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CHAPTER 15
CHEMISTRY IN SOCIETY
15.1Chemistry in Modern Agriculture
The world population is increasing day by day and year by year. There is an urgent need
for increasing food production to feed the increasing population. Chemistry helps to
increase food production in agriculture.
Elements required by plants
All plants require at least 22 elements for their growth. The ten elements which are
required in significant quantities are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, sulphur, magnesium and iron. The other elements are required in
very small traces.
Sources of plant nutrients
Plants get their nutrient elements from three sources; air, water and soil.Plants get carbon
and oxygen from air, hydrogen and oxygen from water and other elements from the soil.
How plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and water
Air is a gaseous mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Plants get carbon
dioxide from the air and water from the soil. In the presence of sunlight the green parts of
the plant can bring about a chemical reaction that combines carbon dioxide and water to
form sugar which is further converted to other food forms and is stored in the plant. This
chemical reaction is known as photosynthesis, the process of which is very complex. But
the overall reaction of photosynthesis may be expressed by the following equation.
sunlight in
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(1) C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
green parts
Sugar is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. This sugar is used by the
plant to build new compounds and also to furnish energy, both of which are essential in
all vital processes, for sustaining the plants's life. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, all other elements are obtained from the soil.
Soil
The soil is the source of plant nutrients. It supplies water and other elements to the plants.
Plants absorb their mineral nutrients from the soil in the form of dissolved salts. Rain
water washes away the available soluble salts. Thus the amount of plant nutrients in the
soil is continually depleted. Therefore it is necessary to supplement these plant nutrients
to produce better crops. This is achieved through the use of fertilizers.
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are substances that supply nutrients to plants. They may be classified as
(a) natural and (b) chemical fertilizers.
Natural fertilizers
There are two types of natural fertilizers; manure and humus. Manure is obtained by the
decomposition of animal dung and urine. Humus comes from plant residues.
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Although natural fertilizers are excellent nutrients for plants, these are not enough
for adequate yields. Therefore chemically synthesized fertilizers are used to supplement
this need.
Chemical fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are salts and other chemical compounds containing elements
necessary for plant growth. Roots of plants absorb the food from the soil in the form of
soluble salts.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)
The most important elements that are required by plants from the soil are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (NPK) because these three elements are essential for the
growth of plants. Therefore the basic composition of chemical fertilizers may constitute
any one, two or all three of these elements (NPK).
Effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) on plants
Nitrogen is an essential and important constituent of the plant's body. Likewise,
phosphorus is another important constituent. Potassium is not a constituent element, of
the plant body. It, however, occurs in the plant as soluble salts. Its role is catalytic.
Leaf crops like cabbage, require abundant nitrogen, a fair amount of phosphorus but not
much potassium. Root crops require a good amount of potassium, fair amount of
phosphorus but very little nitrogen. Seed bearing plants such as peas, beans and tomatoes
require a good amount of phosphorus and potassium, but little nitrogen. Flowering
needs a fair amount of phosphorus and potassium, but little nitrogen. Fruiting and seed
formation require higher potassium but very little nitrogen.
Classification of chemical fertilizers
According to the elements contained in them the chemical fertilizers are divided into the
following groups
(1) nitrogen fertilizers,
(2) phosphorus fertilizers,
(3) potassium fertilizers.
Nitrogen fertilizers
The important nitrogen fertilizers are: Urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate,
sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate.
Urea
The composition of urea according to its formula is CO (NH 2)2. The percentage of
nitrogen in this compound is 46 %. It has an acid reaction and the application of urea to
the soil increases the acidity of the soil.
Production of urea
Urea is manufactured on a very large scale by heating ammonia and carbon dioxide under
pressure with a suitable catalyst.
∆ pressure
CO2(g) + 2NH3(g) CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(g)
catalyst
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Ammonia may be obtained by the Haber process and carbon dioxide from the
combustion of petroleum products like natural gas.

Urea is being produced from natural gas in some fertilizer plants in Upper
Myanmar. The urea fertilizer is produced as white pellets.
Reaction in the soil
In the soil urea reacts with water to form ammonia and carbon dioxide.
CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(l) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g)

The bacteria in the soil converts ammonia to nitrites and then to nitrates.
bacteria nitrites bacteria
ammonia nitrates
The plants absorb soluble nitrogen in the form of NH and NO ions which are
dissolved in the soil.

