+++++2. FM

ELE 324
Telecommunication Theory I
Frequency Division Multiplexing,

Angle Modulation
Cenk Toker
Hacettepe University
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 1

Frequency Translation
 Let us «upconvert» s1(t) at f1 to a carrier frequency of f2, f2> f1
 Then, let the BPF select , i.e. fl is the difference between f2 and f1.
 To «downconvert» s2(t) at f2 back to s1(t) at f1, use the same block, but now the BPF selects
 HW: do the math.s.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 How can we transmit multiple messages over the same channel (cable, freq. band, etc.) simultaneously?
◦ Use Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
◦ Assume SSB (USB or LSB) is used as the modulation technique. If each modulated signal is separated by W from the
prev. and next one, there is no interference.
fc fc
fc+W fc+W
fc+(N-1)W fc+(N-1)W
|S(f)|
mN m2 m1 m1 m2 mN
f
-fc-NW -fc-(N-1)W -fc-2W -fc-W -fc fc fc+W fc+2W fc+(N-1)W fc+NW

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Example
 Telephone T1 system. LSB modulation LSB modulation
 Basic group: 12 voice channels 552 kHz

108 kHz 612 kHz 5
 Super group: 5 basic groups: 60 voice channels. 108 kHz 12 504 kHz
104 kHz 564 kHz 4
 Master group: 10 super groups: 600 voice chnl.s. 516 kHz 3
452 kHz
408 kHz
 Jumbo group: 6 master groups: 3600 voice chnl.s. 72 kHz 468 kHz 2
72 kHz 3 360 kHz
68 kHz 420 kHz 1
68 kHz 2 312 kHz
64 kHz
64 kHz 1 carrier
4 kHz 60 kHz freq.s of
Voice
groups Super
band carrier
0 Hz Basic group of 5
freq.s of
group of basic
voice
12 voice groups
channels
channels

Angle Modulation
 In angle modulation, the phase angle of the carrier wave changes with the message signal.
◦ Amplitude of an angle modulated wave is constant, Ac.

◦ Message is carried over the instantaneous phase angle θi(t).
◦ Angle modulation has better noise performance but it requires more bandwidth.
◦ Instantaneous frequency is
◦ Equivalently,
(we will use this in FM in a minute.)

Angle Modulation
 Two ways widely used to vary the instantaneous phase are
phase sensitivity
◦ 1. Phase Modulation (PM)
frequency sensitivity
◦ 2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Amplitude of s(t) is constant, Ac.

 Frequency, hence phase angle, and hence zero crossings, of s(t) are irregular.

Angle Modulation
Carrier wave
Message signal
DSB wave
PM wave
FM wave

Angle Modulation
 We may use a phase modulator to generate an FM wave, similarly, we may use a frequency modulator to
generate a PM wave.

Frequency Modulation (FM) - Spectrum
 Frequency modulation is a non-linear modulation process
 Spectral analysis of FM is difficult as compared to AM.

 For the sake of simplicity, let us first assume a single-tone message signal
then, the instantaneous frequency is
where is called the frequency deviation.

 Δf provides the maximum frequency deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the centre frequency
(note that -1≤cos(.)≤1)
 Δf is related to the amplitude of the message signal, Am, not its frequency, fm.

Frequency Modulation (FM) - Spectrum
 The instantaneous phase angle is
 Here is the modulation index, β represents the maximum phase deviation of the FM wave.
 Hence,
 The FM signal (for a single-tone message signal) is

(*)
 There are two cases of FM modulation

◦ 1. Narrowband FM (NBFM) (β: small, << 1 rad.)
◦ 2. Wideband FM (WBFM) (β: large, >> 1 rad.)

Narrowband FM
 Expanding Eq. (*) gives
 If we assume β<<1 rad. (NBFM)
then,
- NBFM
m(t) x +
s(t)
+
Accos(2πfct)
-90°
phase Osc.
Acsin(2πfct) shifter

Narrowband FM
 In-phase component is constant, message is over the quadrature component.

