GOVERNING OF TURBINE
Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbines.
IMPULSE TURBINE: The type of turbine in which only kinetic energy of water (impulse force) is used to rotate
the turbine is known as impulse turbine.*In an impulse turbine, the water flows through a nozzle and strikes to
the blades of the turbine.*In impulse turbine, an impulsive force rotates the turbine.*In impulse turbine, the
pressure of water remains unchanged and is equal to atmospheric pressure when it flows over the moving
blades.*In impulse turbine, the pressure of water is reduced in the nozzle before entering the turbine.*all the
pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy before striking the turbine blades.*there is no necessity of
turbine casing as it has no hydraulic function. It is just provided to prevent splashing of water.*The blades of an
impulse turbine are of symmetrical profile.*Popular examples of impulse turbine are: Pelton wheel turbine,
Turgo turbine and cross-flow turbine.
REACTION TURBINES: The type of water turbine in which both kinetic energy as well as pressure energy of
water is used turn the turbine is called the reaction turbine.*In reaction turbine, a reaction force on the blades is
rotation the turbine..*In the reaction turbine, the pressure of water continuously decreases when it flows over the
blades..*In reaction turbine, the pressure of water is decreasing while flowing over the blades.*In reaction
turbine, the pressure of water is decreasing while flowing over the blades.*In reaction turbine, there is no change
in the pressure of water before striking the turbine blades..*The reaction turbines are suitable for relatively low
water heads..*the turbine casing is required because the pressure at inlet is very high as compared to pressure at
outlet. Therefore, the casing seals it from the atmospheric pressure..*In a reaction turbine, the water discharges
into a draft tube first and then into the tail race..*Popular examples of reaction turbines are: Francis turbine and
Kaplan turbine.
Differentiate between open cycle gas turbine and closed cycle gas turbine.
Closed cycle gas turbineThe compressed air is heated in heating chamber.* The gas is heated by an external
source, hence the amount of gas remains same thought the cycle.*The gas after turbine is passed into the cooling
chamber.*The working fluid is circulated continuously.*Any fluid with better thermodynamic properties can be
used.* The turbine blades do not wear away earlier, as the enclosed gas does not get contaminated while flowing
through heating chamber.*The mass of installation per Kwatt is more.*High maintenance cost.
Open cycle gas turbine : The compressed air is heated in combustion chamber.* The products of combustion
are get mixed up in the heated air hence same gas doesn't remain in cycle.*The gas after turbine is exhausted into
the atmosphere.*The working fluid is replaced continuously.*Only air is used as the working fluid.*The turbine
blades wear away earlier, as the air from atmosphere get contaminated while flowing through combustion
chamber.*The mass of installation per Kwatt is less.*Maintenance cost is low.
Throttle governing : This governing is usually working in both impulse turbines and reaction turbines.*The
control value position will be adjusted to allow required steam for turbine operation.*It has lesser losses due to
fractional entrance of steam.*This governing is realized through throttling of steam at inlet to turbine so there
occur severe throttling losses.*In this case of governing mechanism, themass flow rate is controlled by throttling
the steam with means of control value.
Nozzle governing : This governing is working in impulse turbine and reaction turbines have initial impulse
stages.*In this process the steam flow is regulated through opening or closing some set of nozzles of the
turbine.*It has large partial entrance losses.*This governing is realized through nozzle control so degree of
throttling losses in valves is small.*This type of governing is proper for simple impulse turbine and mainly
efficiently in part load conditions.
Reheat factor: It is defined as the ratio of cumulative heat drop to the adiabatic heat drop in all stages of the
turbine. The value of reheat factor depends on the type and efficiency of the turbine.The value of reheat factor
depends on stage efficiency, final pressure and initial pressure and condition of steam. It doesn’t depend on the
atmospheric temperature.
GOVERNING OF REACTION TURBINES=impulse turbine =any
In a reaction turbine the discharge is controlled by varying the area of flow between adjacent guide vanes. The
guide vanes are connected to the regulating ring through links.The regulating ring is connected to the regulating
lever through two regulating rods. The regulating ring is thus connected to the regulating shaft which is operated
by a servomotor.The servomotor, oil sump, control valve and system of pipes, etc. are similar to that in the
governing arrangement of an impulse turbine. The component parts are, however, stronger as greater energy is
required to move the gates as compared to the spear in the nozzle of a Pelton turbine.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES: –1. Sensible heating, 2. Sensible cooling, 3. Humidification and
dehumidification, 4. Cooling and adiabatic humidification, 5. Cooling and humidification by water injection, 6.