Ammonium sulphate
The composition according to its formula is (NH4)2SO4. It contains 21% nitrogen. It has
an acid reaction and so it increases the acidity of the soil.
Ammonium nitrate
The composition according to its formula is NH4NO3. It contains 34.35 % nitrogen.
Calcium nitrate
The composition according to its formula is Ca(NO 3)2. Commercial calcium nitrate
fertilizers contain 13 to 16 per cent of nitrogen.
Phosphate fertilizers
Superphosphate
The important phosphate fertilizer is superphosphate. Superphosphate is marketed in two
grades containing 18 and 42 percent phosphoric acid respectively. The composition of
superphosphate may be represented as Ca (H2PO4). 2CaSO4. 18 percent superphosphate
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contains 18% P4O10 solution in water. 45 percent superphosphate contains 45% P 4O10
soluble in water. Superphosphate is a white or grey powder or granule.
Bone meal
Bone meal is not a chemical fertilizer. It is prepared by crushing defatted bones. It
contains about 3 percent of nitrogen and 22 percent phosphoric acid. Therefore it is used
as a phosphate fertilizer.
Potassium fertilizers
The important potassium fertilizers are potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.
Soil reaction
You have learned that some chemical fertilizers such as urea and ammonium sulphate
increases the acidity of the soil. Acidity and alkalinity of the soil is one of the important
factors because the plants do not grow well on the soil of high acidity or high alkalinity.
Test for soil reaction
Soil reaction is easily tested by litmus papers. The given samples of soil are taken in
separate test tubes. Some water is added in each test tube and stirred well. The contents
are filtered and the filtrate tested separately with blue and red litmus papers.
Neutralization of soil acids
Lime is added to the soil to neutralize the soil acids. Lime is usually supplied to the soil
as limestone, CaCO3, quicklime, CaO and slaked lime, Ca(OH) 2. Quicklime should not
be applied direct to growing plants. Lime not only neutralizes the soil acids but also
supplies calcium to the soil. Calcium is one of the elements necessary for the growth of
air crops.
Neutralization of soil alkali
Gypsum, CaSO4. 2H2O is added to the soil to neutralize soil alkali.
Insecticides
Insecticides are chemicals that kills insects. BHC or benzene hexachloride C 6H6Cl6, also
known a Gammaxene is used for spraymg or dusting of plants, especially cotton. The
insecticide Endrin is toxic to mammals and should be used with caution. Endrin is an
excellent all purpose plant spray.
Aldrin and Dieldrin ate other well-known insecticides which can be obtained as
emulsion or powder, and are used as soil fumigant.
Growth substances
Indoleacetic acid(IAA) is the principle chemical substance which in the normal plant is
responsible for many different growth regulatory activities.
Depending upon its concentration. IAA can variously activate the growth of leaves,
stems, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds.
The artificial application of IAA to a plant brings about characteristic growth
responses.
IAA and its structurally related chemical compounds, for example, naphthalene
acetic acid could be readily synthesized. The latter substance, showing similar activities
to IAA, could be manufactured more cheaply. Thus it is more economical for utilization.
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These growth substances can be used in many ways in agriculture. They are used to
induce flower initiation, fruit development, to delay leaf fall and fruit drop, and to
produce seedless fruits. Some of them are used even as herbicides.
For example, naphthalene acetic acid could, bring about flower initiation and is
successfully used for promoting simultaneous fruiting in pineapple plantations.

15.2 Cement Production

Cement
Cement is used in the construction of buildings. It is mixed with sand and water and
sometimes with quicklime, CaO. Cement finds use as binder in construction works.
Cement is a grey powder. It is composed of lime, alumina, silica and iron (III)
oxide (haematite) as tetracalcium alumino-ferrate, 4CaO. Al 2O3, Fe2O3 , dicalcium
silicate, 2CaO. SiO2, tricalcium silicate, 3CaO. SiO2, and tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO.
Al2O3.
Raw materials for making cement
Raw materials used for cement production are haematite, Fe 2O3, limestone, CaCO3 and
clay which is composed of silicon dioxide, SiO 2 and aluminium oxide, Al2O3. These raw
materials are ground and heated in a special furnace called Rotary Kiln.

