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Module 1
1. What is IOT? discuss the evolutionary phase of the
internet with neat diagram. (6M) (OR) Explain the different
evolutionary phases of the Internet (6M). (OR) What is IOT?
Explain Genesis of IOT, with a neat diagram. (8M)
IoT is a technology transition in which devices will allow us to sense and control
the physical world by making objects smarter and connecting them through an
intelligent network. When objects and machines can be sensed and controlled
remotely across a network, a tighter integration between the physical world and
computers is enabled. This allows for improvements in the areas of efficiency,
accuracy, automation, and the enablement of advanced applications. It is an
umbrella of various concepts, protocols, and technologies.
In simple terms, the Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that makes
everyday objects smart by connecting them to the internet. This allows
these objects to sense and share information, making them more efficient
and enabling new applications.

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 a. Connectivity (Digitize access): This phase connected people to email, web
services, and search so that information is easily accessed.
b. Networked Economy (Digitize business): This phase enabled e-
commerce and supply chain enhancements along with collaborative
engagement to drive increased efficiency in business processes.
c. Immersive Experiences (Digitize interactions): This phase extended the
Internet experience to encompass widespread video and social media while
always being connected through mobility. More and more applications are moved
into the cloud.
d. Internet of Things (Digitize the world): This phase is adding connectivity to
objects and machines in the world around us to enable new services and
experiences. It is connecting the unconnected.
2. List the difference b/w operation and information
technology with their challenges. (6M) (OR) Compare IT and
OT Networks with different criterion. (8M)

Sl.no Operational Technology (OT) Information Technology (IT)

Focus on physical operational Focus on the secure flow of data

1 systems, monitors and controls across an organization, supports
devices and processes. connections to the Internet.

Responsible for industrial

equipment, SCADA (Supervisory Responsible for information
2
control and data aqvisation) systems (email, databases, etc.).
systems.

Manage computers, data, and

3 Keep business operating 24x7.
employee communication securely.

Priorities: Availability, Integrity, Priorities: Security, Integrity,

4
Security. Availability.

Monitors and controls types of

Monitors and controls voice, video,
5 data related to industrial
transactional, and bulk data.
processes.

Controlled physical access to Devices and users authenticated to

6
devices. the network.

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 IT disruption can be business-
OT network disruption directly
7 impacting, with workarounds
impacts business.
possible depending on the industry.

Network upgrades during Network upgrades often require

8 operational maintenance outage windows, impact can be
windows. mitigated.

Security vulnerabilities are high,

Security vulnerabilities are low
continual patching is required, and
9 due to network isolation and
the network is connected to the
proprietary protocols.
Internet.

Challenges Of IOT

1. Security: Protecting data and devices from unauthorized access is a top

challenge in IoT, as the vast amount of information generated poses privacy
risks.
2.
Interoperability: Ensuring that different IoT devices can seamlessly
communicate is crucial. Lack of universal standards can hinder integration
across various ecosystems.
3.
Scalability: As the number of connected devices grows, there is a need for
scalable network infrastructure and efficient device management to prevent
congestion and complications.
4.
Power Consumption: Optimizing energy use in battery-operated IoT
devices is essential for prolonging their lifespan. Balancing performance with
energy efficiency is a key consideration.
5.
Data Management and Privacy: Handling the sheer volume of data
generated by IoT devices and addressing privacy concerns are challenges.
Efficient data management and a balance between data collection and user
privacy are essential.
3. Explain the M2M IOT architecture with neat Diagram.(8M)
(OR) Explain One M2M IoT standard Architecture, with a neat
diagram. (10M)

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 The oneM2M architecture for IoT breaks down into three layers:

Application Layer:

Focuses on connecting devices to applications.

Defines protocols for device-to-application communication.

Standardizes APIs for interaction with business intelligence systems.

Represents industry-specific applications as vertical entities.

Services Layer:

Provides a horizontal framework across different industry applications.

Includes the physical network, management protocols, and hardware.

Examples include backhaul communications through cellular networks.

Enhances interoperability between various industry applications.

Network Layer:

Deals with communication between IoT devices and endpoints.

Involves devices and the communication network linking them.

Utilizes technologies like wireless mesh (e.g., IEEE 802.15.4) and point-
to-multipoint (e.g., IEEE 801.11ah).

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 Handles the transmission of data between devices in the IoT ecosystem.

In essence, oneM2M provides a structured approach to make IoT devices and

applications work seamlessly together, promoting standardization and efficiency
across different industries.
4. Discuss the significant challenges and problems facing
by IOT. (5M) (OR) Explain the different challenges of IOT.(4M)
(OR) Explain different challenges faced by IOT. (4M)
Scale

IT Networks: Can be large in scale.

OT Networks: Can be several orders of magnitude larger, emphasizing

the extensive deployment of devices in operational environments.

Security

IoT Security Challenges:

Connectivity expansion increases the threat surface.

Compromised devices pose risks to overall connectivity.

Hacked devices can be used as launching points for broader attacks.

Security is a complex issue as more devices and systems become

interconnected.

Privacy

Data Sensitivity:

Sensors in IoT gather data specific to individuals and activities.

Data ranges from health information to shopping patterns.

Privacy concerns arise due to the personalized nature of the data.

Data collected has monetary value.

Big Data and Data Analytics

Data Deluge:

IoT generates a massive amount of data from numerous sensors.

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 Efficient processing of this data is crucial for obtaining insights.

Challenge lies in evaluating vast amounts of data arriving from

diverse sources in a timely manner.

Interoperability

IoT Standards:

Various protocols and architectures compete for market share and

standardization.

Some protocols are proprietary, while others are open.

Interoperability challenges arise from the diversity of standards within

the IoT ecosystem.
5. With neat diagram explain the simplified IOT architecture.
(8M)

Core IoT Layers:

Every IoT model includes "things," a communications network, and

applications.

Unlike other models, this framework separates core IoT and data
management into parallel stacks for a closer look at functions at each
stage.

Functional Stack:

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 The Core IoT Functional Stack simplifies the IoT architecture into three
layers for foundational understanding.

Network Communications Layer:

Involves various technologies to consolidate data from diverse IoT

sensors.

Includes gateway and backhaul technologies to bring data back to a

central location for analysis.

Applications and Analytics:

Unlike typical IT networks, IoT applications and analytics aren't confined

to a data center or the cloud.

Due to IoT's unique challenges, applications and data management are

tiered throughout the architecture for data collection, analytics, and
intelligent controls.

Data Management Layers:

Three layers align with the Core IoT Functional Stack:

Edge Layer: Data management within sensors.

Fog Layer: Data management in gateways and transit networks.

Cloud Layer: Data management in the cloud or central data center.

In essence, this model simplifies IoT understanding by breaking it down into

three foundational layers, offering better visibility into network and application
functions. It also highlights the tiered approach of deploying applications and
data management across the architecture to address the unique challenges of
IoT.
6. Describe the fog layer as the IOT data management and
computer stack with neat diagram and fog computing
characteristics. (7M) (OR) What is Fog Node? Explain
Characteristics of FOG computing Model. (5M) Repeated

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 Challenges with IoT Data Analysis

Minimizing Latency: Need for quick data processing.

Conserving Network Bandwidth: Limited bandwidth in last-mile IoT

networks.

Increasing Local Efficiency: Enhancing performance and reliability

locally.

Data-Related Problems

Limited bandwidth in last-mile IoT networks.

High latency.

Unreliable network backhaul from the gateway.

High volume of data transmitted over the backhaul.

Expanding volumes of big data.

Solution: Distribute Data Management

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 Bring data management closer to the edge of the IP network.

Fog computing is a key approach where any device with computing,

storage, and network connectivity can act as a fog node.

Advantages of Fog Computing

Fog nodes allow intelligence gathering and control from the closest
possible point.

Better performance over constrained networks.

Fog services operate close to IoT endpoints, reducing the volume of data
sent upstream.

Contextual awareness of sensors improves distributed analytics.

Results in significantly reduced data sent to application and analytics

servers in the cloud.

A fog node is a fundamental component of the fog computing model. Fog

computing is an extension of cloud computing that brings computational
capabilities closer to the edge of the network, near the data sources and end-
users. Fog nodes are responsible for processing, managing, and analyzing
data locally, reducing the need to send all data to centralized cloud servers.

Characteristics of Fog Computing

Contextual Location Awareness and Low Latency

Fog nodes are placed close to IoT endpoints for quick and distributed
computing.

Focus on delivering low-latency responses and being aware of the

location context.

Geographic Distribution

Fog computing demands widespread deployment of services and

applications.

This distribution is essential to cater to the needs of various fog

nodes.

Deployment Near IoT Endpoints

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 Fog nodes are typically placed where there's a large number of IoT
endpoints.

Deployment is strategic, ensuring proximity to the devices they serve.

Wireless Communication

Fog computing is most advantageous when dealing with a large

number of endpoints.

Wireless communication is preferred for scalability and ease,

although wired connections are possible.

Use for Real-time Interactions

Fog computing is ideal for applications requiring real-time

interactions.

Pre-processing of data in fog nodes enables upper-layer applications

to perform batch processing on a subset of the data.

Emphasis on responsiveness and handling real-time tasks rather

than batch processing.
7. Define IOT. Explain in detail IOT and digitization. (6M)
IoT is a technology transition in which devices will allow us to sense and control
the physical world by making objects smarter and connecting them through an
intelligent network. When objects and machines can be sensed and controlled
remotely across a network, a tighter integration between the physical world and
computers is enabled. This allows for improvements in the areas of efficiency,
accuracy, automation, and the enablement of advanced applications. It is an
umbrella of various concepts, protocols, and technologies.
In simple terms, the Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that makes
everyday objects smart by connecting them to the internet. This allows
these objects to sense and share information, making them more efficient
and enabling new applications.

Detail IOT and digitization:

a. IoT Connectivity:

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 IoT is about linking objects and machines to a computer network, like the
Internet.

b. Impactful Data Analysis:

Analyzing IoT data can lead to significant changes in product displays

and advertising locations.

c. Digitization Definition:

Digitization involves connecting "things" with their generated data and

deriving business insights.
d. IoT and Digitization:

In IoT, digitization converts information into a digital format, bringing

together things, data, and business processes for relevant and valuable
networked connections.

e. Digitization as a Differentiator:

Digitization sets businesses apart, and IoT plays a key role in enabling
this digitization.

