REPUBLIC OF NAMIBIA

KAVANGO WEST REGIONAL COUNCIL

DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND CULTURE

PERFORMANCE
ENHARNCING NOTES
GEOGRAPHY GRADE10 -11

PREPARED NOTES FOR GRADES 10-11 LEARNERS, BASED ON

THE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE REVISED SYLLABUS.
2020
Compiled By:

1. Mr. Edward Likuwa

2. Mr. Leevi Nziwe
3. Mr. Sachuma Lasco
4. Mr. Kamina Frans
5. Mr. Johannes
6. Mr. Rengi Jonson
7. Ms. Mbati Innocentia

When Excellence Becomes A Tradition, Greatness Will Sky-Rocket.

8.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page no.

THEME 1: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY………………………………..….…………4-110

Unit 1.1. The earth’s structure…………………………..……………………………………………4-16
Progress activities………………………………………………………………...………..17-19
Unit 1.2. Weathering and erosion………...……………………………………………...…………..20-25
Progress activities…………………………………………………………...……………..26-29
Unit 1.3. River processes……………………………………………………………..………………30-52
Progress activities……………………………………………………...…………………..53-55
Unit 1.4. Wind processes……………………………………………………………..………………56-62
Progress activities………….………………………………………...……………………..63-65
Unit 1.5. Marine/Coastal processes………………………………………...….…………………….66-75
Progress activities……….………………………………………...………………………..76-79
Unit 1.6. Weather and climate……………………………………………......……………………...80-99
Progress activities……..………………………………………….………………………..99-102
Unit 1.7. Climatic regions and natural vegetation………………….……………………………103-110

THEME 2: ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THE USE OF RESOURCES….…111-166

Unit 2.1. Industrial systems………………………………………………………………………..111-118
Unit 2.2. Agriculture…………………………………………………………………….…………119-130
Progress activities………..………………………………………………………..…………..131
Unit 2.3. Leisure and tourism……………………………………………...……………………...132-139
Progress activities…………………………………………………………...…………..140-144
Unit 2.4. Energy resources……………………………………………………………...…………145-152
Progress activities……………….………………………………………..……………..158-159
Unit 2.5. Utilisation and management of water resources in Namibia…………………………153-157
Progress activities……………………………………………………………….…………..160
Unit 2.6. Utilisation and management of wildlife animals in Namibia………………….…..….161-166

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THEME 3: POPULATION and SETTLEMENT STUDIES………..……………167-198
Unit 3.1. population studies………………………………………………………………..………167-181
Progress activities………………………….………………………….………...……..182-185
Unit 3.2. HIV and AIDS……………………………………………………………………..…….181-182
Progress activities………….…………………………………………………;...……..182-185
Unit 3.3. Settlement studies………………………………………………………………..………186-193
Progress activities…………………………………………………………...….……..194-198
Unit 4.2. Map work reading skills………………………………………………………..……….199-214

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1.1. The Earth’s structure

name and describe the three layers that comprise the earth’s structure e.g. crust, mantle and core.

The earth is divided in to four layers

1. The crust: is a thin outer layer of solid rocks. It is between 6 to 90 km thick.

The crust is divided into two parts.

A) Oceanic Crust (SIMA) made up of Silicon and Magnesium)

B) Continental Crust (SIAL) made up of Silicon and Aluminium.

2. Mantle
• it is the thickest layer of the earth, covering up to 2900 km.
• It is very hot reaching 5000°C.
• Materials inside mantle are in a semi-molten state closer to the crust and molten near the
core aallowing it to move or flow.
• These molten rocks are called magma and it forms hard rocks when it cools and solidify.

3. The outer core

• it is about 2000 km thick.
• It is very hot and denser.
• It is in a molten state.
4. Inner core

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 • it is about 1200 km thick
• It is extremely hot, but it is in a solid state because of the pressure that other layers put on it.

Differentiate between plate and plate tectonic

A plate/tectonic plate – is a large section of the earth crust that floats on the mantle.

Plate tectonic – refers to the movement and interaction of plates that are floating on the mantle and their
associated land forms.

Describe how convection current causes plate movement

• Convection current is heat currents caused by intense heat in the interior of the earth.
• Its caused when heated materials (lighter) in the mantle rises, while cooler materials (dense)
sinks.

Why does tectonic plate move?

• Due to convection current.
• Plate/crust float on the semi-molten state mantle.
• Heat from the mantle pushes convection current within the mantle upward
• If the convection current is moving in a particular direction, it will drag the section of the crust
above it in the same direction and therefore cause plate movement.

Distinguish between types of plate margins and plate movements

Types of plate margins and plate movements:

• Diverging/ constructive plate margins: when two plates are moving away from each other
(form new crust/land)
• Converging/ destructive plate margins: when two plates move towards each other and collide
(leads to earthquakes and volcanic eruption)
• Conservative/transform plate margins: it is when plates slide slowly past each other in
opposite direction or in the same direction but one plate is moving faster than the other.

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Constructive (divergent) plates
• Two plates are moving apart.
• A gap/space is created.
• Due to heat and pressure, magma flows up to fill the gap.
• When magma cools down and solidifies it creates new landforms.

Landforms associated with constructive plate margin:

• Divergent boundaries within continents produce Rifts e.g. East Africa rift valley.
• When divergent boundaries occur between oceanic plates, forms Ridges e.g. mid oceanic ridges
between North American and Eurasian plate.

• mid oceanic ridge is a long chain of mountains on the seafloor.E.g. Mid Atlantic ridge found at
centre of Atlantic Ocean.

• As two oceanic plates keep on moving apart, volcanic islands are formed and become larger
through regular volcanic eruptions.
• The process of two oceanic plate moving apart is called sea floor spreading.
• Rift valleys are also formed at constructive boundaries e.g. great Africa rift valley

Evidence of sea floor spreading:

• The pattern of heat flow

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 • Edges of rocks are lowest at the rift
• Identical magnetic bounding on both sides of the rift.

Destructive (convergent) plate margins

• Two plates move towards each other
• It can either be a collision (continental vs continental) or Subduction (oceanic vs continental).

Subduction zone
• When oceanic and continental meet,
• the heavier, denser oceanic crust is forced down into mantle at subduction zone (area where
oceanic plate is forced down).
• Heat and pressure/friction from mantle cause the oceanic crust to melt into magma.
• Molten material forced up through cracks (deep sea trenches) to form volcanic eruption.
• Earthquakes are common here.

Landforms at destructive plate boundaries.

• When oceanic plate and continental collides, at a subduction zone a deep oceanic trench is
formed e.g. Mariana Trench in the pacific ocean.
• When two continental plates or continental and oceanic plates collide, fold mountains are
formed along the edges of continent.

Collision plate margin

• Two continental plates meet/move towards each other and collide,
• These plates are of the same density
• Layers of sediments/sedimentary rocks accumulate
• None of the plates subduct/sink down
• Crust/rocks get bent and crumpled into series of folds

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 • Layers of rocks get uplifted as a result.

Two oceanic converge

• The heavier one will sink into mantle and melted
• Sediments forced to the surface through cracks.
• A line of volcanic island forms ahead of on coming continent e.g. the west coat of south America
and island arcs of west Indies.
• Two continental plate converge result in fold mountains e.g. Himalaya mountain.

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Conservative plate margin

• Plates sliding past each other.

• The edges of the two plates are not smooth
• Therefore, the plates stick to each other and pressure builds up.
• When pressure is released it creates severe earthquake.
• No volcanic eruptions.
• Land forms such as San Andreas fault in USA is formed at conservative plate margin e.g. North
American and Pacific plates.

Describe the distribution of fold mountains, deep sea trenches, volcanic island arcs, mid-
oceanic ridge, earthquakes and volcanoes.

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 • These landforms are distributed/found along the plate boundaries/unstable zones.
• Near the tectonic plate boundaries of the Pacific Ocean (pacific ring of fire)
• Are formed along the west coast of south and north America, central America and Alaska.
• Found in the belt from Mediterranean through the Middle-East to east coast of Asia
• Also found on the other side of the pacific along the Philippines and Japan.

Describe the formation of fold mountains

• Two continental plates collide or oceanic and continental move towards each other.
• Pressure is created within the rocks and forces sedimentary rocks upwards into folds.
• An upward bend/fold is an anticline. The downward bend is a syncline.
• The folds can be simple or complex, depending on the force of the compression/collision.

Reasons for the distribution of fold mountains.

• Due to destructive and collision plate boundaries along the area.
• Destructive: Oceanic and continental collide/move towards each other. Oceanic plate is forced
under the continental plate. Folds develop at the edges of the continental plate
• Collision: When two continental plates collide, sediments in between are forced upwards and
form high fold mountains e.g. Himalaya in India.

Formation of Rift valley

• It is formed in the areas of tectonic instability at divergent plate boundary.
• Tension build up in the plates and causes faulting.
• As the blocks move apart, the central parts subside/sink to form a valley
• The uplifting of the sides forms the mountains.

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Major relief and drainage features of the East Africa Rift Valley
• It has an escarpment.
• The sides of the rift valley are steep.
• It has long, narrow and steep lakes.
• The valley is long, about 4000km in length.
• The width of the valley is between 10 and 50 km wide.
• The largest lake on the central plateau e.g. Lake Victoria.
• Water drains into depressions to form elongated lakes.

Describe the shape of ash and cinder, lava and stratovolcano

A volcano is an opening (a hole) in the earth’s crust through which lava, volcanic ash and gas erupt from
the magma chamber.

A volcano can also be a mountain formed by the eruptive lava, ash, rocks and gases.

Volcanic eruption- is an explosion of lava, ash and cinder from a hole in the surface of the earth.

Types of Volcano
Ash and cinder cones

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 • Are formed of small pieces of solid materials that collects around the vent to form a cone.
• They are concave and has a steep angle with a crater at the top
• Between 91-300m high

Shield/lava cones

• Are formed at constructive plate margins

• Formed from thin and runny lava following from the vent.

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 • These volcanoes have broader base and gentle slopes
• No violent eruptions at the sites.

Composite/ strato-volcanoes

• Are formed by repeated eruptions of pieces of materials followed by lava flows.

• Its steep sided about 2400m
• Consist of alternate layers of ash and lava.
• Because the lava here is tick and sticky, it may flow gently & not spread far.
• At times it may erupt violently because lava has a lot of gas and it does not escape easily.
• It may form a caldera if the top is blown off.

Explain how volcanoes are formed and their impact on human beings and the
environment
Volcanoes are mainly formed along destructive or constructive plate margins.

How a volcano is formed at destructive plate margin

• Two plates, oceanic and continental meet or converge
• The heavier oceanic plate is subducted or sink under the continental plate
• Due to intense heat in the mantle, material of oceanic plate is melted and magma increase.
• More pressure builds up and magma rises through lines of weakness such as vent/pipe to form a
volcano.
• The volcanic eruptions here are often violent, with lots of steam, gas and ash.

Volcanoes at constructive boundaries

• Two plates move away/apart from each other

• A gap/space is created
• Due to heat and pressure, magma flows up to fill the gap.
• When magma cools down and solidifies it creates new landforms.

Explain the positive impacts of volcano on human beings and the environment.
Positive effects of volcanoes on human beings

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 • Minerals mined for industrial use
• Ash form fertile land for Agriculture
• Geothermal power may be generated
• Geyser/hot springs favour development of resorts for tourists

Positive effects of volcanoes on the environment

• New landforms are created e.g. volcanic island (green land)

• Add of lava and ash to the soil and improve soil fertility.
• Bigger mountains are formed/more high land.

Negative effects of volcanoes on human beings

Short term effects of volcanoes

• Destruction of houses and buildings

• Lava and ash reduce visibility
• Destruction of crops and farm land by lava flow
• Mudflow due to ice melting on top of volcanoes trap people and cover roads

Long term effects of volcanoes

• Injuries and Loss of lives

• Ash and toxic gases can cause breathing problems
• Cause water borne diseases as water may be contaminated by ash.
• Damage of ozone layer can cause skin cancer.

Negative effects of volcanoes on the environment

• Gases released in the atmosphere can damage the ozone layer leading to global warming
• Ash can block out sunlight and decreases world temperature
• Alter the landscape
• Destruction of natural vegetation
• Land sliding can lead to soil erosion

Discuss strategies to manage the effects of volcanic eruption

• Redirecting lava flow by digging trenches so that lava can not flow to people’s settlements.
• Emergency services should be in place e.g. rescue team
• Educate people on what to do in the event of volcanic eruption
• Spraying water onto the flow
• Planning settlements away from active volcano
• Use Satellites to pick up changes in temperature over mountainous areas
• Halting advance by dropping concrete slabs into flow.

Prediction of volcanic eruption

• Seismographs pick up any movement
• Monitor gases
• Tiltmeter (record shift in the ground)
• Look for chemistry of the volcano

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 • Lasers to look for swelling in the mountain
• Sound waves in the volcano be monitored
• Satellites pick up changes in temperature

Explain how earthquakes are formed and their impact on human beings and the
environment
An earthquake is the shaking of the Earth’s surface due to a sudden release of energy by
plate tectonics which creates seismic waves.

Focus: Point of origin underground where earthquake occurs in the earth’s crust.

Epicentre: Point on surface directly above the focus where most damage happens. •
Magnitude: Intensity of earthquakes

Types Seismic waves:

P waves pass through the earth crust from focus to the surface.
L is when the waves reach the surface and it cause most damages.
How earthquakes are formed
• Occurs when two plates collide or move past each other.
• Edges of the plates are not smooth,
• Plates lock and stuck against each other
• Pressure/ friction builds up in rocks
• Pressure is released, rocks slip and huge amount of energy is suddenly released (seismic shock
waves).

Earthquake at destructive plate margins

• When plates move toward each other
• The heavier oceanic plate is forced to sink under the continental crust
• Continental crust stuck on the sinking oceanic plate
• Friction builds up and tension increases
• Eventually the continental plate is released causing the earth to shake violently.

Earthquakes at conservative boundaries

• Two plates move past each other or side by side moving at different speeds.
• As the plates move, friction occurs and plates become stuck.
• Pressure builds up because the plates are still trying to move.
• When the pressure is released, it sends out huge amounts of energy, causing an earthquake.

Explain the impacts of Earthquake on the human beings and environment

• It causes building to collapse which trap and kill people
• Causes fire from leaking gas pipes
• Electricity lines and telephone lines are destroyed
• Bridges and roads are destroyed
• Smoke from fire causes breathing problems
• Water pipes burst leaving people without clean drinking water.

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 • Big dams collapse and cause flood.

Long term or secondary impact of earthquakes on the society

• Shops are destroyed leaving people without essential services

• Decaying bodies under rubble can cause spread of diseases
• Tsunami wave can cause more damage and loss of life
• Economy collapse in poor countries because they have no money to rebuild after the damage.
• Tsumanis destroy farmland
• Workers loss jobs
• Insurance companies lose money
• Tourism suffers

Factors influencing the amount of damages by earthquakes

• Types of buildings (poorly built structures vs reinforced and flexible buildings resist collapse
• Magnitude: strong earthquake may cause more damage
• Season: some season people spend more time outside – lower death toll.
• Types of rocks: more rigid tends to resist movement. Building on soft rock will collapse
• Depth of focus (deeper quake may cause less damages)
• Distance from the epicentre
• Time of the day: night people usually indoors, cooking fires, rush hours bridges may collapse
• Rescue services: MEDCS better equipped with emergence drills to reduce death tolls
• Population density
• Tsunami

Why the effects of earthquakes are less harmful in MEDCs than LEDCs?
• MEDCs monitor earthquakes before it happens
• MEDCs carry out earthquake drills
• MEDCs have better fire fighters and rescue workers
• MEDCs have better medical facilities
• MEDCs have improved infrastructures/ better earthquake resistant buildings.

Discuss strategies to manage the effects of earthquakes

• Buildings should have deep foundation and reinforced with steel to absorb shock waves
• Fire resistance material should be used in constructions e.g. Steel and bricks
• Use sensitive instruments to measure earth movements e.g. Seismograph, Seismometer, tilt
meter etc.
• Do not build on clay or land reclaimed from the sea.
• Basement under houses can give some protection during earthquake
• Improve access to emergency services such as food, water, blankets and candles
• Educate people on what to do in an event of earthquake.

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Activities

1. The maps in Fig. 2 show plate boundaries

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 (a) (i) what is meant by tectonic plate [1]

(ii) Explain why do plate move [3]

(b) (i) Identify the types of plate boundary indicated at A and B on fig. 2. [2]

(ii) Explain the activities taking place at the plate margins A Fig.2 [2]

(iii) Why earthquakes frequently occur at boundary A. [4]

(c) Study Fig. 4, which shows a constructive plate margin.

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 (i) Why this type of margin called "constructive"? [2]

(ii) Name examples of landforms found at this plate margin. [2]

(ii) What evidence can be used to support the concept of sea floor spreading?
[2]

(d) Use illustration to explain the difference between a subduction zone and collision zone.
[5]

2. (a) Study the Fig. below showing island-Arch volcano along a destructive plate margin.

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 (i) What is an active volcano? [1]

(ii) Explain how volcano is formed along destructive plate margin such as the one shown on
the Fig. above? [4]

(iii) Suggest why some people live close to active volcanoes. [4]

(iv) Describe two ways people try to reduce harmful effects of volcanic eruptions.
[4]

(v) Explain why some damage caused by volcanic eruptions can be dealt with quickly while
other effects may last for several years. [6]

(b) Suggest why the loss of life and damage from some earthquakes may be bigger than those from
others. [3]

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1.2 Weathering and Erosion
Distinguish between weathering and erosion
• Weathering is the breaking down of rock material when no movement is involved.
• Erosion is the breaking up and wearing away of rocks by moving water, moving ice and wind

Types of weathering

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Activity

Name and describe types of weathering and associated landforms:

Physical/mechanical weathering

a) Exfoliation
• It’s a result of temperature differences e.g. in hot desert regions where it’s very hot during day
and very cold at night
• The constant heating and cooling of rocks cause them to expand (day) and contract at night
• This put the top of the rock under stress and crack appear
• Eventually the outer layer of rock peel away forming a dome (exfoliation dome).
• This process is called exfoliation

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Exfoliation dome

b) Frost shattering/Freeze-thaw action

• Water may fill cracks in the rock.
• At night water freezes and expands
• During the day the ice thaws or melts
• The constant freeze-thaw action deepens and widens cracks and shatter the rock.
• The rock fragments are moved down the slope to form scree

Frost shattering/Freeze-thaw action

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2. Chemical weathering

• Chemical weathering is the result of rock undergoing a chemical change.

• It’s most rapid in moist, warm region where rocks have already been broken up by physical
weathering.

(a) Oxidation

Oxygen from the atmosphere oxidises mineral e. g. iron can be oxdised to red iron oxide

(b) Carbonation
• common in limestone and chalk areas
• Rainwater combines with CO₂ to form a weak acid which weathers rocks away.
• CO2 in the atmosphere is dissolved by rain water to form a weak carbonic acid.
• The acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form calcium bicarbonate which is soluble.
• This solution causes joints to widen and deepen cracks called grykes separated by flat
pavements called clints.
• Water can penetrate deeper along joints and form underground caves.