Heating and humidification,7. Humidification by steam injection,8. Adiabatic chemical dehumidification,9.
Adiabatic mixing of air streams.
SENSIBLE HEATING: – The heating air without any change in its specific humidity is known as sensible
heating. Let air at temperature tdl passes over a heating coil temperature td3 . It may be noted that the
temperature of air leaving the heating coil will be less than td3. The process of sensible heating, on the
psychometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line 1-2 extending from left to right as. The point 3 presents the
surface temperature of the heating coil.
SENSIBLE COOLING: – The cooling of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known as sensible
cooling. Let air at temperature tdl passes over a cooling coil of temperature td3 . It may be noted that the
temperature of air leaving the cooling coil will be more than td3.The process of sensible cooling on the
psychometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line 1-2 extending from right to left. The point 3 represents the
surface temperature of the cooling coil.
HUMIDIFICATION AND DEHUMIDIFICATION: – The addition of moisture to the air, without change in
its dry bulb temperature, is known as humidification. Similarly, removal of moisture from the air, with out
change in its dry bulb temperature is known as dehumidification process. It may be noted that in humidification,
the relative humidity increases from Φ1 to Φ2 and specific humidity also increases from W1 to W2 as shown.
Similarly, in dehumidification, the relative humidity decreases from Φ1 to Φ2 and specific humidity also
decreases from W1 to W2. It may be noted that in humidification, change in enthalpy is shown by the intercept (
h2 – h1) on the psychometric chart. Since the dry bulb temperature of air during the humidification remains
constant, therefore, its sensible heat also remains constant.
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION: – This process is generally used in summer air conditioning to cool
and dehumidify the air,. The air is passed over a cooling coil through a cold-water spray. In this process, the dry
bulb temperature as well as the specific humidity of air decreases. The final relative humidity of the air is
generally higher than that of the entering air. The dehumidification of air is only possible when the effective
surface of the cooling coil is less than the dew point temperature of the entering the coil. The effective surface of
the coil is known as apparatus dew point.
COOLING WITH ADIABATIC HUMIDIFICATION: – When the air is passed through an insulated
chamber having sprays of water maintained at a temperature higher than the dew point temperature of entering
air, but lower than its dry bulb temperature of entering air equal to the wet bulb temperature of the entering air
then the air is said to be cooled and humidified. Since no heat is supplied or rejected from the spray water as the
same water is recirculated again and again. Therefore, in this case, a condition of adiabatic saturation will be
reached. The temperature of spray water will reach the
thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of the air entering the spray water.
HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION: – The process is generally used in winter air conditioning to warm and
humidify the air. It is the reverse process of cooling and dehumidification. When air is passed through a
humidifier having spray water temperature higher than the dry bulb temperature of the entering air, the
unsaturated air will reach the condition of saturation and thus the air becomes hot. The heat of vaporization of
water is absorbed from the spray water itself and hence it gets cooled. In this way, the air becomes heated and
humidified.
HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION BY STEAM INJECTION: –The steam is normally injected into the
air in order to increase its specific humidity as shown. This process is used for the air conditioning of textile mills
where high humidity is to be maintained. The dry bulb temperature of air changes very little during this process.
ADIABATIC CHEMICAL DEHUMIDIFICATION: – In this process, the air is passed over chemicals, which
have an affinity for moisture. As the air comes in contact with have an affinity for moisture. As the air comes in
contact with these chemicals, the moisture gets condensed out of the air and gives up its latent heat. Due to the
condensation, the specific humidity decreases and the heat of condensation supplies sensible heat for heating the
air and thus increasing its dry bulb temperature.
ADIABATIC MIXING OF TWO AIR STREAMS: – When two quantities of air having different enthalpies
and different specific humilities are mixed. The final condition of the air mixture depends upon the masses
involved, and on the enthalpy and specific humidity of each of the constituent masses, which enter the mixtutre.
