The North Pacific Garbage

Patch
Problems and Potential Solutions
SPEA 499 Honors Thesis

4/30/2010
Indiana University
Elizabeth Bockstiegel

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INTRODUCTION

Since the introduction of plastics in the early 20th century, waste from inland

production accumulates at an ever-increasing rate. Improperly disposed of waste washes into

the inland waterways, eventually carrying the waste into the ocean. The North Pacific

Subtropical Gyre spans most of the North Pacific Ocean. The Gyre stretches from the coast of

Japan to California, and from the equator to 50º N Latitude (Appendix A). Four different

ocean currents maintain the clockwise circular motion of the gyre: the North Pacific Current

to the north, the California Current to the east, the North Equatorial Current to the south, and

the Kuroshio Current to the west. The circular motion of these four currents entraps large

amounts of floating debris in the center of the gyre, which is collectively referred to as the

Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is rapidly becoming a plastic landscape, filled

with waste and debris from human disposal. Scientists do not have a firm estimate of the

actual size of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Researchers estimate its area in the range of

700,000 to 15,000,000 square kilometers, and its volume at over 3 million tons of debris

(Marks and Howden 2008; Moore et al 2001).

Three major issues related to plastic waste affect the gyre. First, the rapid

accumulation of plastic debris disrupts the ocean ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical

Gyre by changing species habitat, and endangering marine life. Second, the toxicity of a

variety of chemicals associated with plastics is a concern for fish, wildlife, and human health.

When plastics in the gyre degrade, these toxic chemicals are released, which then

bioaccumulate in the food chain. Finally, the continuing inland production of plastics causes

increased plastic pollution within the gyre. Now that problems associated with the gyre have

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been identified, solutions can be implemented to minimize and remediate the garbage patch

problem. Increased recycling, biodegradable plastic and reduction of waste are analyzed for

effectiveness in managing the garbage patch, and an exploration of the feasibility of removing

the garbage patch is also discussed. Only with more scientific research and compatible

international policy can the garbage patch be effectively managed, and possibly reduced.

PROBLEMS

Plastic Accumulation

The garbage patch contains a high concentration of pelagic plastics, material in the

open ocean, rather than near the shore, in comparison with other ocean areas. Ocean currents

create irregular marine debris distribution throughout the garbage patch. The types of debris

within the patch are also varied, ranging from large items such as cargo boxes to extremely

small items such as degraded plastic micro-fragments. The proportion of plastic particles in

the litter increases with distance from source areas because plastics transport more easily than

do more dense materials such as glass or metal and because they last longer than other low-

density materials such as paper (Ryan et al. 2009). The majority of marine debris in the

garbage patch consists of plastics; it comprises 90% of the floating debris and 60-80% of the

overall refuse (Werthmann 2007). The abundance of neustonic plastic, plastic floating on or

directly below the water surface, is the largest recorded anywhere in the Pacific Ocean at

334,271 pieces per km 2, and 5,114 g per km 2 (Moore et al. 2001). Although 20% of plastic

waste material comes from ocean sources, 80% comes from land, accumulating in watersheds

and washing out to sea in rivers that drain the watersheds (Tamanaha & Moore 2010).

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 Plastic in the open ocean degrades slowly through a combination of photo-

degradation, oxidation and mechanical abrasion (Andrady 2003, Ryan et al. 2009). Photo-

degradation occurs when plastic is exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, causing it to

degrade into smaller and smaller pieces, finally reaching microscopic levels, as small as

1.6m (Tamanaha & Moore 2010, Thompson et al 2009). Arthur et al. (2008) defines plastic

micro-fragments as pieces less than 5mm long, with a lower size limit of 333m. Degraded

plastics may persist in the environment for centuries or millennia, and little is known about

the life cycle of plastics in oceanic environments. Oceanic conditions such as low

temperatures and organism fouling (the process of sessile marine organisms attaching to

plastic pieces over time) slow the degradation process of plastics. When conducting aerial

observations of the patch, from airplane or satellite, the garbage patch is difficult to detect

because most debris floats beneath the ocean surface in the upper water column. Satellite

imagery and other remote sensing technology identify convergence zones that concentrate

floating marine debris in the ocean (Interagency 2009).

