Chapter 2.

Fourier Grad
Series
2. Fourier Series

2.1. General Discussion

Any physically realizable periodic waveform can be decomposed into a Fourier series of DC,
fundamental frequency, and harmonic terms. In sine form, the Fourier series is

∞ ∞
o
i(t) = Idc + ∑Ik sin(kωot +θk ) = Idc + ∑Ik cos(kωot +θk −90 ) , (2.1)
k =1 k =1

where Idc is the DC (i.e., average) value, Ik are peak magnitudes of the individual harmonics,
ωo is the fundamental frequency (in radians per second), and θk are the harmonic phase angles.
The time period of the waveform is
2π 2π 1
T = = = .
ωo 2πfo fo

The sine terms in (2.1) can be replaced with cosines if 90º if subtracted from each θk .
The formulas for computing Idc , Ik , θk are well known and can be found in any undergraduate
electrical engineering textbook on circuit analysis. These are described in Section 2.2.

Figure 2.1 shows a desktop computer (i.e., PC) current waveform. The corresponding spectrum
is given in the Appendix. The figure illustrates how the actual waveform can be approximated
rd th
by summing only the fundamental, 3 , and 5 harmonic components. If higher-order terms are
th th th
included (i.e., 7 , 9 , 11 , and so on), then the PC current waveform will be perfectly
reconstructed. A truncated Fourier series is actually a least-squared error curve fit. As higher
frequency terms are added, the error is reduced.

Fortunately, a special property known as half-wave symmetry exists for most power electronic
loads. Have-wave symmetry exists when the positive and negative halves of a waveform are
identical but opposite, i.e.,

T
i(t) = −i(t ± ) ,
2

where T is the period. Waveforms with half-wave symmetry have no even-ordered harmonics.
It is obvious that the television current waveform is half-wave symmetric.

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series

Amper 0

-5

st rd th
Sum of 1 , 3 , 5

5 3
Amper

-5

st rd th
Figure 2.1. PC Current Waveform, and its 1 , 3 , and 5 Harmonic Components

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
2.2 Fourier Coefficients

If function i(t) is periodic with an identifiable period T (i.e., i(t) =i(t ± NT ) ), then i(t) can be
written in rectangular form as
∞
2π
i(t) = Idc + ∑[ak cos(kωot) +bk sin(kωot)], ωo = , (2.2)
k =1
T

where
1 to +T
I dc =
T ∫ to
i(t)dt ,
2 to +T
a = i(t)cos(kω t)dt ,
T ∫
k o
to
2 to +T
b = i(t)sin(kω t)dt .
T ∫
k o
to

The sine and cosine terms in (2.2) can be converted to the convenient polar form of (2.1) by
using trigonometry as follows:

ak cos(kωot) +bk sin(kωot)

2 2 a cos(kωo t ) + bk sin(kωo t )
= a k+b k• k
2 2
ak +b k

⎡ ⎤
ak bk
a +b •⎢
2 2 ⎥
= cos(kω o t) + sin(kω o t)
k k ⎢ 2 2 2 2 ⎥
a +b ak +b ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ k k k

= a2 k+b2 k•[sin(θk )cos(kωot) +cos(θk )sin(kωot)], (2.3)

where

ak bk
sin(θk ) = , cos(θk ) = .
2 2 2 2
ak +bk a k +b k
ak
Applying trigonometric identity θk

sin(A +B) =sin(A)cos(B) +cos(A)sin(B) ,

bk

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series

to (2.3) yields polar form

2 2
a k +b k •sin(kωot +θk ) , (2.4)
where

sin(θk ) ak
tan(θ k ) = = . (2.5)
cos(θk ) bk

2.3. Phase Shift

There are two types of phase shifts pertinent to harmonics. The first is a shift in time, e.g. the
T
± among the phases of balanced a-b-c currents. If the PC waveform in Figure 2.2 is delayed
3
by ΔT seconds, the modified current is

5
delayed
Amper

-5

Figure 2.2. PC Current Waveform Delayed in Time

∞ ∞
i(t −ΔT ) = ∑Ik sin(kωo (t −ΔT )+θk ) = ∑Ik sin(kωot −kωoΔT +θk )
k =1 k =1
∞ ∞
= ∑Ik sin(kωot +(θk −kωoΔT )) = ∑Ik sin(kωot +θk −kθo ), (2.6)
k =1 k =1

where θo is the phase lag of the fundamental current corresponding to ΔT . The last term in
(2.6) shows that individual harmonics are delayed by kθo .