Steam turbine governing system is a method, used to maintain a constant steady speed of turbine. The
importance of this method is, the turbine can maintain a constant steady speed irrespective of variation of its
load. A turbine governor is provided for this arrangement. The purpose of the governor is to supply steam into
the turbine in such a way that the turbine gives a constant speed as far as possible under varying the load. So,
basically Steam turbine governing system is a process where turbine maintains a steady output speed irrespective
of variation of load. The different types of steam turbine governor of are:1. Throttle Governing Of Steam Turbine
2. Nozzle Control Governing Of Steam Turbine
3. Bypass Governing Of Steam Turbine
Bypass Governing Of Steam Turbine:- Bipass governing of steam turbineis a method where a bypass line is
provided for the steam. The bypass line is provided for passing the steam from first stage nozzle box into a later
stage where work output increase. This bypass steam is automatically regulated by the lift of valve which is under
the control of the speed of the governor for all loads within its range. Bypass valve is open to release the fresh
stem into the later stage of the turbine. In the later stage output, work is increased and the efficiency is low due to
the throttle effect.
Nozzle Control Governing Of Steam Turbine:-Nozzle control governing of steam turbine is basically used
for part load condition. Some set of nozzles are grouped together and each group of the nozzle is supplied steam
controlled by valves. Every valve is closed by the corresponding set of nozzle. Steam's flow rate is also controlled
by these nozzles. Actually, nozzle control governing is restricted to the first stage of turbine whereas the
subsequent nozzle area in other stage remains constant. According to the load demand, some nozzles are in active
and other inactive position. Suppose turbine holds ten numbers of nozzles. If the load demand is reduced by 50%
then five numbers of nozzles are in open condition and rest is closed. This method is suitable for SIMPLE
IMPULSE TURBINE. It is a process where rate of steam flow is regulated depending on the opening and closing
of set of nozzles rather than regulating its pressure.
Throttle Governing Of Steam Turbine :-Throttle Governing of steam turbine
In this governing system, the pressure of the steam turbine is reduced at the Turbine entry thereby decreasing the
availability of energy. In this method, steam is pass through the restricted passage thereby reducing its pressure
across the governing valve. The flow rate is control through a partially opened steam turbine control valve.
Throttle governing is used for small turbines. Its cost is less and it has a simple mechanism. In throttle governing
the steam is throttled whenever the load falls below the design load to maintain turbine speed constant. In this
system, a centrifugal governor is driven from the main shaft of the turbine by belt or gear arrangement. A control
valve is used to control the direction of oil flow.
COMPOUNDING OF STEAM TURBINE: Compounding of steam turbine is used to reduce the rotor speed. It
is the process by which rotor speed come to its desired value. A multiple system of rotors are connected in series
keyed to a common shaft and the steam pressure or velocity is absorbed in stages as it flows over the blades.
Generally, three different types of compounding are used to reduce the rotor speed of steam turbine. * Velocity
Compounding*Pressure Compounding*Pressure Velocity Compounding.
Velocity compounding: Kinetic energy of steam is converted to useful work in more than one stage.*Velocity
of steam increase in the first nozzle. Steam velocity decreases in every moving blade, and remain constant in
every fixed blade*Pressure of steam remains constant in every fixed blade and moving blades except in the first
nozzle.*High velocity of steam inside the turbine.*Fewer number stages, and hence the turbine length is short,
require less space*High frictional losses*It gives maximum output at the first stage, work produced in the
low-pressure stages is much less.*High steam consumption*Steam pressure inside the turbine is literally equal to
the atmospheric pressure so there will be no problem of steam leakage.
Pressure Compounding: Pressure energy of steam at turbine input gradually extracted in multiple steps.
*Pressure of steam decrease in every nozzle (fixed blades)*Velocity of steam increase in every nozzle.* Steam
velocity decrease in every moving blade*Velocity of steam is low when compared to velocity compound
turbine.*Low frictional losses*Large number of stages and it is bulky, require more space.*Same amount of work
produced in each stage.*High pressure of steam inside the turbine. The chance of steam leakage will be more
when compared to velocity compounded turbine.*Less steam consumption when compared to velocity
compounding.*More efficient.