Example: “Nest” home automation

The sensors determine desired climate settings and other smart objects,
such as smoke alarms, video cameras, and other third-party devices. The
devices and their functions are managed and controlled together and
could provide the holistic experience.
Smart objects and increased connectivity drive digitization, and thus many
companies, countries, and governments are embracing this growing trend.
8. Explain in detail with any two example IOT impact. (8M)
Connected Roadways:
Overview:

Connected roadways involve integration between vehicles and the

transportation infrastructure.

Automobiles are equipped with numerous sensors, becoming IP-enabled

for communication with both internal and external systems.

Challenges Addressed:

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 i) Safety:

IoT Contribution: Connected vehicle technologies empower drivers to

anticipate potential crashes.

Outcome: Significant reduction in the number of lives lost through

enhanced safety tools.

ii) Mobility:

IoT Contribution: Connected vehicle mobility applications provide

informed decision-making for system operators and drivers.

Outcome: Reduction in travel delays and improved traffic flow.

iii) Environment:

IoT Contribution: Connected vehicle environmental applications offer real-

time information for "green" transportation choices.

Outcome: Enhanced awareness for travelers to make eco-friendly

transportation decisions.

Example: Google’s Self-Driving Car:

IoT Integration: Bidirectional data exchanges enable self-driving vehicles

to interact with the transportation system and provide crucial data to
riders.

Impact: Improved communication and data sharing for a more seamless

and informed driving experience.

Smart Connected Buildings:

Function of Buildings:

Buildings aim to provide a comfortable, efficient, and safe work

environment for occupants.

Intelligent Systems:

Fire Alarm and Suppression System: Carefully managed for worker

safety.

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 HVAC Control: Sensors influence the building management system's
control of air flow for temperature regulation.

Digital Ceiling:

Definition: Combines various building networks (lighting, HVAC, blinds,

CCTV, security) into a single IP network.

Technology: Every lighting fixture is directly network attached.

Benefits:

Enhanced control and efficiency with a centralized, networked approach.

IoT technologies contribute to smarter, safer, and more energy-efficient

buildings.

In summary, both connected roadways and smart connected buildings

leverage IoT technologies to address challenges, enhance safety and
efficiency, and provide innovative solutions for transportation and workplace
environments.
9. Explain in detail IOT World Forum (IOTWF) Standard
Architecture (8M)

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 Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer:

Description: Home to IoT "things," including endpoint devices and

sensors.

Role: Sends and receives information from the physical environment.

Layer 2: Connectivity Layer:

Description: Focuses on reliable and timely data transmission.

Functions:

Communications between Layer 1 Devices.

Reliable Delivery of Information across the Network.

Switching and Routing.

Translation between Protocols.

Network Level Security.

Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer:

Description: Emphasis on data reduction and converting network data for

storage and processing.

Functions:

Evaluate and Reformat Data for Higher-Level Processing.

Filter Data to Reduce Traffic for Higher-Level Processing.

Assess Data for Alerting, Notification, or Other Actions.

Layer 4: Data Accumulation Layer:

Function: Captures and stores data for usability by applications.

Role: Converts event-based data to query-based processing.

Layer 5: Data Abstraction Layer:

Functions:

Reconciles Multiple Data Formats.

Ensures Consistent Semantics from Various Sources.

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 Confirms Data Set Completeness.

Consolidates Data Using Virtualization.

Layer 6: Applications Layer:

Function: Interprets data using software applications.

Applications:

Monitoring.

Control.

Report Generation.

Layer 7: Collaboration and Processes Layer:

Functions:

Consumes and Shares Application Information.

Collaborates on and Communicates IoT Information.

Impact: Changes business processes, delivering IoT benefits.

10. Explain expanded view of the simplified IOT Architecture.
(8M)

Communications Layer Sub-Layers:

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 1. Access Network Sub-Layer:

Role: Represents the last mile of the IoT network.

Description: Involves technologies like 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and

LoRa.

Function: Connects IoT devices to the network.

2. Gateways and Backhaul Sub-Layer:

Role: Common communication system organizer.

Description: Multiple smart objects are organized around a common

gateway.

Function: Forwards collected information through a longer-range

backhaul to a central station.

3. IP Transport Sub-Layer:

Function: Implements network and transport layer protocols (e.g., IP,

UDP).

Role: Supports diverse devices and media for successful

communication.

4. Operations and Management Sub-Layer:

Functions:

Ensures smooth operations of the IoT network.

Manages configurations and monitors performance.

Addresses security concerns and ensures reliability.

Applications Layer:

Differentiation from Enterprise Networks:

IoT Emphasis:

Strong emphasis on big data analytics.

Not solely about device control but extracting valuable insights

from generated data.

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 Components of Applications Layer:

Analytics Component:

Emphasis on processing and interpreting vast amounts of data.

Involves techniques like machine learning for predictive

analytics.

IoT Control System Components:

Industry-specific control systems for managing and influencing

IoT devices.

Combines control functionalities with analytics for informed

decision-making.

Message Stressed:

Purpose of IoT:

Not just device control but extracting useful insights from

generated data.

Emphasis on leveraging data for informed decision-making and

improvements.

In summary, the Communications Layer of IoT networks comprises sub-layers

such as Access Network, Gateways and Backhaul, IP Transport, and Operations
and Management. On the other hand, the Applications Layer in IoT networks
stands out from traditional enterprise networks, focusing heavily on big data
analytics and combining analytics with industry-specific IoT control system
components for valuable insights and informed decision-making.
11. What is Fog Node? Explain Characteristics of FOG
computing Model. (5M) Repeated
A fog node is a fundamental component of the fog computing model. Fog
computing is an extension of cloud computing that brings computational
capabilities closer to the edge of the network, near the data sources and end-
users. Fog nodes are responsible for processing, managing, and analyzing
data locally, reducing the need to send all data to centralized cloud servers.
Characteristics:

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 1. Contextual Location Awareness and Low Latency:

Simple Explanation: The fog node (a part of fog computing) is placed very
close to where the Internet of Things (IoT) devices are. This helps in quick
and nearby processing of information, reducing delays.

2. Geographic Distribution:

Simple Explanation: Fog computing is different from a centralized cloud. It

spreads its services and applications across various locations instead of
having everything in one central place.

3. Deployment Near IoT Endpoints:

Simple Explanation: Fog nodes are usually set up where there are many
IoT devices. For example, in systems that measure things like electricity
usage, there might be thousands of devices connected to a fog node.

4. Wireless Communication Between Fog and IoT Endpoint:

Simple Explanation: Fog nodes and IoT devices communicate without

using physical wires. This is beneficial when dealing with a large number of
devices, and wireless connections are an easy way to handle such a large
scale.

5. Use for Real-Time Interactions:

Simple Explanation: Fog computing is best for applications that need things
to happen quickly, in real-time. The fog node does some initial processing of
data, making it faster for the applications to respond, rather than waiting to
process everything all at once.
12. Illustrate various access technologies with respect to
distances in core IoT functional stack. (5M)
A. "Things" Layer:

Description: Physical devices that must adapt to the deployment

environment while providing necessary information.

Architectural Considerations: Design constraints for devices in various

environments.

B. Communications Network Layer:

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 Description: Facilitates communication when smart objects need to
interact with an external system, often using wireless technology.

Sublayers:

C. Access Network Sublayer:

Description: Last mile of the IoT network, typically wireless

(e.g., 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, LoRa) with potential for wired
sensors.

D. Gateways and Backhaul Network Sublayer:

Description: Organizes smart objects around a common

gateway, forwarding collected information through a longer-range
backhaul to a central station. Acts as a Layer 7 (application)
function and a router on IP networks.

E. Network Transport Sublayer:

Description: Implements network and transport layer protocols

(e.g., IP, UDP) to support diverse devices and media.

F. IoT Network Management Sublayer:

Description: Employs additional protocols (e.g., CoAP, MQTT)

for headend applications to exchange data with sensors.

G. Application and Analytics Layer:

Description: Upper layer where applications process collected data,

control smart objects, and make intelligent decisions.

Functionality:

Analyzes data to control smart objects.

Makes intelligent decisions based on collected information.

Instructs "things" or other systems to adapt to analyzed conditions by

changing behaviors or parameters.

In summary, the "Things" layer involves physical devices tailored to the

deployment environment. The Communications Network Layer, with its
sublayers, ensures effective communication between smart objects and external

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 systems, employing wireless technologies, gateways, backhaul networks, and
transport protocols. The upper layer, Application and Analytics, processes data
for intelligent decision-making and instructs devices to adapt accordingly.

Module 2
1. Define sensors. List the different categories of the
sensors. (5M) (OR) List and explain different types of sensors
(any 8) with an example each. (8M) (OR) Explain any 5 ways to
group sensors into different categories. (5M) Repeated
Sensors are devices or instruments that detect and measure physical properties,
environmental conditions, or changes in those conditions and convert this
information into signals or data that can be interpreted, displayed, or recorded.

The different categories of the sensors are

Active or Passive

Active Sensors: These sensors produce an energy output and usually

need an external power supply to function.

Passive Sensors: These sensors receive energy and typically do not

require an external power supply.

Invasive or Non-Invasive

Invasive Sensors: These are part of the environment they measure,

physically interacting with it.

Non-Invasive Sensors: These are external to the environment, not

physically interfering with it.

Contact or No-Contact

Contact Sensors: These require physical contact with the object or

substance being measured.

No-Contact Sensors: These can measure without direct physical

contact.

Absolute or Relative

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 Absolute Sensors: Measure on an absolute scale, providing
information without reference to another value.

Relative Sensors: Measure based on a difference with a fixed or

variable reference value.

Area of Application

Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical

where they are used, such as automotive, medical, industrial, etc.
How Sensors Measure
Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism they use
to measure sensory input, such as thermoelectric, electrochemical,
piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic, etc.

What Sensors Measure

Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or the physical
variables they measure, like temperature, pressure, light, sound, etc.
2. Describe the different sensor types with an example any
8. (8M)

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 3. What is actuator and smart objects. Explain the different
characteristics of smart objects. (7M) (OR) What are smart
objects? With a neat diagram, explain characteristics of smart
object (8M) (OR) What is a Smart Object? Explain its
characteristics. (8M) Repeated
Actuator:
An actuator is a mechanical or electronic device that is responsible for
moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It receives signals from a
control system and converts them into physical action.

Smart Objects:
Smart objects refer to physical entities or devices that are embedded with
sensors, actuators, and communication capabilities, allowing them to interact
with the environment, collect data, and respond intelligently to changing
conditions. These objects are often part of the Internet of Things (IoT)
ecosystem, where they can communicate with each other and with a central
system to enable automation, monitoring, and control.

The different characteristics of smart objects.

1. Processing Unit:

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 What: A smart object has a brain (processing unit) to think and make
decisions.