Accumulation Research

The Algalita Marine Research Foundation conducts studies to determine the rate of

debris accumulation in the of the garbage patch over time. Algalita researchers conducted six

research expeditions over a ten-year period from 1999 to 2009, measuring the plastic count

per cubic meter of ocean surface water (Appendix: Figure 2). Based on the collected data,

plastic accumulation can be estimated in the gyre, and future accumulation rates can be

predicted.

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 After the discovery of the garbage patch in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre in 1998

(Swanson 2008), Algalita conducted studies in order to determine the density of plastic debris

in the garbage patch. Researchers sampled along a 100-km transect in the North Pacific

Subtropical Gyre. They used a manta trawl with a 333-micron mesh to determine the mass of

zooplankton caught in the trawl in comparison to the mass of plastic particles caught in the

trawl. The analysis of the samples showed that the ratio of plastic to zooplankton by weight

was 6:1 (Moore et al, 2001). This ratio is assumed to be one of the highest plastic to

zooplankton ratios in the ocean. Every location sampled along the 100-km transect had some

sort of plastic material in it (AMRF 2008). This study also found an increase in plastic

accumulation within the gyre over time. In 2002, the ratio of plastic to plankton by weight

increased to 6.9:1 (Moore et al. 2003). In a 2008 study of plastic debris in the Pacific Garbage

Patch, Algalita researchers reported concentration ratios of 46 parts plastic to 1 part plankton

(Swanson 2008). These studies indicate that the concentration of plastic pieces is increasing in

the Pacific Garbage Patch over time.

Implications for Marine Life

The accumulation of plastic in the gyre contaminates the water where thousands of

species including birds, fish, turtles, marine mammals and zooplankton live, eat, and breed.

The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre belongs to the largest continuous biome on Earth. This

biome mainly consists of prokaryotic and eukaryotic plankton species, the primary producers

of the ecosystem. The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre was once thought to be an ocean desert,

but recent study shows that it plays an important role in nutrient cycling, carbon storage and

net primary productivity (Ballard 2004).

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 The main causes of harm to larger organisms by marine debris are entanglement,

smothering, and entrapment by ghost fishing nets; impacts from invasive species transport in

the debris; impaction of the gut due to ingestion. Marine animals become entangled in rope,

nets and lines discarded by commercial fishing activities. They may not escape once they are

entangled, and most die from injury, starvation or drowning. Nets, lines, and trawls dropped

and abandoned by fishing boats trap turtles as well as fish and other marine life (Derraik

2002). Over 100,000 turtles and large ocean animals become trapped in nets and other

garbage in the oceans, and over one million birds die of plastic entanglement every year

(Weiss 2006). Ghost fishing occurs when tangled masses of lost, abandoned or derelict

fishing gear like trawl nets, webbing, fishing line and pots continue to trap fish and other

species for lengthy periods of time (Laist 1997). Ghost fishing occurs at many ocean depths

ranging from the surface to as much as 2000m below sea level (Murray 2009). When plastics

and other debris wash out to sea from a coastal region, plant and animal species can attach to

the debris and drift for thousands of miles. These alien species can then dominate a new

landscape if they thrive in the new habitat, becoming invasive and putting pressure on native

species (Murray 2009).

Plastic harms marine species by causing wounds, skin lesions and ulcers, by reducing

the quality of life and reproductive capacity, by limiting predator avoidance, by impairing

feeding capacity. Problems resulting from ingestion of plastic are the most frequent problems

associated with plastic accumulation. Nearly all individuals of some species of marine

animals such as sea birds, small fish and sea turtles contain some type of ingested plastic

(Ryan 1987). Studies of sea bird carcasses showed that birds’ stomachs contained many types

of plastic pieces mistaken for food (Harper & Fowler 1987). The bird eats the pieces of

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plastic, mistaking it for a food source, and over time the plastic pieces build up in the

stomach, preventing the bird from eating real food or drinking water, and eventually they die

of starvation or poisoning (Tamanaha & Moore 2010). Sea turtles mistake plastic bags for

jellyfish and other food sources, which then clogs their stomachs. Filter feeders are at the

greatest risk because if the weight of plastic to plankton can be as high as 46 to 1, they are

likely to ingest these small plastic pieces. Baleen whale species filter feed in order to catch the

plankton essential to their diet, but findings show that plastic particles catch in their baleen,

making it more difficult to feed. In a study conducted by the Algalita Marine Research