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Biological Weathering
Caused by the action of animals and plants

• Animals
Burrowing animals e.g.. Earthworms dig holes, which brings soil deep down to the surface where it
becomes exposed to weathering
• Plants
Roots of plants grow into cracks in rocks, as roots get bigger they force cracks to widen and rocks to
breakdown.
Plants also secrete a weak acid that can cause rocks to dissolve

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Explain why weathering processes are more rapid in humid tropical regions than in temperate
regions?
• Tropical regions have higher temperatures and more rainfall, which encourages chemical
weathering.
• The temperature doubles with every rise of 10oC.
• There is far more plant growth, which encourage biological weathering.
• More likelihood of tree roots in cracks.
• There is more release of CO2 from decay of plants.

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WEATHERING AND EROSION WORKSHEET

WEATHERING AND EROSION WORKSHEET

Study Photograph G below, which shows rocks where biological weathering is taking place.

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(i) Describe how biological weathering has occurred in the area shown. [3]

(ii) Explain why biological and chemical weathering are rapid in areas which are hot and wet.
[5]
(c) Describe and explain the process of freeze-thaw weathering. Include fully labelled diagrams.
[7]

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WEATHERING & EROSION WORKSHEET

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Page 30 of 215
1.3. River process
Key concepts

• Drainage basin: the area the river system flows through

• Watershed: high – lying area separating drainage basin

• The river system: A river and all its tributaries

• Tributaries: smaller River that flows into a larger river.

• Long profile of a stream: the fall of the river over its length or the height of the river over its
length.

• Catchment area: it’s a high lying area that catches precipitation and drains it into the river.

• Distributaries: When a river breaks up into smaller streams at the mouth of the river.

• River load: materials or debris carried/disturbed by the river e.g. stones, rocks…

• Wetted perimeter: part of the river channel that is in contact with water e.g. banks and river bed.

• Discharge: amount of water that moves past a particular point in a river. Measured in cubic metre
per second (cumecs)

Important facts

• 95 % of river’s energy needed to overcome friction

• Friction occurs on wetted perimeter

• Larger rocks cause more friction

• Increased volume of water means less friction, greater velocity

• Greater speed of water – more erosion – load

• Greatest speed is in the centre – friction lowest

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Identify and describe the main features of a drainage basin with reference to river
channel, watershed area and catchment area

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 2. describe the characteristics of a river valley in terms of the upper, middle and lower
course (longitudinal profile)

Sections of the River

1. Upper course:

• Narrow V-shaped valley with steep sides, interlocking spurs (protruding headland),

• steep slope (higher energy-vertical erosion/head-ward erosion),

• Large pieces of rocks moved (little sediments- water is clear),

• waterfall and rapids.

• Pot-holes

• Turbulent flow of water (spiral flow)

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Page 34 of 215
 2. Middle Course

• More lateral erosion,

• valley opens/widens/ u-shaped valley

• deposition begins on flood plain,

• river may begin to meander,

• Few waterfalls.

• More energy from the tributary

Deposition begins:

3. Lower course

• Valley is relatively flat and wider

• River occupies small channel in relation to valley

• Wide floodplain – for overflow

• Deposition is the main feature

• Lower velocity

• Meanders and braiding

• Levees may form

• Laminar flow

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Processes taking place in a river

1. Erosion of materials

2. Transportation of materials

3. Deposition of Materials

3. Describe the processes by which a river erode its channel

a) Hydraulic action: water pushed into cracks/crevices(narrow cracks) of the bank. Air and water
compressed, breaks the rock

b) Corrasion/abrasion: Stones and gravel scours/rub the banks and bed of the river

c) Attrition: materials carried grinds(bumping) down other materials carried – reduce in size

d) Solution or corrosion: Acids in the water dissolve certain types of rock (limestone)

Factors affecting erosion

• Load: heavier and sharper load means more erosion

• Velocity: greater velocity means greater speed and greater erosion

• Geology: softer rocks erode fast

• PH: acidic water erodes limestone

• Human impact: deforestation increases run-off

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 4. Name and describe landforms associated with river erosion with reference to
waterfalls, rapids, meanders, potholes and gorges
How is a waterfall formed?

• Formed when resistant layer of rock prevents vertical erosion (sloping upstream/horizontal)

• Softer underlying layers are eroded

• Vertical drop into a plunge pool

• Resistant layer is undermined-collapse

• Waterfall retreats upstream

• Forms a gorge or ravine

Rapids

• Forms when resistant rock prevents downward erosion.

• Resistant layer slopes down stream

• Increase in slope but no vertical drop – usually temporary

Formation of a meander

• Meander is a bend in a river

• It’s a result of erosion and deposition

• Resistant rock layers cause the river to change its course

• Meander forms as moving water widens the valley

• Slower flowing water, on the inner banks, less energy and will deposit silt forming a slip off slope

• Faster flowing water, on the outside bank cause more erosion (e.g. hydraulic action, abrasion)
forming a cliff

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 Floodplain
Floodplain

INSIDE BEND
Slip-off slope
Deposition
Higher friction
OUT SIDE BEND Shallower
Cliff Lower velocity
Erosion
Lower friction
Deeper
Higher velocity

The cross-sectional shape of a meander

• The stream is deeper with greater velocity on the outside of the meander.

• Erosion takes place on the outside of the meander but deposition on the inside of the meander.

• Due to the difference in the cross-sectional shape of a meander, friction also differs, causing the
velocity of the stream to differ at the banks

• The movement of water is greater on the outside bank and slower on the inside due to higher
friction effect.

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Ox-bow Lakes

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Formation of Ox bow lake

• Form at the lower course of the river where meander become wider.

• Erosion on outer/concave bank of meander,

• Deposition on the inner bank,

• Increase size of meander, narrow its neck,

• Eventually river breaks through,

• Creates a temporary island,

• Short cut through meander neck becomes main channel, end of former meander silt up

Pot holes

• Deep and circular depression hollows on the bed of the river.

• Pebbles collects in the depression.
• Pebbles swirl around the depression through corrosion/abrasion, deepening the depression.

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River transportation

Name and explain the processes by which a river transport its load.
1. Traction: heavier boulders rolled on the river bed

2. Saltation: smaller stones bounced along the river bed

3. Solution: Salts and minerals are dissolved in the water

4. Suspension: Silt and fine materials carried by water

Processes by which a river transport its load.

Landforms associated with deposition

7. Objectives: name and describe the landforms associated with the deposition of the load by a
river: deltas, levees, marshes, floodplain, inland deltas/oshanas

Give the reasons why and where in a river’s course deposition takes place, with reference to
volume and velocity of flow, nature of the load and bed-rock

• A river will deposit when Speed of flow/velocity reduces

• Friction increases

• Load carried is too heavy for the river/load increased

• River enter still water/lake/ocean

• Reduced volume of water/reduced discharge

• Shallower water/wide valley/larger wetted perimeter

• Reduced gradient/gentler slope

• River overflows its banks/flooding

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 Flood plain

flood plain: is relatively flat land adjacent to a stream or river that experiences
occasional flooding

Advantages of flood plain

• agriculture/fertile soils due to silt deposition

• water for irrigation
• communications (by river; by road/rail on flood plain)
• river is source of food/fish
• flat building land

Disadvantages of flood plain

• flooding;
• instability of foundations;
• need to bridge river;
• often densely populated/competition for space;
• water borne diseases

Levees

• Raised banks known as levees

• Form on the floodplain on the lower course
• Flooding causes overflowing banks
• Heavier materials deposits on banks
• May be raised and strengthened as flood protection
• River may be above the level of flood plain

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Deltas

• river flow into ocean/lake/slow moving water

• deposition of sediments by river
• as speed of flow slows down/lower velocity/less energy
• river cannot carry load

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 • absence of major tidal flows/currents/ocean cannot remove deposited material fast enough
• continuous deposition blocks river from entering ocean
• Distributaries form as the river splits
• Floccation – fresh water meets salt water

Examples of deltas

• Nile river
• Ganges
• Brahmaputa/
• Niger river/
• Rhine/
• Ebro/
• Volga/
• Indus/
• Mississipi

Marshes

• Low lying areas on the flood plain saturated with water.

• Nutrient rich wet land, support reeds and grasses but no woody plants or trees.

Describe the impact of humans (degradation and management) on wetland areas

Degradation of wetland

• Clearing of forest increase level of erosion and alter hydrological system

• Discharge of waste pollute wetland area which lead to Eutrophication.
• Urban runoff pollute wetland adding unwanted materials to wetland

Management of wetland

• Laws and regulations that prohibit pollution

• Fines for polluters/offenders

• Stricter regulation regarding building of houses and settlement.

• Careful preparation of farm land

• Educating people on the danger of pollution.

How does one come to know the direction of river flow on map?

• By looking at values of contour lines, spot heights and trigonometrical beacons

What about right or left bank in reality?

• Looking at the direction to which the river flow and the bank on your right side is the right bank.

• Even a map with arrow indicating the flow of water the same can be used.

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Practical Activity for Paper 3

River Studies/Stream studies

The following characteristics of a river can be measured

• width
• depth
• cross sectional area/wetted perimeter
• Stream velocity
• river discharge
• shape and size of river bed load
• stream gradient
• meandering

Stream width
• Equipment’s needed: two poles, rope, measuring tape.
• Stretch a tape measure from one bank to other (across the river).
• The start and finishing points for the measuring are the points at which the dry bank meets
the water.
• Measure width: bankfull and normal flow
• Bankfull width-A tape measure should be stretched from one bank to the other at 90° to the
course of the river.
• The start and finishing points for the measuring are the points where the vegetation and
gradient of the bank suggest that the river has reached its maximum capacity.
• Width at normal flow- keep the tape about 20cm above the water level and measure to point
where the dry bank meets the water (observe from straight above).

Stream depth
• Equipment’s needed: rope, measuring stick, measuring tape, ranging poles

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 How to use this equipment to measure stream depth

• Stretch the rope across the channel

• mark equal interval e.g. 50 cm along the rope across the channel using a measuring tape
• Use the measuring stick to measure the depth of the river at each marked interval
• A measuring stick should be immersed in the water, e.g. every 50cm, until it just touches the
bed of the river

Stream velocity/speed of flow

• refers to the rate of water movement, often measured in metres per second
• It’s also defined as speed at which the river flows.
• Stream velocity can be measured by using a float (surface velocity) flow meter (velocity
below surface).

Equipment’s needed to measure stream velocity

• Flow meter
• Float such as an orange, apple, onion
• Stop watch
• Ranging poles
• 10M measuring tape

The speed of flow of water on the water surface

You need a suitable float e.g.

• Orange
• Lemon
• Apple/onion/orange peel

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 Reasons

• Light enough not to sink to the bottom

• Heavy enough not to be blown by wind

• It’s water resistant not to soak up water

• It’s bright/visible.

How equipment's may be used to measure the speed of the flow on surface.
• Mark a convenient distance along the river (e.g. 10M) with the ranging poles/measuring
poles/measuring tape.
• Time the float about four times between the poles with a stopwatch
• Calculate the average time.
• Use the formula: speed = distance/average time.

A flow meter

How to use a flow meter/flow vane

• Always stand downstream or to the side of the flow vane.

• Put flow meter on the river bed;

• hold the vane vertically and with the screw pointing upstream

• Propeller spins/moves/rotate.

• Record digital readings and calculate average

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Factors to consider when choosing sites

• Accessibility

• Distance from the source/between sites

• Sites must be away from human impacts

• The depth and width of the stream

• Strength of the current/velocity

• Safety / dangerous animals

• Sites must not be near waterfalls/rapids

Factors influencing speed

• The volume of water (low/large)

• The bed load of the river

• Friction

• Uneven river bed/potholes

• Smaller/larger wetted perimeter

• Gradient/slope of the river

Explain why measurements should be taken at a low tide

• At low tide, the lowest possible point of the beach is accessible.

• Expose the whole width of the beach.

• At high tide, the part of the beach will be covered with water.

Wetted perimeter

• Wetted perimeter is the surface of the channel/river bottom and sides in direct contact with
water.

• An increase in wetted perimeter increases friction.

• Wetted perimeter can be measured using a heavy chain, rope or measure tape, which should
be stretched across the river touching the channel bed from one bank to the other.

• This can be hard to do, especially in larger channels or where the bed is very rough.

• Fast flowing water conditions can also be problematic.

• Wetted perimeter is often better calculated from the graphed results of the profile.

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Calculating a Cross sectional area
Formula: River Width X average River depth

River/Stream discharge

• The discharge of a river is the volume of water which flows through it in a given time.

• It is usually measured in cubic meters per second.

• The volume of the discharge will be determined by factors such as climate, vegetation, soil type,
drainage basin, relief and human activities.

• Calculation of river discharge

• Formula: cross-sectional area of the channel multiplied by the velocity of the water.

Activity

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Page 50 of 215
Measuring a slope of the river bed

Equipment’s/instruments needed when calculating Gradient

• Two ranging poles

• Clinometer(bigger slopes)

• Pantometer (small slopes)

• Measuring tape

Clinometer

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How to Measure a slope of the beach/river profile

• Place two ranging poles at different places across the beach.

• Measure the distance between the poles with a measuring tape.
• The two ranging poles are held vertically, about 10 metres apart (further if possible).
• Place a clinometer at the top of one pole inclining the flat edge to the top of the next pole.

What considerations should be taken into account to make the measurements reliable?

• Make certain that the ranging poles are held vertically.

• Aim the clinometer from a fixed height on one pole to the same height on the other pole.
• Another person should take the reading on the clinometer.

Measuring pebbles

To measure the long axis of a pebble consist of three methods:

1. By using a calliper or

2. By using a Pebbleometer

3. Stick and ruler

Caliper

Measuring long axis of a pebble using a caliper

• Open the arms of calliper wide enough to accommodate long axis of pebble.

• Close the arms enough to touch the pebble on both sides/adjust to fit the pebble.

• Remove the pebble and measure the width of the arms with a ruler.

Measuring long axis of a pebble using a pebbleometer

• It’s a card with square holes of various sizes

• Pass/fit a pebble through the holes along its long axis.

• The hole through which the pebble just about fits, has the size of the pebble.

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Stick and ruler

• The ruler lies on the flat table

• Take a pebble, place on the piece of paper, mark and measure.

• Put the pebble on top of it along the long axis

• Determine the length on the ruler.

How to use a quadrat and random numbers to select pebbles.

• Number the squares of the quadrat up to 25

• Use random numbers in pairs/ pick numbers from a hat/box/basket.
• All pairs smaller than 25 will indicate where pebbles should be picked up, until the sample is full.

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 Activity

Study Fig. 4, which shows a river and its valley.

(i) Describe the main natural features of the river and valley which are shown on Fig. 4. (3)

(ii) Describe the advantages and difficulties for people of living close to a river such as the

one shown on Fig. 4. (5)

(iii) Explain how and why a delta has formed in a named area which you have studied. You

should use a labelled diagram or diagrams in your answer. (7)

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Activity

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Page 56 of 215
1.4. WIND/DESERT PROCESSES
Wind action is powerful in arid and semi-arid regions

Desert: an area where rainfall is less than 250mm per year.

Name and describe the erosional processes of wind action

Wind erodes in the following ways:

1. Abrasion: rock particles rub against each other and wear away.
2. Deflation: wind blows away loose material leaving a depression.
3. Attrition: sand and rock particles carried by the wind are blown against rock surfaces

Describe and explain the landforms associated with wind erosion

1. Rock pedestals:

• Made of Horizontal layers of rock with varying resistance are exposed to the wind.
• Softer layers will be eroded easily while harder layer will remain.
• Have mushroom shape
• Lower part is eroded more, looks thinner.

Rock pedestals

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2. Deflation hollows/oases

• A deflation hollow is a type of landform found in arid and semi-arid regions.

• It occurs when loose surface materials are scooped out.

• Sometimes, a deflation hollow may reach the water table.

• As the water slowly fills up the hollow, an oasis is formed.

The Qattara Depression of Egypt is an example of a deflation hollow

Deflation hollows/oases

3. Desert pavement

• Formed when wind continuously removes fine material e.g. sand and silt.

• Larger stones, pebbles and gravel remain behind as a desert pavement.

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 4. Zeugens

• Formed where horizontal layers of varying strength are found

• Weathering opens cracks in the rock

• Wind abrasion widens and deepens these openings

• Parts of the more resistant rocks form ridges while the furrows form between them.

5. Yardangs

• Made of alternate layers of hard and soft rock that lie vertical

• Softer material is removed to form furrows and harder material remains as ridges.

• Yardangs tend to be no more than 15m in height.

Yardangs

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Name and describe the wind transport processes
Wind transport material in the following ways:

1. Suspension: very fine particles are lifted into the air and carried over great distances.
2. Saltation: rough, grainy sand particles bounce along the ground.
3. Surface creep: larger particles like small stones and pebbles roll along the desert surface by
strong wind.

Describe and explain the landforms and features associated with wind deposition

Huge quantity of wind-blown sand is deposited to form dunes.

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 Physical features of Barchans

• Crescent shaped dunes/half-moon shaped

• It has two horn pointing in the direction of the prevailing wind.
• About 30M high/400M wide
• Windward side is gentle and the leeward side is steep and concave shaped

Barchans Dune

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 Formation of Barchans dune

• A sandbank starts to form when sand collects around a small rock or a piece of vegetation.
• As the sandbank develops, the side facing the wind (windward side) reaches a gentle
gradient.
• The opposite side (the leeward side) is steep and concaved shaped.
• Sand is moved up the gentle windward slope by creep.
• Sand blown over the top, come to rest on steeper leeward slope.
• Sand is also blown around the sides downhill to form the horns

Physical features of Seif/Linear dunes

• Much larger than crescent shaped dunes

• Can be up to 160km length

• Can be up to 100 to 200m high

• Lie parallel to the wind direction

• Linear shaped with steep sides

• Crest of the seif is sharp

• Narrow corridors between seif dunes

• Corridors swept clean by prevailing wind

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Star dunes

• Develop where there is no definite prevailing wind.

• Form where there abundant supply of sand

Features:

• Star shaped/star fish

• Not mobile

• Highest dune about 500-800m

Star dunes

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WIND/DESERT PROCESSES WORKSHEET

(a) Study Fig.1 which shows landforms A and B formed by wind action in tropical deserts.

(i) Identify landforms A and B (2)

(ii) State whether the landforms are formed by wind erosion or deposition (2)
(iii) On Fig.1, draw an arrow to show the direction of the wind on landform A (1)
(iv) Explain the development of landform A (3)
(v) On Fig. 1, add labels to describe the appearance of landform B (4)

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 ACTIVITY

Choose either landform A or B shown on Fig. 1. For the landform you have chosen

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(i) describe its physical features,

(ii) Explain how it was formed. [8]

(e) Name one landform produced by wind erosion shown on Fig. 1. [1]
(ii) Name the erosional process which leads to the formation of landform C. [1]

(iii) Explain how landform C was formed. [4]

(f) ”Deflation hollows/oases are unusual features in the Namib Desert.”

Suggest reasons why. [4]

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1.5: Coastal or marine processes

1. Describe the features (structures) of a wave

• Wavelength (L)
Is the horizontal distance between successive crests, expressed in meters.
• Wave period (T)
Time between successive crests, expressed in seconds
• Wave height (H) Amplitude
Expressed in meters – vertical distance between the top of a crest and the bottom of a trough
• Crest
The highest point of the wave
• Trough
The lowest point of the wave
• Swash
Water and material moving up a beach
• Backwash
Water and material moving down a beach
• Oscillation wave
Waves found in deep water only, the energy moves forward – water particles move in a circular motion
• Translation wave
Waves found in shallow water, the base of the wave is slowed down but the top keeps moving forward –
wave breaks

Explain how a wave is generated

• Waves are caused or generated by winds blowing over the ocean and the gravitational pull of the
moon.
• The faster the wind blows over the ocean, the stronger the wave breaks
• Is the distance the wind blows over water with similar speed and direction or the distance the wave
moves before it breaks.