Pressure-velocity Compounding:- This method is the combination of previous two methods. This method is
the combination of both pressure and velocity compounding. Here the set of nozzle rings is fixed at the beginning
of each stage and pressure remaining constant of each stage. Diameter is comparatively large in stage for
increasing the volume of steam at lower pressure. The total pressure drop of the steam is divided into stages and
velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded. A pressure velocity compounded turbine allows a bigger
pressure drop in each stage. That's why pressure velocity compounded method need less stage as compared to the
other method.
Methods of improving COP of simple cycle,
Improvement by adding Flash Chamber.*Improvement by adding Accumulator.* Improvement by Subcooling of liquid
refrigerant by using vapours of refrigerant.*Improvement by Subcooling of liquid refrigerant by using Liquid refrigerant.
Reversed Carnot Cycle
Reversed Carnot Cycle is a type of Refrigeration Cycle that is exactly opposite (or reverse) to the Carnot Cycle. The
processes that involved in the Carnot and Reversed Carnot Cycle are same but the procedure and working sequence is
different and quite opposite each other. The Carnot Cycle is used to convert the convert the heat into the mechanical work
whereas; the Reversed Carnot Cycle is used to absorb the heat from the system and rejects to the surroundings to maintain
the system cool.
This process is used to build the refrigeration system
so the working process is all about achieving the
cooling environment in the system or space. The
Reversed Carnot Cycle too consists of four processes.
● Isentropic/Adiabatic Process (1-2)
● Isothermal Compression Process (2-3)
● Isentropic/Adiabatic Expansion Process (3-4)
● Isothermal Expansion Process (4-1)
Isentropic or Adiabatic Compression Process (1-2): In the Isentropic Compression process (1-2), the gas
is compressed. Due to the compression of gas, the pressure is increased highly and volume will be
decreased slightly and at the same time, the Entropy (S) remains constant.
Isothermal Compression Process (2-3): In the Isothermal Compression process (2-3), the heat is added at
a constant temperature. Due to the prolonged compression of gas, the pressure is increased slightly and
volume will be decreased highly and at the same time, the Temperature remains constant.
Isentropic or Adiabatic Expansion Process (3-4): In the Isentropic Expansion process (3-4), the pressure is
decreased highly and volume will be increased slightly and at the same time, the Entropy (T) remains
constant.
Isothermal Expansion Process (4-1): In the Isothermal Expansion process (4-1), the heat is rejected by
the gas to the surroundings at a constant temperature, the pressure is decreased slightly and volume will
be increased highly and at the same time, the Temperature remains constant.
Applications: The Carnot cycle and Reversed Carnot Cycles are Ideal cycles which means the construction
of such cycles in real life is impossible. So, we can say that the applications of both cycles do not exist. But
we can say that the Reversed Carnot Cycle is an ideal cycle for the Refrigeration System and Effect.
Limitations : The application of isentropic and isothermal processes back to back is impossible because,
in the isentropic process, the pressure increases fastly which requires a high speed, and in the isothermal
process, the pressure increase slowly which requires low speed so, achieving high and slow processes
back to back is impossible in real life. * Another side, the addition, and rejection of heat at constant
temperature are impossible because whenever the heat is added to any source, the temperature will be
increased usually which is impossible to restrict.*Impossible to construct Reversed Carnot Cycle.
Stages of combustion in S.I. engines,
Combustion is a process of the rapid chemical reaction between fuel and the air. This process results in the
generation of heat and light. In IC Engine, there are different stages of combustion for different engines. In this
post, we are going to focus on stages of combustion in CI engine. Stages of combustion in SI engine are
completely different than the CI engines.
In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is compressed at very high pressure and
temperature. The compression ratio used is in the range of 12 to 120.
The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is diesel in the CI engine. Then
diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under very high pressure about 120 to 210 bar. The temperature
of this fuel is around 20° to 35° before TDC (Top Dead Center).
Point A on the above graph shows the time at which diesel fuel injection starts. Then, the process of combustion
in the CI engine starts. This combustion takes place in four stages as discussed below.
Based on the experimental results the combustion in SI engines takes place in three stages as follows:Period of
ignition Lag Or preparation phase.*Flame propagation phase.
*After burning or flame termination phase.