Rotary Kiln
mixture

burning gas

Fig. 15.1 The Rotary Kiln

The Rotary Kiln is essentially a wide long steel tube lined inside with fire clay bricks.
The kiln rests on rollers and is held in a slightly inclined position. The kiln can be rotated
slowly by a motor and so it is called a Rotary Kiln. The mixture in the Kiln is heated by
burning gas at the lower end of it.
Manufacturing process
The four main stages in the manufacturing process of cement are, mixing, heating,
cooling and grinding.
1. Mixing
Limestone, haematite and clay are finely ground and mixed in the right roportions.
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2. Heating
The Rotary Kiln is rotated by the motor. The mixture of ground limestone, haematite and
clay is fed continuously from the top end of the Rotary Kiln and heated by the burning
gas at the lower end of the Kiln. As the mixture moves slowly down the inclined Kiln it
meets an increasingly higher temperature. The roasted product which is called clinker,
comes out from the lower end of the Kiln.
3. Cooling
The roasted clinker is allowed to cool in a rotating cylinder by cool air.
4. Grinding
After cooling, the clinker is mixed with the right percentage of gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O and
ground in a grinding mill. The resultant powder is cement. The gypsum regulates the
setting time of cement.

Fig. 15.2 New Kyankinn Cement Factory

Cement production in Myanmar
There are a number of cement factories in Myanmar, the oldest of which is situated near
Thayetmyo. The above picture is a new kyankinn cement factory.

15.3 Plaster of Paris (POP)

Plaster of Paris is a fine white powder which is used for making casts of various objects.
Plaster of Paris is hydrated calcium sulphate, 2CaSO4. H2O. This hydrate, 2CaSO4.H2O is
obtained by heating gypsum, CaSO4. 2H2O to about 125°C.
When Plaster of Paris is mixed with water, the hydrate, 2CaSO 4. H2O forms a
paste, which hardens quickly, expanding slightly in the process, as a result of
crystallization. Due to this property, Plaster of Paris is used for making casts and for
cementing glass to metals.

15.4 Salt Production

Dissolved and undissolved substances in sea water
Sea water consists of some undissolved substances and dissolved substances. About 3.5
% by weight of salts are dissolved in sea water out of which 2.7% is common salt, NaCl.
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The undissolved and dissolved substances in sea water are as follows:

1. Suspensions
undissolved 2. Al2O3
substances 3. CaCO3
4. CaSO4

5. NaCl
6. KCl
dissolved
7. MgSO4 increasing solubilities
substances
8. MgCl2
9. MgBr2

Salt production areas

The principal areas for production of salt from sea water are coastal regions.
Traditional method of production
Production sites are usually chosen where the underlying ground is almost imperme-
able to water since it is not economical to line the salt ponds (salterns) with concrete in
small scale production. The sea water is channelled into ponds or is allowed to flow into
the ponds at high tides and sealed off.
In some sites engines are used for pumping sea water. In these ponds suspensions are
settled down from the sea water and clear sea water is obtained. Then the clear sea water
is pumped or channelled in stages through a series of ponds during which the sun
evaporates the water and the sea water is concentrated. This concentrated sea water is
evaporated in iron pans by wood fires until only a small amount of water remains. The
common salt crystallizes out.
Common salt obtained by the traditional method or production is not pure, since
dissolved substances such as MgSO4 and MgCl2 together with small amounts of CaSO4
remain mixed with common salt.
Pure sodium chloride is not a deliquescent substance. But it is common experience
that common salt become damp when it is exposed to air for some time. The dampness is
due to the presence of magnesium chloride as one of the impurities. Magnesium chloride
is hydroscopic and can absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Disadvantages of the traditional method of production
1. The percentages of the different impurities are high in the common salt produced
by the traditional method, and therefore, it is not very suitable for industrial use.
2. In the traditional method of production wood fires are used for evaporation and
considerable areas of forest are destroyed yearly because of the felling of trees for
firewood. It is estimated that 15000 acres of forest are depleted every year due to the use
of firewood in the traditional method of salt production.
Prevention of unnecessary wastage of forests may be achieved to some extent, by
using solar evaporation for production of salt.
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Salt production by solar evaporation

