present, at about 4.2 m. This has implications for planning permission
as the roof height would need to increase. Also, the supporting structure would need
to be redesigned due to the increase in load (which had been taken by column C3).
9 Dr C. Caprani
IStructE RoI Branch
Given the current position of the design programme, we envisage that such redesign
and drafting would add approximately 6 to 8 weeks to the design programme.
Construction Issues
Presently, it is possible for the trusses T1 and T2 to be fabricated off-site, transported
to the site, and then craned into position. Given the removal of column C3, the trusses
increase in both length and depth and could not be transported or erected in one
piece. Significant temporary works would be required in this case to enable the
erection of truss segments.
We estimate the impact on the construction programme of the proposed change to the
scheme to be a doubling of the time required to construct the roof. Given that the
supporting structure is taking more load and has bigger elements, their construction
will also be affected, though not significantly. In total, we estimate the increase in
construction program to be about 8 to 10 weeks.
We would like to take this opportunity to reassure you of our commitment to

achieving the optimal structural design for this development. We will, of course,
gladly incorporate any amendments you wish to make to the scheme.
Sincerely,
Mr. I.K. Brunel,

Chartered Engineer
10 Dr C. Caprani
Model Answer Q1, 2013
Institution of Structural Engineers Chartered Membership Examination
6 CLIENT LETTER
69
70
Extra Load
56
57
Layout changes
44
45
6 Section 1b
“ b. Write a letter to your client... (10 marks)

Section 1b, the letter to the client, is worth 10 marks. With good preparation, and using the
templates in this booklet you should be able to secure these marks relatively quickly, leaving
you more time to spend on other sections of the exam.
The exam question will generally state that some element of the design is to be changed, often
at the client’s request, and you are required to write a letter to the client which explains in non-
technical language what the implications of that change are and to describe a solution to
overcome any issues which this causes.
The specific problem being considered is different for each question. However, for many
questions, the implications on the design and the aspects that need to be considered will be
similar, and the format of the letter is always consistent.
Therefore the answer to this section is relatively formulaic. The letter template below may be
adapted to a specific question, and engineering judgement applied to the specific problem faced
in order to arrive at a sensible solution.
6.1.1 Solution to Proposed Change
Each question is unique and therefore the exact solution will be specific to the question you are
answering. You need to use your engineering judgement to propose a possible solution to meet
the challenge of the proposed change.
In order to develop a solution to the change proposed in Section 1b, consider the following:
- How does the proposed change impact your design?

- What stage in the design/construction process has the change request been made / new
information been provided?
- How can the design be modified to accommodate the change?
o If possible provide two alternative solutions
- What are the implications on the project of changing the design at this stage?
Guidance Pack 50

Structural Engineer - Notes To Carry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Engineer - Notes To Carry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LOADS

Assume Sa, attitude factor - 1

Table 4 — Factor Sb for standard method

2.1.2 Dynamic pressure

2.1.3.3 Net surface pressures

2.1.3.1 External surface pressures

2.1.3.2 Internal surface pressures

Figure 4 — Size effect factor Ca of standard method

Table 5 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for vertical walls

To calculate the interpolation , Cpe = 0.933 - 0.083D/H

0° +1.0 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0

Figure 16 — Key for flat roofs

Figure 19 — Key for monopitch roofs

Table 10 — External pressure coefficients Cpe for duopitch roofs of buildings

Table 16 — Internal pressure coefficients Cpi for enclosed buildings

P = 0.85(CPfront – CPrear) (1 + Cr) (7)

Figure 3 — Dynamic augmentation factor Cr

Load combination Load type

0.5 200 125 75 150 125 100 150 100 75

Mild 25 20 20a 20a 20a

2.4.2 THE CHOICE

RC beams with ribbed or

RC band beams with solid or

Two-way RC slabs with

RC waffle slabs with,

Precast: hollow core slabs

PT band beams with solid or

Note: All subject to market conditions and project specific requirements

Slab depth (mm) 500

From economic concrete design book

#Thickness provided for C35 concrete

using Table: 8x6m panels

t = 192+12/2.5*(1.2) = 197.76 ~ 200mm

Fire resistance = 2 hr, add 20mm

ULTIMATE LOAD TO SUPPORTING BEAMS, INTERNAL (END), kN/m

from previous example,

D = 420+(380/100*13) = 469.4mm + 5mm for 2 hrs fire rating

1% steel : Area = N/15

Internal walls: Thickness > Height/15 (unrestrained at top)

Thickness (mm) Maximum clear height (m)

wall/lagging shutter to an r.c. wall.

granular soil , no ground

very deep structure,

Type A or B or C alone A: With membrane C: Drained cavity B: Integral: without

Type C with A or B CA: Drained cavity CB: Drained cavity:

Grade 3 Ventilated residential Dry environment Type A or Type B As Grade 2. In highly

* See CIRIA Report 13911.9 for limits on environmental parameters

Spread footing on clay

qallowable ⫽ 2Cu Spread footing on undrained cohesive soil (␥f ⫽ 2.5)

Spread footing on gravel

qallowable ⫽ 10N Pad footing on dry soil (␥f ⫽ 3)

qallowable ⫽ 7N Strip footing on dry soil (␥f ⫽ 3)

qwet allowable ⫽ qallowable /2 Spread foundation at or below the water table

Where N is the SPT value.

Required Area = N/ (2Cu or 10N or 7N)

W Qu = ultimate load that can be

Single bored piles in clay

Number of Piles required = N/Q allow

All joints will be monolithic with continuous columns and beams

Maximum moments Maximum deflection

Loading condition Reactions Maximum moments Maximum deflection

L P  3b  MB ⫽ ⫺Pb ⫽ ⫺2MA ⫺Pa2 b

Material/Stress type Partial safety