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Rotary encoder
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A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that converts the angular
position or motion of a shaft or axle to analog or digital output signals.[1]

There are two main types of rotary encoder: absolute and

incremental. The output of an absolute encoder indicates the current
shaft position, making it an angle transducer. The output of an
incremental encoder provides information about the motion of the
shaft, which typically is processed elsewhere into information such
as position, speed and distance.

Rotary encoders are used in a wide range of applications that require

monitoring or control, or both, of mechanical systems, including
industrial controls, robotics, photographic lenses,[2] computer input
devices such as optomechanical mice and trackballs, controlled
stress rheometers, and rotating radar platforms.

Contents

Technologies

Basic types
Absolute

Incremental

Absolute encoder
Absolute rotary encoder
A Gray code absolute rotary encoder
Construction with 13 tracks. At the top, the housing,
interrupter disk, and light source can be
Mechanical absolute encoders
seen; at the bottom the sensing element
and support components.
Optical absolute encoders

Magnetic absolute encoders

Capacitive absolute encoders

Absolute multi-turn encoder

Battery-powered multi-turn encoder

Geared multi-turn encoder

Self-powered multi-turn encoder

Ways of encoding shaft position

Standard binary encoding

Gray encoding

Single-track Gray encoding

Data output methods

Incremental encoder
Rotary (Angle) Pulse Encoder

Other pulse-output rotary encoders

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Technologies

Mechanical: Also known as conductive encoders. A series of

circumferential copper tracks etched onto a PCB is used to encode
the information via contact brushes sensing the conductive areas.
Mechanical encoders are economical but susceptible to
mechanical wear. They are common in human interfaces such as
digital multimeters.[3]

Optical: This uses a light shining onto a photodiode through slits

in a metal or glass disc. Reflective versions also exist. This is one
of the most common technologies. Optical encoders are very
sensitive to dust.

On-Axis Magnetic: This technology typically uses a specially

magnetized 2 pole neodymium magnet attached to the motor
shaft. Because it can be fixed to the end of the shaft, it can work
with motors that only have 1 shaft extending out of the motor
body. The accuracy can vary from a few degrees to under 1 Hall effect quadrature encoder, sensing
gear teeth on the driveshaft of a robot
degree. Resolutions can be as low as 1 degree or as high as 0.09
vehicle.
degree (4000 CPR, Count per Revolution).[4] Poorly designed
internal interpolation can cause output jitter, but this can be overcome with internal sample averaging.

Off-Axis Magnetic: This technology typically employs the use of rubber bonded ferrite magnets
attached to a metal hub. This offers flexibility in design and low cost for custom applications. Due to the
flexibility in many off axis encoder chips they can be programmed to accept any number of pole widths so
the chip can be placed in any position required for the application. Magnetic encoders operate in harsh
environments where optical encoders would fail to work.

Basic types

Absolute

An absolute encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the encoder.[5] The
position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power. The relationship between the encoder
value and the physical position of the controlled machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to
return to a calibration point to maintain position accuracy.

An absolute encoder has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which provide a data word
representing the absolute position of the encoder within one revolution. This type of encoder is often
referred to as a parallel absolute encoder.[6]

A multi-turn absolute rotary encoder includes additional code wheels and toothed wheels. A high-resolution
wheel measures the fractional rotation, and lower-resolution geared code wheels record the number of
whole revolutions of the shaft.[7]

Incremental

An incremental encoder will immediately report changes in position,

which is an essential capability in some applications. However, it
does not report or keep track of absolute position. As a result, the
mechanical system monitored by an incremental encoder may have
to be homed (moved to a fixed reference point) to initialize absolute
position measurements.

Absolute encoder
Incremental encoder

Absolute rotary encoder

Construction

Digital absolute encoders produce a unique digital code for each distinct angle of the shaft. They come in
two basic types: optical and mechanical.

Mechanical absolute encoders

A metal disc containing a set of concentric rings of openings is fixed to an insulating disc, which is rigidly
fixed to the shaft. A row of sliding contacts is fixed to a stationary object so that each contact wipes against
the metal disc at a different distance from the shaft. As the disc rotates with the shaft, some of the contacts
touch metal, while others fall in the gaps where the metal has been cut out. The metal sheet is connected to
a source of electric current, and each contact is connected to a separate electrical sensor. The metal
pattern is designed so that each possible position of the axle creates a unique binary code in which some of
the contacts are connected to the current source (i.e. switched on) and others are not (i.e. switched off).