The production of salt by solar evaporation may be carried out only during the dry,
hot season. Therefore December to middle of May is the suitable time for the production
of salt by solar evaporation. The production process is as follows:
A series of solar ponds, usually five in number, is made on the selected ground
which should be almost impermeable. In large scale production sites, the ponds are lined
with 0concrete. The sea water is pumped or channelled or allowed to flow into the first
pond during high tides. The undissolved suspensions settle down in the first pond. This
sea water is pumped or channelled into the second solar pond in which Al 2O3 settles
down. The sea water is next allowed to flow into the third pond where CaCO 3 settles
down.
In this way undissolved particles from the sea water are removed in the first three of
the series of ponds. Evaporation also takes place in these ponds and the sea water, to
some extent, is concentrated.
Then the almost clear water, free from undissolved substances is allowed to flow into
the fourth solar pond. In the fourth pond crystallization of dissolved substances starts to
take place. During the day evaporation takes place and crystallization occurs mainly at
night when the temperature drops.
Salt production by solar evaporation takes place at the fifth pond located in the
field.

In this pond CaSO4 which is less soluble than NaCl, KCl and MgSO4 starts to
crystallize out. The concentrated sea water is next channelled into the fifth solar pond and
NaCl crystallizes in this pond. After the crystallization of NaCl is complete, the water in
which KC1, MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2 are still dissolved is allowed to flow out from the
pond. The crystals of NaCl remain in this pond. The crystals of NaCl are then scooped
out, washed with concentrated salt solution to clean them and dried in the sun.
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In this way 99.5 % pure solar evaporated sodium chloride is obtained.

Bittern
The water that flows out from the fifth solar pond consists of dissolved MgSO 4, MgCl2
and MgBr2. This water is called bittern. Bittern is the source from which MgSO 4, MgCl2
and MgBr2 can be extracted.

15.5 Plastics and Polymers

Polymerization
This section covers the following ideas:
(i) addition polymerization
(ii) condensation polymerization
(iii) thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
(iv) the disposal and recycling of plastic waste.
All living things contain polymers. Proteins, carbohydrates, wood and natural
rubber are all polymers. What nature first invented, chemists have learnt to copy, alter
and use successfully. Synthetic polymers, often called plastics, are to be found very
where in modern technological societies, made into bulky objects, films and fibres. They
have properties to suit particular needs, ranging from car and aircraft components, to
packaging and clothing.
Polymers are large organic macromolecules. They are made up of small
repeating units known as monomers. These units are repeated any number of times from
about a hundred to more than a million. Some are homopolymers, containing just one
monomer. Poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) are three examples of
homopolymers. Other macromolecules are copolymers made of two or more different
types of monomers. For example, nylon is made from two monomers, and biological
proteins are made from 20 different monomers, the amino acids.
The alkene fragments from the catalytic cracking of crude oil fractions
produced the starting monomers for the first plastics.

15.5.1 Addition Polymerisation

Alkenes such as ethene contain a C=C double bond. These molecules can take
part in addition reaction where the double bond is broken and other atoms attach to the
carbons. The double bond in ethene enables many molecules of ethene to join to each
other to form a large molecule, poly(ethene) (figure 15.1). This is an addition polymer.
When first made by ICI, it was a revolutionary new material called ‘Alkathene’. It is now
commonly called by the trade-name ‘polythene’.
Various conditions can be used to produce different types of poly(ethene).
Generally a high pressure, a temperature at or above room temperature and a catalyst are
needed. The reaction can be summarized by the equation:
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high pressure
ethene poly(ethene)
heat, catalyst

high pressure
heat, catalyst

where n is a very large number.

Poly(ethene) was found to be a chemically resistant material that was very tough
and durable, and a very good electrical instructor.
monomer
ethene

double bonds
break open

polymer:
poly(ethene)

Fig. 15.3 The polymerization of ethene produces poly(ethene), whose structure is

shown.