Example: It's like a tiny computer inside a smart object that helps it
understand and respond to information.

Common Type: Microcontrollers, which are small, flexible, and not

too expensive.

2. Sensor(s) and/or Actuator(s):

What: Smart objects can sense things (sensors) or do things

(actuators) in the real world.

Example: Like a smart thermostat sensing the temperature (sensor)

or adjusting the heating (actuator).

Variety: Smart objects can have one or more sensors and/or

actuators, depending on their purpose.

3. Communication Device:

What: Smart objects can talk to each other or the outside world using
a communication device.

Example: It's like a smart object having a phone to share information

with other smart objects.

Common Connectivity: Often, smart objects are connected wirelessly

for reasons like cost and ease of use.

4. Power Source:

What: Smart objects need power to work, and the most power is
usually used for communication.

Example: It's like a smart object needing a battery to stay powered

and connected.

Challenges: Smart objects often have limited power, need to last a

long time, and might be in hard-to-reach places, so they need
efficient power management.
4. With neat diagram explain ZigBee IP protocol stack. (10M)

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 1. Purpose and Standards:

Purpose: ZigBee IP was created to align with open standards from the
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), including IPv6, 6LoWPAN (IPv6
over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks), and RPL (Routing
Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks).

Attributes: It's designed for low-bandwidth, low-power, and cost-effective

communication, especially for connecting smart objects.

2. Smart Energy (SE) Profile 2.0:

Context: ZigBee IP is a crucial component of the Smart Energy Profile

2.0 specification by the ZigBee Alliance.

Focus: SE 2.0 is targeted at applications like smart metering and

residential energy management systems.

Applicability: ZigBee IP can be used for any applications needing a

standards-based IoT (Internet of Things) stack.

3. Support for 6LoWPAN:

Adaptation Layer: ZigBee IP supports 6LoWPAN as an adaptation layer.

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 Requirements: It requires the support of 6LoWPAN's fragmentation and
header compression schemes.

4. Network Layer Features:

IPv6 Support: All ZigBee IP nodes support IPv6 at the network layer.

Additional Protocols: Support for ICMPv6 (Internet Control Message

Protocol for IPv6) and 6LoWPAN Neighbor Discovery (ND).

Routing Protocol: ZigBee IP nodes use RPL for routing packets across
the mesh network.
5. Define LoRaWAN explain LoRaWAN layers with neat
diagram. (10M)
LoRaWAN : Low-Power Wide-Area is adapted for long-range and battery-
powered endpoints

1. Standardization and Alliances:

LoRa Modulation: Semtech LoRa serves as the physical layer (Layer 1

PHY) modulation technology.

Differentiation: The term "LoRaWAN" is used by the LoRa Alliance to

refer to the overall architecture and specifications governing end-to-end
LoRaWAN communications and protocols.

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 2. Physical Layer:

Frequency Bands: LoRaWAN 1.0.2 regional specifications describe the

use of unlicensed sub-GHz frequency bands, including 433 MHz, 779–
787 MHz, 863–870 MHz, and 902–928 MHz.

Gateway Deployment: LoRa gateways are central hubs in a star network,

deployed with multiple transceivers and channels. They act as bridges,
relaying data between endpoints.

Simultaneous Demodulation: Gateways can demodulate multiple

channels at once or even demodulate multiple signals on the same
channel simultaneously.

3. MAC Layer:

LoRaWAN Classes:

Class A: Optimized for battery-powered nodes, allows bidirectional

communications. A node can receive downstream traffic after
transmitting.

Class B: Provides additional receive windows compared to Class A.

Gateways must be synchronized through a beaconing process.

Class C: Adapted for powered nodes, allowing continuous listening

by keeping the receive window open when not transmitting.

LoRaWAN messages, either uplink or downlink, have a PHY payload

composed of a 1-byte MAC header, a variable-byte MAC payload,
and a MIC that is 4 bytes in length.

The MAC payload size depends on the frequency band and the data
rate, ranging from 59 to 230 bytes for the 863–870 MHz band and 19
to 250 bytes for the 902–928 MHz band.

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 6. What are actuators? Explain comparison of sensors and
actuators functionality with human (4M).
Actuators:
An actuator is a mechanical or electronic device that is responsible for
moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It receives signals from a
control system and converts them into physical action.

Comparison of Sensors and Actuators Functionality with Human:

1. Sensors:

Human Analogy: Sensors can be compared to human senses (like

eyes, ears, skin).

Functionality Similarity:

Observation: Like human senses perceive the environment,

sensors detect and measure physical quantities or changes.

Data Input: Both provide data or information that is used to

understand and respond to the surroundings.

Feedback: Sensors offer a feedback mechanism, allowing a

system to adapt based on environmental changes.

2. Actuators:

Human Analogy: Actuators are akin to human muscles or limbs that

enable action.

Functionality Similarity:

Execution: Just as muscles execute movements based on

signals from the brain, actuators carry out physical actions based
on control signals.

Response: Actuators respond to the external environment or

system requirements by initiating specific movements or
changes.

Effecting Change: Similar to how muscles cause a change in

the body's position, actuators bring about changes in a

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 mechanical system.

Overall Comparison:

Human System Analogy: In a simplified analogy, sensors are

comparable to human senses, providing information about the
environment, while actuators are similar to muscles, executing actions
based on the received information.

Interconnected System: Similar to how the human body relies on the

integration of sensory input and muscular response for movement and
adaptation, automated systems use sensors to gather data and actuators
to carry out actions, creating a feedback loop for dynamic and
responsive behavior.
7. What is SANET? Explain some advantages and
disadvantages that a wireless based solution offers. (6M)
A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of
sensors that sense and measure their environment and/or actuators that act on
their environment.

Advantages:
 Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or
hard-to-reach places)
 Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
 Lower implementation costs
 Easier long-term maintenance
 Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
 Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes

Disadvantages:

 Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)

 Typically lower transmission speeds
 Greater level of impact/influence by environment

8. Briefly explain protocol stack utilization IEEE 802.15.4.

(8M)

Take it easy 30
 9. List and explain in brief communication criteria. (6M)
1. Range:

Short Range: Suitable for distances up to tens of meters, both wired and
wireless options are available. Examples of short-range wireless
technologies include IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.7 Visible
Light Communications (VLC).

Medium Range: The primary category for IoT access technologies,

covering distances from tens to hundreds of meters. IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi
is a notable example of a medium-range wireless technology.

Long Range: Applicable for distances greater than 1 mile, specifically

designed for battery-powered IoT sensors. Examples include 2G, 3G,
and 4G technologies.

2. Frequency Bands:

Wireless communications in IoT access technologies use both licensed

and unlicensed frequency bands.

Licensed spectrum is typically reserved for long-range access

technologies and is allocated to communication infrastructures deployed
by service providers, broadcasters, and utilities.

Well-known unlicensed ISM bands include the 2.4 GHz band used by
IEEE 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth, and IEEE 802.15.4
WPAN.

Take it easy 31
 3. Power Consumption:

Powered nodes have a direct connection to a power source, and

communications are not constrained by power consumption.

Deployment of powered nodes is limited by the availability of a power

source.

Battery-powered nodes offer more flexibility to IoT devices, and their

lifetimes are classified based on battery requirements.

IoT wireless access technologies need to address the challenge of low

power consumption and connectivity for battery-powered nodes.

The evolution of a new wireless environment, known as Low-Power

Wide-Area (LPWA), has emerged to meet the needs of low-power
devices.

In summary, these considerations highlight the diverse requirements of IoT

devices, ranging from short-range to long-range communication, utilizing various
frequency bands, and addressing power consumption challenges, especially for
battery-powered nodes. The information also touches on the evolution of LPWA
to meet the specific demands of low-power IoT devices.
10. List any two advantages of Wireless based solution.
Illustrate with a neat diagram, the interaction of Sensors and
Actuators, with the Physical World. (7M)
Advantages:
 Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or
hard-to-reach places)
 Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
 Lower implementation costs
 Easier long-term maintenance
 Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
 Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes

Take it easy 32
  Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically any measurable
variable in the physical world. They convert their measurements into electric
signals or digital representations that can be consumed by an intelligent agent.
Actuators, receive some type of control signal that triggers a physical effect,
usually some type of motion, force.
 IoT sensors are devices that sense and measure the physical world and signal
their measurements as electric signals sent to some type of microprocessor
or microcontroller for additional processing.
 A processor can send an electric signal to an actuator that translates the signal
into some type of movement (linear, rotational, and so on) or useful work that
changes or has a measurable impact on the physical world.
11. Explain the following key factors involved in connecting
smart objects to the network: i) Range ii) Frequency bonds.
(10M)
Range:

Short Range:

Examples: IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.7 Visible Light

Communications (VLC).

Tens of meters coverage.

Take it easy 33
 Alternative to serial cables.

Limited presence in IoT installations.

Medium Range:

Examples: IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and 802.15.4g

WPAN.

Tens to hundreds of meters coverage.

Wired technologies like IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and Narrowband Power

Line Communications (PLC) can be considered depending on
characteristics.

Generally less than 1 mile between devices.

Long Range:

Examples: Cellular (2G, 3G, 4G), outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, Low-
Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies.

Suitable for distances greater than 1 mile.

LPWA technologies ideal for battery-powered IoT sensors.

Industrial networks may use IEEE 802.3 over optical fiber and IEEE
1901 Broadband Power Line Communications but are not
considered IoT access technologies.

Frequency Bands:

Radio spectrum regulated by organizations like ITU and FCC.

Split between licensed and unlicensed bands.

Licensed spectrum for IoT long-range access technologies, allocated to

communication infrastructures by service providers, public services,
broadcasters, and utilities.

Unlicensed spectrum (ISM bands) defined by ITU for industrial, scientific,

and medical use.

Well-known ISM bands include 2.4 GHz (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.15.1

Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN.

Take it easy 34
 Sub-GHz bands used by IEEE 802.15.4, 802.15.4g, 802.11ah, and
LPWA technologies (e.g., LoRa, Sigfox).

Common sub-GHz ranges: 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz.