Distinguish between swash and backwash

Swash
This is the water and material which is thrown up the beach when a wave breaks
Backwash
Is the water and material that drains/dragged back down the beach

Distinguish the types of waves such as constructive and destructive and explain the
energy of the waves, swash and backwash

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 CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTIVE
- Longer wave length - Shorter wave length
- Builds the coast line - Erodes the coast
- Lower wave height - Higher wave height
- Wave are flatter - Waves are steeper. etc.
- More deposition than erosion - More erosion than deposition
- Stronger Swash and Weaker - Stronger backwash and Weaker
Backwash Swash
- Lower frequency : 6 – 8 per minute - Higher frequency: 12 – 14 per
minute

Activity

Study Fig. 1, which shows constructive and destructive waves.

a. Using Fig. 1, give four differences between constructive and destructive waves. [4]

b. Name and describe four marine erosional processes. [4]

Name and describe the erosional processes of wave action such as corrasion, hydraulic
action, corrosion and attrition

Hydraulic Action / Pressure:

• When waves smashes against a rock, the force of the water compresses air trapped in crack of the
rock- enlarges a weakness in the rock

Corrasion / Abrasion
• Materials such as sand and stones carried by waves is used to scour and scrape rocks in the way

Attrition
• The material carried by the waves grind down other materials in the wave

Corrosion/Solution
• Seawater may contain acids such as carbonic acid – that dissolves rocks like limestone and chalk

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Activity

a) What is meant by each of the following terms used in relation to the effects of waves on a
coastline?

i. Abrasion
ii. Attrition
iii. hydraulic action
iv. Corrosion [4]

Describe and explain erosional landforms such as cliffs, stacks, arch, stump, caves,
wave-cut notch, wave-cut platform, headland and bays
• Cliffs are shaped through a combination of erosion and weathering - the breakdown of rocks caused
by weather conditions.
• Soft rock, e.g. sand and clay, erodes easily to create gently sloping cliffs.
• Hard rock, e.g. chalk, is more resistant and erodes slowly to create steep cliffs.

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• Zones of weakness where they are faults/cracks are attacked by waves to form a notch
• A notch grows into a cave,
• After extensive erosion, a cave extends into an arch through the headland
• The arch is eroded further by the processes of Abrasion and Hydraulic pressure
• The top /roof of an arch collapses to form a stack
• The stack will be eroded away to form a stump

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Formation of Wave cut platform

• Weather weakens the top of the cliff.

• The sea waves attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave-cut notch.
• The notch increases in size causing the cliff to collapse.
• The backwash carries the rubble towards the sea forming a wave-cut platform.
• The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat.

Characteristics of a wave cut platform

• Solid rock / hard rock;
• Flat / gently sloping;
• but not perfectly smooth / contains rock pools / joints
• Located at base of cliff / under the cliff / front of cliff;
• May be (covered by) loose rocks / pebbles / seaweed / small rocks / shingle;

Activity
Study Fig. 1 below, which shows a headland in Normandy.

a. Name the feature labelled A. [1]

b. Explain how feature A was formed by coastal erosion. [4]
c. Explain what might happen to feature A in the future. [3]

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d. Study Fig. 5, which is a cross section of a cliff and beach.

i. What is the width, in metres, of the wave-cut platform as labelled on Fig. 5? [1]
ii. Describe the main features of a wave cut platform. [2]
iii. State three differences between the beach material at X and Y. [3]
iv. Explain how longshore drift can move material along a beach. [4]

e. Study Fig. 2 which shows marine erosion and deposition features.

i. Identify the features labelled A and B. [2]

ii. Describe and explain the formation of the feature labelled B. [5]

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Describe the transportation of materials along the coastline by means of Longshore drift

• If the prevailing winds at the coast blow at an angle it causes waves to approach the shore at an
angle.
• This cause the wave to strike the shore at an angle/obliquely and the swash to move up the beach at
an angle (materials are deposited at an angle)
• The force of gravity drag the backwash (materials) straight back down the beach.
• The next wave will collect the backwash and send it up the beach.
• This processes will be repeated all the way down the beach
• Materials move in a zig zag movement along the beach

Name and describe depositional landforms such as beaches, bars, tombolo and
spits

Beaches - are built up of sediments (pebbles, sand or shingle or both) across the bay brought in by
waves or rivers

Bars/ barrier beaches:

• created where a spit develops across a bay because there are no strong currents to disturb the
process — the water behind it is dammed, forming a lagoon
• Bars also develop as a result of storms raking (gathering) up pebbles.
• This shingle left in offshore ridges creates a barrier beach

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Offshore bars:
• Deposits of sand and shingle situated some distance from a coastline
• These usually lie below sea level, becoming visible only at low tide

There are two explanations as to where and how they form:

o in shallow seas where the waves break some distance from the shore
o where steep waves break on a beach, creating a strong backwash that carries material
back down the beach to form a ridge
• When a bar appears above the sea level for most of the times, it becomes a barrier beach with a
lagoon on the landward side and ocean on the other
Lagoon
• On the coast, longshore drift carries sediment parallel to the coast.
• Where the coast has a concave shape, sediment block the entrance of the concave coastline.
• blocking the water in the concave coastal separate it from the rest of the ocean/sea
• The isolated water body is called a lagoon

Spits,
• Long, narrow stretches of sand or shingle that protrude into the sea or across an estuary
• result from materials being moved along the coast by longshore drift
• this movement continues in the same direction when the coastline curves; where there is an estuary
with a strong current that interrupts the movement of material, they project out into it
• the end of the spit is often curved (curved spit) where waves are refracted around the end of the spit
into more sheltered water behind

Tombolo - is formed where a spit joins the mainland at one end to an island at the other

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Name and describe hard and soft engineering of coastlines with reference to groynes,
seawall, gabions, revetments (hard) and beach nourishment, land management (soft).

• Coastal flooding and erosion are serious problems at the coast.

• Flooding can damage properties and make farmlands unusable for many years.
• Erosion can remove beaches, wear away cliffs, and cause the permanent loss of land and buildings
to the sea.
• Preventing flooding damage and erosion is very expensive, very difficult and in some cases may even
cause worse problems.
• Protective schemes can also cause environment damage, and for coastal areas which are important
wildlife habitats or tourist locations this can cause problems.

Ways of protecting coastlines.

Sea walls
• Concrete or rock walls at the foot of a cliff or at the top of a beach.
• Usually have a curved face to reflect waves back out to sea
• Although often effective at the location where they are built, they deflect erosion further along the
coast;
• they are expensive and have high maintenance costs

Groynes
• Timber or rock structures, built at right angles to the coastline;
• It trap sediment being moved along the coast by longshore drift.
• The beach created increases tourist potential, and
• gives protection to the land
• Beaches behind the groynes are starved of sand, increasing erosion.

Rip-rap (rock armour)

• Large, hard rocks dumped at the base of a cliff or at the top of a beach.
• Forms a permeable barrier to breaking sea waves.
• Relatively cheap, and easy to construct and maintain;
• The rocks used are often brought in from other areas and hence may not blend in

Revetments
• Wooden barriers, in a slat-like form,
• Placed at the base of a cliff or top of a beach,
• They are Intrusive but very unnatural

Gabions
• Wire cages filled with small rocks that are built up to make walls.
• They are used to support weak cliff.
• Relatively cheap.
• The metal cages rust and break easily.
Dune Regeneration
• Planting of marram grass and other plants that bind sand together.
• Areas are often fenced off to keep people off newly planted dunes.
• This method maintains the look of a natural coastline
• Provides important habitats;
• Process requires a lot of time to be effective

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Beach nourishment
• Addition of sand or pebbles to an existing beach to make it higher or wider.
• The materials are usually dredged from the nearby seabed and spread or ‘sprayed’ on to the
beach.
• This method is relatively cheap and easy;
• The materials used blend into the natural beach;
• It is a constant requirement, because natural processes continue to move materials away.

Marsh creation
• Low-lying coastal lands are allowed to be flooded by the sea;
• The area becomes a salt Marsh.
• This method provides an effective buffer to the power of waves, creating a natural defense;
• creates an opportunity for wildlife habitats; agricultural land is lost, however, and landowners
require compensation

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Activity

Study Photograph B below, which shows an area of coastline.

a. Identify three coastal landforms shown in Photograph B. [3]

b. Explain the formation of two of the coastal landforms which you have identified in above. [5]
c. For an area you have studied, describe the benefits and problems of living near the coast. [7]

Practical activity – examined as Alternative to practical – Paper 3:

1. Establish the profile of a beach, by measuring the angle of beach slope

a. The learners measured the slope of the beach in sections from the low tide mark to the edge
of the cliff and drew a profile of the beach, Fig. 1 below

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 i. State the equipment needed to measure the slope of the beach, other than a pantometer. [3]
ii. Explain why the learners decided to measure the slope of the beach starting at the low tide mark.
[1]
iii. Describe how the equipment in (i) was used to measure the slope of the beach accurately. [4]
2. Measure the size and shape of pebbles,

a. With reference to the size of a pebble,

i. State the meaning of the term long axis. [1]
ii. State the equipment needed to measure the long axis of a pebble accurately. [1]
iii. Describe how the equipment stated in (ii) would be used to measure the long axis of a pebble. [3]

3. Measure the movement of beach material and the direction of the waves. (for beach studies a
knowledge of the equipment is required including, for example, quadrats for selecting pebbles on
a beach, a clinometer to determine the angle of slope of the beach and a pebbleometer or ruler
and callipers to measure pebbles)

A group of geography students at a school along the coast was investigating the direction of Longshore
Drift. They painted 50 pebbles from the beach yellow and left them between the low and high tide water
marks. A few hours later they measured the distance each pebble had been moved along the beach, as
well as the size of each pebble.

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Fig. 1 shows the pebbles.

a) Explain the process of Longshore Drift. [4]

b) Write the following labels in the correct boxes on Fig. 1.

A Prevailing wind
B Direction of Longshore Drift [2]

c) Complete Fig. 1, to show the movement of pebbles by Longshore Drift. [2]

d) Give one reason why the learners painted the pebbles yellow. [1]
e) Explain the difference between constructive and destructive waves.[2]

4. Present data collected in appropriate form using for instance maps, graphs, tables, isolines and
flow charts

a. The pebbles collected at A to G were placed in one of two categories depending on the
length of the long axis:

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Category 1: sizes 5 cm and longer.
Category 2: sizes less than 5 cm.

Table 1 shows the number of pebbles in each category at each of the locations.

On Fig. 2 below the number of pebbles referred to in Table 1 for each category shown by a bar graph for
each location B to F.

Using the information in Table 1, complete Fig. 2, by:

i. Writing a label (name) for the horizontal and vertical axes; [2]
ii. Completing a suitable scale for the vertical axis; [1]
iii. Drawing the bars for locations A and G; [2]
iv. Adding a suitable key for the graph. [1]

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1.6. Weather and Climate

Distinguish between weather and climate.

▪ Weather – The changing atmospheric conditions in a local area that prevail over a short period of
time (e.g. days, weeks or months) – wind, cloud, rainfall and temperature
▪ Climate -- The average weather conditions as measured and recorded over a larger area at an
extended period of at least 30 years.

Describe and explain the characteristics, siting, precautions, and the use of a Stevenson
Screen.
A Stevenson is a wooden box that contains or houses some weather instruments.
Characteristics

• It is made of wood - because wood is a poor conductor of heat. It does not absorb heat from
the sun.

• The screen is painted white - to reflect the direct rays of the sun

• The sides are slatted or louvered - to allow free entry of air / air circulation.

• It has a double roof - to prevent the sun’s heat from reaching the inside of the screen.

• Roof is slightly sloped - to allow the rain water to run off.

• It is placed at height of 1, 2 metres above the ground mostly on grass surface - to avoid the
influence of ground temperature.

• For the southern hemisphere the door must face south - to avoid direct rays of the sun fall on
the instruments if the door is open.
Precautions

• No direct sunlight must reach the instrument

• Air must circulate through the box

• Sunlight must be reflected off the box

• The thermometer must not measure ground temperature

Siting

• It must be positioned well away from buildings and trees so that it’s not in the shade and not protected
from weather elements

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Name and describe the instruments used to measure weather elements

Temperature

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 • Temperature is how warm or cold the air is.
• The unit of measurement is degree Celsius and is measured with maximum and minimum
thermometers.
• This thermometer has a U-shape and inside the tube are mercury and alcohol.
• The little metal pins or indexes also inside the tube indicate maximum and minimum
temperature
How the minimum and maximum thermometer / six’s thermometer work

• During day as temperature rises the alcohol in the left hand tube expands
• Alcohol pushes the mercury and the metal pin upward on the right hand tube.
• When the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and the mercury moves in the opposite
direction.
• The metal index stays in place where mercury had pushed it, to mark the maximum
temperature.
• The falling of mercury now pushes the other metal pin on the left hand tube upward to mark
the minimum temperature on the tube.
• The reading is then taken next to the bottom of the pin.
• You can reset the thermometer after the 24 hours by using a magnet to pull the metal indexes
down onto the mercury.
Rainfall
Rainfall is a form of precipitation
• Measured in millimetres using a rain gauge.
• Rain gauges are made out of copper or plastic because these
materials do not rust.
• Rain gauges can be either mounted on or against the pole or
they can be planted in the soil.
— When planted in the soil the gauge must be at least 30cm above
the ground -to prevent rain drops from splattering into the gauge.
— When rain gauge is mounted on a pole it must be more or less
one metre above the ground.

• All rain gauges must be set up away from buildings and trees
- because these can either prevent the rain from falling into the
gauge or add extra water into the gauge.
• This is to avoid inaccurate readings.

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 How to take reliable measurements from a Rain gauge

• For the rain gauge planted in the soil, you must remove the inner cylinder or container,
• Pour the water into a measuring cylinder/special jar
• Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface
• Take the readings while keeping the jar horizontally and level with your eyes.

If the rain gauge is mounted on the pole

• Readings are taken direct, because the measurements in millimetres (mm) are indicated on
plastic jar.

In case the readings are not indicated on a plastic jar.

• Pour the water into a measuring cylinder/special jar
• Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface
• Take the readings while keeping the jar horizontally and level with your eyes.

Humidity

• Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere

• It is expressed as percentage.
• The instruments used to measure humidity is called a wet and dry bulb thermometer or
hygrometer.
• Wet and dry bulb thermometer consists of two thermometers that look exactly the same.
• They are mounted parallel to each other.

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 • Underneath of wet bulb thermometer there is a small bottle filled with distilled water.
• The bulb of this thermometer is covered with a small muslin wick or cloth hanged in the bottle
of distilled water.
• As the water rises up the muslin wick, it evaporates causing the wet bulb thermometer to cool
down and to measure a low temperature.
• The dry bulb thermometer will indicate the real air temperature.
• The more water vapour in the air surrounding the wet bulb thermometer, the lower the
evaporation and the less cooling down that will take place.
• This will result in small difference in temperature between wet and dry bulb thermometers.
• Small temperature difference indicates a high humidity;
• A large temperature difference indicates a low humidity.
• When wet and dry bulb thermometers show the same reading, it means there is 100 percent
humidity
• When the air is saturated and the possibility of rain is very high.

Wind Direction

• Wind is a moving air and it is described by the compass direction where it is blowing from.
• Wind vane is normally made of metal
• It is placed on high buildings or top of a long pole.
• The wind vane must be in an area where there is a free flow of wind that is not blocked by
buildings or trees.

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 Wind Speed

• This is measured with an anemometer in units of knots km/h or m/s.

• One knot is equals 1,85km/h.
• A cup anemometer consists of round rotating cups facing in different directions.
• The wind blows into the cups and set them spinning.
• The speed at which cups are rotating is read from a dial.

Sunshine

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• Sunshine is measured with a sunshine recorder which records the hours of sunshine received during
the day.
• A sunshine recorder consists of a solid glass ball that acts as a lens.
• The lens concentrates the rays of the sun onto a piece of card which is marked off in hours.
• As the sun moves from sunrise to sunset, a line is burnt onto the card.
• At the end of the day the number of hours can be counted from the card.

Air Pressure

• Air pressure is the force with which the atmosphere (air) is pressing down on us.
• It is measured in units called milibar (mb) or Hectopascal (hpa), by means of a barometer or
barograph.
• The aneroid barometer is a commonly used barometer.
• On the faceplate of the instrument the units are indicated in millibars.
• Word like `RAIN` (low pressure side of scale), `
• CHANGE` and `FAIR` (high side of scale) appear on the faceplate.
• Inside the instrument you will find a metal container from which the air has been removed
(forming a vacuum) and a set of levers.

• These levers are connected to a pointer on the faceplate.

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 • When air pressure rises, the container contracts and the levers force the pointer to move
towards the `FAIR` side.

• If the pressure becomes lower, the container expands and the pointer moves toward the `RAIN`
side.
• The arrow indicates air pressure in milibars.

Demonstrate the ability to measure, record and analyse weather statistics.

Activities

Measuring Temperature

1. Study Fig. 1 below which shows a maximum and minimum thermometer and answer the
questions.

a. Identify the parts A and B in Fig. 1.[2]

b. State from the instrument the actual temperature. [1]

c. Use the readings on the instrument and calculate the daily range in temperature.

Show your calculations. [2]

d. What is the purpose of the magnet shown with the instrument?[1]

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 e. In which units are measurements in this instrument expressed? [1]

f. Briefly explain how this instrument works. [3]

Rainfall

(a) Study Figure 2 below which shows a weather instrument consisting of parts A and B.

a. Identify the instrument labelled A. [1]

b. Name the parts labelled X and Y. [2]

c. Give one reason why part A should be at least 30 cm above the ground.[1]

d. What is the purpose of part B of the instrument? [1]

e. Briefly describe where part A of this instrument should be placed to get reliable information.
[2]
f. In what unit of measurement is rainfall expressed? [1]

g. Explain how you will measure the correct amount of rainfall collected by this instrument.[2]

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Humidity

Study Fig. 3 below which shows a weather instrument and Table 1.

a. Identify the instrument labelled Figure. 1. [1]

b. Describe parts of the instrument in figure 1. [2]

c. Use Fig. 3 and Table 1 to determine the relative humidity. [1]

d. Which term can we use to describe the atmospheric condition when the readings of both
thermometers are the same? [1]
[5]

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Wind Speed and Direction

Study the diagram in Figure A and B below and answer the following questions.

a) What is the name of the weather instrument in figure A? [1]

b) What is the function of the anemometer in figure B?[1]

c) What is the purpose of the arrow on the instrument in Figure A.? [1]

d) Give a term to describe the condition when the wind blows from a specific direction most of
the time. [1]
e) Describe the accurate position at a weather station where figures A and B must be located.
[2] Study Fig. 4, which shows a weather instrument and answer the questions that follow.

a. Identify the instrument in Fig. 4. [1]

b. Write down X and Y and next to it indicate the name of the instrument part. [2]

c. Which weather element is measured with this instrument? [1]

d. State the unit of measurement in which readings taken with this instrument is expressed.

e. Describe how this instrument works. [3] /14/

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Sunshine Duration
Study the diagram below and answer questions that follow

a. Identify the weather instrument. [1]

b. Where this instrument should be placed to obtain accurate readings? [1]

c. Describe how this instrument works. [3] /5/

Measuring Air Pressure System

Study the instruments below and answer the questions.

a) What is the name of instrument A? [1]

b) State the weather element that is measured with this instrument. [1]

c) Where would you place this Instrument at a weather station [1]

d) Describe how this Instrument works. [2] /5/

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 Describe weather associated with high- and low-pressure system.