Brush-type contacts are susceptible to wear, and consequently mechanical encoders are typically found in
low-speed applications such as manual volume or tuning controls in a radio receiver.

Optical absolute encoders

The optical encoder's disc is made of glass or plastic with transparent and opaque areas. A light source and
photo detector array reads the optical pattern that results from the disc's position at any one time.[8] The
Gray code is often used. This code can be read by a controlling device, such as a microprocessor or
microcontroller to determine the angle of the shaft.

The absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated into an absolute angle
of the shaft.

Magnetic absolute encoders

The magnetic encoder uses a series of magnetic poles (2 or more) to represent the encoder position to a
magnetic sensor (typically magneto-resistive or Hall Effect). The magnetic sensor reads the magnetic pole
positions.

This code can be read by a controlling device, such as a microprocessor or microcontroller to determine the
angle of the shaft, similar to an optical encoder.

The absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated into an absolute angle
of the shaft (by using a special algorithm[citation needed]).

Due to the nature of recording magnetic effects, these encoders may be optimal to use in conditions where
other types of encoders may fail due to dust or debris accumulation. Magnetic encoders are also relatively
insensitive to vibrations, minor misalignment, or shocks.

Brushless motor commutation

Built-in rotary encoders are used to indicate the angle of the motor shaft in permanent magnet brushless
motors, which are commonly used on CNC machines, robots, and other industrial equipment. In such cases,
the encoder serves as a feedback device that plays a vital role in proper equipment operation. Brushless
motors require electronic commutation, which often is implemented in part by using rotor magnets as a low-
resolution absolute encoder (typically six or twelve pulses per revolution). The resulting shaft angle
information is conveyed to the servo drive to enable it to energize the proper stator winding at any moment
in time.

Capacitive absolute encoders

An asymmetrical shaped disc is rotated within the encoder. This disc will change the capacitance between
two electrodes which can be measured and calculated back to an angular value.[9]

Absolute multi-turn encoder

A multi-turn encoder can detect and store more than one revolution. The term absolute multi-turn encoder
is generally used if the encoder will detect movements of its shaft even if the encoder is not provided with
external power.

Battery-powered multi-turn encoder

This type of encoder uses a battery for retaining the counts across power cycles. It uses energy conserving
electrical design to detect the movements.

Geared multi-turn encoder

These encoders use a train of gears to mechanically store the number of revolutions. The position of the
single gears is detected with one of the above-mentioned technologies.[10]

Self-powered multi-turn encoder

These encoders use the principle of energy harvesting to generate energy from the moving shaft. This
principle, introduced in 2007,[11] uses a Wiegand sensor to produce electricity sufficient to power the
encoder and write the turns count to non-volatile memory.[12]

Ways of encoding shaft position

Standard binary encoding

An example of a binary code, in an extremely simplified encoder with

only three contacts, is shown below.

Standard Binary Encoding

Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle

0 off off off 0° to 45°

1 off off ON 45° to 90°

2 off ON off 90° to 135°

3 off ON ON 135° to 180°

4 ON off off 180° to 225°

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring
5 ON off ON 225° to 270° devices marked in 3-bit binary. The
inner ring corresponds to Contact 1 in
6 ON ON off 270° to 315° the table. Black sectors are "on". Zero
degrees is on the right-hand side, with
7 ON ON ON 315° to 360° angle increasing counterclockwise.

In general, where there are n contacts, the number of distinct positions of the shaft is 2n. In this example, n
is 3, so there are 2³ or 8 positions.

In the above example, the contacts produce a standard binary count as the disc rotates. However, this has
the drawback that if the disc stops between two adjacent sectors, or the contacts are not perfectly aligned,
it can be impossible to determine the angle of the shaft. To illustrate this problem, consider what happens
when the shaft angle changes from 179.9° to 180.1° (from sector 3 to sector 4). At some instant, according
to the above table, the contact pattern changes from off-on-on to on-off-off. However, this is not what
happens in reality. In a practical device, the contacts are never perfectly aligned, so each switches at a
different moment. If contact 1 switches first, followed by contact 3 and then contact 2, for example, the
actual sequence of codes is:

off-on-on (starting position)

on-on-on (first, contact 1 switches on)
on-on-off (next, contact 3 switches off)
on-off-off (finally, contact 2 switches off)

Now look at the sectors corresponding to these codes in the table. In order, they are 3, 7, 6 and then 4. So,
from the sequence of codes produced, the shaft appears to have jumped from sector 3 to sector 7, then
gone backwards to sector 6, then backwards again to sector 4, which is where we expected to find it. In
many situations, this behaviour is undesirable and could cause the system to fail. For example, if the
encoder were used in a robot arm, the controller would think that the arm was in the wrong position, and try
to correct the error by turning it through 180°, perhaps causing damage to the arm.