Examples of applications in the 868 MHz band: IEEE 802.15.4,

802.15.4g, 802.11ah, LoRaWAN.
12. Explain IEEE 802.15.4 IoT Access technology. (10M)
IEEE 802.15.4:
 IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data-rate
devices that are powered or run on batteries.
 This access technology enables easy installation using a compact protocol
stack while remaining both simple and flexible.
 IEEE 802.15.4 is commonly found in the following types of deployments:
o Home and building automation
o Automotive networks
o Industrial wireless sensor networks
o Interactive toys and remote controls
 Criticisms of IEEE 802.15.4 often focus on its MAC reliability, unbounded
latency, and susceptibility to interference and multipath fading.
 Interference and multipath fading occur with IEEE 802.15.4 because it lacks a
frequency-hopping technique
Standardization and Alliances :
 IEEE 802.15.4 or IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4 defines low-data-rate PHY and
MAC layer specifications for wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
 The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers are the foundations for several
networking protocol stacks.
 These protocol stacks make use of 802.15.4 at the physical and link layer
levels, but the upper layers are different.

Module 3
1. Explain the key advantages of IP suite for IOT. (6M) (OR)
Explain key advantages of Internet Protocol for the IOT. (8M)
(OR) Explain the key advantages of IP suite for IOT. (5M)
Repeated
Open and Standards-Based

Take it easy 35
 IoT benefits from standardized solutions for compatibility, security, and
management.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) sets standards for network
and transport layers.

Versatile

Many technologies can connect IoT devices, and IP can work with
various ones, making it a flexible choice.

Ubiquitous

Almost all devices, from computers to small sensors, use IP, ensuring
compatibility and integration.

Scalable

IP is proven to handle large-scale deployments, crucial for

accommodating the increasing number of IoT devices.

Manageable and Secure

IP networks have reliable management and security protocols, ensuring

smooth operations and data protection.

Stable and Resilient

IP has a long history of stability and resilience, proven in critical

infrastructures and services.

Consumers' Market Adoption

IP is the standard protocol connecting IoT devices to everyday devices

like smartphones and PCs.

Innovation Factor

IP has driven innovation for decades, supporting various applications and

technological advancements.

In essence, using IP for IoT ensures compatibility, flexibility, scalability, security,

and a foundation for innovation across various devices and applications.
2. With a neat diagram. Explain 6 LOWPAN with and without
header compression. (8M)

Take it easy 36
 Without Header Compression:

In the top half of Figure 3.4, a 6LoWPAN frame is depicted without any
header compression enabled.

The full IPv6 header (40 bytes) and UDP header (8 bytes) are visible.

The 6LoWPAN header is only a single byte in this uncompressed

scenario.

The presence of uncompressed headers leaves only 53 bytes for data

payload out of the 127-byte maximum frame size for IEEE 802.15.4.

With Header Compression Enabled:

The bottom half of Figure 3.4 illustrates a frame where header

compression has been enabled, representing a best-case scenario.

The 6LoWPAN header increases to 2 bytes to accommodate the

compressed IPv6 header.

The UDP header is reduced in half, from 8 bytes to 4.

Header compression significantly improves efficiency, allowing the

payload to more than double, increasing from 53 bytes to 108 bytes.

Take it easy 37
 It's highlighted that the 2-byte header compression is applicable to intra-
cell communications, while communications external to the cell may
require some fields of the header to remain uncompressed.
3. Explian 6 LOWPAN protocol header compression and
Fragmentation, with a neat diagram. (8M)

IPv6 Header Compression for 6LoWPAN

RFC 4944 and RFC 6282:

Definition: IPv6 header compression for 6LoWPAN is specified in

RFC 4944 and updated by RFC 6282.

Objective: This capability reduces the size of IPv6's 40-byte headers

and User Datagram Protocol (UDP's) 8-byte headers, potentially
compressing them to as low as 6 bytes combined in certain cases.

Fragmentation in IPv6
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit):

Requirement: For an IPv6 network, the MTU must be at least 1280

bytes.

Definition: MTU signifies the maximum size of the largest protocol

data unit that can be transmitted.

Mesh Addressing in 6LoWPAN

Functionality:

Take it easy 38
 Purpose: 6LoWPAN mesh addressing facilitates packet forwarding
over multiple hops.

Header Fields: Three fields are defined - Hop Limit, Source Address,
and Destination Address.

Hop Limit: Similar to IPv6's hop limit, it sets an upper limit on how
many times the frame can be forwarded. Each hop decreases this
value by 1. When it reaches 0, the frame is dropped and no longer
forwarded.
4. Describe CoAP ( Constrained Application Protocol ) message
format with neat diagram.(8M) (OR) Explain with neat diagram
Constrained Application Protocol (COAP) message format.
(8M)

a. CoAP Messaging Model over UDP:

CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) is designed for message exchange

primarily over UDP (User Datagram Protocol) between endpoints.

It also supports the secure transport protocol DTLS (Datagram Transport

Layer Security) for secure communication.

b. CoAP Message Structure:

A CoAP message consists of:

Short fixed-length Header field (4 bytes)

Variable-length but mandatory Token field (0–8 bytes)

Take it easy 39
 Options fields if necessary

Payload field

This format is designed to provide a low overhead while simultaneously

reducing parsing complexity.

Field Description Purpose

Ver (Version) Identifies the CoAP version. Allows for version identification.

Defines message type (CON, Specifies the nature of the CoAP

T (Type)
NON, ACK, RST). message.

TKL (Token Specifies size of the Token Determines the length of the Token
Length) field (0–8 Bytes). for correlation.

Indicates request method or Specifies the action or status

Code
response code. associated with the CoAP message.

Detects message duplication; Ensures reliable message delivery

Message ID matches ACK/RST to and matching for acknowledgment
CON/NON. and reset.

Enables correlation between CoAP

Correlates requests and
Token requests and corresponding
responses.
responses.

Extends functionality, e.g.,

Specifies option number,
Options specifying target resource or proxy
length, and value.
functions.

Carries CoAP application data Contains the actual application data

Payload
(optional). being transmitted (optional).

This table summarizes the key fields in a CoAP message, their descriptions, and
their respective purposes.
5. Explain MQTT ( Message Queuing Telemetry Transport ) message
format and its types with neat diagram. (8M)

Take it easy 40
 Field Description
Identifies the kind of MQTT
Message Type
packet within a message.
When set, indicates that the
DUP (Duplication packet has been sent
Flag) previously without
acknowledgment.
QoS (Quality of Allows selection of three
Service) different QoS levels.
Notifies the server to hold
Retain Flag
onto the message data.
Specifies the number of
Remaining
bytes in the MQTT packet
Length
following this field.
This table summarizes the MQTT header fields, their descriptions, and their
respective purposes.
6. Explain IOT Data Broker with an ex. (4M)
Take it easy
Purpose
Specifies one of fourteen different
types of control packets in MQTT.
Values 0 and 15 are reserved.
Allows the client to note that the packet
is a duplicate, helping in scenarios
where acknowledgments were not
received.
Determines the quality of service level
for message delivery. Levels include At
Most Once (QoS 0), At Least Once
(QoS 1), and Exactly Once (QoS 2).
Informs the server to retain the
message so that new subscribers can
instantly receive the last known value
without waiting for the next update from
the publisher.
Indicates the length of the remaining
variable header and payload, helping in
parsing the incoming MQTT packet.
41
 An IoT data broker is a piece of middleware that standardizes sensor output into
a common format that can then be retrieved by authorized applications.

Example: Smart Home Ecosystem

Imagine you have a smart home with various devices like a thermostat,
security camera, and smart lighting. These devices produce data. Now, think
of an IoT Data Broker as a middleman in your smart home:

1. Data Collection:

Devices like the thermostat and security camera generate data.

The Data Broker collects this data.

2. Organization:

The Data Broker organizes and makes sense of the data, putting it in
a standard format.

3. Sending to the Right Places:

It sends the temperature data to a weather app, video to a cloud

storage, and lighting preferences to a control app.

4. Compatibility:

Ensures that data from different devices can understand each other.

5. Security:

Takes measures to keep your data safe during its journey.

6. Efficiency:

Handles the increasing flow of data as you add more smart devices.

In short, the IoT Data Broker helps devices talk to each other by organizing,
translating, and directing their data, making your smart home work smoothly.
7. Explain the need for optimization. (8M)
Constrained Nodes:

1. Communication Challenges:

IoT nodes may struggle to communicate reliably, leading to issues

like limited data transfer and disruptions during changes in the

Take it easy 42
 network.

2. Power Consumption Concerns:

Battery-powered IoT devices have different lifespans. High-speed

technologies like Wi-Fi and cellular may not sustain multi-year
battery life. Power use affects how often devices can communicate.

3. Node Types:

Nodes are grouped based on capabilities:

Very constrained devices need the IP adaptation model, using

gateways.

Moderately powered devices may use an optimized IP stack or

go through gateways with IP or non-IP stacks.

Nodes with PC-like power but limited networking use a full IP

stack.

Constrained Networks:

1. Unique Characteristics:

Constrained networks use low-power, low-bandwidth links with

occasional packet delivery challenges.

2. Underreact to Failure:

In these networks, it's crucial to react cautiously to failures to prevent

network collapse. Minimizing control traffic preserves bandwidth, and
power use in battery devices must be considered.

IP Versions in IoT:

1. Transition to IPv6:

Due to limited IPv4 addresses, there's a shift to IPv6 over the last 20
years.

2. Dual IPv4 and IPv6 Support:

Both IPv4 and IPv6 are used in IoT to align with existing systems.
Techniques like tunneling ensure compatibility.

Take it easy 43
 3. Factors for IP Version Choice:

Application protocols, cellular tech, serial communications, and IPv6

adaptation layers influence IPv4 or IPv6 use. New tech usually
supports both, but older ones may rely on IPv4.
8. With a neat diagram, explain comparison of an IOT
protocol stack utilizing 6LOWPAN and IP protocol stack. (4M)

explain the above fig in own words

9. Write notes on Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

(SCADA) (6M)
For many years, different industries have developed specialized communication
protocols tailored to their specific needs. These protocols were often designed
and implemented during a time when serial link-based technologies, like RS-232
and RS-485, were prevalent. This led to the creation of Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) networking protocols, which were well-structured and
operated directly over serial physical and data link layers.
At a broad level, SCADA systems serve the purpose of collecting sensor data
and telemetry from remote devices, offering the added capability of controlling

Take it easy 44
 these devices. In today's networks, SCADA systems enable global, real-time,
data-driven decision-making to enhance various business processes.
While SCADA networks are present across multiple industries, they are
particularly prominent in utilities and manufacturing/industrial verticals. Within
these specific sectors, SCADA commonly employs specific protocols for
communication between devices and applications. For instance:

Modbus and Variants:

Usage: Industrial protocols facilitating the monitoring and programming

of remote devices through a master/slave relationship.

Applications: Found in building management, transportation, energy,

and various industrial applications.

DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol 3) and IEC 60870-5-101:

Usage: Predominantly employed in the utilities industry.