A high-pressure System:
• Characterises of descending / subsiding / sinking air moving in an anticlockwise spiralling direction.
• Subsiding air is dry, cannot hold water vapour,
• It is associated with clear skies and no rain.
A low-pressure System:

• Characterises less dense warm rising air, this air can hold a lot of water vapour.

• Rising air cools down and condense at dew point resulting in cloud formulation.

• It is associated with cloud cover and rainfall.

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Name and explain types of rainfall (convectional, cyclonic and relief rainfall).
Convection Rainfall

• This rainfall is called convection rain because it is caused by hot air that rises in convection
currents.

• During a hot summer day it gets very hot and the sun heats the group and the ground in turn heats
the layer of air directly above it.

• As the air warms up it gets lighter and starts to raise in strong upward convection currents.

• Huge clouds build up in the afternoon and rain occurs in heavy showers.

• This rainfall is often accompanied by lightning, thunder and hail.

• Convection rainfall can be associated with extremes;

– Very high temperature

– Very high large and dark clouds

– Very heavy rain with large raindrops

– Very loud thunder and lighting

– And sometimes big hailstones

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Cyclonic Rainfall

• This rainfall is called frontal because it is caused when warm and cold front meet.

• When a warm and cold masses of air move toward each other

• The warm (light) air will be forced to rise over the cold air.

• As the warm air rises, it cools down at dew point and form clouds along the front;

• This therefore result into Frontal or Cyclonic rain.

Orographic Rainfall

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 • This rainfall is called Orographic because it forms when moving air is forced to rise by mountains in its
path.

• (Oro means Mountain) When warm moist air is forced to rise the mountain.
• This air cools at dew point, condense and form mountain rain

Analyse synoptic charts and interpret weather satellite.

• Meteorologists take daily measurements at the same time every day all over the country

• The data and readings are sent to the central weather bureau.

• At the bureau the data will be converted into tables, maps and graphs.

• This information is used to make weather forecasts

Weather Station

Every synoptic weather map has a key that shows the symbol used on the map to indicate the
weather at each weather station.

• Each weather station is marked with a circle -

• The maximum temperature for the day is indicate to the left above the weather station

• The minimum temperature, also to the left below the circle

• The wind direction is shown by means of an arrow pointing in the direction from which the wind is
blowing.

• The short lines or feathers on the wind arrow indicate the wind speed

• Each long line represents 10 knots

• Each short line represent 5 knots

• The cloud cover is indicated inside the weather station circle

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This is an example Synoptic weather chart

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Describe the factors influencing temperature/climate, such as latitude, altitude, ocean
current, distance from the sea, prevailing wind, and pressure systems.

Latitude (distance from Equator)

• Temperature decreases with the increase in distance from Equator.

• Places closer to Equator are hotter than places closer to poles.

Altitude (relief, height above sea level)

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 • Temperature drops with increasing height.
• Temperature decrease by an average of 1°C for every 100m up into the atmosphere.
• Mountainous and other uplands are generally colder than low-lying places such as valleys.

Distance from the sea

• Places near the sea often have moderate climates.

• Summers are cooler, winters are warmer.
• Places further inland have extreme climates.
• Summers are hot, winters are very cold.

Ocean currents—a coastal area is warmer if a warm current flows along its coastline. — Places
with cold ocean currents flowing passing them are cold.

Prevailing winds
• Wind that blow over cold oceans cause low rainfall.
• Wind blowing from interior of continent will be dry.

Pressure system
High pressure systems have stable descending air
• Leading to fine weather
• Clear skies
• And warm temperatures

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Low pressure system has unstable rising air
• Leading to cloudy skies and rainfall

Practical activity – examined as Alternative to practical – Paper 3:

1. Consideration should be given to temperatures, humidity, precipitation, wind strength
including application of the Beaufort scale, wind direction, atmospheric pressure,
sunshine, cloud amount and cloud type.
2. Factors such as the locations for instruments and the methods used to take recordings
should be known.
3. Learners should be able to plan and design a recording sheet to show recordings over
a number of days and present weather data by means of climatic graphs, diagrams
iso-maps and wind roses

Weather Studies Sample 1 Questions

A group of Geography learners have decided to investigate whether the humidity of the air is influenced
by the temperature. For this purpose, they decided to record readings of wet and dry bulb temperatures
on one day of the week, repeated over four weeks. The readings would be taken hourly from 06:00 until
18:00.

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a. What is the meaning of the term relative humidity? [2]

b. Identify the weather instrument in Fig. 1 (Insert) which was used to determine relative humidity.
Write your answer in the space provided on the Insert. [1]

c. Write the names of labels A and B in the appropriate spaces in Fig. 1 on the Insert. [2]

d. Explain why the temperature recorded on part X of the instrument is lower than that on part
Y. [2]

e. Where is this instrument kept at a weather station? Give a reason for your answer. [2]

f. Table 1 shows the temperature readings gathered over the four weeks. Table 2 shows the
hygrometric data to be used to determine the relative humidity.
Explain why it was considered necessary to repeat the recordings over four weeks. [2]

a. The wet and dry bulb readings for week 4 have not been entered yet. Take the readings in
Fig. 1 and write it in the appropriate spaces in Table 1 (Insert). [2]

b. Calculate the average wet and dry bulb temperatures and write it in the appropriate spaces
in Table 1. [2]

c. Use the information in Table 1 and Table 2 to determine the relative humidity for 18:00.

d. Write it in the appropriate space in Table 1. [1]

e. Formulate an appropriate hypothesis for this investigation. [1]

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2. The learners decided to draw graphs of temperature and humidity in Fig. 2.

a. Use the data on the completed Table 1 to finish the graphs of temperature and
humidity in Fig. 2 for 17:00 and 18:00. [2]

b. Describe the changes in dry bulb temperature and humidity shown in Table 1. [3]

c. State whether or not your hypothesis is true.

d. Explain how you used the data in Table 1 and Fig. 2 to arrive at your answer. [3]

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a. It was thought that this investigation was too simple. Suggest practical methods by which
the learners might improve the investigation. You should include the use of other
instruments, data collection times and the use of secondary sources. [5]

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1.7. Climatic and Vegetation regions
Identify and locate on a world map the following vegetation regions:

Tropical rain or equatorial forest (evergreen), tropical grassland (savannah) and tropical deserts.

Tropical rainforest (evergreen)

• tropical rain or equatorial forest (evergreen) is mainly concentrated on the central part of
Africa;e.g. Congo Basin.
• Located in the South America; e.g. Amazon.
• Located in south east Asia.
• North east coast of Australia.
• it is mostly within the lower latitudes; between 5° north and south of the equator.

Tropical grasslands (savanna)

• tropical grassland (savannah) precedes the rainforest.
• covers the areas between 5° and 15° north and south of the equator.
• Central Africa around the Congo Basin.
• Central America, Mexico.

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 Tropical deserts.
• They are situated between 15° and 30° north and south of the equator.
• tropical deserts are located on the most northern of Africa; e.g. Sahara.
• Southern Africa; e.g. Namib, Kalahari.
• Eastern part of Somalia are covered by a desert.
• Western parts of South America; e.g. Atacama.

Example: Identify the climatic region labeled C.

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 Climatic regions of Africa.

Describe and explain the main characteristics of the climate in these vegetation regions
under the headings:
• temperature – mean temperature of the hottest month, mean temperature of the coldest month,
therefore the annual range; rainfall – the amount and seasonal distribution;
• other climatic features – wind, cloud, humidity, etc.

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 Tropical rainforest (evergreen)
• Has higher temperature throughout year, about 26°C-29°C — the sun spends much of its time
over the Equator.
• The annual temperature range is very small, about 1°C-3°C — the sun is overhead the Equator
therefore excessive heating.
• Mean/average monthly temperatures are higher —excess insolation.
• Annual rainfall is very high, above 2000mm —high temperatures lead to warm rising air which
carries water vapour and form clouds.
• Humidity is very high especially during hottest months —due to high evaporation and
transpiration (evapotranspiration).
• Winds are usually light —due to zero Coriolis effect.
• There are no distinct seasons—presence of low pressure system lead to rainfall throughout the
year (only wet season).

Describe and explain the main characteristics of the climate in a tropical savanna.
• Has two seasons (hot-wet and dry-cool) —due to the shifting sun’s angle of incidence.
• Rain fall in the wet season (October-March in the southern hemisphere)—low pressure system
over the tropic of Capricorn.
• Dry season (April-September in the southern hemisphere) — low pressure shifts over to tropic of
cancer with the ITCZ.
• Annual rainfall is about 500mm - 1500mm— the wet season lasts shorter than the dry season.
• High humidity in summer when rainfall is experienced —due to excessive heating and increased
evapotranspiration.
• High evapotranspiration losses —due to high temperatures all year round.
• Rainfall is convectional and follows the migration of the ITCZ.
• Temperatures are generally high with a mean (average) annual of about 28°C.

Describe and explain the main characteristics of the climate in a tropical desert.
• Hot throughout the year —mostly during the day due to absence of clouds and vegetation to
minimize the heating effect.
• Large diurnal ranges (0°C-40°C) — temperatures are higher during the day and lower during the
night.
• Wind is often fast (about 100km/h) —because there are few obstacles to slow it down.
• Large annual range in temperature (about 40°C) —temperatures peak during day and drastically
fall during night.
• High evapotranspiration rates —due to strong winds and high temperatures during the day.
• Limited cloud cover; mostly clear skies —because of the presence of high pressure systems over
oceans (coastal deserts) and rain shadow effect (inland deserts).
• Rainfall is less than 250mm a year — due to low water vapour in the atmosphere.

Analyse and interpret the climatic graphs showing the main characteristics of temperatures and
rainfall of each of the regions.

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 Tips on how to analyse and interpret climatic graphs:

• carefully study the key on the graph or figure to know what is drawn/pictured.
• temperature is usually presented with lines and bars for rainfall.
• look for maximum (highest) and minimum (lowest) values of both/all features.
• identify times (months) where high and low values were recorded.
• Include times (months) of the year when there was nothing recorded; e.g. rainfall.
• include statistics in your interpretations as evidence.
• do simple calculations such as differences (range), totals, etc.
• look for trends and patterns; i.e. when do values increase or drop.
Example:

(i) Describe the main features of the climate of a tropical rain forest as shown in Fig.1.
[4]
Possible answer:

• High temperatures throughout the year; above 20°C;

• Highest temperature is in April; about 29°C;
• December has the lowest temperature; about 21°C;
• Annual temperature range is about 8°C (29°C – 21°C);
• Annual rainfall is high; 2413mm;
• Rainfall is received throughout the year;
• Highest rainfall is received during December; about 270mm;
• March and May received the lowest rainfall; about 170mm;
• Average rainfall is above 150mm.
Analyse and interpret the climatic graphs showing the main characteristics of temperatures and
rainfall of tropical rainforest.

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Analyse and interpret the climatic graphs showing the main characteristics of
temperatures and rainfall of tropical savanna.

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Analyse and interpret the climatic graphs showing the main characteristics of
temperatures and rainfall of tropical desert.

Discuss and analyse the causes and consequences of rapid and progressive clearance of natural
vegetation over time such as desertification and deforestation.

NOTE: Discussion should be detailed explanation and expression of facts; with

examples where necessary.

Discuss and analyse the causes of rapid and progressive clearance of natural vegetation.

Natural vegetation is cleared rapidly to make space for crop and animal farming.
Trees are cleared for timber/to make wood products; e.g. northeastern parts of Namibia.
• People clear trees to make space for houses/building materials.
• Trees are cut down for fuel (firewood/fuelwood).
• People cut down trees to fence off their farmlands.
• Trees are removed for developments of roads, mines, towns.
• Trees are used in production of papers.
• Desertification is caused by practicing monoculture (growing of same type of crop on same piece
of land every year).
• Desertification is caused by overgrazing/overstocking whereby the grass does not recover.
• Removal of trees reduces nutrients cycle so the soil loses fertility.

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 • Absence of natural vegetation exposes soil to high rates of evaporation.
Discuss and analyse the consequences of rapid and progressive clearance of natural vegetation
over time such as desertification and deforestation.

• Increased removal of plants - loss of habitats for millions of species/destroys species

• Changes in the carbon and oxygen balance in the atmosphere.
• Leads to more extreme temperature swings that can be harmful to plants and animals.Trees
absorb greenhouse gasses that fuels global warming.
• Fewer forests means larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere and
increased speed and severity of
global warming.
• Deforestation drives climate change
• Forest soils are moist, but without protection from sun-blocking tree cover they quickly dry out.
• Trees also help with the water cycle by returning water vapour back into the atmosphere.
• Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands quickly become barren deserts.
• Without tree roots to anchor the soil and with increased exposure to the sun, the soil can dry out.
• This lead to problems like increased flooding and loss of soil already not fertile.
• Decrease in soil fertility as nutrient cycle is destroyed

Discuss and analyse forest management techniques such as agro-forestry, reforestation,

sustainable harvesting, etc.

Sustainable harvesting— the use of resources (trees, shrubs, etc.) in such a way that they are
preserved.
Reforestation—replanting of trees in an area that has been harvested or cleared.
Agroforestry— planting trees on agricultural land or cropping on forest land. Farmers continue to
farm while using trees for other purposes; e.g. timber, fuel.
Prescribed burning— removal of the dead leaves and branches from the forest floor.
Clear cutting—large stand of trees is cut down and the forest is allowed to grow back by itself
with additional seedlings.
Shelter wood cutting— removal of the top canopy sheltering smaller trees. This allows the small
trees to have access to the sun and grow tall.
Plantation forestry— the planting of trees in areas where there were no trees; e.g. desert.
Alley cropping— involves planting trees that contribute to nitrates in the soil.
Forest succession— natural replacement of plant and animal species in an area over time.
• Use trees as living fences around farms instead of dead logs.
• Leaving trees around the farm to form windbreakers.

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2.1. Industrial systems

Classify industries into primary, secondary, tertiary activities.

Primary industries— extract raw materials from the land or sea.

— They include fishing, aquaculture, farming, forestry, and mining.

Secondary industries— manufacture/assemble or process raw materials into finished goods.

—They can assemble components produced by other secondary
industries.
—They include food processing, car assembly, construction, hi-tech, etc.

Tertiary industries— provide services to the public, including other industries.

—They include transport, retail, medical/health, education, legal services, etc.

Describe the factors influencing the location of industries in general: raw materials,
labour, energy, capital, transport, markets, siting factors.

Land—actual site requirements depend on the type of industry; e.g. industries like car assembly
need flat land for parking.
—Usually on cheap land such as low-quality farmland, Greenfields, etc.
Capital— large amount of money is needed to purchase land, machinery and for operations.
Raw materials— industries that process bulk raw materials usually locate at the source;
e.g. iron and steel industries (heavy industry) locate close to an iron ore mine.
— Fish processing industries locate very close to a harbor town.
Transport links— being close to a transport network contributes to industrial efficiency and
easy access to markets.
Markets— the place where products and services are sold need to be large enough to demand
finished products.
Electric power— all factories need electricity to operate machines.
—Being close to a power source reduces cost.
Labour— some industries need highly trained workers and need to locate close to this
supply; e.g. hi-tech therefore locate near universities.
— Others make use of cheap and unskilled labour and will locate close to where labour
is available.
Government policies— may dictate where industries should locate e.g. in rural areas as
part of rural development.

B) PRIMARY ACTIVITIES.

Describe the physical factors influencing the availability of raw material such as ocean currents,
upwelling, marine food chain, length of the coast.

Ocean currents (Cold Benguela Current) — the colder the water the more the more oxygen.
• Cold water favours plankton growth which is eaten by the fish.
• Cold water favours fish breeding because fish is cold blooded.
• This increases the availability of fish.
Length of the coastline— longer coastline has more nutrients available and thus more fish.
—Namibia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) coastline is about 1500km long and 250km wide, hence
the rich supply of fish.

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Marine food chain— a healthy food chain determines a continual availability of fish.

Upwelling— cold, nutrient-rich water is forced to rise from the bottom to the surface due to
prevailing winds.
—It brings nutrients like nitrates, phosphates and silicates.
— It trigger growth of phytoplankton.
—Phytoplankton serves as food for the fish that attracts more shoal of fish.

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Describe the exploitation of the fish resource with reference to demersal and pelagic fish
and fishing methods.

Demersal fishing/Trawling.
• Fish caught from the bottom of the ocean.
• Uses funnel-shaped trawler nets.
• A large net is weighted down to keep it on the floor.
• The net is then dragged along the seabed.
► Type of fish caught: Monk fish, Sole, Kingklip and Hake.

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Purse-seine/pelagic fishing.

• Fish caught near the surface of ocean/sea water.

• Uses large purse-seine nets.
• The fish is surrounded (encircled) by a long line of netting.
• The bottom of the net is then pulled together and hauled out.
► Types of fish caught: Anchovy, Horse Markerel and Pilchards/Sardines.

Discuss factors threatening the availability of fish resources such as physical factors (red tides,
fluctuating water temperatures), human factors (pollution, over fishing) and management
strategies to ensure sustainable use (conservation law/legislation, quotas, net type and size).

Discuss factors threatening the availability of fish resources such as physical factors
(red tides, fluctuating water temperatures), human factors (pollution, over fishing).

Physical factors

Fluctuating water temperatures— there is less oxygen when the sea temperature rises.
This makes fish to move further into deep waters, far from
the coastline.

Red tide— certain species of plankton increase in number due to high nutrients or increase in
sea temperature.
They use up most of the oxygen and release toxins into the water that kill marine life
(associated with global warming).

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Human factors.

Pollution— raw sewage from some industries and boats introduce toxins into the sea affecting
the food chain.
—Untreated sewage also leads to eutrophication and the red tide that kill fish.
Overfishing— form of exploitation where fish stocks are reduced to below acceptable levels.
—fish is caught at a faster rate than it can recover/reproduce.
—This reduces the amount of fish in the ocean.

Discuss management strategies to ensure sustainable use (conservation law/legislation,

quotas, net type and size).

Legislation—Marine Resources Act 2000 provide for the conservation of marine ecosystem and
responsible utilization.
Fishing quotas—fishing companies are only allowed to catch a certain type of fish and specific weight
(total allowance catch, TAC) at a specific given time.
Net type and size—fishing nets should catch targeted fish type and allow the rest to sail back into water.
Fishing permits—all fishing companies are granted fishing license for a specified period of time.
• Declaration of EEZ to facilitate the regulation of fishing on Namibia’s territorial waters.
• Onshore and offshore monitoring and inspection of fish caught to ensure compliance with fishing
laws.
• Stiff fines for offenders; e.g. illegal fishing, non-compliance with fisheries laws and regulations,
etc.

B) SECONDARY ACTIVITIES.

Describe the factors influencing the location of fish processing plants such as raw materials,
power, labour, capital, transport, markets and siting factors.

Raw materials— Factories are near the sea and this speeds up fish harvesting and processing.
Power— there is a NamPower power grid at both towns (Walvis Bay and Lüderitz).
Capital—Namibia has managed to generate capital
from foreign investments like Spain and from fishing licenses.
Transport— there are refrigerated trucks so that products stay frozen until they reach the
markets— Air, railway, sea and road transport (Trans-Kalahari and Trans-Zambezi High
Ways) link fish industries to regional and over-sea markets.
Markets— include the EU, the Far East and landlocked SADC countries.
Labour— large numbers of both skilled and unskilled laborers available in the two towns.
Water— clean water is limited at the coast. Walvis Bay gets its water from the Kuiseb River
boreholes and the Omaruru aquifer. In the near future, desalination plants will be set
up in order to meet the demand of water along harbour.
—Factories are as close to the harbour as possible to reduce transport, raw material and energy costs.