Other alkene molecules can also produce addition polymers. Propene will
polymerise to produce poly(propene):

propene poly(propene)
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This long-chain molecule is similar in structure to poly(ethene) but with a methyl

(––CH3) group attached to every other carbon atom in the chain. It is commonly referred
to by its trade-name ‘polypropylene’.
Chemists also experimented with other substituted alkenes to produce plastics
with particular properties in mind. Poly(chloroethene) (know by the trade-name of
polyvinyl chloride or PVC) and poly(tetrafluoroethene) (know by the trade-name of
polytetrafluorothylene, ‘teflon’ or PTFE) are two such polymers:
chloroethene poly(chloroethene)
(vinyl chloride) (PVC)

tetrafluoroethene poly(tetrafluoroethene)
(PTFE)

Poly(chloroethene) (PVC) was found to be stronger and harder than poly(ethene)

and therefore good for making pipes for plumbing. PTFE proved to have some unusal
properties. It was very stable at high temperatures and formed a very slippery surface.
The properties of ome addition polymers are given in table 15.1. Such synthetic polymers
have proved to be very versatile. Many, for example poly(propene), are easy to shape by
melting and moulding. Thus poly(propene) is used to make sturdy plastic objects such as
crates. However, it can also be drawn out into long fibres for making ropes
Some of the properties of addition polymers.
(i) All polymers are long-chain molecules made by joining together a large number
of monomer molecules.
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(ii) Addition polymerization involves monomer molecules that contain a C=C double
bond.
(iii) Addition polymers are homopolymers, made from a single monomer.
(iv) During addition, the double bonds open up and the molecules join to themselves
to make a molecule with a very long chain.Table 15.1 Examples of some
widely used addition polymers
Polymer (and trade- Monomer Properties Examples of use
name(s))
plastic bags, bowls,
Poly(ethene) Ethene tough, durable
bottles, packaging
(polyethelene, CH2=CH2
polythene, PE)
Poly(propene) propene tough, durable crates and boxes,
(polypropylene, PP) CH3CH=CH2 plastic rope
Poly(chloroethene) chloroethene strong, hard (not insulation, pipes and
(polyvinyl chlorine, CH2=CHCl as flexible as guttering
PVC) polythene)
Poly(tetrafluoroethene Tetrafluoro- non-stick surface, non-stick frying pans,
(polytetrafluoroethylen ethene withstands high non-stick taps and
e, teflon, PTFE) temperatures
(CF2=CF2) joints
Poly(phenylethene) phenylethene light, poor insulation,
(polystyrene, PS) (styrene) conductor of heat packaging (foam)
C6H5CH=CH2
Summary of core material : You should know that:
(i) alkene molecules (containing a C=C double bond) can be polymerized into very
useful products
(ii) other unsaturated molecules can be polymerized to extend the range of useful
addition polymers.

15.5.2 Condensation Polymerization

Nylon
In the early 1930s, Dupont were interested in research into artificial fibres.
Knowledge of silk and wool gave clues as to how protein molecules are built. Carothers
imitated the linkage in proteins and produced the first synthetic fibre, ‘nylon’.
Nylon is a solid when first formed, but it can then be melted and forced through
small holes. The long filaments cool, and the fibres produced are stretched to align the
polymer molecules and dried. The fibres can be woven into fabric to make shirts, ties,
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sheet, etc., or turned into ropes or racquest strings. However, nylon is not just made into
fibres. It has proved to be a very versatile material, and can be moulded into strong
plastic items such as gear-wheels.
Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic
acid. Each monomer consists of a chain of carbon atoms (which are shown in the
following diagrams simplified as boxes). At both ends of the monomers are functional
groups. An amine group (––NH2) on the first monomer reacts with a carboxylic acid
group (––COOH) on the second monomer to make a link between the two molecules.
Each time a link is made, a water molecule is lost:

first monomer second monomer

(a diamine) (a dicarboxylic acid)

forms a water
an amide molecule
(peptide) link
polymer (polyamide)

+ H2O + H2O + H2O

As a result, this type of polymer is known as a condensation polymer. Because

an amide link (or peptide link) is formed during polymerization, nylon is known as a
polyamide. A version of nylon polymerization can be carried out in the laboratory
(figure 15.2).