Applications: DNP3 and IEC 60870-5-101 are utilized for

communication between devices and systems in utility networks.

DLMS/COSEM and ANSI C12:

Usage: Commonly associated with advanced meter reading (AMR) in

the utilities sector.

Applications: DLMS/COSEM and ANSI C12 protocols play a role in

facilitating communication for accurate meter reading..
10. Explain in detail Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
(MQTT) publish/subscribe frame. (6M)

Take it easy 45
 1. An MQTT client can act as a publisher to send data (or resource information)
to an MQTT server acting as an MQTT message broker.

2. The MQTT server (or message broker) accepts the network connection along
with application message from the publishers.

3. The MQTT server also handles the subscription and unsubscribes process
and pushes the application data to MQTT clients acting as subscribers.

4. Clients can subscribe to all data (using a wildcard character) or specific data
from the information tree of a publisher.

5. The presence of a message broker in MQTT decouples the data

transmission between clients acting as publishers and subscribers.

6. A benefit of having this decoupling is that the MQTT message broker ensures
that information can be buffered and cached in case of network failures.
Publishers and subscribers do not have to be online at the same time.

7. MQTT control packets run over a TCP transport using port 1883. TCP
ensures an ordered, lossless stream of bytes between the MQTT client and
the MQTT server.

8. MQTT is a lightweight protocol because each control packet consists of a 2-

byte fixed header with optional variable header fields and optional payload.
Control packet can contain a payload up to 256 MB.

Take it easy 46
 11. Illustrate Routing Protocol for low Power and Lossy
Networks (RPL), with a neat diagram (7M) NOT DONE
12. Describe the Scheduling Management Mechanisms and
forwarding Models and Supported by 6 TiSCH. (10M) NOT
DONE
13. Explain the message format of the following protocols
with a neat diagram:
i) Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP).
ii) Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) (10M)
Repeated Q4 and Q5
Module 4
1. Explain in detail how iot data is categorized. (6M)
IoT (Internet of Things) data can be categorized in various ways based on
different criteria such as the nature of the data, its source, and its application.
Here are several common ways to categorize IoT data:

Based on Data Type

Structured Data: Data that is organized and follows a predefined data

model. It includes data stored in databases, tables, or spreadsheets.
Examples in IoT may include sensor readings in tabular formats.

Unstructured Data: Data that doesn't have a predefined data model or

is not organized in a specific way. This can include text, images, audio,
and video data. For example, video feeds from surveillance cameras or
voice recordings from smart home devices.

Based on Source

Sensor Data: Data collected directly from sensors embedded in IoT

devices. This can include temperature readings, humidity levels, motion
detection, and more.

Actuator Data: Information related to the actions performed by IoT

devices. For example, data indicating that a smart thermostat has
adjusted the temperature.

Take it easy 47
 Device Metadata: Information about the IoT devices themselves, such
as device ID, location, and status.

Based on Time Sensitivity

Real-time Data: Data that needs to be processed and acted upon

immediately. Examples include live sensor readings, monitoring critical
infrastructure, and real-time tracking.

Historical Data: Data that is stored for analysis and decision-making

over time. It includes archived sensor data, usage patterns, and trends.

Based on Purpose/Application

Operational Data: Data used for real-time monitoring and control of

devices and processes. For instance, monitoring the performance of
industrial machines.

Analytical Data: Data used for analysis and gaining insights. This can
include historical data, trends, and patterns used for predictive
maintenance or optimizing processes.

Based on Ownership and Access

Private Data: Data that is sensitive and owned by individuals or

organizations. This can include personal health information, financial
data, etc.

Public Data: Non-sensitive data that is publicly accessible or shared for

broader use. For example, weather data from public sensors.

Based on Location

Local Data: Data that is processed and stored locally on the IoT device.

Cloud Data: Data that is transmitted to and processed in the cloud. This
is common for applications that require centralized processing, analytics,
and storage.

Based on Security Sensitivity

Sensitive Data: Information that requires high levels of security and

protection. This includes personal identification information, financial
data, and critical infrastructure data.

Take it easy 48
 Non-sensitive Data: Data that is less critical in terms of security and
privacy.
2. With neat diagram explain the edge analytics processing
unit with its functions. (8M) (OR) Expalin edge streaming
analytics and functions of Edge Analytics Processing Unit.
(10M) Repeated
Raw input data: This is the raw data coming from the sensors into the
analytics processing unit.

Analytics processing unit (APU): The APU filters and combines data
streams, organizes them by time windows, and performs various analytical
functions. It is at this point that the results may be acted on by micro services
running in the APU.

Output streams: The data that is output is organized into insightful streams
and is used to influence the behaviour of smart objects, and passed on for
storage and further processing in the cloud. Communication with the cloud
often happens through a standard publisher/subscriber messaging protocol,
such as MQTT

Functions for edge analytics:

Filter

Identifies and extracts important information from the large volume of

streaming data.

Eliminates irrelevant data to focus on the essential aspects.

Take it easy 49
 Transform

Similar to Extract, Transform, and Load (ETL) operations in data

warehousing.

Manipulates the data structure after filtering, making it suitable for

further processing.

Time

Establishes a timing context for real-time streaming data.

Example: Reports average temperature every minute based on the

past two minutes' average readings.

Correlate

Combines data from multiple streams, often from different types of

sensors.

Enables a comprehensive understanding of the situation by

analyzing diverse data sources.

Correlates real-time measurements with historical data for a holistic

view.

Match Patterns

Conducts pattern matching operations on cleaned, transformed, and

correlated data.

Reveals insights through identifying simple or complex relationships.

Utilizes machine learning to identify patterns and trends in the data.

Improve Business Intelligence

Ultimately, the goal is to enhance business intelligence.

Provides valuable insights and information that were not readily

available before.

Enables informed decision-making based on a deeper understanding

of the processed data.
3. Explain MPP Database with its architecture. (6M)

Take it easy 50
 Simplified Explanation:

Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) databases are like supercharged

versions of traditional relational databases. They're designed to be much
faster and efficient, supporting quick queries. They achieve this by using
multiple computers (nodes) organized in a scale-out architecture, spreading
both data and processing across many systems.

MPPs are often called analytic databases because they handle large
datasets simultaneously across many processors and nodes. In this
architecture, there's a master node coordinating everything across the
cluster. Each node works independently, having its processing, memory, and
storage (a "shared-nothing" approach).

Data storage is structured in a SQL-like format, allowing data analysts to use

common SQL tools. While MPPs are excellent for fast query processing, they
might not be the only database type in IoT systems. Depending on the
variety of data sources, a more flexible database may be needed alongside
the structured MPP.
4. With a diagram, Explain Lambda Architecture. (8M) (OR)
Explain Lambda Architecture. (4M) Repeated

Take it easy 51
 Lambda System Overview

Lambda is a data management system with three layers: Batch, Stream,

and Serving.

It allows tools like Spark and MapReduce to independently work on data,

each focusing on its optimized tasks.

Data Processing Flow

Data comes from a message broker, often Kafka.

Each layer (Batch and Stream) processes data in parallel.

The results are stored for additional processing or queries.

Layers of Lambda Architecture

Stream Layer: Handles near-real-time processing using technologies like

Spark Streaming, Storm, or Flink.

Batch Layer: Involves batch processing with engines like MapReduce

and storage like HDFS.

Serving Layer: Acts as a data store and mediator, allowing simultaneous

querying of both stream and batch layers.

Take it easy 52
 Flexibility and Robustness

Lambda Architecture is robust for handling and processing massive data.

Offers flexibility by allowing data analysis at different rates.

Limitation

A drawback is its network placement.

Due to processing and storage demands, deployments are typically in

data centers or the cloud.

This may limit rapid response in analytics if processing is not close

enough to the devices generating the data.
5. Compare
(i) Structure versus unstructured data
(ii) Data in motion versus data at rest. (6M)
Structure versus unstructured data

Aspect Structured Data Unstructured Data

Follows a predefined model or Lacks a logical schema for

Definition
schema. traditional programming.

Example Traditional RDBMS Text, speech, images, video

Cannot be easily formatted,

Well-organized, includes text,
Data Types includes text, speech,
speech, images, video
images, video

Cannot be easily formatted,

Easily formatted, stored,
Characteristics stored, queried, and
queried, and processed.
processed.

More easily managed and Can be harder to deal with,

Management &
processed due to well-defined typically requires different
Processing
organization. analytics tools.

Core type for making business Dominates 80% of a

Usage
decisions. business’s data.

Data in motion versus data at rest.

Aspect Data in Motion Data at Rest

Take it easy 53
 Currently moving through the Stored or held, not actively
Nature of Data
network. moving.

Web browsing, file transfers, Data saved to hard drives,

Examples
email. storage arrays, USB drives.

Processing Often processed at the edge Processed and stored in IoT

Location using fog computing. brokers or data centers.

Filtered, deleted, or forwarded N/A (Data doesn't come to rest

Edge Processing
for further processing. at the edge).

Common Smart objects in IoT IoT brokers, storage arrays,

Location networks. data centers.

Fog computing tools for real- Hadoop and other tools for
Analytics Tools
time processing. structured data in databases.

6. With neat diagram, explain Hadoop distributed cluster and

writing a file to HDFS. (8M) (OR) Explain Elements of Hadoop,
with a neat diagram. (7M) Q2- 2 Question

Hadoop is the most recent entrant into the data management market, but it is
arguably the most popular choice as a data repository and processing engine.

Take it easy 54
 Hadoop was originally developed as a result of projects at Google and Yahoo!,
and the original intent for Hadoop was to index millions of websites and quickly
return search results for open source search engines. Initially, the project had two
key elements:
 Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): A system for storing data across
multiple nodes
 MapReduce: A distributed processing engine that splits a large task into
smaller ones that can be run in parallel

Writing a file to HDFS

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): Nodes Overview:

In HDFS, specialized nodes in the cluster play crucial roles in managing data,
including NameNodes and DataNodes:

1. NameNodes:

Function: Critical for data adds, moves, deletes, and reads in HDFS.

Coordination: Coordinate where data is stored and maintain a map

of data block locations and replications.

Primary and Secondary: Primary (active) NameNode handles

interactions with HDFS, while a secondary (standby) NameNode is
notified in case of primary failure.

Take it easy 55
 Write Requests: Accepts write requests, distributes files across
available nodes in configurable block sizes (e.g., 64 MB or 128 MB).

Replication Instruction: Instructs DataNodes on where replication

should occur.

2. DataNodes:

Function: Servers responsible for storing data under the direction of

the NameNode.