 Ideally, FM signal has a constant amplitude, and θi(t) is sinusoidal with the same freq. as m(t).
 However, s(t)
◦ has a non-constant envelope,
◦ θi(t) contains harmonics of fm (HW: calculate θi(t) of s(t))
 If β≤0.3, these effects become negligible.

Narrowband FM
 Express s(t) in the following form
 Compare this expression with the (single-tone) AM signal
μ: AM modulation index.
 The only difference is the sign of the last term. Hence, a NBFM signal requires the same transmission
bandwidth as the AM signal, i.e. 2fm (for a single-tone message signal)

Wideband FM
 Again, consider a single-tone message signal, but, now, β is arbitrary (can be >1 rad). Then
where the complex envelope is periodic with period 1/fm.

 Calculate the Fourier series expansion of 𝑠ǁ 𝑡
where

Wideband FM
 Let , then
where Jn(β) is the n-th order Bessel function of the first kind, i.e.
 Then, the complex envelope becomes
 Eventually, the FM signal is
with the Fourier transform

Wideband FM
 Some properties of Bessel functions:
 1. for n: even,
n: odd,
 2. for small β,
 3.
 Under these properties, we can make the following observations:

◦ 1. The spectrum of an FM signal contains a carrier component, and an infinite set of side frequencies located on both sides
of fc with frequencies seperations fm, 2fm, 2fm, …
◦ 2. For small β, only J0(β) and J1(β) are significant, so that FM signal has a carrier and side frequencies at fc ± fm. (i.e. NBFM)
◦ 3. Amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0(β). Amplitude and power of an FM signal must be
constant.
The average power of the FM signal is
This power is distributed among the carrier component and the side frequency components.

Wideband FM
 Example
Assume that the frequency of the modulating tone, fm, is fixed,

but its amplitude, Am, varies.
Note that, the frequency deviation is .
The amplitude spectrum of the FM wave for
is given on the right.

Wideband FM
 Example (cont.d)
Assume that the frequency of the modulating tone, fm, varies,

but its amplitude, Am, is fixed.
Note that, the frequency deviation is .
The amplitude spectrum of the FM wave for
is given on the right.
When Δf is fixed and β is increased, increasing number of

spectral lines are crowding the fixed interval
When β→∞, the bandwidth of FM wave approaches 2Δf.

Transmission Bandwidth of FM
 Theoretically an FM signal contains infinitely many side frequencies, hence it bandwidth is unlimited.
 However, in pratical sense, an FM signal is limited to a finite number of side frequencies. Hence, an FM
signal is effectively bandlimited.
 Consider single-tone modulation, side frequencies separated from the carrier more than Δf decay rapidly,
 For large β (WBFM), the bandwidth approaches 2Δf.
 For small β (NBFM), spectrum is effectively limited to the carrier fc and two side frequency components at
fc ± fm, i.e. the bandwidth is 2fm.
 Eventually, for the general case, the bandwidth of an single-tone modulated FM wave is
which is known as «Carson’s rule».

(Carson’s rule is derived from single-tone modulation, may not be accurate for an arbitrary message signal.)

 A more accurate definition for the bandwidth of FM is
◦ The separation between the two frequencies beyond which none of the side frequencies is greater than 1% of the
carrier amplitude obtained when the modulation is removed.
◦ That is,
where nmax is the largest n satisfying |Jn(β)|>0.01. Clearly, nmax depends on β.

Modulation index # of significant
β side freq.s Universal Curve
nmax
0.1 2
0.3 4
0.5 4
1 6
2 8
… …
30 70

 For an arbitrary message signal, m(t), let
then
but, infinite series expansion gives
and, eventually
 If m(t) is bandlimited to W, its integral, a(t), is also bandlimited to W.