15.5.3 Polyester
Condensation polymerization can also be used to make other polymer with
properties different from those of nylon. Polyesters are condensation copolymers made
from two monomers. One monomer has an alcohol group (––OH) at each end. The other
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monomer has a carboxylic acid group (––COOH) at each end. When the monomers react,
an ester link is formed, with water being lost each time:

first monomer second monomer

has alcohol functional has carboxylic acid functional
groups groups

forms a water
molecule
an ester link
polymer (polyester)

+ H2O + H2O + H2O

Fig. 15.4 Nylon is a polyamide and can be made in the laboratory.

One such polyester has the trade-name ‘terylene’. Like nylon, terylene can be
turned into fibres and woven into clothing. Terylene clothing is generally softer than that
made from nylon.

15.5.4 Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers

Most of the plastics that we use, like poly(ethene) [‘polythene’],
poly(chloroethene) [‘PVC’] and poly(phenylethene) [‘polystyrene’], can be softened on
heating and melted. They set again when cooled. Such plastics are useful because they
can be re-moulded. These polymers are known as thermoplastic polymers (or
thermoplastics or thermosoftening polymers).

Another, more restricted, group of polymers can be heated and moulded only
once, for example melamine. Such polymers are known as thermosetting polymers (or
thermosets). The chains in these polymers are cross-linked to each other (figure 15.3).
These cross-links in the plastic are permanent chemical bonds. They make the structures
rigid when moulded, and no softening takes place on heating.
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Fig. 15.5 (a) Thermoseting and (b) thermoplastic polymers have different
properties.

15.6 The Re-use, Recycling and Disposal of Plastic Waste

Plastic rubbish is a common but unwelcome sight around the world. Over the past
30 years, plastics have taken over as replacement materials in many applications. This is
not surprising because they are light, cheap and corrosion-resistant, and they can be
easily moulded and dyed bright colours. The problem arises from the fact that most
plastics are not biodegradable – there are no natural microorganisms that can break them
down.
Incineration (pyrolysis) can be used to burn plastic waste, though care must be
taken not to release toxic fumes into the air. Most of the products from pyrolysis can be
used as fuels or separated by fraction distillation (figure 15.4). They can then be made
into monomers for making more plastics. Research is also being carried out to produce
plastics that are biodegradable or photodegradable. One poly(ethanol) plastic has been
developed that is soluble in hot water.

15.6.1 Methods for recycling plastic waste:

(a) thermoplastic polymers – (i) heat at low temperature; (ii) obtain molten or
softened polymer; (iii) re-mould into new thermoplastic product(s),
(b) thermosetting polymers – (i) heat at high temperatures (700 ºC) in the absence
of air; (ii) obtain new monomers and other chemicals; (iii) re-polymerise into new
product(s).

15.7 Soaps and detergents

Millons of tones of soaps and soapless detergents are manufactured worldwide
every year. Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either plants or
animals with a strong alkali. The facts and oils, called triglycerides, are complicated ester
molecules.
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Fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The esters are broken
down in the presence of water- hydrolysed. This type of reaction is called saponification.
The equation of glyceryl stearate (a fat). with sodium hydroxide.

H35C17-COOCH2 HO-CH2

H35C17-COOCH+3NaOH(aq) 3C17H35COO-Na+(l) + HO-CH2

H35C17-COOCH2(l) HO-CH2(l)

Glycerol stearate + sodium hydroxide sodium stearate (soap) + glycerol

The cleaning properties of the soap or detergent depend on its structure and
bonding. Sodium stearate consists of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic
(water hating) attached to an ionic head which is hydrophilic (water loving).

Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but they are more soluble in
organic solvents. Ionic compounds are generally water soluble but tend to be insoluble in
organic solvents. When a soap is put into water which has greasy dish (or a greasy cloth)
in it, the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain on each soap molecule becomes attached to the
grease and becomes embedded in it.
On the other hand, the hydrophilic ionic head group is not attached to the grease
but is strongly attached to the water molecules. When the water is stirred, the grease is
slowly released and is completely surrounded by the soap molecules. The grease is,
therefore, ‘solubilised’ and removed from the dish. The soap is able to remove the grease
because of the combination of the covalent and ionic bonds present.