The second type of phase shift is in harmonic angle, which occurs in wye-delta transformers.
o
Wye-delta transformers shift voltages and currents by ±30 . ANSI standards require that,
regardless of which side is delta or wye, the a-b-c phases must be marked so that the high-
o
voltage side voltages and currents lead those on the low-voltage side by 30 for positive-

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
o
sequence, and lag by 30 for negative sequence. Zero sequences are blocked by the three-wire
connection so that their phase shift is not meaningful.

2.4 Symmetry Simplifications

Waveform symmetry greatly simplifies the effort in developing Fourier coefficients. Symmetry
arguments should be applied to the waveform after the DC component has been removed.
The most important cases are

• Odd Symmetry, i.e.,

i(t) = −i(−t) ,

then the corresponding Fourier series has no cosine terms,

ak =0 ,
and bk can be found by integrating over the first half-period and doubling the results,

4 T/2
bk = i(t)sin(kωot)dt
T 0∫

• Even Symmetry, i.e.,

i(t) =i(−t) ,

then the corresponding Fourier series has no sine terms,

bk =0 ,
and ak can be found by integrating over the first half-period and doubling the results,

4 T/2
ak = i(t)cos(kωot)dt
T ∫0

Important note – even and odd symmetry can sometimes be obtained by time-shifting the
waveform. In this case, solve for the Fourier coefficients using the time-shifted waveform,
and then phase-shift the Fourier coefficient angles back, according to Section 2.3.

• Half-Wave Symmetry, i.e.,

T
i(t ± ) = −i(t) ,
2

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
then the corresponding Fourier series has no even harmonics, and ak and bk can be
found by integrating over any half-period and doubling the results,

4 to +T / 2
a = i(t)cos(kω t)dt , k odd,
T ∫
k o
to
4 to +T / 2
b = i(t)sin(kω t)dt , k odd.
T ∫
k o
to

Half-wave symmetry is common in power systems.

2.5 Examples

• Square Wave T/2

V
By inspection, the dc value is zero, and
the waveform has both odd symmetry and
half-wave symmetry. Thus, ak =0 , and
–V
4 t +T / 2
b = o
v(t)sin(kω t)dt , k odd. T
T ∫
k o
to

Solving for bk ,

4 T/2 − 4V − ⎛kωoT ⎞ ⎞
t =T / 2 ⎛ 4V
bk = V sin(kωot)dt = cos(kω t) t =0 = ⎜cos⎜ ⎟−cos(0)⎟
T ∫0 kωo T
o
o ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

2π
Since ωo = , then
T

− 4V 2V
bk = (cos(kπ)−1)= (1−cos(kπ)), yielding
2kπ kπ

4V
bk = , k odd.
kπ

The Fourier series is then

∞
4V 1 4V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
v(t) = ∑ sin(kωot)= ⎢⎣sin ( 1 ω o t ) + sin ( 3 ω o t)+ sin(5ωot)+L⎥,(2.7)
k =1, k odd k π 3 ⎦ 5

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
1
where it is seen that the magnitudes of the harmonics decrease according to .
k
• Triangle Wave T/2
V
By inspection, the dc value is zero, and
the waveform has both even symmetry and
half-wave symmetry. Thus, bk =0 , and
–V
4 t +T / 2
ak = o T
∫t
v(t)cos(kω o t)dt , k odd.
T o

Solving for ak ,
4 T / 2 ⎛ 4t ⎞ 4V T / 2 16V T / 2
ak = V ⎜1− ⎟cos(kω t)dt = cos(kωot)dt − t cos(kωot)dt
T ∫ T o T 0 2 ∫0
T

t =T / 2
4V ⎛kωoT ⎞ ⎞ 16V t sin(kωo t ) 16V T / 2 sin(kωo t )
⎛
kωoT ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ T
2 k ωo k ωo
t=
= ⎜sin⎜ ⎟−sin(0)⎟− + dt
2
0

2V 4V 4V
sin(kπ)− sin(kπ)+ 2 2(1−cos(kπ)), k odd.
kπ kπ k π

Continuing,
8V
a k = 2 2 , k odd
k π

The Fourier series is then

8V ∞ 1
v(t) = cos(kω ot)
π k =1, k∑
2
odd k
2

8V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ,
= ⎢ cos(1ωot)+ cos(3ωot)+ cos(5ωot)+L ⎥ (2.8)
2
π ⎣ 9 ⎦ 25