Gray encoding

To avoid the above problem, Gray coding is used. This is a system of

binary counting in which any two adjacent codes differ by only one
bit position. For the three-contact example given above, the Gray-
coded version would be as follows.

Gray Coding
Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle

0 off off off 0° to 45°

1 off off ON 45° to 90°

2 off ON ON 90° to 135°

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring
3 off ON off 135° to 180°
devices marked in 3-bit binary-reflected
4 ON ON off 180° to 225° Gray code (BRGC). The inner ring
corresponds to Contact 1 in the table.
5 ON ON ON 225° to 270° Black sectors are "on". Zero degrees is
on the right-hand side, with angle
6 ON off ON 270° to 315°
increasing counter-clockwise.
7 ON off off 315° to 360°

In this example, the transition from sector 3 to sector 4, like all other transitions, involves only one of the
contacts changing its state from on to off or vice versa. This means that the sequence of incorrect codes
shown in the previous illustration cannot happen.

Single-track Gray encoding

If the designer moves a contact to a different angular position (but at the same distance from the center
shaft), then the corresponding "ring pattern" needs to be rotated the same angle to give the same output. If
the most significant bit (the inner ring in Figure 1) is rotated enough, it exactly matches the next ring out.
Since both rings are then identical, the inner ring can be omitted, and the sensor for that ring moved to the
remaining, identical ring (but offset at that angle from the other sensor on that ring). Those two sensors on
a single ring make a quadrature encoder with a single ring.

It is possible to arrange several sensors around a single track (ring) so that consecutive positions differ at
only a single sensor; the result is the single-track Gray code encoder.

Data output methods

Depending on the device and manufacturer, an absolute encoder may use any of several signal types and
communication protocols to transmit data, including parallel binary, analog signals (current or voltage), and
serial bus systems such as SSI, BiSS, Heidenhain EnDat, Sick-Stegmann Hiperface, DeviceNet, Modbus,
Profibus, CANopen and EtherCAT, which typically employ Ethernet or RS-422/RS-485 physical layers.

Incremental encoder

Main article: Incremental encoder

The rotary incremental encoder is the most widely used of all rotary
encoders due to its ability to provide real-time position information.
The measurement resolution of an incremental encoder is not limited
in any way by its two internal, incremental movement sensors; one
can find in the market incremental encoders with up to 10,000
counts per revolution, or more.

Rotary incremental encoders report position changes without being

prompted to do so, and they convey this information at data rates
which are orders of magnitude faster than those of most types of
absolute shaft encoders. Because of this, incremental encoders are
commonly used in applications that require precise measurement of
position and velocity.

A rotary incremental encoder may use mechanical, optical or

magnetic sensors to detect rotational position changes. The An incremental encoder
mechanical type is commonly employed as a manually operated
"digital potentiometer" control on electronic equipment. For
example, modern home and car stereos typically use mechanical
rotary encoders as volume controls. Encoders with mechanical
sensors require switch debouncing and consequently are limited in
Two square waves in quadrature. The
the rotational speeds they can handle. The optical type is used when direction of rotation is indicated by the
higher speeds are encountered or a higher degree of precision is sign of the A-B phase angle which, in
this case, is negative because A trails B.
required.

A rotary incremental encoder has two output signals, A and B, which

issue a periodic digital waveform in quadrature when the encoder
shaft rotates. This is similar to sine encoders, which output
sinusoidal waveforms in quadrature (i.e., sine and cosine),[13] thus
combining the characteristics of an encoder and a resolver. The
waveform frequency indicates the speed of shaft rotation and the
number of pulses indicates the distance moved, whereas the A-B Conceptual drawing of a rotary
incremental encoder sensor mechanism,
phase relationship indicates the direction of rotation.
with the corresponding logic states of
the A and B signals
Some rotary incremental encoders have an additional "index" output
(typically labeled Z), which emits a pulse when the shaft passes through a particular angle. Once every
rotation, the Z signal is asserted, typically always at the same angle, until the next AB state change. This is
commonly used in radar systems and other applications that require a registration signal when the encoder
shaft is located at a particular reference angle.