Describe the inputs, processes and outputs of a fish processing plant in Namibia.

Industries function as a system made up of inputs, processes and outputs.

Inputs— raw materials that go into making a product; e.g. fish, boats, fishing nets, etc.
Processes— the jobs or activities that take place in a factory; e.g. scaling, sorting, selling.
Outputs— are often the finished goods, which are sold to make a profit for the company;
e.g. frozen fish, canned fish, profit, etc.

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Show an understanding of the agglomeration economic effect of the fishing industry.

Agglomeration effect— when similar industries are located close to one another.
• Namibia's fish-processing industry is based in Walvis Bay and Lüderitz.
• support industries, such as refrigeration servicing and cold transport set up businesses close by
to provide specific services.
• new processing factories will be situated here because there is back up and support for their
machinery and transportation of products.

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C) TERTIARY ACTIVITIES.
Discuss the services necessary for the effective functioning of the fishing industry with
reference to local and foreign markets, supply and maintenance services, transportation
and finance.

Local and foreign markets

• Less fish is consumed locally.
• About 85% of Namibia’s fish products are exported.
• The major fish export markets are the EU (mainly Spain), (SACU) (mainly South Africa for canned
pilchards).
• USA for orange roughy and Japan for alfonsino and lobster.
• Zimbabwe, DRC and other markets in Southern and Western Africa are very important markets,
especially for horse mackerel.
• Fish is also exported to Canada, Singapore, Malaysia and Poland.

Supply and maintenance services.

• Fish factories need plastic or boxes for packaging.
• Cleaning materials to keep it clean and hygienic.
• The maintenance of machines, buildings, electricity grids is needed for the smooth running of the
business and for the safety of the workers.
Transport
• Fish products are transported by road which links Namibia to all neighbouring countries.
• Rail transport is mostly used for the shipment of equipment and other capital goods.
• Various shipping lines provide regular cargo line services from W/Bay to Durban and Cape Town.
• Namibia's main international airport has direct air links to South Africa and other destinations,
including Western Europe.

Finance
• Access to finance and credit remains a problem for the smaller firms.
• Many fishing companies have access to finance facilities through local banks.
• Namibia need to develop financial investment schemes to assist exporting companies.

Describe the role of the fishing industry as part of policies for sustainable development.

• Setting fishing quotas (TAC) so the fish population does not deplete.
• Making conservation laws.
• Sea patrols/sea inspectors to control illegal fishing.
• Territorial control both national and international (EEZ).
• Regulating the minimum size of fish to be caught.
• Controlling of mesh size and type.
• Establishment of fishing seasons.

Challenges in implementing sustainable ways of fishing.

• Economic reasons: the need to make a living and earn an income.
• Capital is tied in the boats/equipment.
• Cheating on net size/quotas/fish permits.
• Control not strictly enforced.
• Corruption.

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Problems related to fishing industry.
• Seasonal jobs.
• Fish stock reduced by overfishing.
• Unlicensed foreign boats.
• Eruption of poisonous gas.
• Changes in sea temperature.
• Small local markets.
• Changes in exchange rates.
• Profit moved to foreign countries.

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2.2 Agriculture
Agriculture - is the art and science of cultivating plants and raising of livestock.

Describe agriculture as a primary activity

A primary activity involves the activities of extracting goods from nature, such as agriculture, fishing,
mining and forestry.

For example, seeds are planted in the soil and then later crops are harvested from the soil.

Describe farming as a system with reference to inputs, processes and outputs

A system is a set of interrelated and interdepended parts that works together to perform a specific
function.

Farming is referred to as a system, because it has physical, human and economic inputs, processes and
outputs.

Physical Inputs
Climate Outputs
Processes
Relief Cereal crops
Ploughing
Soils Vegetables
Sowing crops
Flowers
Weeding
Human Inputs Fruit
Crop spraying
Labour Calves
Grazing
Farm size Lambs
Lambing
Technology Wool
Sheering
Markets
Milk
Milking
Transport
Lamb
Fencing area
Animal feed
Beef
Fetilisers
Seeds
Subsidies

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Physical inputs

• Temperature (length of growing season)

• Precipitation (variability and reliability)

• Wind (evapotranspiration, moisture)

• Relief (steep slope, runoff, teraccces)

• Soil and drainage (quality)

• Global warming (drought)

• Growing season

Human Inputs

• Land tenure (private, commercial, communal, subsistence)

• Inheritance law (subdivision of land)

• Farm size

• Labour (skilled and unskilled)

• Training/education

Economic Input

• Transport (cost per distance, perishables goods)

• Communications (tel. email links to markets and service providers)

• Fuel (increase with distance), energy

• Markets, farm buildings, pesticides

• Capital (expenses for machines, seeds, fertiliser, land infrastructure)

• Technology

Government Involvement

• Marketing boards

• Subsidies

• Loans

• Trade agreements

• Central planning

• Training

• Agricultural services

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Processes, Outputs and Feedbacks

Processes: Ploughing, spraying, weeding, harvesting, sowing, milking, feeding, irrigation, Slaughtering,
gelding or Castrating, shearing, Marketing.

Outputs: crops, milk, wool, hides, lambs/calves, meat, agricultural waste, pollution etc.

Feedbacks: Profits, new information on farming e.g new seeds or technology.

Forms of Farming

• Pastoral or stock farming: farming with animals

• Arable farming: growing of crops

• Mixed farming: combination of pastoral and arable

• Shifting agriculture: when farmers move from one place to another.

• Nomadic: shifting following rain pattern

• Sedentary farming: is when farmers stay in one place to grow their crops.

Define subsistence and commercial farming systems

Subsistence farming

This is a type of farming where farmers grow crops and livestock for family consumption.

In subsistence farming the farm output is targeted for survival and is mostly for local requirements with
little or no surplus.

Commercial farming

The production of crops and farm animals for sale to make profit.

Usually with the use of modern technology.

Difference between subsistence and commercial farming

Commercial Subsistence

Higher amount and level of technology Smaller amount and level of technology

Higher level of education among farmers Lower level of education among farmers

Lower influence of traditional methods Higher influence of traditional methods

Lower % of labour force Higher % of labour force

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 Larger average farm size Smaller average farm size

Higher output per hectare Lower output per hectare

Higher access to market, efficient transport. Lower access to market

Lower variety of crops Higher variety of crops

Farms can also be grouped according to the way how farmers use their land, as intensive or
extensive

Intensive

• This involve spending a lot of time and money on the farm land to produce high yields.

• The farm is small in relation to the number of people employed or capital involved.

• An example market gardening

Extensive

• This is where farmers use large area of land to rear animals and produce crops.

• Less machinery and labour is needed than in intensive farms.

• An example is ranching.

Locate on a map of Namibia where dominant areas of small-scale subsistence, small-

scale cash-crop farming and large-scale commercial farming are practiced

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Explain the development of these farming systems in Namibia
Small-scale subsistence farming

• A subsistence farmer’s main concern is survival.

• They grow crops and rear livestock’s for family use.

• The farmers use traditional tools to farm with e.g oxens, donkeys, hoes used to plough and weed
area.

• It is labour intensive, work is done by family members.

• The land used is smaller and little capital is used.

• Most common grown crops are: Mahangu, beans, maize, water melons and ground nuts.

• Due to the poor sandy soils of the north and the unreliable rainfall that is received in the summer
season, Mahangu is the most grown crop by the farmers because it has adapted well to the
northern climate.

• The lack of capital, land and technology with the combination of natural disasters such as
droughts makes it difficult for food production in subsistence farming.

Subsistence farming in the northern Namibia

• In Namibia, subsistence farming is mostly practiced in the so called communal areas in the north
of Namibia.

• This includes the regions of Kunene, Kavango West and East and Zambezi, as well as regions in
the central north such as Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto and Ohangwena.

• In these communal areas the subsistence farmers are mostly livestock farmers.

• In line with their traditions, the men and boys take care of the cattle.

• The women and girls tend to do arable agriculture (growing crops).

• Large herd owners have cattle posts away from the village and cropland where animals are kept.

• In the communal areas the veterinary services are not adequate.

• Therefore, the animal health services in the north of Namibia are of poor quality.

Main problems experienced by subsistence farmers in the northern Namibia

• Uncontrolled fencing

• Limited land available for communal grazing

• Degradation of land resulting from overstocking

• Regular drought and lack of management that leads to stock losses.

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Small-scale cash crop farming

Cash crop: Is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit

Small-scale cash crop farming

Capital Land Labor

• In the small scale mixed cash cropping system, the type of farming is mostly intensive.

• Using large amounts of labour or capital in relation to the area of land utilized to produce a large
output per hectare.

• Outputs are all cash crops entirely sold for profit

Small Scale Mixed Cash Cropping

High Inputs, especially of

labour, much use of Small High output of crops
manures/artificial area of and/or animal products
fertilisers. Irrigation used land per hectare
where necessary

• Examples of cash crops includes pearl millet (Mahangu), maize, beans and rice.

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 • The Maize Triangle /Golden triangle which includes three towns is an example of cash crop
farming in Namibia.

• Cash crops need a lot of water, most of them are located near water sources for example along
the Zambezi river where there is Kalimbeza rice project.

• The basic operations involved in cash crop farming includes: Land preparation, fertilization,
planting, weeding and harvesting.

• Many workers are needed to do the planting, cultivation and harvesting

• Many cash crop farmers in Namibia struggle with the declining rainfall, sandy soils and high
temperatures.

Large- Scale commercial farming

Commercial farming- This is farming with the aim of making profit.

• This farming is capital intensive

• It is export oriented.

• Most commercial farming practice livestock farming such as farming with cattle, sheep or goats.

• Beef production is practiced in the east central Namibia. Some common breeds includes: Brahman
and Afrikaner.

• In the South-central and western they farm with Karakul sheep which are raised for their pelts.

• Sheep are reared in the south because they adapt easily to dry conditions.

• This pelts and beef are exported to the European markets and it boosts the Namibian economy.

Challenges faced by commercial farmers

• Stock theft,

• Unreliable rainfall,

• Outbreak of diseases

• Lack of capital.

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Distinguish between the three main agricultural systems named above with reference to scale of
production, methods of organisation and products of each system

Farming System Scale of Production Methods of Products

organizations

Small-scale Small scale Traditional methods, Crops, vegetables,

subsistence farming doing work by hand goats, cattle, chickens,
(sowing, weeding, etc

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 cultivation), herding,
slaughtering.

Small-scale cash crop Small scale Make use of smaller One type of crop:
farming machines and animals Mahangu, maize , rice,
for preparing the land, etc.
planting, cultivating,
etc.

Large-scale Large scale More mechanized, Beef/Karakul pelts,

commercial farming using bigger machines wool or sheep meat.
to do the work-
Insemination,
branding, dipping of
animals, dehorning,
etc.

Analyse the strategies to improve the output in large-scale commercial farming such as
GM crops, HYVs, irrigation, fertilisers, pesticides etc.
• Work force- In order to increase agricultural outputs you need to increase the amount of work on the
farm. Either by increasing the machinery or employing more people.

• Technology- It can increase the output on a farm with less effort and minimum inputs. It speeds up
the process of crops and livestock productions.

• Transport- Transport makes it possible for good to be transported to and from the markets with little
damage to the products.

• Irrigation systems- Better irrigation systems makes it possible to farm crops on a large scale.

• Market- Expansion of market to make more profit.

• GM (genetically modified) crops- Genetic engineering provides a quicker and more precise way of
increasing outputs. GM crops offer improved yields, enhanced nutritional value, resistance to
drought etc.

• HYS (higher yielding seeds) – This are seeds of better than normal quality and result in healthier and
a higher surplus of crops. These seeds have a good immune system.

• Fertiliser- The application of organic and inorganic fertilisers increases yields and quality
productions.

• Pesticides- They serve as plant protection products, they protect plants from weeds, fungi and
insects. They increase food production and prevent diseases.

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Discuss the physical (relief, climate, soil) and human (economic, social and political)
inputs involved in the processes on a farm to produce outputs of animals and crops

Physical Inputs

• Soil- Deep fertile soil is preferable, especially for crop cultivation

• Relief- Flat or gently sloping land is preferable for most types of farming

• Climate- Sufficient rainfall and good temperatures favorable for plant and animal production.

• Pest and diseases- Controlling pest and diseases in the farming processes to increase
productions

Human Inputs(Economic, Social and Political)

• Transport: what type of transport is available and the time taken as well as cost of moving raw
materials to the farm and farm produce to the market.

• Capital: availability of finance to sponsor farming.

• Technology: technological developments such as new strains of seeds, cross-breeding of animals,

improved machineries, may provide optimal conditions for farming.

• The state: government involvement by providing subsidy also influence farming.

• Labour: It is plentiful in LEDCs and in MEDCs labour is expensive and farmers use more machineries
to keep the costs down.

Discuss economic, climatic and political factors and their effects upon shortages of food,
e.g. capital investment, incentives, transport difficulties, war, etc.
Economic Factors

• Capital investments- Without capital investments most LEDCs would not be able to provide food for
the people of the country.

• Incentives- Lack of government assistance, leads to farmers not able to produce sufficient food

• Transport difficulties- Poor roads and transport facilities makes it difficult for food transportation.

• War- During war farmers are unable to attend to their fields as such there is a low production rate.
Agricultural fields are destroyed.

Climatic Factors

• Global warming can cause floods and droughts

• During drought and flood there is low production of livestock and crops.

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Political Factors

• Political unrest and war-agricultural activities are neglected.

• War can destroy farmland.

Discuss shortages of food as related to natural problems such as soil fertility, droughts,
floods, pests and diseases
Floods

• Floods damages crop, reducing farmers’ profits and results in higher crop prices.

• Livestock can be lost during floods.

• It can increase soil erosion.

Drought

• It kills crops and animals.

• Food prices may rise due to this, making it difficult for the country to provide for its people.

Soil fertility

• Poor soils results in poor harvests especially in the Sahel countries

Pest and diseases

• Pests and diseases affects food crops and livestock causing less production.

• This in turn threatens food security in the country.

Discuss the problems which are related to food aid in areas of food shortages
• May lead to dependence rather than self-reliance

• Food sold may ruin/destroy local agriculture

• Donor agencies may use aid as a political weapon for favors.

• Some political leaders use aid as political tool to ensure obedience

• Aid may be supplied with strings attached

• Often aid does not reach the needy

• Does not solve the underlying economic problems

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Discuss the negative impacts of agriculture on the environment
• Over use/over cultivation of agricultural soil leads to soil erosion.

• Keeping too many animals on a small piece of land can lead to bush encroachment/desertification.

• Irrigation can lead to salination of the soil

• Fertilisers/pesticides can pollute water sources

• Fertilisers may result in eutrophication due to lack of oxygen in the water

• Deforestation leads to soil erosion

• Pesticides may kill useful insects such as bees.

Analyse and discuss the strategies for sustainable agriculture

Breeding plants

• Encourage the use of high yield variety plants (HYVs).

• They are drought and disease resistant for higher yields.

Mixed cropping

• Planting variety of crops on one piece of land to protect soil from erosion and evaporation.

Using organic fertiliser

• Natural fertiliser enables soil to retain water.

• Allows better drainage and aeration (air circulation) in wet period.

• It help to bind loose soil reducing erosion vulnerability.

Map Work

The following primary activities need to be identified on the map using map evidence

Arable farming – Cultivation/Cultivated land, orchard, plantation, furrows, dams, perennial water/rivers

Pastoral /Livestock farming– Dip tank, [Kraal, wind pump/windmill]

Irrigation farming- Pipelines, furrows, reservoirs, canals, tunnels, dams/ Perennial water/rivers/streams.

Mining- quarry, excavation, mine dump, mine name, mine shaft, diggings

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Agriculture-activities

1. Study the diagram below and answer the question that follow

i) Is this type of farming Subsistence or commercial? [1]

ii) Describe the problems experienced by subsistence farmers in Namibia [4]

b) (i) Explain why some areas experience a shortage of food [4]

(ii) Describe the problems related to food aid programmes [4]

(iii) Describe how

A) Soil

B) Precipitation influence the production of cash crops. [5]

(iv) How can organic fertilisers and plant breeding improve and increase food production? [6]

(vi) Discuss the negative impact of agriculture on the environment [5]

(vii)For a named area you have studied on large-scale farming, describe the inputs, processes and
outputs. [7]

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2.3 Leisure and Tourism

Define the terms leisure and tourism

Leisure- is resting and relaxing instead of working

Tourism -is traveling to other places for leisure and relaxation.

Describe tourism as a tertiary activity

• The people that travels within their own country are referred to as domestic tourists while those that
travel outside their own country are referred to as international tourists.

• Tourism is a tertiary activity because it provides services to the people.

• The services that the sector provides includes; game drives, trophy hunting etc.

• People who works in the sector are includes; tour guides, chefs, waiters etc.

Describe the types of leisure and tourist activities in Namibia

Land: Abseiling, adventure racing, bird watching, camel trails, caving, 4X4 trail, hiking, back-packing,
guided wilderness trails, hunting, rock climbing, quad biking, sand boarding and star gazing.

Water: rock and surf- Angling, shark-angling, fresh water angling, canoeing and rafting, diving and
snorkelling.

Air: hot air ballooning, micro lighting, paragliding, skydiving

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Describe the difference between local/domestic tourism and international tourism
Local or domestic tourism: travelling to visit areas within your own country.

International tourism: travelling to visit areas outside your own country. Travelling from one country to
another.

Discuss the advantages of the tourist industry

• Increase in foreign exchange into the country

• Employment opportunities e.g employment in the construction industry, in the transport services,
catering etc.

• Boost market for local craft industries- the tourist spend money in buying the craft works as a results
it boosts the industry

• Environment is protected- due to tourism the development of nature conservation of wildlife/Fauna

and Flora

• Infrastructure improved e.g. Roads for transportation

• Different cultures meet / improve cultural understanding e.g the San and Ovahimba culture.

• Government earn taxes/ diversifies economy

• Development of hotels/amenities

Discuss the negative impacts of tourism

• Seasonal unemployment- In some season there are less tourist resulting in a loss of income.

• Under-use of facilities at certain seasons of the year- the buildings are not used in some seasons
where tourist don’t visit the places.

• Increased congestion especially in urban areas- in urban areas with narrow road it results in
increased traffic.

• Pollution- various types of pollution such as air, water and land is caused by the tourism industry

• Socio-cultural problems/local cultures offended by tourists

• Fluctuation of exchange rates

• Local often excluded from tourist areas

Analyse the problems facing the development of tourism in Namibia and other LEDCs
• Insufficient infrastructure (good roads, railways airports etc).

• Inadequate utilities (electricity, water, communications) and other services.( health care and security)

• Tourism requires high investment, maintaining costs for transport system are high.

• Poor representation of the country as a tourist attraction

• Inadequate tourism information services

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• Lack of publicity about attractions

• Long distance from richer countries

• Political unrest generalized to all countries- fear of terrorism/war

• Inadequate accommodation offered to tourists

• Many tourist may prefer luxury than bush camps/ competition from other areas

Possible solutions

• Advertise and make use of different types of media e.g Facebook, twitter, Instagram etc.

• Make use of investors for financial assistance

• Develop goals for tourism development

• Tourist entities should work closely with other local and regional planning efforts.