1
where it is seen that the magnitudes of the harmonics decrease according to 2 .
k

o
To convert to a sine series, recall that cos(θ) =sin(θ +90 ) , so that the series becomes

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
1
8V
v(t) =
2⎢
π ⎣
( o9 ) (
⎡sin 1ω t +90o + 1sin 3ω t +90o +
o 25 )
sin 5ωot +90o +L⎥ ⎤
⎦
( (2.9) )
T o
To time delay (i.e., move to the right) the waveform by (i.e., 90 of fundamental),
4
( o
)
subtract k •90 from each harmonic angle, according to Section 2.3. Then, (2.9)
becomes
8V
v(t) =
π ⎣
⎡ ( o
2 ⎢sin 1ωot +909 −1•90 +
o
) (
1sin 3ω t +90o −3 •90o ⎟
o
⎠ ⎞ )
1
25 (
+ sin 5ωot +90
o −5 •90
o
⎥)
+L , ⎤
⎦

8V ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
v(t) =
⎢ sin(1ωot)− sin(3ωot)+ sin(5ωot)− sin(7ωot)L⎥ . (2.10)
π 2⎣ 9 25⎦ 49

• Half-Wave Rectified Cosine Wave

T
I
The waveform has a dc value and even symmetry.
Thus, bk = 0 , and

4 T/2 T/2
ak = i(t)cos(kωot)dt , k odd.
T ∫0
T/2
Solving for the dc value,
t =T / 4
1 to +T 1 T/4 I
I dc = ∫ t i(t)dt = ∫ I cos(ωo t)dt = sin(ω o t)
T o T −T / 4 ωoT t =−T / 4

ω ω ω 1 π
= ⎜sin −sin ⎟= sin = sin .
I ⎛ oT − oT ⎞ I oT
2π ⎝ 4 4 ⎠ π 4 π 2

I
Idc = (2.11)
π

Solving for ak ,
T/4
4 T/4 2I
ak =
T ∫0 ( o t)cos(kω ot)dt =
I cos ω
T ∫(cos(1−k
o )ω t +cos(1+k
o )ω t)dt
0

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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series
t =T / 4
2I ⎛sin(1−k)ωo t sin(1+k)ω o t ⎟⎞
= ⎜ +
T ⎝ (1−k)ωo (1+k)ωo ⎠
t =0

For k =1, taking the limits of the above expression when needed yields

⎛sin(1 −Tk⎞)ω π sin(1 +1)

⎜ o
⎟ I 2
4
o
2 lim ⎜ ⎟+
a 1= •
T (1−k)ω →0⎜ (1−k)ωo ⎟ π (1+1)ω
o ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

2I sin (1 − k )ωo • 0 sin (0)

− • lim −
I
T (1−k)ωo →0 (1−k)ωo π (1+1)ωo

2I T I I
a1 = + sin(π)−0 −0 = (2.12)
T 4 2ωoπ 2

For k >1,

⎛⎜sin(1π− k ) π sin
⎞ (1 + k )
I ⎟
ak = + 2 ⎟. (2.13)
2
⎜
π ⎜ (1−k) (1+k) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

All odd k terms in (2.13) are zero. For the even terms, it is helpful to find a common
denominator and write (2.13) as
π⎞
⎜⎛(1+k)sin(1−k) π +(1−k)sin(1+k)
I 2 2 ⎟⎟, k >1, k even.
ak = ⎜
π⎜ 2 ⎟
1−k
⎜ ⎠⎟
⎝
Evaluating the above equation shows an alternating sign pattern that can be expressed as
2I ∞ k +2 1
ak = ∑ ( −1 ) 2 , k >1, k even.
π k =2,4,6,L k 2 −1

The final expression becomes

I I ∞
2I k / 2+1 1
i(t) = + cos(ω o t)+ ∑ ( −1) cos(kωot)
π 2 π k =2,4,6,L k 2 −1
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 Chapter 2. Fourier Grad
Series

I I 2I ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ .
= + cos(ωot)+ ⎢3 cos(2ωot)−15 cos(4ωot)+ 35 cos(6ωot)−L⎥ (2.14)
π 2 π

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