Unlike absolute encoders, an incremental encoder does not keep track of, nor do its outputs indicate the
absolute position of the mechanical system to which it is attached. Consequently, to determine the absolute
position at any particular moment, it is necessary to "track" the absolute position with an incremental
encoder interface which typically includes a bidirectional electronic counter.

Inexpensive incremental encoders are used in mechanical computer mice. Typically, two encoders are used:
one to sense left-right motion and another to sense forward-backward motion.

Rotary (Angle) Pulse Encoder

A Rotary (Angle) Pulse Encoder has a SPDT switch for each

direction, with each one only operating in the direction of travel.
Each turn indent in one direction causes the SPDT switch associated
with that direction only to toggle.

Other pulse-output rotary encoders

Rotary encoders with a single output (i.e. tachometers) cannot be

used to sense direction of motion but are suitable for measuring
speed and for measuring position when the direction of travel is
constant. In certain applications they may be used to measure
distance of motion (e.g. feet of movement).

See also

Analogue devices that perform a similar function include the

synchro, the resolver, the rotary variable differential transformer Rotary (Angle) Pulse Encoder Operation
(RVDT), and the rotary potentiometer. & Teardown

A linear encoder is similar to a rotary encoder, but measures position or motion in a straight line, rather
than rotation. Linear encoders often use incremental encoding and are used in many machine tools.

Rotary switch

References

1. ^ Murray, Mike (15 December 2019). "How Rotary 7. ^ G. K. McMillan, D.M. Considine (ed.) Process
Encoders Work" . The Geek Pub. Retrieved 3 Instruments and Controls Handbook Fifth Edition,
September 2019. McGraw Hill 1999, ISBN 978-0-07-012582-7, page
5.26
2. ^ "New - Rotary Encoder" . Archived from the
original on 2013-10-05. Canon video camera 8. ^ "encoders" (PDF). p. 12. Retrieved 20 February
lens, used for zoom and aperture control 2013.

3. ^ "A Designer's Guide to Encoders" . digikey.com. 9. ^ "Capacitive Absolute Encoder" (PDF). Camille
19 April 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2019. Bauer. Retrieved 20 February 2013.

4. ^ "MassMind Magnetic High Speed Non-Contact 10. ^ Robert, Repas. "Multi-turn absolute encoders" .
Quadrature Encoder V2" . MassMind.org. 10 machinedesign.com. Retrieved 20 February
January 2018. Retrieved 12 July 2019. 2013.[permanent dead link]

5. ^ Eitel, Elisabeth. Basics of rotary encoders: 11. ^ "New technology yields encoder that never
Overview and new technologies | Machine Design forgets" . journal. www.motioncontrol.co.za. 2007.
Magazine, 7 May 2014. Accessed: 30 June 2014 Retrieved 20 February 2013.

6. ^ TI-5000EX Serial/Incremental Encoder Test 12. ^ "White Paper Magnetic Encoder" (PDF). FRABA
[permanent dead link]
System User Manual , Mitchell Inc. p. 3. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
Electronics, Inc.
13. ^ Collins, Danielle. "What is a sine encoder (aka
sine-cosine encoder)?" . Design World. Retrieved
19 August 2020.

Further reading

Winder, C. Farrell (October 1959). "Shaft Angle Encoders Afford High Accuracy" (PDF). Electronic
Industries. Chilton Company. 18 (10): 76–80. Retrieved 2018-01-14.

Military Handbook: Encoders - Shaft Angle To Digital (PDF). United States Department of Defense.
1991-09-30. MIL-HDBK-231A. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-25. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
(NB. Supersedes MIL-HDBK-231(AS) (1970-07-01).)

External links

"Choosing a code wheel: A detailed look at how encoders Wikimedia Commons has
work" article by Steve Trahey 2008-03-25 describes "rotary media related to Rotary
encoders.
encoders".

"Encoders provide a sense of place" article by Jack Ganssle 2005-07-19 describes "nonlinear
encoders".

"Robot Encoders" .

Introductory Tutorial on PWM and Quadrature Encoding.

Revotics - Understanding Quadrature Encoding - Covers details of rotary and quadrature encoding with
a focus on robotic applications.

How Rotary Encoder Works - Video explanation how rotary encoder works, plus how to use it with an
Arduino microcontroller.

Last edited on 18 October 2023, at 01:09

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