Foundation during their 2008 North Pacific Subtropical Gyre expedition, 660 fish were caught

representing 6 different species that forage for plankton on the ocean surface. 35% of the fish

had micro-fragment plastic particles in their stomachs, on average each fish contained 2

pieces of plastic, and one fish contained 83 plastic particles (Update 2009). These results

suggest that the ingestion of plastic will become more frequent as the amount of plastic debris

in marine environments increases.

Plastic Toxicity

Not only is plastic debris accumulating in the gyre, much of the plastic contains

chemicals that are harmful to marine animals. Plastic debris in the marine environment,

including resin pellets, fragments, and micro plastic fragments contain organic contaminants

or persistent organic pollutants (POP’s). Examples of POP’s include polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCB’s), petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides including DDT, and bisphenyl A

(BPA; Teuten et al 2009). These compounds are either added during plastic production or

adsorbed from the surrounding seawater. In particular BPA is regularly detected in the aquatic

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environment because of its continuous release into the oceans through point discharges,

landfill leaching, sewage plant effluents and plastics debris (Oehlmann et al 2008).

In a study conducted by Mato et al (2001), polypropylene pellets adsorbed increased

amounts of PCB’s over a six-day period; this indicated ambient seawater as the source of the

contaminant. The concentrations of additives in the plastic can be up to 1,000,000 times the

background concentration level (Tamanaha & Moore 2010). Plastic fragments collected from

the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre were sorted and polyethylene fragments were selected; a

variety of contaminants were detected in the pieces including PCBs, DDT, polybrominated

diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and BPA.

Impacts on Marine Organisms

High concentrations of contaminants adsorbed to plastic pieces in the gyre are

problematic for marine life because of frequent plastic ingestion. Lower trophic organisms

such as plankton and mollusks take in contaminants passively by ingestion and equilibrium

partitioning with the ocean environment. Equilibrium partitioning is a process by which an

organism reaches a balance or equilibrium with their surrounding environment.

Concentrations of contaminants are generally higher in invertebrate species than in

vertebrates. Contaminants such as phthalates and BPA are known to affect reproduction in all

studied animal groups, to impair development of crustaceans and amphibians and to induce

genetic aberrations (Oehlmann et al. 2009). Higher trophic level organisms such as sea birds,

fish and marine mammals are affected by bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation of chemicals

from plastic is a process by which plasticizers accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals and

the contaminants magnify through the food web. In a study by Yamashita et al. (2007), plastic

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pellets were fed to streaked shearwater birds to measure the accumulation of PCBs in their

preen gland oil over a seven day period. The results suggested that chicks fed with PCB’s

contained a higher concentration of PCB’s in their preen gland oil than chicks that were not

fed pellets. This also suggests that POP’s such as PCB’s can accumulate in the fatty tissues of

organisms, and bioaccumulation can occur.

Each type of contaminant poses distinct adverse health effects on marine organisms.

For instance, BPA acts as a feminizing agent and produces an estrogenic effect in fish. It also

is reported to effect the processes of sex hormones, and disrupts growth, bone development,

insulin signaling and brain development (Oehlmann et al 2008). Organisms in the garbage

patch could potentially contain higher than average amounts of POPs in their tissues when

they ingest plastic pieces. Microscopic fragments less than 333um have a large surface area to

volume ratio, and therefore are likely to facilitate the transport of contaminants.

Human Health

Certain chemical compounds found in plastic such as BPA, PBDE,

tetrabromobisphenyl A (TBBPA), and phthalates disrupt the endocrine system in marine

animals and humans. Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) disrupt the endocrine system

by competing with steroid hormone for binding sites on receptors and hormone transport

proteins. The EDCs alter gene expression in cells leading to changes in development of

organisms (Talsness et al 2008). Exposure to EDCs is most detrimental during early stages of

development, particularly prenatal. Data on EDCs in humans is difficult to obtain, but

assuming the changes in animals will be similar to those in humans, plastic chemicals may

cause premature development among human females, and a decline in sperm count and

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abnormal reproductive tract development in human males. Fish caught in the Pacific Garbage

Patch have a greater chance of containing contaminants in their tissues, based on the high

rates of plastic in the gyre, and amount of plastic found in their stomachs. Humans who eat

contaminated fish and seafood are at risk of exposure to increased levels of EDCs.