Period of ignition lad or preparation: The experimental results have shown that there is a certain interval
of time between the instant of spark is given at point A and the instant the first tiny flame reappears at point B
which corresponds to the point where there is a noticeable rise in cylinder pressure due to combustion. This time
inters al corresponds to period AB and this period is called ignition delay angle.Ignition lag represents the period
of preflame reactions in which the chain are formed as explained in the chain reaction theory of combustion. The
ignition lag depends upon the molecular structure of fuel, temperature, pressure, density, air-fuel ratio and the
proportion of residual gases in the mixture.
Flame propagation phase:Once the self-sustaining flame appears at point B, the flame travels outwards and
burns the fuel in air. Initially the rate of burning of fuel and flame speeds are low with small rate of pressure rise.
The slope of curve BC represents the rate of pressure rise. It should be noted that the rate of heat transfer to
cylinder walls is low at the beginning of this phase since only the small part of the burning mixture comes in
contact with the cylinder walls. The rate of heat energy released during combustion depends on the intensity of
turbulence and the air-fuel ratio.
After burning of flame termination phase: Actually combustion is not completed at point C though it
represents the completion of flame travel.
It is due to the fact the burning continues due to left over fuel and the reassociation of dissociated gases existing
in the combustion chamber. This combustion beyond point C continues during the expansion stroke and it is
called as after burning representing the third stage of combustion upto point D. The flame velocity decreases
during this phase of combustion.
Effect of various parameters on combustion: Pressure and temperature*Compression ratio*Electrode
gap:Residual gases*Mixture strength.
Factors affecting Detonation or Knocking in SI engine:
Compression ratio: The pressure and temperature at the end of compression increases with increase in
compression ratio. This in turn increase the maximum pressure during the combustion and creates a tendency to
knock.
Supercharging: It is the process of allowing the charge at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. Because
of supercharging the density and temperature increases there by knocking tendency increases. Super charging is
generally done on CI engines.
Increasing inlet temperature: It results in increase in knocking.
Increase in load: Increase in load result in increase in temperature of the cylinder, there by rising the temperature
and hence knocking tendency increasing at high loads.
Advancing the spark: when the spark is advance the burning gas is compressed by rising piston and therefore
the increase in temperature will be much more and hence the knocking tendency increases. To avoid detonation
spark must be retarded.
Flame travel distance: Flame travel distance should be small to avoid detonation.
Spark plug location: Spark plug which is located centrally has minimum tendency for knocking because the
flame travel distance decreases.
Engine size: For larger engine size the flame travel distance will be longer and hence knocking chances are high,
because of this reason SI engine sizes are generally limited.
Types of combustion chambers for SI Engines. T-Head type*L-Head type*I-Head type*F-Head type
Reversed Joule cycle(Bell Coleman Cycle)
The Bell Coleman Cycle is a refrigeration cycle where the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded,
but does not change phase. Air is most often this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation
intended in this gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a vapour compression
cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers. This cycle may be thought of as a modification of reversed
Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer
processes.
1-2: Isentropic Compression: The air drawn from the refrigerator to air compressor cylinder where it compressed
isentropically (constant entropy). No heat transfer by the air. During compression, the volume decreases while
the pressure and temperature of air increases.
2-3: Constant pressure cooling process: The warm compressed air is then passed through cooler, it cooled down
at constant pressure. The heat rejected perkg of air during this process is equal to: q(2->3) = Cp(T2 -T3)
3-4: Isentropic expansion: No heat transfer takes place. The air expands isentropically in expander cylinder.
During expansion, the volume increases, Pressure P3 reduces to P4. Temperature also falls during expansion from
T3 to T4.
4-1: Constant pressure expansion: Heat transfer from the refrigerator to air. The temperature increases from T4
to T1. Volume increases to V1 due to heat transfer. Heat absorbed by air per kg during this process is equal to:
q(4->1) = Cp(T1 -T4)
Advantages: Cheap and abundant refrigerant, highly reliable: Air is used as refrigerant, which is
easily available and inexpensive.* Charging of refrigerant is very easy.*Design and construction
is simple, No complicated parts and its maintenance cost is low.*Refrigerant (Air) is non-toxic,
non-flammable, non-corrosive.*There is no phase change during the operation of system.*The
cold air can be directly used for refrigeration; it is useful in aircraft refrigeration at high
altitude.*There would be no significant change in the performance of air refrigeration if it is
operated much away from its design conditions.*It can produce very high temperature
differences between hot and cold region. So the same system can be used for both cooling and
heating effects. It also helps to achieve very low temperature.*Air refrigeration is used in
aircraft due to availability cold air at high altitude and it can can achieve both air-conditioning,
as well as the pressurization of the cabin.