 The spectrum of a2(t) is A(f)*A(f) and its bandwidth is 2W, and the bandwidth of an(t) is nW.
 Therefore, s(t) is not theoretically bandlimited but an(t) is scaled by .

 Consider an arbitrary message signal, m(t), with its highest frequency W. |M(f)|
 The transmission bandwidth is estimated by the worst-case single-tone

modulation analysis. That is, consider the tone of m(t) at W.
 Define the «deviation ratio» as f
-W W
 Note that, deviation ratio is similar to the modulation index for single-tone modulation.
 Then, we can use Carson’s rule by replacing β by D, and fm by W
or, use the universal curve to estimate the transmission bandwidth.

 Note that, Carson’s rule underestimates the bandwidth, whereas the universal curve may yield
conservative results.

 Example
In North America, maximum frequency deviation Δf is fixed at 75 kHz (±75 kHz → 150 kHz) for commercial
FM broadcasting.
If we take W=15 kHz, which is the typical maximum audio frequency of interest in FM broadcasting, the
deviation ratio is obtained as
Using Carson’s rule, the bandwidth is
whereas using the universal curve gives
Actually, the allocated bandwidth is 200 kHz.

Generation of FM Signals
 There two basic methods: Indirect FM and Direct FM
 Indirect FM:
◦ First generate a NBFM signal
◦ Use frequency multiplication to increase the frequency deviation
 Direct FM:
◦ Frequency of the carrier wave is directly varied with the message signal.

Generation of FM Signals (Indirect FM)
 Indirect FM:
◦ Message signal is first integrated, then used to phase modulate a carrier wave (generated by an oscillator)
◦ The maximum phase deviation (or modulation index β) is kept small, resulting in an NBFM signal,
◦ This NBFM signal is next pass through a Frequency Multiplier to produce the WBFM signal.
Baseband
Narrowband FM wave
signal Frequency
Integrator phase
multiplier
modulator
Oscillator
 Frequency Multiplier consists of a nonlinear device followed by a BPF

FM signal s(t) FM signal s (t)
with freq. fc Nonlinear BPF with freq. n fc
and modulation device (fo = n fc) and modulation
index β index nβ

 Let the input-output relation of the nonlinear device be represented by
a polynomial of order n; ({ai} are some constants)
 Input to the nonlinear device is the NBFM signal, s(t),
with instantaneous frequency, fi(t), FM signal s(t)

with freq. fc Nonlinear BPF
FM signal s (t)
with freq. n fc
and modulation device (fo = n fc) and modulation
index β index nβ
 After the BPF (with a centre freq. fo = nfc), we have a new FM signal, s’(t),
with instantaneous frequency, fi’(t),

 Example
We want to generate an FM signal at 100 MHz with a min. freq. Deviation of Δf = 75 KHz, by using an audio
signal with . We will use a two stage generator, and to limit the harmonic distortion
we will use a narrowband phase modulator with β1 ≤ 0.3. Find n1, n2 and f2.
Baseband
Narrowband Frequency Frequency FM wave
signal
Integrator phase multiplier X multiplier
modulator n1 n2
Oscillator Oscillator
f1 = 0.1 MHz f2 = 9.5 MHz
 Let β1 = 0.2, then  That is,

Solve together
for n1 and n2
 To obtain Δf = 75 KHz, we need an expansion of  Furthermore, assuming n2 f2 > n1 n2 f1
(-)
 3 kHz x 3750 = 75 kHz √, but 0.1 MHz x 3750 = 375 MHz X

◦ n1≠ 3750, then n1 x n2 = 3750 (+)

At the output of the At the output of the 1st At the output of At the output of the 2nd
phase modulator frequency multiplier the mixer frequency multiplier
fc 0.1 MHz 7.5 MHz 2.0 MHz 100 MHz
Δf 20 Hz 1.5 kHz 1.5 kHz 75 kHz

Generation of FM Signals (Direct FM)
 Direct FM
 The instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is varied directly with the message signal by means of a
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
 For example, Hartley Oscillator
The oscillator oscillates at
For a sinusoidal message signal with frequency fm
with the unmodulated carrier frequency

A fixed capacitor Co in parallel with
a varactor whose capacitance change
with the low-pass voltage applied accross it for ΔC small

 A possible setup for generating WBFM with VCO is the following:
 Frequency of oscillators typically drift with time and/or temperature. The carrier frequency at the output
may not be stable but slowly change with time.
 Solution: Use a highly stable oscillator with feedback for frequency correction.