Humans use plastic on a daily basis especially in food storage, medical use, and

everyday disposable products. Many of these plastic items contain POPs and EDCs, and this

daily exposure increases the risk of adverse health effects. Exposure to additives in plastics

and POPs are hazardous to humans in high doses (Talsness et al 2008). BPA is currently one

of the most popularized plastic additives, and has attracted media attention because of its

negative health effects. Over 6 billion pounds of BPA was produced in 2003, and many

plastic products contain BPA including food packaging, can lining, water bottles and

children’s toys (Talsness et al 2008). Humans are exposed to BPA by ingestion. According to

the scientists at the US National Institutes of Health, most humans are exposed to levels of

BPA beyond the safe daily exposure dose. The Center for Disease Control reported that in a

study of people sampled for BPA, 93% had detectable levels of BPA in their urine

(Vandenburg et al. 2007). Certain levels of BPA in humans create adverse effects on brain

structure, chemistry and behavior. Research also indicates that exposure during early

development increases the risk of a loss in sex differences in brain structure, and increased

disruption of the processes that govern sexual differentiation. Low doses of BPA in small lab

animals show a daily decrease in sperm production and increased prostate size in males, and

chromosomal abnormalities of egg cells in females (Richter et al 2007).

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Production and Sources of Marine Plastic

Humans produce all of the unnatural marine debris that accumulates in the garbage

patch. Globally, over sixty billion tons of plastic are manufactured each year, much of which

is only for single use (Swanson 2008). The United States, Japan, China, and other Pacific Rim

nations contribute the most significant portion of the marine debris that accumulates in the

North Pacific Garbage Patch. Petro-chemical plants and plastic manufacturing sites are the

ultimate source of plastic marine debris.

Plastic items are molded from tiny, petroleum-derived pellets called nurdles that are

shipped to manufacturing companies and industries throughout the world to be manufactured

into products. The United States alone produces 100 billion pounds of plastic nurdles each

year (Werthman 2007). Nurdles are lightweight, and when spilled can be easily transported by

wind and water into the world’s oceans. Nurdles absorb persistent organic pollutants, up to

1,000,000 times the surrounding water concentrations. These make them especially dangerous

for small marine animals that may mistake them for food.

When processed into products, nurdles receive different types of plasticizers in order

to enhance the usefulness of the material. As stated in the previous section, plastic additives

are toxic at certain concentration levels, and many have endocrine disrupting capabilities.

Manufacturers use plastic in everything from disposable straws to car parts. Most plastic

products have a linear life cycle; creation, use and disposal, usually by incineration or in a

landfill. Some types of plastic can be recycled, reprocessed or burned as fuel (Hopewell et al

2008).

Plastics comprise over 9% of the municipal waste stream generated by the United

States (Hadjilambrinos 1999). In 2008, the United States generated over 13 million tons of

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plastics as containers and packaging, almost 7 million tons as nondurable goods (diapers,

trash bags, cups and utensils, medical devices), and almost 11 million tons as durable goods

(appliances and furniture) (Plastics 2009). Weiss projects that the average American will

consume 326 pounds of plastic per year by 2010 (Weiss 2006). The current rate of plastic

consumption and disposal is unsustainable in a world of finite resources, and limited landfill

space.

When plastic waste is improperly managed, it can be swept into the ocean where it

could accumulate in a gyre. Man-made debris sources can be divided into two main

categories: land-based and ocean-based. Nearly 80% of marine debris in the garbage patch

originates from land-based sources (Werthmann 2007). Land-based sources reach the ocean

due to the mishandling of waste, improper landfill management and roadside litter. Inland

debris washes or blows by the wind into waterways that may flow into the ocean. Extreme

weather events such as heavy rainfall or winds can cause a surge in the amount of debris that

washes into the sea. The other 20% of marine debris in the garbage patch originates from

ocean-based sources (Tamanaha & Moore 2010). Ocean-based sources include fishing boats,

ferries and cruise ships, offshore oil and gas platforms and aquaculture installations. Items

such as nets, traps, fishing line, buoys and boat garbage are often lost or discarded at sea

(Interagency 2008).