• Invest in the infrastructure like roads to make them better for the tourists

Eco-tourism
It is when the development of tourism take place but at the same time the environment is protected. It is
referred to as sustainable tourism.

Eco-tourism includes the following:

• Involves appreciation of nature and indigenous cultures

• Tourist package should include education and interpretation

• Organized for small group of people, specialized and locally owned business

• Minimizing negative impacts on the natural and socio-cultural environment – wildlife disturbance,
noise

• Support the protection of natural scenery for the benefit of managers – limited number of tourist

• Provides local employment for locals

• Increasing local and visitor awareness of conservation

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Paper 3: Alternative to course work/ Research

The steps of conducting a research

• Identify a research topic/problem/statement

• Formulate a research question or a hypothesis and the aim of the research

• Choose methods of collecting data

• Choose a sampling method

• Carry out a pilot study

• Collect and record data

• Presentation (analyzing of data and testing of the hypothesis)

Footpath Erosion

Footpath erosion is caused by the extensive trampling of vegetation and soil.

Equipment:

• Measuring tape

• Metre ruler

• Quadrat

• Recording sheet

• Ranging poles.

How to carry the practical activity

1. Choose a stretch of footpath and groups of learners should be spaced out at equal intervals along the
footpath. Consider the distance from the tourist attraction area.

2. Using the tape measure and the ranging poles, measure the width of the footpath and mark out 2
metres on either side of the footpath to form a transect across the footpath

3. To measure the variations in relief in relief on the footpath, use a tape and a metre ruler, and
measure the depth to which the footpath has been eroded at regular 10 cm intervals.

4. To measure percentage vegetation cover, place the quadrat at five points on the transect – in the
middle of the footpath, at the footpath edges and at both ends of the transect.

5. Use the quadrat to count the number of squares that are covered by bare ground, and record each
type of vegetation. Vegetation type can be identified by using a plant guide.

6. Vegetation height can be measured by a metric ruler, or estimate the height of trees

7. At each point, measure the vegetation height, vegetation cover, percentage or bare ground and litter
distribution.

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Recording the data

Information:

Name of recorder:_____________________________________________________

Date:________________________________________________________________

Location:_____________________________________________________________

Weather______________________________________________________________

Recording data

Use the following data recording box at each transect:

Category A Vegetation cover %

Category B Vegetation height (X)

1.< 2 cm

2. 2-5 cm

3. 5-24 cm

4. 25-100 cm

5. 1 metre

Category C Percentage bare ground

Category D Depth of erosion

Presentation of data

• Various graphs can be drawn to show your findings using percentage

• Pie charts, line graphs and bar graphs can be used to show plant species, height, density and
diversity with distance from footpath.

• Flow diagrams can be used to show pedestrian flow.

• A cross- section can be drawn to shown small- scale variations in relief

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Environmental quality survey

The aim of the survey is to assess the impact of tourism or leisure facilities on the environment

Equipment’s needed:

• A map of the whole area studied (the area can be divided into 2 or 3 locations, selected randomly).

• An information sheet with guidelines for assessing the quality of the environment

• A score sheet for each location

• Camera

What to do:

• Divide into groups and choose locations, e.g A, B, C and D, within the chosen area.

• Use the information sheet with guidelines to score the environmental quality of an area

• Scoring should be done on a sheet using a bi-polar scoring system.

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Bi- Polar Scoring sheet

Section A

Name of recorder:_______________________________________________________

Date:__________________________________________________________________

Time of the day:________________________________________________________

Location:______________________________________________________________

Weather:______________________________________________________________

Section B

Instructions

- Put a cross in the appropriate box

BI-POLAR SCORING SYSTEM

Negative variable -2 -1 0 1 2 Positive variables

Very Poor Mild Good Very

poor good

Dirty from littering Clear from litter

Noisy Quiet

Unmaintained roads Well-maintained roads and

and pavements pavements

Crowded Few people

Unattractive Attractive

Presentation

• Present the data on graphs

• Use line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs

Economic impact of tourism on a town

When setting questions, you need to consider the different types of questions: Close ended questions
and open-ended questions.

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The aim is to collect information about the economic advantages of tourism in a town.

Open ended question- This are unstructured questions in which a responded is allowed to express their
opinions.

Close ended questions- Responded are provided with choses of which they must choose from.

Example of a Questionnaire

Section A: (Details of questionnaire)

Name of recorder:__________________________________________________________

Date____________________________________________________________________

Place:___________________________________________________________________

Section B: (Instructions to learners)

- Be polite

- Wear school uniform

- _________________________________________________________________

Section C (Questions)

1. Did tourism increase job opportunities in your town? Yes No

2. Did tourism contribute to the development of infrastructure of your town?

Yes No

3. Is there any other economic benefit that tourism contributed to this town?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Presentation:

• Present the results of the survey accurately

• Use graphs to present your data

• Present the conclusion and recommendations

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Leisure and Tourism Activities

1. The diagram below shows influences on the growth of tourism

Worldwide Accessibility
growth in
tourism The growth
of tourism in
an area
Government Attractions
help

(i) Differentiate between the terms leisure and tourism. [2]

(ii) How can the government help with the growth of the tourism industry? [3]

(iii) List two examples of the following tourist attractions in Namibia:

A Physical/Geological attractions,

B Cultural/Historical attractions. [4]

(iv) Suggest a relationship between accessibility and growth of tourism in Namibia. [2]

(v) What are the negative effects of tourism on local communities? [4]

b) i) Describe and explain the benefits of tourism in LEDCs (Less Economically Developed
Countries). [6]

ii) Describe possible challenges resulting from the development of tourism in LEDCs like Namibia.
[6]

iii) Name an area in Namibia you have studied where the tourist industry is important. Describe what
has been done in the area to maintain, improve and conserve the quality of the environment.
[7]

2. Learners investigated some urban problems locally in their town. They selected four sites(A, B, C and
D) located along the main road leading into the town centre. The four sites were spaced at equal
distances of ½ km from each other. The hypothesis to be tested was:

The quality of the environment changes with the distance from the town centre.

The learners measured environmental quality by using the indicators

Cleanliness,

Condition of buildings,

Noise,

Litter and

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Congestion,

For congestion, both the number of vehicles and number of people were considered. They
designed a scoring system to measure environmental quality and used a score of 1 to 5 as shown
in Table 1 (Insert). The survey was conducted at 12:00 on a week day and repeated on the same
day over the next three weeks. The results are presented in Table 4 and in Fig. 1 (Insert).

a) (i) Calculate the average scores for C and D and write the answers in the appropriate spaces in Table
2. [2]

(ii) Make use of the results and key in Table 2 to complete the pictogram on Fig.1 for site D. [3]

iii) Draw short horizontal lines in Fig. 1 to show the average scores for each of the sites A, B, C and
D. [2]

(iv) Describe the changes in environmental quality as the distance from the town centre increases.
[5]

(v) Suggest one possible cause for the high noise level recorded at site D. [1]

(vi) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using only average scores in the analysis of the data.
[2]

(vii) Suggest two other indicators of environmental quality which could be included in the scoring system
(Table 1). [2]

(b) The learners decided that traffic contributed to the environmental quality of an area. Traffic
was counted three times during one week day at the four chosen sites. The results of the
traffic surveys are shown in Table 3 (Insert).

(i) Calculate the total traffic recorded at sites C and D and write your answers in the appropriate
spaces in Table 3 (Insert). [2]

(ii) Draw bar graphs on your answer paper to show the total traffic recorded at the different sites.
Show clearly the labels and layout of the graphs. [6]

(iii) Explain briefly how the volume of traffic can contribute to environmental quality. [2]

(c) Suggest reasons why the quality of the environment may change with the distance from a town
centre. [3]

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Inserts

Fig. 1

Distance from town centre

Key

x Cleanliness

Condition of the buildings

+ Noise

Litter

Congestion

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 Scoring system for environmental quality

Table 1

(circle one score)

clean 1 2 3 4 5 dirty

good condition of buildings 1 2 3 4 5 poor condition of buildings

quiet 1 2 3 4 5 noisy

no litter 1 2 3 4 5 lots of litter

no congestion 1 2 3 4 5 congestion

Results of scoring system Table 2

sites A B C D

cleanliness 4 3 3 1

condition of buildings 4 5 2 2

noise 4 3 4 4

litter 5 4 4 1

congestion 5 3 4 2

total 22 18 17 10

average 4,4 3,6

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Results of traffic surveys Table 3

(number of vehicles counted)

A B C D
survey
½ km 1 km 1½ km 2 km

08:30 - 09:00 110 74 73 45

12:00 - 12:30 83 26 46 32

16:30 - 17:00 97 43 60 45

Total 290 143

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2.4. ENERGY SOURCES
Distinguish between renewable sources and non-renewable/fossil sources of energy.

• Renewable energy sources these are energy sources that can be renewed, regenerated or
replaced continuously over relatively short period of time.
• Non-renewable energy sources these are energy sources that got used-up, exhaustible or
finished once used.
• Fossil fuels are natural gas that are formed over millions of years from remains of living
organisms e.g. crude oil, coal and gas.
Give examples of the following source of energy:

Renewable sources Non-renewable sources

1. Hydro-electric power Coal and Wood power
2. Wind power Nuclear power
3. Solar power Crude oil power
4. Tidal power Natural gas
5. Geothermal power Oil power

Class activity.

1. Define the terms fossil fuels and renewable energy.

2. Study the diagram below and state the type of energy each figure produces.

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Describe the significance of non-renewable energy in terms of its availability and the
contribution made by coal, oil, natural gas and wood.
• Large reserve of coal is readily available.
• Oil is relatively affordable and cheaper.
• It is relatively efficient and most economics are geared to use oil.
• It is easy to transport in large quantity.
• Oil can be used as fuel as well as raw material.

Describe the growing significance of renewable energy supplies to reduce dependence

on fossil fuels, geothermal, waves, tides, running water, solar and biogas.
• They are renewable/will not be depleted or exhausted.
• Renewable energy is cleaner/less polluting than fossil fuels.
• Variety to select from.
• Many investors prefer renewable energy.
Describe the factors influencing the siting/location of the H.E.P.
• Constant water supply/reliable rainfall.
• A large difference in elevation to produce the necessary gravitational force to turn the turbines.
• Stable impermeable bedrock.
• A large catchment area/a large drainage basin.
• High seismic stability for earthquake resistance/stable crust.
• Narrow and deep-sided valley.
Describe the processes of generating hydro-electric power (H.E.P)
• Water stored in the dam is allowed to flow through a penstock.
• Water turns the turbines which turns the generator.
• The generator produces alternate current (AC).
• The transformer changes the AC into direct current (DC).
• Electricity cables carry power to consumers.

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 Suggest human and environmental effects of hydro-electric power plantation.
▪ Causes deforestation and wildlife extinction.
▪ People lose their agricultural land
▪ Possible displacement of people or relocation.
▪ Dam burst/break may cause devastating flood.
▪ Loss of cultural heritage.
▪ Large capital expenditure.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of generating power from HEP, coal, nuclear
power and solar energy.

Advantages of Hydro-electric source Disadvantages of Hydroelectric energy source

• It is a renewable source of electricity. • Risk of flooding if dam collapse.

• It is a more efficient way to convert energy into
electricity than thermal energy.
• Operating costs are lower than fossil fuels energy
production.
• Dams can be multi-purpose e.g. irrigation.
• produces little pollution.
• Dam can control flooding.
• Initial building costs are very high.
• Dam construction can lead to loss of natural
habitat for wildlife.
• Decaying plants may cause greenhouse gases.
• Displacement of people, losing on their
agricultural land.

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Describe factors that influence the location and siting of the solar energy.
• Sufficient sunlight
• Large open areas e.g. coast, desert.
• Proper roads are required for maintenance.

Advantages of solar power Disadvantages of solar power

• Generates clean and safe energy.
• It is renewable.
• Low running cost/ efficient and cheap
for tropics
• Sun energy is readily available in
tropics.
• Does not work when its cloudy/needs
a backup during cloudy.
• A full-scale plant requires a large
area.
• Expensive to install/store solar power.

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 Advantages of wind power source Disadvantages of wind energy source

• Generating energy is clean and safe.
• It is inexhaustible-widely available.
• Energy is eternally renewable.
• Agricultural activity can continue on the
ground between the turbines.
• Energy can be used in remote areas not
linked to the national grid.
• Wind energy is not steady and
reliable.
• It has no storage system.
• Cost of construction is high.
• Disrupt TV and Radio transmissions.
• It is noisy and has limited output.
• Kills migrating birds.

Suggest best reliable siting and location for wind energy production.
• Should be sited at an open area with constant fast wind.

• On top of mountain.

• Along the coast.

• Sparsely populated areas.

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Advantages of coal power source
• It is efficient and reliable.
• Relatively inexpensive sources of
energy.
• Large coal reserves.
Coal power
Advantages of Nuclear power station
• Small amounts of uranium produce huge
amount of energy.
• Uranium does not produce greenhouse
gases.
• Large reserves of Uranium.
• Many investors and governments favour
Nuclear.
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Disadvantages of coal energy source
• It is non-renewable.
• Can cause water, soil and air pollution if
proper preventative measures are not in
place.
• Emits Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse
gas that causes global-warming.
• Emits Sulphur dioxide can cause acid
rain.
• Cause deforestation and destruction of
habitats.
Disadvantages of Nuclear energy source
• Construction of the nuclear power is very
expensive.
• Nuclear waste is dangerous and remains
radioactive for longer period.
• Accidents can release deadly radioactive
material into the environment.
• Transportation of nuclear waste is a problem
as it raises safety concerns and risks.
Reasons for the development of nuclear power.
• Nuclear power is cleaner than fossil fuels
• It can supply huge amount of electricity.
• Very little natural resources are needed to provide lots of energy.
• A lack of fossil fuels and other alternative source of energy is experienced.
• No greenhouse gases are released.
Nuclear power station

Describe Namibia energy policies on the environment

• Provide access of modern energy to promote social and economic advancement.
• Energy ministry support projects that investigate the problem and try to reduce and prevent land
degradation.
• Provide educational programmes to inform people on the advantages and disadvantages of
various forms of energy.
• Rural areas must have access to electricity/electrification of rural areas.
• Promoting low-smoke fuels.
• Improving ventilation in enclosed spaces.
• Improving stoves to be more energy-efficient.

Describe and explain the economic and development indicators of Namibia energy
policies in the energy sector.
• The energy policies have contributed to the growth of Gross Domestic Products (GDP).
• Has contributed to government revenues.
• Provided employments through managers, mechanics and fuel pump attendants.
• Has made contribution to capital investments.

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Discuss how Namibian energy sector is integrally linked to SADC regions
• Namibia is linked in SADC through Southern African power pool (SAPP).
• SAPP aims to coordinate, plan and operate electric power systems among members.
• Namibia obtain bulk electricity (400MW) from South Africa (ESCOM).
• The other supplies are the Ruacana hydro-electric plant (240 MW), Coal fired Van Eck power
station in WHK (120 MW) and diesel power station in Walvis Bay (24 MW) and Katima mulilo (3
MW).
• A 20 MW wind farm is under consideration for Luderitz area.
• Other scheme include hydro electric plant at Epupa and Popa.
• There are hopes that the kudu gas fields off the coast , will allow a gas-fired station to be built in
the south.
• Current electricity demand for Namibia is estimated at 300MW and expected to increase to 660
MW by 2020.
• ESCOM will not be able to meet these demands.
• The DRC has huge untapped sources of hydro-electricity, hoped to help the region.

Discuss Namibia’s linkage to global trade in oil

• Namibia is a net importer of liquid fuel supplies.
• In 2015, Namibian oil and mineral fuel imports amounted to US$113641608, 14% of total
imports.
• This dependence on global trade in oil means little or no influence over the price of its imports.
• Namibia pays for imported petroleum products in US dollars.

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2.5. UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER
RESOURCES IN NAMIBIA.

Water is essential for agricultural, industrial and domestic use.

Discuss the uses of water for agricultural purposes.
• Used for crop irrigation.
• Livestock in farming.
• It is used for cleaning farming equipment/farm produce.
Discuss the uses of water for industrial purposes.
• It is used for manufacturing and cleaning materials.
• Used for cooling and heating systems.
• Used for construction e.g. building infrastructure like roads.
• Used in mining to wash minerals extracted like diamonds before processed.
• For producing chemicals in different reactions.
Discuss the uses of water for domestic purposes.
• It is used for cooking.
• It is used for drinking.
• For washing domestic products like dishes.
• For watering gardens.
• Used for swimming pools.

Identify sources of water in Namibia such as ground water and surface water
Surface source of water in Namibia Underground water sources in Namibia

• River e.g. Kavango, Zambezi, • Boreholes

Orange and Kunene. • Wells
• Dams e.g. Hardap dam. • Artesian Spring and Hot Spring e.g.
• Pans e.g. Etosha pan. Ai-Ais hot spring.
• Lakes e.g. Oshikoto lake.

Explain the significance/importance of surface water sources for human activities.

• Rivers are source of food e.g. fishing.
• Supplies potable/drinking water.
• Etosha pan is used for viewing wildlife/tourist attraction.
• Many pans are used for the commercial production of salt.
• Rivers provides means of transport.
• Reeds at rivers are used as building materials.

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Key concepts:

Aquifers is a body of saturated rock through which water can easily move.

Water table Is the top layer of water that has soaked into the ground.

Potable water Is water that can safely be drunk by humans and other animals.

Evaporation is the process by which water changes from liquid to gas.

Condensation Is the process whereby water vapour changes into ice crystals.

Precipitation Is a name given to all forms of water that returns from the atmosphere.

Surface drainage/run-off refers to the process by which precipitation landing on the surface, flow down
into streams.

Infiltration Is the process of water soaking into the ground.

Hydrological cycle is the continuous transfer of water from the oceans/river into the atmosphere and
back.

discuss how the processes operating within the hydrological cycle may affect supplies,
with special reference to causes and effects of flooding and drought.
Hydrological cycle

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Reasons for water shortage
• Low rainfall or drought.
• High temperature.
• Steep slopes that cause rapid runoff.
• Large concentration (growth and influx) of people in urban area.
• Lack of storage facilities such as dams and reservoirs.
• Inability of the public to pay for water.
• Growth of industries using large amount of water.
• Climate change and El Nino.
• Wastage of water by industries, farmers and public.

Natural causes of flood.

• Heavy rain that is unable to drain away properly.
• Snow melting at the end of winter causes flooding in temperate areas.
• In low lying areas water doesn’t drain quickly enough due to lack of gradient.
• Obstruction of waterways can lead to rivers over flowing their banks.
• Sedimentation of a river can create sandbanks that divert the course of the river.
• Serious storms cause rising sea level that flood coasts.
Human causes of flood.
• Deforestation increases run-off and promotes flooding
• Poor farming techniques such as ploughing down slopes increase run-off
• Overcultivation can leave soil exhausted and bare
• Overgrazing can denude(uncover) an area of vegetation and increase run-off
• Building of flood plains of rivers blocks the natural flow of water
• Rapid population growth
Effects of flooding
• Loss of life.
• Soil erosion
• Water pollution by soil
• Damage to sewage works pollutes water prompting the spread of diseases.
• Other water-related diseases such as Malaria and Bilharzia are spread to new areas.
• Roads and bridges damaged
• Crops can be destroyed
• Disruption to schools and tourism
Methods of conserving and supplying of water.
• Reservoirs
• Dams
• Wells
• Boreholes
• Desalination
• Recycle

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Discuss how the process of desalination as a supply of water.