 At the mixer output, the difference frequency gives the frequency error in fc wrt. the crystal oscillator.
 Frequency discriminator converts the frequency error to a voltage level.
 LPF smooths out the discriminator output giving a slowly varying correction signal to the VCO.
 If there is no drift in fc, error is zero hence the output of the LPF is zero, meaning no correction is required.

Demodulation of FM Signals
 To recover the message signal m(t) from an FM wave, a frequency discriminator may be used.
 A frequency discriminator is a slope circuit followed by an envelope detector.

 An ideal slope circuit is characterised by

෪1 𝑓
 Let 𝐻 be the complex transfer function of 𝐻1 𝑓

 The FM signal, s(t), is
with the complex envelope
and
 Remember that
hence

 Therefore,
 Note that both the amplitude and also frequency of s1(t) varies with m(t).
 However, if , we may use an envelope detector to recover the amplitude only
 The bias (the constant term) may be removed by using a second circuit with transfer function, H2(f),

 Then, the output of the second circuit becomes
 Eventually,

 Realisation of the above circuit
tuned envelope detectors

filters + LPF
 Tuned filters are BPFs with centre frequency higher/lower than fc as shown in the spectrum above.
 Their combined behaviour provides a linear region around fc.
 Width of the linear region depends on the separation of the centre frequencies. A separation of 3B gives
good results.
 FM wave is not zero outside , hence there may be distortion at high frequency
components.

FM Stereo Multiplexer
 Stereo multiplexing (of L and R channels) is used in commercial FM radio broadcasting.
 FM signals must be compatible with monophonic receivers (single channel, e.g. L+R) also.
Baseband signal for

an FM modulator
(L+R) around 0 Hz (L-R) DSB modulated pilot signal at

around 38 Hz 19 kHz
used for coherent
(fc = 19 kHz) detection

Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is a negative feedback system which can be used for synchronization, frequency
division/multiplication and FM demodulation.
 A PLL is composed of; a multiplier, a loop filter, and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
v(t): VCO input

r(t): VCO output
 VCO generates a sinusoidal signal with a frequency depending on the voltage applied to its input.
 When the control voltage is zero,
◦ VCO frequency is fc,
◦ VCO output has a 90o phase-shift wrt the unmodulated carrier wave.

 Assume that the FM wave is
where
 Let the VCO output be
with a control voltage v(t) applied to the VCO input. Then
where kv is the frequency sensitivity of the VCO.
 The objective of the PLL is to generate a VCO output, r(t), that has the same phase angle (except for a fixed 90o
shift) as the input FM wave, s(t).
 We wish to recover 𝜙1 𝑡 in order to estimate m(t).

 Nonlinear Model of the PLL
 Multiplication of s(t) and r(t) produces
◦ 1. A high-frequency component
◦ 2. A low-frequency component
where km is the multiplier gain (in 1/Volts).
 Loop filter is a LPF, therefore we may ignore the high frequency components in e(t), i.e.
where φe(t) is the phase error
 Eventually, the output of the loop filter is
where h(t) is the impulse response of the loop filter.

 Then, we get the integro-differential equation
where Ko = kmkvAcAv is the loop gain.

 This equation can be modeled by the following block diagram
 This is an almost linear system with the exception of «sin(.)» block. The «sin(.)» block makes it difficult to
analyse the system.