Potential Solutions

The three problems presented in this paper require solutions that minimize the

negative impacts of the garbage patch. The solutions presented below address the various

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components of the problems in the garbage patch, and each can potentially improve the ability

to manage the garbage patch.

Source Reduction

The most effective solution for slowing the accumulation of marine debris in the

garbage patch is source reduction. Source reduction begins by first reducing demand for

plastic products. Individuals that reduce their personal consumption of plastic and disposable

products create less incentive for companies to produce plastic. When large numbers of

consumers decide to boycott certain plastic manufactured products, companies can respond to

the pressure by producing alternative products. Reducing consumer demand is one method of

indirectly slowing the accumulation of marine debris in the garbage patch. Companies that

reduce their production of plastic resins and use less petroleum are likely to spill or lose fewer

plastic goods, and can potentially gain a reputation as a ―greener‖ company (Thompson et al

2009). Durable and repairable plastic goods contribute less to the waste stream. A reduction in

packaging materials can decrease the amount of waste produced. Overall, source reduction

will slow the rate of accumulation in the garbage patch over time, but it does not address the

debris that currently resides in the patch or the pollutants in the plastic.

Improved Waste Management

Another solution consists of improving waste management techniques in order to

mitigate debris loss. Reducing littering is a significant segment of waste management. Posting

signs to deter littering, and increased amounts of waste receptacles can decrease acts of

littering. Also increasing the number of times waste receptacles are emptied and cleaned

prevents trash and litter overflow. Plastic debris loss into the environment occurs before, en

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route to, and at a landfill. Waste collection and management in a home or business establishes

responsibility, and consumers can become conscious of how much and what they dispose.

Tracking and monitoring of the debris from cradle to grave improves when it is

collected by trash services by using more efficient garbage trucks. When waste is finally

deposited in a landfill, a higher standard of monitoring can be administered, as well as

improved methods of burial to decrease the amount of debris that is released into the

environment. Improved monitoring of landfill leachate prevents seepage of contaminants into

the environment and groundwater.

Another proposal for better waste management presents a tracking system for plastic

products, where companies that produce disposable plastic products are held accountable for

the overall lifecycle of the product.

Recycling

Material recovery is a significant solution to reducing the amount of plastic debris that

enters the oceans. Despite recycling efforts over the last several decades, plastic is the least

recycled component of the United States’ municipal waste stream (Hadjilambrinos 1999).

Recently, the recycling of plastic packaging has increased, but most recycling rates remain

low at 3-5% of all material generated (Werthmann 2007).

Advancing recycling technologies that include more types of plastic goods and mixed

plastic can increase the amount of material being recycled. Increasing public knowledge of

recycling programs, and making recycling a convenient option for small business and homes

is another way to increase the amount of plastic material that is recycled. Creating incentives

for recycling is another viable option. Several states currently have programs that pay a small

amount of money for certain types of recyclable items, mainly glass and metals. This

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incentive program could be expanded to plastic items, making recycling a profitable endeavor

(Hopewell et al 2008).

Using disposable plastic goods is a behavioral issue that has increased over the last

few decades. Rather than thinking of plastics as disposable waste, it can be used as valuable

energy to generate new products. Energy recovered from plastics by incineration generates

power that would otherwise lie buried in a landfill. Currently, however, plastic incineration

for energy is unpopular because it releases POPs, CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the air.

Plastics can also be redesigned for efficient recyclability, instead of creating new recycling

technology for many varieties of finished products.

The success of plastic recycling initiatives depends on the development of a market for

products made from recycled plastic materials. Recycled plastic products can be priced to be

competitive with virgin resin plastic products. Consumer perception of recycled goods change

when the products are high quality and durable. Building a consumer base that places

environmental concerns above price is essential for constructing a market for recycled

materials. Overall, government intervention determines the success of a recycled plastic

market because it can create regulatory quality standards for products, establish incentives to

buy recycled materials, and subsidize or create tax breaks for recycled material production

and sales in order to make them competitive in the open market (Hadjilambrinos 1999).