Quantity: Multiple DataNodes are common in a Hadoop cluster to

store data.

Data Block Distribution: Data blocks are distributed across several

nodes.

Replication: Data is often replicated three, four, or more times across

nodes for redundancy.

Redundancy Techniques: Unlike traditional redundancy techniques

(e.g., RAID), HDFS relies on coordination between NameNodes and
DataNodes for block-level redundancy through replication.

Data Block Distribution:

Replication Policies: DataNode selects additional nodes based on

replication policies to ensure redundancy.

RAID Not Used: Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is

generally not used for HDFS due to the coordination of block-level
redundancy through replication.
7. Explain in detail formal risk analysis structures. (10M)
(OR) Explain OCTAVE Allegro steps and phases, with a neat
diagram. (10M) Q2-5 Question

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 OCTAVE Allegro Methodology:

1. Establish Risk Measurement Criterion:

Define criteria for measuring risks.

Facilitates prioritization against the reference model in later stages.

2. Develop Information Asset Profile:

Create a profile with assets, prioritization, and associated attributes.

Includes owners, custodians, security requirements, and technology

assets.

3. Identify Information Asset Containers:

Focus on transports and possible locations of information.

Emphasis on container-level analysis to reduce potential inhibitors.

4. Identify Areas of Concern:

Map security-related attributes to business-focused use cases.

Utilize risk profiles and delve into risk analysis.

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 5. Identify Threat Scenarios:

Broadly define threats as potential undesirable events.

Encompasses both malevolent and accidental causes.

6. Identify Risks:

Define risk as the possibility of an undesired outcome.

Focus on organizational impact.

7. Risk Analysis:

Qualitatively evaluate the impacts of the identified risks.

Incorporate the risk measurement criteria established in the first

step.

8. Mitigation:

Three possible decisions: accept the risk, mitigate with control effort,
or defer a decision.

Document the situation, potential outcomes, and reasons for

accepting or mitigating the risk.

FAIR (Factor Analysis of Information Risk):

1. Risk Definition:

A technical standard for risk definition from The Open Group.

Clear applications within operational technology.

2. Emphasis on Measurable Metrics:

Focus on unambiguous definitions and measurable attributes.

Well-suited for an operational environment with rich data.

3. Risk Definition in FAIR:

The probable frequency and probable magnitude of loss.

Hierarchy with one side focusing on frequency and the other on

magnitude.

4. Risk Taxonomy - Loss Event Frequency (LEF):

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 Result of a threat agent acting on an asset with a specified frequency
(threat event frequency - TEF).

Vulnerability defined as the probability of the targeted asset failing.

5. Risk Taxonomy - Probable Loss Magnitude (PLM):

Quantifies impacts with an emphasis on measurable metrics.

Defines six forms of loss, including productivity and replacement

loss.

In summary, OCTAVE Allegro provides a structured methodology for risk

management, while FAIR emphasizes measurable metrics and a clear risk
taxonomy for operational technology.
8. Explain different types of Data Analysis results with
example. (8M)

Types of Data Analysis:

Descriptive Analysis (What is happening ?)

Objective: Tells you what is happening, either now or in the past.

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 Example: A thermometer in a truck engine reports temperature values
every second. Descriptive analysis allows you to pull this data at any
moment to gain insight into the current operating condition of the truck
engine.

Diagnostic Analysis (Why did it happen ?)

Objective: Focuses on the "why" of a situation.

Example: Continuing with the temperature sensor in the truck engine,

diagnostic analysis may reveal that the engine failed due to overheating.
It provides insights into why a problem or event occurred.

Predictive Analysis (What is likely to happen ?)

Objective: Aims to foretell problems or issues before they occur.

Example: Using historical temperature values for the truck engine,

predictive analysis could estimate the remaining life of certain
components. This enables proactive replacement before failure or
anticipates maintenance needs based on changing trends.

Prescriptive Analysis (What should i do about it ?)

Objective: Goes beyond predictive and recommends solutions for

upcoming problems.

Example: Analyzing temperature data from a truck engine, prescriptive

analysis might calculate various alternatives for cost-effective
maintenance. This could include recommendations like more frequent oil
changes, cooling maintenance, or even upgrading to a model with a
more powerful engine.
9. Distinguish between Supervised and Unsupervised
Machine Learning. (5M)
Aspect Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning

The algorithm is trained on a The algorithm is given an

labeled dataset, where the input unlabeled dataset and must find
Definition
data and corresponding output patterns or relationships without
are provided. explicit guidance.

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Predicts or classifies outcomes
Goal
based on input data.
Labeled dataset (input-output
Training Data
pairs).
Learns from the labeled
Learning
examples to make predictions on
Process
new, unseen data.
Feedback Receives feedback in the form of
Mechanism correct outputs during training.
Classification, Regression,
Use Cases
Object Detection, etc.
Given images labeled as cats
Example and dogs, the algorithm learns to
classify new images.
Performance is measured based
Evaluation on how well predictions match
actual outcomes.
May require more labeled data
Scalability
for accurate predictions.
Common Decision Trees, Support Vector
Algorithms Machines, Neural Networks, etc.
10. What is Apache Spark? Explain layers in Lambda
Architechture, with a neat diagram. (10M)
Apache Spark is an in-memory distributed data analytics platform designed to
accelerate processes in the Hadoop ecosystem.
Take it easy
Discovers patterns, relationships,
or structures within the data
without predefined outcomes.
Unlabeled dataset (only input
data).
Identifies patterns or structures
within the data without explicit
guidance.
Lacks explicit feedback during
training since the data is
unlabeled.
Clustering, Dimensionality
Reduction, Anomaly Detection,
etc.
Given a dataset of customer
behavior, the algorithm identifies
segments with similar behaviors.
Evaluation is often more
subjective and relies on the
quality of discovered patterns or
structures.
Can be more scalable as it
doesn't depend on labeled data,
making it suitable for large
datasets.
K-Means Clustering, Principal
Component Analysis (PCA),
Autoencoders, etc.
61
 Lambda System Overview

Lambda is a data management system with three layers: Batch, Stream,

and Serving.

It allows tools like Spark and MapReduce to independently work on data,

each focusing on its optimized tasks.

Data Processing Flow

Data comes from a message broker, often Kafka.

Each layer (Batch and Stream) processes data in parallel.

The results are stored for additional processing or queries.

Layers of Lambda Architecture

Stream Layer: Handles near-real-time processing using technologies like

Spark Streaming, Storm, or Flink.

Batch Layer: Involves batch processing with engines like MapReduce

and storage like HDFS.

Serving Layer: Acts as a data store and mediator, allowing simultaneous

querying of both stream and batch layers.

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 Flexibility and Robustness

Lambda Architecture is robust for handling and processing massive data.

Offers flexibility by allowing data analysis at different rates.

Limitation

A drawback is its network placement.

Due to processing and storage demands, deployments are typically in

data centers or the cloud.

This may limit rapid response in analytics if processing is not close

enough to the devices generating the data.

Module 5
1. Write notes on
i) Arduino UNO
ii) Raspberry Pi. (12M)
i) Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO is an open-source microcontroller board based on the
ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc.

The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O)
pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and
other circuits.

The board features 14 digital I/O pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a
power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.

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 Key Features of Arduino UNO
1. Microcontroller (ATmega328P):
The brain of Arduino UNO, responsible for executing program
instructions.

2. Operating Voltage (5V)

The standard voltage at which the board operates, ensuring
compatibility with most components.

3. Input Voltage (recommended: 7-12V, limit: 6-20V)

The acceptable range of voltages from an external power source
or USB connection.

4. Digital I/O Pins (14, 6 PWM outputs)

Pins for digital input or output operations, with 6 supporting Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) for analog-like control.

5. Analog Input Pins (6)

Input pins that can read analog signals from sensors, potentiometers,
etc.

6. DC Current per I/O Pin (20 mA)

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 Maximum current that can be sourced or sunk by each digital I/O pin.

7. DC Current for 3.3V Pin (50 mA)

Maximum current that the 3.3V pin can provide.

8. Flash Memory (32 KB)

Storage for the user's program code; part of it is used by the
bootloader for programming.

9. SRAM (2 KB)
Volatile memory used for runtime data storage during program
execution.

10. EEPROM (1 KB)

Non-volatile memory for storing data that persists even when the
board is powered off.

11. Clock Speed (16 MHz)

The speed at which the microcontroller processes instructions,
measured in megahertz (MHz).
Why Arduino UNO?
Open Source: Both the hardware and software are open source, and
it is accessible and modifiable by anyone.

Flexibility: Offers a variety of digital and analog pins, along with

support for SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation).

Ease of Use: Can be connected to a computer via USB and

programmed using the Arduino IDE.

Cost-Effective: Inexpensive and widely available.

Community Support: Has a large and active community that

contributes to a vast collection of libraries and examples.

Cross-Platform: The Arduino IDE is compatible with Windows,

macOS, and Linux operating systems.

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 Programming Language: Uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn and use.
Programming and Software
The Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is used for writing
programs for the Arduino. Programs written using the Arduino IDE are
called sketches. These sketches are written in the text editor and are
saved with the file extension .ino. The IDE includes a code editor, a
message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common
functions, and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino hardware to
upload programs and communicate with them.

Prototyping with Arduino UNO

Arduino boards can be used to develop interactive objects, taking inputs
from a variety of switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights,
motors, and other physical outputs. Arduino projects can be stand-alone or
they can communicate with software running on a computer (e.g., Flash,
Processing, MaxMSP).
ii) Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi is a series of small single-board computers developed by
the Raspberry Pi Foundation with the intention of promoting the teaching of
basic computer science in schools and in developing countries. The original
model became far more popular than anticipated, selling outside its target
market for uses such as robotics. It does not include peripherals (such as
keyboards and mice) or cases. However, some accessories have been
included in several official and unofficial bundles.

Key Features of Raspberry Pi:

SoC: Broadcom BCM2835 (early models) to BCM2837

CPU: From single-core ARMv6 to quad-core ARM Cortex-A53

GPU: Dual-core VideoCore IV Multimedia Co-Processor to Broadcom

VideoCore IV

Memory: From 256MB to 1GB LPDDR2

Storage: Micro SD Card

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 GPIO: 40-pin header, populated or unpopulated

Networking: 10/100 Ethernet RJ45 or onboard Wi-Fi 802.11n

(Raspberry Pi 3 onwards)

Bluetooth: Bluetooth 4.1 Classic, Bluetooth Low Energy (Raspberry

Pi 3 onwards)

Operating Systems: Raspbian, Windows 10 IoT Core, and others[1].