Desalination can be carried out in three ways:

1. Distillation
• Sea water is boiled in order to cause evaporation, which leaves salt behind.

• The steam is condensed as fresh water – usually smaller quantity

2. Electrolysis
• sea water is placed in a container with a negative electrode at one end and a positive electrode at
the other.
• Salt ions, negatively charge and others positively charged start moving towards the electrodes.

• Salt become trapped between semi-permeable membranes that were placed in a container.

• Water on the other side will be fresh and can be pumped out.

• The water on the other side of the membrane is salty and is returned to sea.

3. Reverse osmosis:
• Pressure is applied to seawater, forcing it through a special membrane.

• Only water will pass through and salts will be caught in the membrane.

The process of recycling water.

• Waste water is taken to treatment centre through pipes.

• It is screened to remove large objects like diapers, nappies etc.

• It is taken to settlement tanks to settle sludge.

• Air is pumped into water to encourage bacteria to breakdown tiny sludge.

• Water is then filtered through a bed of sand to remove additional particles.

• Then, chlorine is added to kill bacteria.

Water recycling in Namibia.

• Windhoek is known for recycling large quantities of sewage and wastewater

• It is done at Gammams water recycling plant.

• 20% of water is recycled clean and added to domestic use.

• The rest are semi-purified water used to irrigate sports fields and parks

• It is also used in road construction and other civil engineering works

• The solid waste is used to produce methane which supply 40% of energy needed by the plant.

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 Explain the causes and the consequences of water pollution on the natural and
human environment.
Causes of water pollution:

• Agriculture: The use of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals on farms pollutes
water systems.

• Poor sanitation: washing and dumping of human and animal waste pollute water.

• Soil erosion: overgrazing and deforestation can cause erosion. Large amount of soil is dumped
into rivers and streams, polluting water.

• Irrigation: irrigation dissolves salts which cause water table to rise. When irrigation stops or
evaporation occurs, salt remains behind. Farmland can become a salt pan.

• Rapid urbanisation: Limited suitable/proper toilets and sanitation prompts people to use bush
and riverbeds. During rain waste flows in dams.

• Industrial activities: waste materials from factories often contains chemicals that can leach into
soil that enter water system e.g. oil, diesel, soap, bleach or stain remover.

• Tourism: Some tourist areas do not have proper sanitation. Human waste can easily leak in
water supplies

• Poor management of municipal waste: chemicals from landfill may end up in water aquifers.

Consequences of water pollution.

• Health hazard and spread of diseases such as Bilharzia, gastro-interitis, cholera.

• Ecosystem is disrupted, plants and animals killed.

• Communities starts to suffer if water is polluted.

• Water may not even be fit for irrigation or animal drinking.

• Loss of income for communities dependent on fishing and reed cutting.

• Conflicts between communities

• Lower standard of living because of the expense on medicines.

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 Activities
1. Study the diagram below which shows the percentage of renewable-based generation in total electricity
generation.

i. Compare Namibia’s percentage share with that of:

Swaziland……………………………………………..
The Regional Average………………………………(2)
ii. Suggest one problem Namibia may experience in future regarding electricity generation. (1)
iii. Describe five factors influencing the location and development of Hydro Electric Power (HEP).
(5)
iv. Describe the process of generating hydro-electric power. (5)
v. Explain four advantages of nuclear energy. (4)
vi. For a named area explain the dangers that nuclear power stations may have on the environment.
(4)

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2. Study the following diagram and answer the following questions.

i. What is meant by fossil fuel? (1)

ii. Which two regions, between them, use over 75% of the world’s fuelwood? (2)
iii. Suggest reasons why the importance of different types of energy varies between world regions.
(4)
iv. State four of the goals set out in Namibia’s energy policy. (4)
v. Describe how Namibia’s energy sector is integrally linked to the SADC region and global trade in
oil. (7)
vi. For a country or area in the SADC region which you have studied, describe the ways in which
renewable energy supplies are being developed. (6)

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3. Study Fig. 5, which shows the opinions of selected people about a Water Project in Namibia.

i. "There will be an increasing demand for water resources leading to competition for use of water
for agriculture, domestic and industrial purposes.
" Suggest why there is an increasing need for the use of water which leads to competition. (3)
ii. The environmentalist is concerned about the environmental damage.
a) Describe three causes of water pollution. (3)
b) Suggest four consequences of water pollution. (4)
iii. Briefly describe how the process of desalination with reference to recycling water work, as a way
of water supply. (6)

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2.6. Utilisation and Management of wildlife in Namibia

Introduction

• What is wildlife?

• Why is it important to protect our wild animals?

• Name any endangered species in Namibia

• Explain why these species are termed endangered?

Identify and locate on a map the major areas of wildlife conservation and management in
Namibia

Major areas of wildlife conservation and management

• Conservancies, national parks, private owned game parts, non- governmental organization (NGO)
animal shelters, are all places where wildlife conservation and management takes place.

• These places ensure that animals thrive in their natural habitat and that they are protected from
poaching and extinction.

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Discuss the importance of wildlife animals as a resource to Namibia’s economy.
• Wildlife contributes to the GDP

• Income through tourism

• Communities benefit through conservancies

• Wild animals’ meat and skin to be sold

• Trophy- hunting generates income

• Trade in certain animal’s species can lead to a balance in animal species

• It can help with introduction of certain extinct or absent species

Although wildlife resources contribute immensely to Namibia’s economy caution should be practiced
because:

• Uncontrolled numbers of tourists in an area can lead to environmental deterioration

• Conservancies may forget their aim and only think about the monetary gains

• Trade in animal products can lead to persistent poaching, killing of animals, and a boom in unlawful
trade markets.

• Uncontrolled trophy hunting

Discuss the impact of wildlife animals on the environment

Wild animals can positively and negatively impact the environment but often there is a balanced
equilibrium.

Negative impacts of animals on the environment

• Elephants are destructive grazers- uproot trees/ trample plants/ strip trees

• Carnivores can feed on threatened/endangered species

• Browsers and grazers can cause over grazing

• Land degradation/soil infertility can occur when animals constantly trample in the same area.

• Soil erosion can occur due to borrowing animals.

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Discuss the impact of environmental change on wildlife animals

Desertification

• Overgrazing leads to soil degradation

• soil loses its fertility & moisture

• Soil is exposed to agents of erosion (wind, water)

• wild animals lose their habitats

• extinction of species/animals die and some migrate

• Desertification takes place more rapidly than animals can adapt

Deforestation

• Animals lose their habitats

• Animals lose their food such leaves, seeds, roots etc.

• Extinction of species/animals migrate

Global warming

• Rise in temperatures can lead to floods and droughts

• Extinction of wildlife due to extreme weather conditions

• Warmer temperatures can lead to increase in pests – can lead to shortage of food for animals

• Wildlife living in cold area such as the arctic regions may not be able to cope with the warmer
temperature

Discuss the conflicts between the management of wild animals and other land use
activities.
Human-wildlife conflict: any event in which wild animals harm/kill human beings, destroy property etc. or
when wild animals are captured, injured or killed because they are seen as a threat to humans and their
properties

• Ministry of environment & tourism (issued in 2009)

• Linked to the community –based natural resource management policy

• Key point of the policy: to manage conflicts between humans and the wild life

• Principle wildlife must be sustainably maintained throughout the country.

• Income earned from wildlife should make up for losses caused by wildlife

• The policy gives people technical assistance in planning how to manage conflict.

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Why is human -wildlife conflicts on an increase?

• An increase in the demand of land –use has led to serious competition for land by humans and
animals

• Increased mining activities, agricultural projects places disturbances in animal habitats.

• Increased numbers of livestock have pushed wild animals further away from their usual grazing
areas

• Rapid population growth has also led to increased human wildlife conflicts

Preventative steps /measures to reduce human-wildlife conflicts

• Land-use planning

• Planting repellants such as chilies around fields.

• Building enclosures and fences for livestock

• Building protective walls around water sources

• Guarding fields

• Construct drinking points for animals such as elephants away from houses and fields

Evaluate the role of the stakeholders in the sustainable use of wild animals in Namibia
Various stakeholders and role players must work together to ensure sustainability of wildlife in Namibia

The government

• The government sets out policies for careful utilization and sustainability of wildlife resources

• The government makes sure that all activities do not endanger or affect wildlife.

• Runs the national parks, where wildlife is protected.

• It provides subsidies to commercial tourism companies to promote wildlife conservation.

• Ministry of Environment and Tourism(MET) establishes Namibia’s communal conservancy

system.

• MET is responsible for policing poaching of wildlife.

• MET monitors wildlife populations through annual game counts and analysis.

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Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’S)

• NGO’S are organizations that support and share a common interest in the protection and
conservation of wildlife.

• They rehabilitate animals that might have been injured.

• Assist in combating wildlife crime through capacity building.e.g. poaching

• They provide education on how humans and animals can co-exist.

• Provide rural communities with the necessary support.

Some of the important NGO’s working in Namibia are:

Namibia Nature foundation (NNF)

Namibian wildlife conservation Fund (NWCF)

World wildlife fund (WWF)

Harnas wildlife foundation (HWF)

The private sector (private land owner conservationists, tour operators, ecotourism companies)

• Support conservation efforts through advertising and publicity.

• Private land owners can acquire wild animals on their farms for ecotourism or trophy hunting.

• Commercial tour operators see this privately owned game farms as an opportunity for business as
they transport tourists.

Local authorities

• Encourage the establishment of community conservancies

• Raise awareness through meetings about protection of wildlife

What are conservancies

Conservancies are locally governed areas that protects wildlife and their natural habits.

How do conservancies protect their wildlife?

• Through game patrols to prevent poaching

• Monitoring of wildlife numbers through annual counts

• Set quotas for hunting

• Conservancies have overnight tourism operations

• Communities are involved in decision making

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Development of ecotourism in Namibia

Ecotourism

It is a form of tourism that promote conservation of the environment as well as benefiting the local people.

Key features of ecotourism

• Environmental conservation

• It must be self-sustaining.

• Limited development of infrastructure

• Advocating for responsible behavior by visitors (tourists)

• Education (both of locals and visitors)

• Encourages respect for local cultures

• Active and sustainable participation by locals

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3.1. Population Studies
Describe the reasons for the rapid increase in the world’s population in recent times “the
population explosion”
• Population growth-refers to a change in the size of a population over time.

• Population growth can be positive – shows increase

• negative showing a decrease.

• It can also be neutral- there are no increases or decreases experienced in population growth.

World population growth over the years

Reasons for world population growth

• High birthrate due to banning of contraceptives/limited education on family planning

• Improvement in the standard of living

• Greater life expectancy

• Reduced infant mortality

• Improvement in sanitation and water supply,

• Improvement in food supply/balanced diet/improvement in farming methods

• Improvement in medical facilities/vaccinations against diseases/control of diseases

• Government policies that encourage people to have more children.

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Define the main components influencing population growth:
Birth rate

• Number of live births in a year, per thousand people in a population.

Death rate/ mortality rate

• Number of deaths in a year, per thousand of a population

Migration

• The movement of people from one place to another.

Immigration – move into another country

Emigration – move out (exit) of the country

Net migration- the difference between immigration and emigration.

Identify and discuss reasons for contrasting patterns of population growth in different
world areas as influenced by differences in birth rate, death rate and migration.
Factors increasing birthrate

• Religion that ban contraceptives

• Children needed to work as laborers

• Traditions that see children as sign of wealth

• Limited education on family planning/availability of contraceptives

• Women are not educated and early marriage

• High infant mortality rate

Factors decreasing/lowering birth rate:

• Practice family planning and use contraceptives

• Women become educated and follow careers

• Government policies e.g. China’s One Child policy

Factors decreasing death rate

• Improved water supply and sanitation

• Better medical care

• Improved food production and storage

• Improved levels of literacy and education especially among women

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Factors increasing death rate

• Poor medical care

• Diseases and epidemics

• Poor diet and food shortages

• Poor sanitation

• Natural disasters such earthquakes/volcanoes/drought

Describe the relationship between population growth and resources and explain why
problems may result in some areas of over population and under population.
• The availability of natural resources such as water, food and energy encourages population growth.

• If resources can no longer sustain the population, it leads to overpopulation

• If the resources are more than the population then it leads to under population

• The balance between resources and the population leads to optimum population

Why problems may arise in over-populated areas

• Over cultivation may lead to environmental degradation

• Over exploitation of natural resources can lead to deforestation/desertification

• Large demand on energy will lead to pollution

• Diseases spread rapidly in overcrowded areas

• Conflicts over insufficient agricultural land/settlement

• Limited grazing areas for livestock due to overstocking

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Why problems that may arise in under-populated areas:

• Fewer skilled people lead to under-utilization of natural resources/under development

• Waste of natural resources leading to poverty/hunger/diseases

Problems in over-populated areas:

• Shortages in quality housing

• Ecological deterioration e.g. deforestation

• Pressure on natural resources

• Rise in environmental risks e.g. land pollution and littering.

Factors affecting these influences should be considered such as differences in social,

economic and other factors for example government policies, and their impact upon
birthrates, differences in health care, social and environmental factors influencing death
rates. These factors should be illustrated by reference to selected examples
Population growth patterns differ from country to country and region to region:

Factors that influence these differences are

Economic factors

• Economically developed countries have high standards of living and so too the cost of living is
high. Couples choose to have less children

• MEDC’s governments provide good education and family planning facilities- so women have jobs
and do not give birth early.

• LEDC’s have high population growth rates- these is because women have many children.
children are seen as workers and traditions and cultures encourage women to give birth.

• Governments in LEDC’s do not have the monetary resources to provide good education and
family planning facilities

Education

• People who had a higher educational career would have fewer children.

• In most MEDC’s education is free and compulsory.

• A high literacy rate slows population growth.

• LEDC’s with poor education standards has high population growth rates

• Low literacy rates especially for girls in LEDC’s shows fast population increases.

Urbanization

• People in urban areas (towns/cities) have fewer children than people in rural areas.

• People in urban areas have easy access to health facilities, family planning facilities, better
education. The high costs of living in urban areas also leads to people having less children.

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 • People in rural areas have more children – because children need to help to work on the land,
provide for their elderly parents etc.

Health care

• Improved health care and disease prevention led to rapid population growth.

• MEDC’s have higher standards of health care, thus slowing population growth.

• Health care systems in MEDC’s are so strong that there is a significant drop in child mortality-
children grow into adulthood and have fewer children

• Healthcare in LEDC’s is not soup to standard- families have more children in the hope some will
survive.

• Government policies on health and education indirectly influence population growth

• China’s one –child policy- forced the population growth to slow down.

• Sometimes these policies can adversely affect the population of the country.

Other political factors

• Political conflict can lead to population decline or growth.

• During wars people are willed, others move away from war zones- population decline

• For the war zones there is rapid population decline but for receiving areas there is rapid
population growth that can lead to over-population.

Social factors

• In MEDC’s it is normal to have small families – it is socially normal for these countries.

• In LEDC’s larger families are normal- people expect and want women to have children at a young
age.

Environmental factors

• Where the environment can support many people –high population growth

• Where the natural environment is not so favourable, population growth might be slow.

• Sometimes, even if the natural environments is not so favourable but other factors are
accommodative population growth can take place and vice versa.

Describe the consequences (benefits and problems) of different patterns of

population growth. Consideration should be given to variations in the size and nature of
dependent population, dependency ratio, standard of living, life expectancy and infant mortality.

• Dependents in a population are:

• Young people between the ages of 0-14

• Old people aged 65 and over.

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People between the ages of 15-64 are considered to be economically active- working age groups and
they support the dependent age groups.

Dependency Ratio:

• It is a way of measuring the ratio of dependent people in a population to the economically active
group.

Formula for calculating dependency ratio:

𝑛𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 (0−14)𝑛𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 (65+) 100
Dependency ratio = 𝑥
𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 (15−64) 1

• The dependency ratio will show the ration of the economically active group to the dependents.

• High dependency ratio increases economic pressure, lowers the standard of living.

Declining population

• Countries with declining populations are usually industrialized and very modernized

• Cost of living is high- low fertility.

• High life expectancy.

Consequences of a population decline are:

• Proportion of young people becomes less

• The workforce capacity is threatened as there are no young people to take up these positions

• Population starts to age rapidly- increasing the dependency ratio.

Describe and explain different stages of the Demographic Transition Model.

It is actually a graph that explains why population growth happens in the way it does

The graph (model) shows how a country’s population growth goes through stages in relation to its
economic and social development.

Note: when analyzing a DTM focus on birth rate, death rate and changes in the population

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Stage 1 (High stationery)

• high birth rate due to lack of contraceptives

• need of children for labor.

• High death rate due to diseases poor hygiene and sanitation.

• Very slow population growth rate

Stage 2 (Early Expanding)

• birth rate still high while the death rate is decreasing due to improved health care, sanitation,
balanced diet.

• Natural increase is very high in Stage 2.

Stage 3 (Late Expanding)

• Birth Rate starts to fall due to birth control, increased desire of wealth, women follow careers and
marry later in life.

• The rate of population growth decreases.

Stage 4 (Low Stationery)

• both the birth rate and death rate is low.

• Population growth rate is low.

Stage 5 (Declining)

• the death rate may become higher than the birth rate causing a decline in the population growth
rate.

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Identify and discuss with reasons the different types of population structures as
shown by age-sex pyramids.
Population structures:

focus on age groups (youth, adult and elderly), gender, life-expectancy and total population.

Population pyramids of MEDC’s and LEDC’s

MEDC’s LEDC’s

Narrow base (low birth rate) Wide Base (high birth rate)

Wide middle (low death rate) Narrow middle (high death rate)

Wide top (high life expectancy) Narrow top (low life expectancy)

Bell shaped Triangular shaped

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Describe population pyramids and relate population change to the different stages of the
Demographic Transition Model.

Countries in stage 1 and 2

• A wide- based pyramid shows countries still in

stage 1 and 2 of the DTM.

• These countries are less economically developed

• Broad base reflects a high birth rate

• Death rate has dropped

• Life expectancy is low

• High ratio of dependents

• Example Namibia

Countries in stage 3 of the DTM has:

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 • Falling birth rate and their death rates continue to fall

• Life expectancy is high than in stage 2

• The percentage of dependents is about 31%

• Example: Brazil

Countries in stage 4 of the DTM

• These are more economically active countries

• They experience a low birth rate and low death rate

• Stable populations for a long time

• Life-expectancy is high

• Dependency ratio is low

• Example: USA

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Countries in stage 5

• Aging and declining populations

• Birth rate is very low therefore a narrowing base

• Wide centre shows a high proportion of people in the middle age

• Life expectancy is very high

• Example: Japan.

Identify major influences on population density and population distribution.

Reference should be made to physical, economic and human factors.

• Population Density: The number of people living in a given area per km².

• Formula for Population density = Total population / area (km²)

• Population distribution: Describes how people are spread out over a certain area.

• Densely populated: many people per km²

• Sparsely populated: very few people per km²

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Factors that influence population density and distribution.

Factors Densely Sparsely

Relief Flat area High mountainous

Climate Moderate (not too cold or hot) Extremes (very hot or cold)

Soil Fertility Very fertile Poor fertility

Water Abundance Shortage

Natural resources Minerals (gold, oil, coal) Limited mineral reserves

Natural vegetation Grasslands Equatorial Rainforest / Tropical

desserts

Economic Industrialized Vey few industries

Job opportunities Very few job opportunities

Political Political stability War

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World population distribution

Discuss reasons for population movements. Reference should be made to internal

movements such as rural-urban migration as well as to international movements,
both voluntary and involuntary.
Types of migration.