Biodegradable Plastics

Biodegradable plastics can contribute to used-material recovery, a reduction in landfill

space, and the implementation of renewable resources. Truly biodegradable plastics

decompose into carbon dioxide, methane, water, inorganic compounds, or biomass by the

enzymatic action of microorganisms that can be measured by standardized tests, in a

15
particular period of time, reflecting the disposal conditions (Song et al 2008). Compostable

plastics are a subset of biodegradable plastics, which decompose in a compost site, the plastic

cannot be visually distinguishable, and it breaks down to carbon dioxide, water, inorganic

compounds and biomass, at a similar rate to other compostable materials. Composting

produces a useful end product of rich soil, and therefore recovers the energy used to produce

the original product (Song et al 2008). Increased government incentives or tax breaks can

make biodegradable and compostable plastics economically competitive alternatives to

petroleum-based plastics.

Education

Educating the public is a significant solution to the problems in garbage patch. One

method of increasing public awareness of marine debris is to address the harmful effects of

plastic on human health. A new documentary entitled Tapped, written by Josh David and

Jason Lindsey, directed by Stephanie Soechtig, and produced by Atlas Films, exposes the

bottled water industry, and focuses on POPs in plastic water bottles and the subsequent human

health problems. The more the public knows about the deleterious effects of plastic additives

on the human body, the more active the public will become in an attempt to regulate these

contaminants.

Media sources present a method to increase public awareness about the garbage patch,

and the harmful effects of plastic. The media exposes the toxic chemicals in plastic products,

the damaging effects of marine debris, and the unsustainable consumption of plastic in

landfills and the natural environment. The media as a tool can be used to increase public

awareness about the garbage patch and other issues involving plastic waste. Charles Moore,

the founder of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, frequently gives interviews about the

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persistent problem of debris in marine environments, and the harmful effects of the debris,

specifically the various garbage patches in gyres.

Environmental education at an early age can instill a sense of responsibility and

appreciation in children for nature. Teaching about reducing, reusing and recycling can

interrupt the ingrained behavioral pattern of unlimited consumption that is plaguing affluent

nations. Inspiring children to engage in sustainable lifestyles aids in making the planet a

cleaner and less polluted place to live for future generations.

Cleaning up the garbage patch

At the current time with the current technology, removing the debris within the

garbage patch is scarcely feasible. The size and scale of the garbage patch alone presents

challenges for debris removal. The larger debris is located at greater depths, which

necessitates trained vessel operators and removal experts. Marine debris removal is a

technical task, particularly for large items. On land, gear is heavy and difficult to move.

Underwater, lost gear poses a high entanglement risk to divers. To lessen the impact to those

removing debris and to the local habitat, removal techniques would benefit from advances in

technology (Interagency 2008). In addition, these advances in technology could lead to easier

and increased removal efforts. Trawling the plastic out by boat would be very costly, with

little or no financial incentives. The labor and resources needed to scoop out over 3 million

tons of debris would further increase the cost. Removing the debris would remove the habitat

for marine life that currently resides in the garbage patch, and would likely kill plankton and

other marine organisms.

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 Breakthroughs in technology show the possibility of future plastic removal. A 16 year

old from Canada isolated a strain of bacteria that completely degraded pieces of plastic and

produced organic waste (Burkhart 2009). After the discovery, researchers began conducting

tests to develop bacterial strains to decompose each specific type of plastic. These tests are

currently limited to the laboratory in order to determine potential risks. Hypothesized negative

impacts of bacterial decomposition include harmful environmental effects if released,

unintentional plastic degradation, and potential toxicity. Microbial decomposition could

potentially be a future solution to the waste problem, as well a solution to the debris in the

Garbage Patch (Burkhart 2009).