Raspberry Pi Models
Raspberry Pi Zero: A smaller and less expensive model with reduced
connectivity.

Raspberry Pi 1 Model B: The original Raspberry Pi with a single-core

CPU.

Raspberry Pi 1 Model A: A cheaper variant of the Model B with

reduced I/O and RAM.

Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+: Improved design with more USB ports and
GPIO pins.

Raspberry Pi 2: Introduced a faster quad-core CPU and more RAM.

Raspberry Pi 3 Model B: Added Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity.

Raspberry Pi Interfaces
GPIO: General-purpose input/output pins for interfacing with a wide
range of hardware.

CSI: Camera Serial Interface for connecting a Raspberry Pi camera.

DSI: Display Serial Interface for connecting a Raspberry Pi

touchscreen display.

USB: Multiple USB ports for peripherals.

Ethernet: For network connectivity (not available on Pi Zero).

HDMI: For video output.

Audio Jack: For audio output.

Raspberry Pi Operating Systems:

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 The Raspberry Pi can run a variety of operating systems, including:

Raspbian: The official supported operating system, based on Debian.

Ubuntu MATE: A version of Ubuntu optimized for the Raspberry Pi.

OSMC: An operating system for media centers.

Windows 10 IoT Core: A version of Windows 10 for small, low-cost

devices.

Others: Including Arch Linux, Pidora, and RISC OS[1].

Programming Raspberry Pi:
The Raspberry Pi can be programmed using various programming
languages, with Python being the most popular one. The Raspberry Pi
Foundation provides Raspbian with built-in Python, which makes it easy to
start programming straight away. Python libraries such as RPi.GPIO allow
for easy access to the GPIO pins for projects involving sensors and
actuators.

In summary, the Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board ideal for simple

hardware projects and prototyping, while the Raspberry Pi is a fully-fledged
single-board computer capable of performing tasks like a desktop PC, making
it suitable for more complex projects that require an operating system and
network connectivity.
2. With neat diagram, explain Raspberry Pi Board. (8M)
The Raspberry Pi is a small, low-cost, single-board computer developed by the
Raspberry Pi Foundation in the United Kingdom. It's about the size of a credit
card and can be used for a variety of purposes, from learning to code to creating
home automation projects.

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 The Raspberry Pi board consists of several key components:

Processor
The Raspberry Pi uses a Broadcom system on a chip, which includes an
ARM processor and a VideoCore Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). This is
the heart of the Raspberry Pi, controlling the operations of all connected
devices and handling all required computations.

Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory is a core part of the computer's processing system.
It's where real-time information is stored for easy access. The initial
Raspberry Pi had 256MB RAM, but this has been significantly improved over
the years. For instance, the Raspberry Pi 4 model comes with 8GB RAM.

HDMI
The High Definition Multimedia Interface is used for transmitting video or
digital audio data to a computer monitor or TV.

Ethernet port
This allows the Raspberry Pi to connect to a network, enabling internet
access and communication with other devices.

USB ports

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 These are used to connect peripheral devices such as a keyboard, mouse, or
external storage devices.

GPIO Pins
General Purpose Input/Output pins are used to connect the Raspberry Pi to
other electronic components, allowing it to control these components or
receive data from them.

MicroSD card slot

This is used for storage, typically holding the operating system and other
files. The Raspberry Pi boots from the MicroSD card.

Power Source
The Raspberry Pi is typically powered through a micro USB port, although
newer models use a USB-C port.

The Raspberry Pi can be connected to output devices like computer monitors or

TVs, and input units like mice or keyboards. Its exact use and applications
depend on the user and can cover many functions, from learning programming
and computer science to creating home automation projects, media streaming,
robotics, and more.
4. With neat diagram, explain wireless temperature
monitoring system using Raspberry Pi. (8M)
A wireless temperature monitoring system using Raspberry Pi involves several
components including the Raspberry Pi itself, a DS18B20 temperature sensor, and
a wireless network for data transmission. The system works by reading
temperature data from the DS18B20 sensor, processing it with the Raspberry Pi,
and then transmitting the data wirelessly to a remote device or server for
monitoring.
Here's a step-by-step explanation of how the system works

1. DS18B20 Temperature Sensor

This is a digital temperature sensor that uses the 1-Wire protocol. It can
measure temperatures from -55°C to +125°C with ±0.5°C Accuracy. The
sensor has three pins: VCC, GND, and Data. The VCC pin is connected to a

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 3.3V power source, the GND pin is connected to ground, and the Data pin is
connected to a GPIO pin on the Raspberry Pi.

2. Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi is a small, affordable computer that can be used to
process and transmit the temperature data. It reads the temperature data
from the DS18B20 sensor through one of its GPIO pins. The Raspberry Pi
can be programmed using Python, a popular, easy-to-learn programming
language[1].

3. Wireless Transmission
The Raspberry Pi is connected to a wireless network, allowing it to transmit
the temperature data to a remote device or server. This can be done using
Wi-Fi or other wireless communication protocols. The remote device can
then display the temperature data in real-time, allowing for continuous
monitoring[1].

4. Architecture
The provided diagram illustrates a wireless temperature monitoring system
that includes two main sections: the transmitter and the receiver. The system
is designed to measure temperature, process the data, and then wirelessly
transmit the information to a remote location where it can be monitored and
displayed.
Here's a breakdown of the components and their functions as depicted in the
diagram:

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 Transmitter Section
Temperature Sensor: This is the component that measures the
temperature. It could be a digital sensor like the DS18B20, which is
capable of sending digital signals to the microcontroller representing
the measured temperature.

ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter): If the temperature sensor is

analog, the ADC converts the analog temperature signal into a digital
format that the microcontroller can process.

Microcontroller: This is the brain of the transmitter section. It

processes the digital temperature data and prepares it for
transmission. It may also control an LCD display to show the
temperature locally.

Encoder: The encoder takes the digital data from the microcontroller
and encodes it for wireless transmission, ensuring that the signal can
be properly received and decoded at the other end.

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 Transmitter: This component wirelessly sends the encoded
temperature data. It could use various wireless technologies such as
RF, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.

LED: An LED indicator may be included to provide a visual indication

of the system's status, such as power on or data transmission.
Receiver Section
Receiver: This component wirelessly receives the encoded
temperature data sent by the transmitter.

Decoder: The decoder takes the encoded data from the receiver and
converts it back into a format that the microcontroller can understand
and process.

Microcontroller: Similar to the transmitter section, the microcontroller

here processes the received temperature data.

RS-232: This is a standard for serial communication that might be

used to send data from the microcontroller to a computer or other
devices.

Laptop: The laptop represents the remote monitoring station where

the temperature data is sent. It could run software that logs, displays,
or alerts based on the temperature readings.

LCD: An LCD display in the receiver section may show the received
temperature data for local monitoring.
5. Explain the steps to install operating system in the SD
card of Raspberry Pi. Write a Python program to blink on LED.
(10M)
To install an operating system on the SD card of a Raspberry Pi, follow
these steps

1. Download the Operating System: Download the latest version of the

Raspberry Pi OS (formerly known as Raspbian) from the official
Raspberry Pi website.

2. Format the SD Card: Use an SD card formatter tool to format your SD

card. This ensures that the SD card is in the correct format and is clean

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 of any previous data that could cause issues.

3. Write the Operating System to the SD Card: Use a program like Balena
Etcher to write the downloaded image of the Raspberry Pi OS onto your
SD card. Select the downloaded image file, choose your SD card, and
then click "Flash" to start the process.

4. Insert the SD Card into the Raspberry Pi: Once the image has been
successfully written to the SD card, remove it from your computer and
insert it into the SD card slot on the Raspberry Pi.

5. Power Up: Connect the necessary peripherals to your Raspberry Pi

(monitor, keyboard, mouse) and then connect the power supply. The
Raspberry Pi will boot up and the installation of the operating system will
complete.

6. Setup: Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the setup of your

Raspberry Pi, including setting up a username and password, connecting
to a Wi-Fi network, and updating the operating system to the latest
version[1].

To write a Python program to blink an LED, you can use the RPi.GPIO
library which allows you to easily configure the GPIO pins of your
Raspberry Pi. Here's a simple example

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

import time

# Use the BCM GPIO numbers as the numbering scheme

GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)

# Use GPIO23 for LED

LED_PIN = 23

# Set the GPIO pin to output mode

GPIO.setup(LED_PIN, GPIO.OUT)

try:
while True:

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 # Turn on the LED
GPIO.output(LED_PIN, GPIO.HIGH)
# Wait for one second
time.sleep(1)
# Turn off the LED
GPIO.output(LED_PIN, GPIO.LOW)
# Wait for one second
time.sleep(1)
except KeyboardInterrupt:
# Reset the GPIO settings if the user stops the p
rogram
GPIO.cleanup()

This program will continuously turn the LED on and off every second. The
LED is connected to GPIO23. The try/except block is used to catch a
keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C) which will stop the program and run
GPIO.cleanup() to reset the GPIO settings.
6. Explain the following with respect to Ardunio
Programming:
i) Structures
ii) Functions
iii) Variables
iv) Flow control statements
v) Data type with example. (10M)
In Arduino programming, the following concepts are crucial:

i) Structures
In Arduino, structures are used to group together variables of different data
types under a single name. They are similar to arrays, but they can store
non-homogeneous data types. For example, you could create a structure to
store information about a sensor, including its ID (an integer), its reading (a
float), and its status (a boolean).

ii) Functions

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 Functions are blocks of code that perform a specific task. They can take
inputs (parameters) and return a result (output). In Arduino, there are two
main functions that every program must have: setup() and loop() . The
setup() function runs once when the program starts and is typically used for
initialization. The loop() function runs repeatedly after setup() completes,
and is where the main logic of the program is usually placed.

iii) Variables
Variables are used to store data. In Arduino, variables must be declared with
a specific data type, such as int for integers, float for floating-point
numbers, char for characters, and boolean for true/false values. Variables
can be used to store sensor readings, keep track of time, control the state of
outputs, and more.

iv) Flow control statements

Flow control statements are used to control the flow of a program. They
include if , else , for , while , and switch statements. For example, an if

statement can be used to check if a sensor reading is above a certain

threshold, and a for statement can be used to repeat a block of code a
certain number of times.

v) Data types
Data types define the type of data that a variable can hold. Some common
data types in Arduino include:

int : for integers (whole numbers), e.g., int myVar = 10;

float : for floating-point numbers (numbers with a decimal point), e.g.,

float myVar = 10.5;

char : for characters, e.g., char myVar = 'A';

boolean : for true/false values, e.g., boolean myVar = true;

byte : for 8-bit numbers, ranging from 0 to 255, e.g., byte myVar = 255;

These data types are used when declaring variables, and they determine
how much memory is allocated for the variable and how the stored value is
interpreted.
7. Explain IOT strategy for smart cities. (10M)

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 An IoT strategy for smart cities involves the integration of various IoT devices and
sensors into the urban infrastructure to collect data, monitor various aspects of
the city's functioning, and automate processes to improve efficiency,
sustainability, and the quality of life for its residents. Here's a detailed explanation
of the IoT strategy for smart cities:

Smart City IoT Architecture

The architecture of a smart city IoT system typically includes the following
layers:

1. Device Layer: This layer consists of the physical hardware, such as

sensors and actuators, that collect data from the environment or perform
actions. Examples include temperature sensors, traffic cameras, and
smart meters.