 Linear(ised) model of the PLL
 We know that for small α, sin(α) ≈ α, hence we can replace sin(φe(t)) ≈ φe(t), if the error is small.
 For small phase error, φe(t), the loop is said to be near phase-lock.
 Eventually,
which can be modeled by

 In the frequency domain
where , and H(f) is the Fourier transform of h(t).
 If L(f) is very large then , and it is said that phase lock is established.
◦ L(f) is large when the loop gain Ko is large enough!

 Note that,
(remember: φ1(t) is the phase of the FM wave.)
 Again, with |L(f)|>>1
and
If |L(f)|>>1, the PLL can be

but , hence
modeled as a differentiator.
 That is, when the loop operates in its phase-locked mode, v(t) is approximately the same as m(t).

 The complexity of PLL is determined by H(f) of the loop filter.
◦ The simplest form is obtained when H(f)=1, i.e. a first order filter.
 Loop gain parameter Ko controls both the loop bandwidth as well as the hold-in frequency range
(frequencies for which the loop remains phase-locked to the input signal.)

Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems
 Consider a communication system with the input-output relation
where vi(t): input, vo(t): output. For example, nonlinearity due to power amplifiers.
 If the input is an FM signal
then
 Observe the harmonics at 2fc and 3fc.
 With a suitable (?) BPF, the fundamental term can be extracted.

Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems
 Using Carson’s rule, the bandwidth of the fundamental component and the second harmonic can be
calculated. These two must not overlap for a distortion-free reception
lower end of upper end of

2nd harmonic the fundamental
 Thus using a BPF, the output becomes
 Unlike AM, FM is insensitive to system (amplitude) nonlinearities! However, FM is extremely sensitive to

phase nonlinearities.

+++++2. FM

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+++++2. FM

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ELE 324

Frequency Division Multiplexing,

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 1

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 2

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 3

 Basic group: 12 voice channels 552 kHz

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 4

◦ Amplitude of an angle modulated wave is constant, Ac.

(we will use this in FM in a minute.)

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 5

 Amplitude of s(t) is constant, Ac.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 6

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 7

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 8

 Spectral analysis of FM is difficult as compared to AM.

then, the instantaneous frequency is

where is called the frequency deviation.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 9

 The FM signal (for a single-tone message signal) is

 There are two cases of FM modulation

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 10

 If we assume β<<1 rad. (NBFM)

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 11

 In-phase component is constant, message is over the quadrature component.

 If β≤0.3, these effects become negligible.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 12

 Compare this expression with the (single-tone) AM signal

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 13

where the complex envelope is periodic with period 1/fm.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 14

 Then, the complex envelope becomes

 Eventually, the FM signal is

with the Fourier transform

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 15

 Under these properties, we can make the following observations:

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 16

Assume that the frequency of the modulating tone, fm, is fixed,

is given on the right.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 17

Assume that the frequency of the modulating tone, fm, varies,

is given on the right.

When Δf is fixed and β is increased, increasing number of

When β→∞, the bandwidth of FM wave approaches 2Δf.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 18

which is known as «Carson’s rule».

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 19

where nmax is the largest n satisfying |Jn(β)|>0.01. Clearly, nmax depends on β.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 20

but, infinite series expansion gives

 If m(t) is bandlimited to W, its integral, a(t), is also bandlimited to W.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 21

 The transmission bandwidth is estimated by the worst-case single-tone

or, use the universal curve to estimate the transmission bandwidth.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 22

Using Carson’s rule, the bandwidth is

whereas using the universal curve gives

Actually, the allocated bandwidth is 200 kHz.

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 23

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 24

 Frequency Multiplier consists of a nonlinear device followed by a BPF

C. Toker ELE 324 - TELECOMMUNICATION THEORY I 25

 Input to the nonlinear device is the NBFM signal, s(t),

with instantaneous frequency, fi(t), FM signal s(t)

with instantaneous frequency, fi’(t),