The organization SEAPLEX conducts research in the North Pacific Garbage Patch in

order to determine feasible methods of debris removal. The most promising solution from

their research is a process where the plastic debris is scooped out of the water, sorted, and

then burned for energy recovery on the research vessel (Mission 2009). These technological

advancements are all in the preliminary stages of development or testing, and with more

research could be feasible methods for reducing the amount of debris in the garbage patch.

Building upon the information gathered from research, development of new technologies may

allow significant reductions in the impacts, longevity, and dispersal of marine debris.

Policy and Management

Policies to reduce both land and ocean-based sources of plastic marine debris can be

enacted at varying levels of government and community organization in the United States and

abroad to reduce the garbage patch. At the international level, the International Convention

for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex V is the authority for

18
overseeing the reduction of ocean-based sources of marine debris (International 1978). An

opportunity for further research includes the potential for international collaboration and

agreements about reducing the amount of marine pollution from land-based sources in

individual countries. An international treaty to reduce petroleum-based plastic production

could be enacted, similar to the Montreal Protocol.

At the national level in the United States, authorities like the Clean Water Act, the

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 do not

specifically mention marine debris, but include standards applicable to the control of land-

based sources of marine debris (Interagency 2008). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are the federal

agencies appointed to managing marine debris and regulating plastic. In 2006, Congress

passed the Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act, which established the

NOAA Marine Debris Program (NOAA 2009). The Marine Debris Program mission is to

create an effort focused on preventing, identifying, and reducing the occurrence of marine

debris, and to protect and conserve the nation’s natural resources, oceans and coastal

waterways from the impacts of marine debris (NOAA 2009). This program has provided

additional new funds for marine debris research projects on topics ranging from sources and

composition of marine debris to impacts and approaches for mitigating those impacts through

removal of debris. Research, while focused on national concerns, is frequently conducted at a

local level (Interagency 2008). An improved understanding of the factors that influence

marine debris distribution and deposition will improve the ability to predict which geographic

regions are likely to accumulate marine debris under various conditions, as well as the likely

19
rates of accumulation and residence time of debris in various regions of the ocean (e.g., the

North Pacific Gyre).

The NOAA Office for Law Enforcement manages both administrative and civil

enforcement actions, and has the authority to enforce numerous statutes and treaties relevant

to the protection of marine resources. The Marine Debris Research, Prevention and Reduction

Act passed in 2006, permitted NOAA to create an Office of Marine Debris. The act could be

strengthened with the addition of marine debris regulations that could be enforced, and

increased incentives for marine debris prevention, reduction and research. Stricter

environmental regulations placed on corporations that release plastic waste or debris, or have

poor waste management plans could be enacted.

Despite Congressional mandates and binding legislation, federal agencies cannot

manage marine debris single-handedly. State and local partnerships, non-governmental

efforts, and volunteer commitment must be coordinated to reach collective goals. At the state

and local level, community-based clean up and recycling programs are an efficient

management resource. Community based inland and coastal debris collection and clean up

reduces the amount of debris entering the ocean. Recycling efforts are most effective at the

local level. Finally, many areas have watershed cleanups that are aimed at keeping parks,

creeks, and rivers clean. These cleanups can remove materials from land-based sources that

might otherwise become marine debris (Werthmann 2007).

Conclusion

In conclusion, changes in consumptive behavior such as reducing use, is the best way

to slow the accumulation of plastics within the garbage patch. Strong overarching plastic

pollution policies along with local, community based efforts to reduce plastic consumption,

20
promote recycling, and lower the exposure rate of humans to organic pollutants is a

significant strategy for reducing overall waste and increasing human and ecosystem health.

The research from the North Pacific Garbage patch can used to manage and determine policy

for other gyres in the world’s oceans, as well as studying plastic pollution in inland

waterways.

Research in the North Pacific Garbage is relevant for garbage patches in the other

ocean gyres. The recently discovered North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre garbage patch is

attracting specific attention by the media, and is being assessed by research teams. The

findings and methods of research in the North Pacific Garbage Patch provide a guide for

research in the North Atlantic and other ocean gyres.

Overall, international collaboration for cleanup and reduction of sources is the most

efficient way to reduce the expansion of the North Pacific Garbage Patch. Technological

advances in plastic degradation can assist in the clean up of marine debris currently within the

garbage patch.

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APPENDICES

A.

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B.

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