2. Connectivity Layer: This layer provides the necessary communication

protocols and connectivity solutions to transmit data from IoT devices to
data processing centers. It can include wired and wireless technologies
like Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN, 5G, and fiber optics[1].

3. Data Processing Layer: At this layer, the collected data is processed,

often in real-time, using edge computing or sent to cloud-based platforms
for further analysis. This processing can involve data cleaning,
aggregation, and preliminary analysis.

4. Application Layer: The processed data is used in various applications

that deliver smart city services. These applications can range from traffic
management systems and smart lighting to waste management and
emergency response systems.

5. Security Layer: Given the sensitivity of data and the potential for cyber-
attacks, a robust security architecture is essential. This includes
encryption, access control, and continuous monitoring for threats.

Smart City Use-Case Examples

Smart cities can leverage IoT in numerous ways, such as:

Traffic Management: IoT sensors can monitor traffic flow and adjust
traffic signals in real-time to reduce congestion and improve commute
times.

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 Waste Management: Smart bins equipped with sensors can notify
collection services when they are full, optimizing waste collection routes
and schedules.

Environmental Monitoring: Sensors can track air quality, noise levels,

and water quality, providing data to address environmental concerns
proactively.

Energy Management: Smart grids with IoT devices can optimize

electricity distribution, reduce outages, and support renewable energy
integration.

Public Safety: IoT devices can enhance public safety by monitoring

public spaces, detecting gunshots, or identifying hazardous situations
through video analytics.
Smart City Security Architecture
Security in a smart city context must address the protection of data, networks,
and devices. This includes:

Data Security: Ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of

data collected from IoT devices.

Network Security: Protecting the communication networks against

unauthorized access and ensuring the secure transmission of data.

Device Security: Securing IoT devices from physical tampering and

cyber threats, including firmware updates and vulnerability management.

Challenges and Considerations

Implementing an IoT strategy for smart cities comes with challenges:

Interoperability: Ensuring different IoT systems and devices can work

together seamlessly.

Scalability: Designing systems that can grow with the city's needs
without significant overhauls.

Privacy: Protecting the privacy of citizens' data and complying with

regulations like GDPR.

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 Funding: Securing the necessary investment for infrastructure upgrades
and maintenance.

In conclusion, an IoT strategy for smart cities involves a multi-layered

architecture that integrates various technologies to improve urban living. It
requires careful planning, robust security measures, and ongoing
management to address the dynamic needs of a city's infrastructure and its
residents.
8. With neat smart cities Layered Architecture diagram,
explain Smart City IOT Architecture. (10M) (OR) Expalin Smart
City IOT Architecture, with a neat diagram. (10M) → REPEATED
The Smart City IoT Architecture is a structured framework that enables the
integration of various technologies and systems to enhance the efficiency,
sustainability, and quality of life in urban areas. The architecture is typically
divided into four main layers, each with specific functions and components

The architecture can be visualized as a layered diagram, with each layer building
upon the previous one to create a comprehensive system that supports smart
city operations. The diagram would typically show the flow of data from the street

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 layer through the city network and data center layers, culminating in the services
layer where applications utilize the processed data.

Street Layer
This is the foundational layer where data collection begins. It consists of
various devices and sensors deployed throughout the city to monitor and
interact with the physical environment. Examples include:

Magnetic sensors: Detect parking events by sensing changes in the

magnetic field.

Lighting controllers: Adjust street light brightness based on time and

ambient conditions.

Video cameras: Monitor traffic and security conditions.

Air quality sensors: Measure pollution levels.

Device counters: Estimate the number of devices, vehicles, or people in

an area.

City Network Layer

Above the street layer, this layer is responsible for aggregating and
transporting the data collected by the sensors. The city layer is responsible for
data aggregation and transport:

Network Routers and Switches: These are used to handle the large
volume of data from the street layer and ensure its reliable transport.

Protocol Management: The city layer must manage various protocols

from different IoT applications, some of which may be sensitive to delays
or require deterministic delivery.

Data Center Layer

Data from the sensors is sent to the data center for processing and analysis.
This layer can derive meaningful information and trends, which can be used
to manage city services like traffic control and street lighting. The cloud
infrastructure plays a crucial role here, offering scalable and flexible data
storage and processing capabilities.
This layer processes and correlates the data collected from sensors:

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 Data Processing: Applications in the data center analyze the data to
provide insights
and automated responses, such as traffic light coordination to reduce
congestion.

Cloud Infrastructure: Offers flexibility and scalability for data storage

and processing. It
allows for SaaS models and can adapt to changing requirements or
budget
constraints.
Services Layer
The final layer is where the value of the collected and processed data is
realized through applications that serve different stakeholders within the city.
These applications provide tailored information and services to city operators,
citizens, law enforcement, and others, based on their specific needs and use
cases.
The services layer delivers the end-user applications and services:

Data Visualization: Tailored to the needs of different users like city

operators, citizens, and law enforcement.

Application Diversity: Uses the same data for various purposes, such
as parking apps for citizens and traffic management tools for city
operators.

On-Premises vs. Cloud

Cities must decide whether to host data on-premises or in the cloud based on
security, legal policies, and financial considerations:

On-Premises: Involves traditional network infrastructure with its

limitations and may require significant investment in network components.

Cloud: Offers
scalability and flexibility but comes with security risks that must be
mitigated. Data sovereignty laws may affect where data is stored.

Security Considerations

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 A critical aspect of the Smart City IoT Architecture is ensuring the security of
the data being shared and processed. This involves implementing security
protocols across all layers, including firewalls, VLANs, and encryption, to
protect against unauthorized access and tampering.

Security is a critical aspect of the Smart City IoT Architecture

Data Security: Cities must protect sensitive information using security

protocols at each layer.

Authentication and Encryption: These are essential to prevent

unauthorized access and data tampering.

The architecture must be robust and adaptable to incorporate the latest

security technologies and comply with regional guidelines.
9. Explain Key Verticals targeted in Smart Cities, with a neat
diagram. (7M)
Smart cities target several key verticals to optimize efficiency, sustainability, and
enhance the quality of life. These verticals are interconnected and leverage
Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, data analytics, and connectivity to
transform urban environments. Here are some of the key verticals targeted in
smart cities:

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 1. Smart Buildings: These structures integrate heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning (HVAC) and other building infrastructure systems efficiently to
reduce energy consumption and lower operating costs. This can potentially
save up to $100 billion.

2. Gas Monitoring: This involves reducing meter-reading costs and increasing

the accuracy of readings for citizens and municipal utility agencies,
potentially saving $69 billion. It also enhances safety by providing timely
alerts in cases of sudden consumption increase.

3. Smart Parking: This system provides real-time visibility into parking space
availability across a city, potentially creating $41 billion. It allows residents to
identify and reserve the closest available space, traffic wardens to identify
noncompliant usage, and municipalities to introduce demand-based pricing.

4. Water Management: Smart water management could save $39 billion by

connecting household water meters over an IP network to provide remote
usage and status information. It enables real-time consumption visibility, leak
detection, and remote and automatic control of gates or pumps based on
analytics data.

5. Road Pricing: Cities could create $18 billion in new revenues by

implementing automatic payments as vehicles enter busy city zones,
improving overall traffic conditions.

6. Infrastructure: Smart cities optimize heating, energy usage, lighting, and

ventilation through technology. Solar panels are integrated into building
design, replacing traditional materials, and fire detection and extinguishing
are tailored to individual rooms.

7. Utilities: Smart grids are used for energy consumption monitoring and
management, water leakage detection, and water potability monitoring.

8. Transport: Smart cities aim to optimize public transportation systems,

reduce traffic congestion, and improve overall mobility.
10. Explain Smart City Security Architecture. (6M)
Smart City Security Architecture is a critical aspect of smart city design, focusing
on the protection of vast quantities of sensitive information shared in real-time.

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 This architecture is layered and must be fortified at each level to protect city data
from unauthorized access, collection, and tampering.

The architecture of security in smart cities is often thought of in terms of

surveillance and exclusion, but it also focuses on the design of public space to
introduce defaults for desirable behaviors. It is essential to ensure the privacy
and security of data collected from IoT devices and sensors, which can be
achieved through encryption, authentication, and access control.
Key elements of the security architecture include:

Data Ownership
Citizens generally feel more secure when the city, rather than a private entity,
owns public or city-relevant data. This ownership structure allows for better
control over how data is used and prevents potential misuse by private
entities.

Security Protocols
These protocols authenticate various components and protect data transport
throughout the system. For example, they can prevent the hijacking of traffic
sensors that could lead to congestion issues.

Firewall
Located at the edge of the network, the firewall should be IPsec- and VPN-
ready, and include user- and role-based access control. It should also be
integrated with the architecture to give city operators remote access to the
city data center.

VLAN
A VLAN provides end-to-end segmentation of data transmission, further
protecting data from rogue intervention. Each service/domain has a
dedicated VLAN for data transmission.

Encryption
Protecting the traffic from the sensor to the application is a common
requirement to avoid data tampering and eavesdropping. In most cases,
encryption starts at the sensor level.

Zero Trust/Data Encryption

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 This approach assumes no trust is given to any entity (inside or outside the
network) by default and requires verification for every data request.

Network Segmentation/Microsegmentation
This involves dividing the network into smaller parts to improve security and
reduce the potential impact of a breach.

Third-Party Risk Management

This involves identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks associated with third
parties.

Supply Chain Management

This involves managing and securing all aspects of the supply chain process.

Authentication
This involves verifying the identity of users, systems, or devices before
granting access to data or resources.

The security architecture should be able to evolve with the latest technology and
incorporate regional guidelines, such as city by-laws or regional security
regulations. Network partners may also have their own compliance standards,
security policies, and governance requirements that need to be added to the
local city requirements.

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