• Rural – Urban migration Movement of people from rural areas to urban areas

• Urbanization The growth in the number of people living in Urban areas.

• Commuting movement of people to their place of employment and back home (Windhoek –
Rehoboth)

• Forced migration when people move against their will

• Voluntary migration when people move willingly

Migration can be voluntary (one’s own free will) or involuntary (when people are forced to move due to
war, floods, drought

When people move involuntarily they are called refugees.

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Factors influencing population movement

Push factors (always negative) Pull factors (always positive)

Drought /Flooding/Crop failures Fertile Soil/Good climates

Overcrowding of land/unproductive land

Unemployment More employment opportunities/better jobs

Not enough services (Schools, Hospitals) More /better services (Schools, Hospitals)

Natural Disasters (Earthquakes, Hurricanes, Volcanic Absence of Natural disasters

eruptions )

Political instability Peaceful Conditions

Analyse and discuss the environmental problems which are associated with
population growth.
• Less land to support a growing population

• Water shortages

• Loss of soil fertility

• Rivers, lakes/oshanas/ are depleted of fish

• Deforestation/loss of habitats/extinction of species

• Sewage systems are poor-human waste seeps into ground water

• Rubbish removal is poor-garbage piles up

• Air pollution-due to increase volume of traffic and industries

• Release of CO2 leads to global warming/increase in temperatures

• Pressure on resources such as water, agricultural/settlement land

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Analyse and discuss strategies for managing population growth in relation to the pace of
economic development and environmental sustainability.
Note: Name and describe how strategies can mage population growth in a positive or negative
way. Students have to explain how it influenced population growth

• Education on family planning/ family size/spacing of children

• Provide free contraception

• Improving healthcare and nutrition to increase living conditions for the people

• Improve the standard of women in society

• Remove gender bias from laws, economic opportunities.

HIV/AIDS

Define HIV and AIDS

HIV is (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) a virus that is transmitted through infected bodily
fluids

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the disease acquired once the immune
system is weakened by HIV

Interpret Namibia’s HIV and AIDS statistics and account for its spatial distribution

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Describe the demographic and socio-economic impact of HIV and AIDS in Namibia
• Kills many of the economic active people in the country (labour shortages)

• Affects the Economic growth in the country

• Reduces the market for products

• Government must spend money to pay for health care of those infected

• Buy expensive ARV’s

• Many Aids Orphans that need to be cared for

Discuss efforts being taken by the government, local authorities, non-governmental

organizations, churches, the private sector and individuals to address the HIV and AIDS
problem in Namibia.
• Awareness Campaigns

• Aids part of the secondary school curriculum

• Distribution of condoms / femidoms

• Free Testing (New Start Centers)

• Abstain from sex

• Counseling and Anti-retroviral drugs

• Education programme to prevent new infections

• Prevent mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, child-birth and breastfeeding programs

Investigate how the following measures will have an impact on population growth,
structure and the economy of Namibia: condom use, introduction of anti-retroviral drugs
to infected people.
• Condom use prevents unwanted pregnancies and lowers population growth

• It reduces the dependency ratio in the 0-5 age group

• Money is spent on HIV/AIDS which could be diverted to other capital projects

• Anti-retroviral drugs allow infected people to live longer

• People are able to work and contribute to the economy

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POPULATION STUDIES TEST

1 (a) Study Figs 1A and 1B, which show information about HIV/AIDS in southern Africa.

(i) Use Fig. 1A to name one country where over 25% of the adult population are infected with HIV/AIDS.
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [1]

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(ii) Use the information in Fig. 1B to:

A. state the percentage of children who will be orphans as a result of HIV/AIDS in

Lesotho in 2010,
_________________________________________________________________________________(1)

B. name a country where the expected percentage of orphans will be decreasing by

2010.
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________ [2]

(iii) Using only information from Figs 1A and 1B, compare the impacts of HIV/AIDS in

Botswana and Tanzania.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________[3]

(iv) Suggest the likely impacts of HIV/AIDS on the economies of those countries where rates

of infection are high.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ [4]

(b) Study Fig. 2 which shows the predicted population pyramid for Botswana in 2020.

The overall shape shows what the pyramid would be like if there was no threat from

HIV/AIDS. The white pyramid shows what is likely to happen as a result of HIV/AIDS.

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Describe the likely impacts of HIV/AIDS on the size and structure of Botswana’s population.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________[3]

(c) Describe the different ways by which the dependent population is supported in developed and
developing countries.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________ [5]

(d) What strategies are being used to try to reduce the spread of disease in developing countries? You
may refer to examples which you have studied.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________ [7]

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3.2. Settlement
A settlement is a place where people live.

A settlement can be:

• Rural settlement - village

• Urban settlement – town/city/build up area

Identify and describe dispersed, linear and nucleated settlement patterns.

• Dispersed settlement patterns – family dwellings that far apart. E.g. northern Namibia

• Nucleated settlements – several building clustered together

• Linear or ribbon – along transport routes such as roads, rivers or canals

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Explain how physical, human and political factors influence the location, size and pattern
of rural and urban settlement in LEDCs and MEDCs.
• Relief – Mountainous areas small dispersed settlements – flat areas nucleated

• Water – Humid areas are dispersed areas, Dry areas are nucleated

• Soil condition – fertile soil is nucleated

• Safety and security – unsafe areas nucleated settlements patterns

• Political factors – Tanzania, Ujamaa system led to nucleated pattern

Describe and discuss the internal structure (morphology) of towns and cities in LEDCs
and MEDCs focusing on urban land use models and the characteristics of the Central
Business District (CBD).

Morphology of Cities - Refers Layout/the height, density, shape and situation of the urban areas.

Shape of a city: many tend to have a circular shape, geometric or stellar shape (along transport route).

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The street plan of a city: grid/square/block street pattern (easy to plan, simple to lay out but traffic
congestion).
• Has shorter routes
• Easy to extend
• Easy to find a place

However;

• its associated with traffic congestion

• Has many intersections
Radial – concentric/spider web pattern - found in cities like Paris and Milan.
• Its time and fuel consuming
• Lead •to road
Dwellings are located around the centre
rage/frustration
• Streets circular pattern
• Has less intersections
• Easies traffic flow
• Unplanned growth can create traffic
congestion
Irregular street pattern does not have a fixed pattern due to hills, e.g. Ludwigsdorf areas of Windhoek
where hilly terrain makes it difficult to develop a fixed pattern

• Creates aesthetic/beauty appeal due

to different roads
• Has less intersections
• Less traffic congestion
• However; People can easily get lost
and travel longer distances

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Factors influencing the layout of cities
• Accessibility: areas close to the road are popular for shops and business. Heavy industries require
heavy transport and are found on the outskirts.

• Compatibility: certain land use do not do well near each other. E.g. an abattoir near high income
residential area.

• Land values: functions giving high return on investment occupy expensive land.

• Specialised requirement: industries need flat land, high income residential located in hilly areas.

• Centrifugal forces: cause functions to move out of the city center to outskirts or suburb e.g. crime,
high land cost, pollution, overcrowding and lack of space.

• Centripetal forces: attract functions to the center of an urban area e.g. prestige, convenience,
accessibility.

• Government policies: e.g. apartheid segregated residential areas.

Land use

Central place theory - Is a model which describe the relative size and spacing of settlement.

• Low order goods/functions: are low cost, everyday convenience goods, e.g. newspapers, bread

• High order goods/functions: are expensive, comparison goods e.g. cars, TV.

• The range of function: is the maximum distance that people are prepared to travel to obtain goods
or services.

• The threshold population: is the number of people needed to support a good or service

• The sphere of influence: is the area that is served by a settlement.

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Characteristics of the Central Business District (CBD)

• Storey building

• High land value

• High order retail functions e.g. boutiques

• Many professional services like doctors, lawyers, architects

• Numerous banks and other financial institutions like insurances.

• Many retail functions e.g. supermarkets, clothing stores, furniture shops.

• Administration functions like municipal offices and post offices

• Entertainment like theaters

• Hotels and restaurants

• Large parking garages

• Low order functions like cafes, hairdressers, fast-food shops, pharmacies.

Reasons why the CBD has larger sphere of influence.

• People travel long distances to use services/work;

• High order services available;

• Specialist goods/services;

• Good transport links;

• Shops selling comparison goods;

• Larger shops/wider choice of product;

• More entertainment

Industrial areas of cities

Close to the CBD – light industries –need access to markets in the CBD

Outskirt of the city – heavy industries –pollution, noise, space, cheaper land

Industrial estates –built for light industries –room for expansion –transport routes

Residential zones

Less Economic Developed Countries (LEDCs)

Higher income areas are near city center - closer to business and VIP areas.

Lower income groups further out in informal settlements – near industrial areas and vacant land

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More Economic Developed Countries (MEDCs)

High density flats near city center – easy access to the CBD and low transport costs

Gentrification near city center where old building are improved to attract high income people

Analyse and discuss problems associated with the growth of urban areas and their
possible solutions.
Problems

• Development of Informal settlement/shanty towns due to shortage of houses/lack of affordable

housing

• Increased crime rates

• Traffic Congestion due to a large number of road users

• Increased demand for services .e.g. running water, electricity and medical care

• Air pollution from factories, cars and houses

• Increased unemployment/too many people but fewer job opportunities

Solution

• Develop low cost housing scheme

• Provide more public transport/Restrict private transport

• Expand roads to handle large volume of traffic

• Encourage decentralization of businesses away from urban areas

• Encourage the development of small towns

• Improve services and job opportunities in rural areas

• Develop mass rapid transit system

• Staggering of working hours

Describe the effects of urbanisation on the environment: pollution (air, water, visual and
noise) results of urban sprawls.
• More cars and industries lead to increased air pollution

• Large amount of sewage and Industrial waste lead to water pollution

• Land cleared for houses and shopping malls leading to deforestation

• Destruction of arable land

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Describe the results of urban sprawl on the surrounding areas.

Urban sprawl: the spreading of urban developments (such as houses and shopping centers) on
undeveloped land near a city.

• Land cleared for infrastructure development/deforestation

• More cars and industries lead to increased air pollution

• Large amount of sewage and Industrial waste lead to water pollution

• Loss of some best farmland

• Loss of wildlife habitat

• Urban road congestion spreading to rural

• Strain on sewage not made for higher population

• Risk of flooding, pollution

Factors encouraging informal settlements

• Population increase

• In-migration from smaller towns

• Poverty, small unproductive farms

• Decreasing soil fertility

• Lack of employment

• Natural disasters, schools and other services

Features of Informal Settlements

• Very dense settlement

• No planning, no trees

• Unmade/dirty roads

• Variety of building materials, scrap

• Buildings in dilapidated condition

• Little uniformity in design of building

• Little open space

Problems of informal settlements

• Lack of clean water /Lack of sanitation

• Lack of affordable medical services

• Pollution of various types

• Dangers of fires spreading quickly

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• Lack of job opportunities

• Lack of education facilities

• Crime

• Discrimination and resentment by other residents who object to taxes

• Dangers of infectious diseases spreading easily

• Built in low-lying areas high risk of flooding

Solution to problems of Informal settlements

• Improving schools, clinics, sanitation.

• Building simple brick homes to replace squatter shacks – provide cheap loans to squatters

• Provide basic services like pre-paid running water and cheaper electricity

• Self-help schemes –equipments and plots for people to make own bricks,

• Improving the rural areas

• Influx control – but violation of human rights

• Provide basic building materials, plan settlements.

• Improve transport system

• Create employment opportunities

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Suggested Activities

1. Figure 8A, B and C shows three different types of rural settlements.

(a) Write down the following list on the space provided on the paper and next to each type of rural
settlement write the letter from Figure 8 which is an example. (Nucleated, Dispersed and
Linear)[3]

(b) Suggest reasons for the development of settlement B. [2]

2. Fig. 9 shows a plan of land use zones of a city in a developing country.

(a) State four main features of a CBD. [4]

(b) Using Fig. 9, describe the distribution of high quality residential areas. [2]

(c) How may businesses in and around the city benefit t from the presence of the university? [2]
(d) Suggest two reasons for the relocation of the CBD. [2]
1. Fig. 2 is a diagram to show how large cities in countries to the south of the North- South divide
may develop different urban zones.

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(a) Explain why housing in zone A is old. [2]

(b) Suggest two reasons why the housing in zone A is occupied by low status groups. [2]

(c) Why would some people prefer to live in zone A, whilst others would prefer to live in zone B? [4]

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1. Study Fig. 6, which shows the layout of an urban area.

a. In the vicinity of which letter on Fig. 6 are most pedestrians found? [1]

b. Name the urban land-use zone in Fig. 6 in which the greatest number of pedestrians is
found and use information from the map to explain their presence there.[3]

c. Describe the possible problems associated with the CBD of an urban area like the one in
Fig. 6 and how they influence the people living there. [6]

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 1. Fig. 3 shows land use in the large city of Sydney in Australia.

With reference to Fig. 3, suggest reasons for

(a) The building of large apartment blocks to replace older small houses in area A. [2]

(b) The possibility of traffic congestion at certain times of the day along the main road near to B;
[2]

(c) The location of the airport at C; [2]

(d) Problems of pollution occurring in area D; [2]

(e) The distribution of light and heavy industrial areas. [3]

(f) One of the main problems in towns and cities throughout the world is traffic congestion. Using
examples from towns and cities which you have studied, describe measures which have
been taken to reduce this problem. [4]

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 1. Study Fig. 3, a simplified land use map of Wroclaw, a city in Poland (an MEDC in Europe).

a. Name one residential area in Wroclaw. [1]

b. What is the distance and direction of the main railway station from the main square in the CBD?

[2]

c. Use the key of Fig. 3 to compare land use in squares B3 and C2.[3]

d. Suggest reasons for the location of the industrial zones in Wroclaw. [4]

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4.2 Map Reading Skills
Identify the characteristics of a map such as the title, key, scale and direction.
• Title: indicated on top/bottom of a map

• Grid: are latitude and longitude lines

• Compass: Directions

• Key or Legend: References of features on the map at bottom of the map.

• Scale: indicated in linear/ratio/word at bottom or top of the map e.g. 1:50 000

Types of Scale

• Word Scale : one cm represents 0.5 km in reality

• Ratio Scale : 1: 50 000

• Linear Scale

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Page 201 of 215
Demonstrate the ability to use the scale in measuring distance, calculating area and gradient.

Measuring distance

Distances of two kinds are measured on a map:

• The straight line distance between two points.

• The curved line distance between two points

Calculating distance in Reality

• Measure distance on map in cm.

• Distance on map x Scale = Distance in reality

• Convert to unit (m or km)

Conversion factors

• 1cm = 10 mm

• 1m = 100cm

• 1m = 1000mm

• 1km = 1000m

• 1km = 100 000cm

• 1km = 1 000 000mm

Example:

Distance on map = 5 cm

Scale 1: 50 000

Distance x Scale: 5x 50 000 = 250 000

Convert to km: 250 000/ 100000 = 2.5 km

Convert to m: 250 000 / 100 = 2500 m

Calculating area

• Mark the area given on the map.

• Measure the length and the breath e.g. 3.5cm x 0.5 on a topographic map with a scale 1:50 000

• Use the scale to convert to km

• Use the formula: Area= LXB

• Unit: km2

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Determining height

• Heights are shown in three ways on topographic map:

• Spot height

• Trigonometrical stations

• Contour lines

Contour lines

• Lines joining places of the same height on topographic maps they are brown in colour.

• The difference in height between two consecutive contour lines is known as the contour interval or
vertical interval

Spot height

• The height of the highest point in a given area expressed in meters above sea level.

• These are indicated by black dots with adjacent numerals.

• They have been measured accurately and are used to show local peaks.

Trigonometrical stations

The trigonometric beacon is shown by means of a triangle with the beacon’s number to the right of the
triangle, as well as its exact height above sea level in metres.

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Calculating Gradient

• The extent to which the landscape falls or rises along a given line.

• It can also be defined as the ratio between the vertical height and the horizontal distance.

What to consider when calculating gradient.

• The vertical interval (VI) represent the vertical in height between contours.

• The horizontal distance (horizontal equivalent) (HE), represents the horizontal distance between the
same points according to the scale of the map.

• All reading should be in the same unit namely meters (M)

• Gradient = VI

HE

Example

Distance from A-B is 8cm, which gives us 4000m.

VI = 850 – 350

= 500M

GR = 500 / 4000

= 1 over 8

Or 1:8

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Demonstrate the ability to find direction and calculate bearings

Finding directions:

• Make use of sixteen compass directions.

• It is important to remember the feature from which you are measuring

• Step 1 : connect the two features with a light pencil

• Step 2 : Draw a neat cross, lined up with north, on the feature from

• Step 3 : find the direction

Example

What is the Direction of Vine from spring?

Calculate bearings

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 • Connect two points given with a straight line

• Put a compass on the point indicating “from”

• Use the protractor to measure the angle.

• Record the reading in three digits e.g. 0230

Identify landforms on maps using contours and symbols

Relief features on maps

• Slopes

• Steep

• Gentle

• Concave

• Convex

• Terraced

• Physical Landforms

• Conical hill

• Pointed hill

• Valley

• Spur

• Saddle

• Waterfall

Relief

Upland

• Mountain

• Hills

• Ridges – elongate and contours fills up on top

• Plateaus – flat on top

• Dissected plateau/plateau with submittal hills/rugged top

• Waterless plateau

Low land

• River valley

• Erosional plain

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Description of relief

E.G. Ridge/

• Give Direction of trend

• Give the width

• Give the length

• Give the lowest and highest point

• Drainage e.g. in plateau

Example

• ridge on the map trending from NE to SW

• Its 1300m above sea level

• 300m wide

Gentle and steep slope

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Terraced and waterfall

Convex and concave

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Terraced slope

Flat topped hill

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Conical hill

Spur

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Valley

Saddle

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Ridge

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Describe human activities in relation to the features on a map

Example of services:

• School – Education

• Hospital – Health services

• Post Office – Administration

• Police Station – Administration

• Railway station

• Place of worship – Religious service

• Golf course – recreation services

• Store

NB: Use the map key to identify these services!!!

Evidence of mining activities

• Mine dump/spoil heaps

• Excavations/mine quarries

• Mine (give a mine name e.g. Tsumeb mine)

• Digging

Examples of land use

• Building

• Cultivated land

• Woodland

• Row of trees

• Merch/vlei

• Perennial water

• Recreational ground

• Road/railway

• Build up areas/residential areas

• Power lines

• Wind pump

• Rifle range

• Excavation

Water sources

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• Wells

• Boreholes

• Dams/lakes

• Rivers

• Springs

• Reservoir

Evidence of pastoral/animal farming

• Dip tank

• Kraal

• paddocks(camps)

• Vetennary services

• abattoirs

Evidence of arable/crop farming

• Cultivation/ cultivated land

• Silos

• Furrows/canals

• Pivot irrigation(circular green patches)

• Wind mills/reservoirs/ many dams

Evidence of recreation

• Recreational ground

• Park

• Riffle range

• Hotel

• Museum

• Golf course

• Play ground

• Cycling tracks

• Sport ground

Climatic evidence

• dry climate

– Irrigation

– Dams

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 – Non perennial rivers

• Wet climate many perennial rivers

Vegetation

Large cultivation without irrigation

Locate features on a map using a co-ordinate reference system and be able to give and read four
and six figure grid references to locate places

Determining location

• Involves using Latitude and longitude and the answer must be given in degrees (°), minutes (‘) and
seconds (“).

• We first give the latitude in Namibia these are always south.

• Then we give the longitude in Namibia these are always east.

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