Disadvantages: Lower C.O.P. compared to other refrigeration cycle.*Running cost is high.*The
mass of air required to circulate in the system is very high when compared to other type of
refrigeration cycle due to low specific heat capacity.*System components are bulky, large space
per ton of refrigeration.*The chance of frosting at expander is more due to moisture content in
the air.*Air contains pollutant particle, so do regular cleaning of air filter in open system.
Bypass Factor: Bypass Factor is part of the total air through the coil which fails to come into
contact with the surface of the cooling coil. Apparatus Dew Point (ADP) is the effective surface
temperature of the cooling coil. The bypass factor increases with the increasing velocity of air
passing through it because less time air contact with the coil. It decreases with a decrease in fin
spacing and increases in the number of rows because of more time of air in contact with the
coil.
REHEATING
Use of reheating is that, when the expansion takes place in the turbine from saturated /superheated state, it falls
into the wet region,ie,the steam after expansion. These wet particles have moisture content and those are
harmful for the turbine blades as it can cause corrosion or rusting. Steam produced in the boiler goes to the first
turbine and then to the second turbine. The first turbine is the H.P turbine, because as compared to the second
turbine it has high pressure. From boiler ,the steam goes to the first turbine, then it passes to the reheater
,where the steam is reheated and converted to superheated state then it is passed to the second turbine for the
second expansion that takes place at low pressure.
Advantages: It increases the work done through the turbine.*It increases the efficiency of the turbine.*It
reduces the erosion of the blades, because of increase in dryness fraction of steam at exhaust* The amount of
water required in the condenser of the turbine is reduced, due to reduction in the specific steam consumption.
Disadvantages : Reheating requires more maintenance. * The increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable in
comparison to the expenditure incurred in reheating.

Sensible heat ratio (SHR) is the term used to describe the ratio of sensible heat load to total heat load. For
example, an SHR value of 100 % would mean that an evaporator would only cool the air, i.e., a purely sensible
load. Sensible heat is defined as the amount of heat or energy required to change the temperature of the
substance without changing the phase of the substance.
Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) : The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer exposed
to the air in a place sheltered from direct solar radiation. The term dry-bulb is customarily added to temperature
to distinguish it from wet-bulb and dew point temperature.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the temperature of moist air measured by a sling thermometer and which is
covered by a wet cloth. WBT gives the moisture details of moist air. DBT and WBT have measured the properties
of moist air.

Psychrometry Properties: DBT*WBT*Dew Point Temperature (DPT)*Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio in

Ps*Relative Humidity*Degree of Saturation*Specific Volume*Specific Enthalpy
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in moist air and the mass of water vapour
in saturated air at the same temperature and pressure. The relative humidity is denoted with ϕ and represented
in terms of percentage %. Relative humidity at any point on the saturation curve is 100%.
ϕ = mv/mvs = Pv/Pvs=Pv/Ps
Specific Humidity: Specific humidity(ω) is one of the important thermodynamic properties of moist air. Moist air
consists of water vapour and dry air. Specific humidity or humidity ratio is the mass of water vapour in one kg of
dry air. Specific humidity is denoted with ω and expressed in terms of kg/kg of dry air. ω = mv/ma = (0.622
Pv)/(Pb-Pv)
Degree of Saturation(μ): The degree of saturation in Psychrometry is defined as the ratio of specific humidity of
moist air and specific humidity of saturated air at the same temperature. The degree of saturation is represented
as μ. The degree of saturation is a measure of moisture absorbing capacity of air. It gives the relationship
between normal specific humidity(ω) and maximum possible specific humidity (ωs). μ = ω/ωs
Dew Point Temperature (DPT): It is the temperature at which the moist air starts condensing. The temperature
corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapour(Pv) is defined as moist air's Dew Point Temperature.