15.7.1 Soapless detergents

We discussed the way in which, in hard water areas, an insoluble scum forms
when soap is used. This problem has been overcome by the development of synthetic
soapless detergents. These new substances do not form scum with hard water since they
do not react with Ca2+and Mg2+ present in such water. Futhermore, these new soapless
detergent molecules have been designed so that they are biodegradable. Bacteria readily
break down these new molecules so that they do not persist in the environment.
Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonates were developed in the early 1970s. The
structure of sodium 3-dodecylbenzene sulphate, C18H29SO3Na, is given below.

The calcium and magnesium salts of this detergent molecule are water soluble, so
the problem of scum is solved. Very many of our washing powders (and liquids) contain
this type of substance.
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SUMMARY
This chapter deals with the various roles of chemistry in human society. In this
chapter , the students would be able to learn that chemistry plays an important role in
food production in agriculture sector such as chemical fertilizers production, cement
production for building construction, plaster of paris production , and solar salt and its
by-products production from sea water for household use and industrial application. The
final section of this chapter is concerned with production of plastics and polymers
involving recycling of thermoplastic polymers and thermosetting plastic polymers., soaps
and detergents that are essential commodities for every household.

Questions and Problems

1. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the following nitrogen fertilizers.
(a)Urea, CO(NH2)2 (b) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
(C=12; N=14; H=l, O=16)

2. A field of rice needs 15 kg nitrogen per acre. How many kilograms of ammonium
nitrate are required for 10 acres?

3. The price of 100kg of ammonium sulphate is 15000 kyats and the price of 100 kg
of urea is 40000 kyats.
(a) What is the price of 1 kg of nitrogen in ammonium sulphate?
(b) What is the price of 1kg of nitrogen in urea?

4. The price of 100kg of sodium nitrate is 80000 kyats. The price of 100kg of urea is
40000 kyats, Which fertilizer will you buy for nitrogen? Give reasons.

5. If 20 kg of nitrogen is taken by crops and 3 kg of nitrogen is carried away by

running water from one acre of soil, how much of urea should be added to the soil
to recover its original nitrogen content?

6. Ammonium sulphate increases the soil acidity. To prevent the increment of acid-
ity, a farmer wants to mix the ammonium sulphate with lime, Ca(OH) 2 before
adding these substances to the soil. Do you agree with him? Give reasons with
necessary chemical equations.

7. Ammonium fertilizers should never be stored together with lime, Ca(OH) 2 nor
should they be put in empty lime containers. With the help of the relevant
equation explain why?

8. Which element N or P or K is most suitable for growing cabbage? Give reasons.

9. (a) Write an equation for the preparation of ammonium sulphate.

(b) Write an equation for the preparation of ammonium nitrate.
 304

(c) Write an equation for the preparation of sodium nitrate.

(d) Write an equation for the formation of calcium dihydrogen phosphate,
Ca(H2PO4)2.
(e) Write an equation for the preparation of potassium chloride.
(f) Write an equation for the preparation of potassium sulphate.

10. You are provided with sodium hydroxide, barium chloride solution, dilute
hydrochloric acid, and some test tubes. How would you identify a given
ammonium sulphate fertilizer?

11. You are provided with calcium hydroxide, concentrated sulphuric acid, the
crystals of iron (II) sulphate, distilled water and some test tubes. How would you
identify the given ammonium nitrate fertilizer?

12. (a) Draw and label a diagram of a Rotary Kiln.

(b) What are the raw materials used in the production of cement?
(c) Why is gypsum mixed with clinker and ground in the final stage of cement
production?

13. (a) What are the chief compounds present in cement?

(b) Describe the four important stages in the manufacture of cement
(c) Describe how Plaster of Paris is obtained form gypsum.

14. When common salt is exposed to the air it becomes damp.

(a) Is sodium chloride a deliquescent substance?
(b) Why does common salt become damp when it is exposed to the air?
15. (a) Arrange the substances that dissolve in sea water according to their increasing
solubilities.
(b) Describe the substances that separate out from sea water before the
crystallization of sodium chloride.
(c) Describe the substances that remain in solution after the crystallization of
sodium chloride.
16. (a) Describe why common salt produced solar evaporation is relatively more pure
than that produced by wood fire evaporation.
(b) Write a paragraph to describe why salt production by solar evaporation can
help forest conservation.

17. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements.

(i) Plants absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
(ii) Natural fertilizers are more preferrable than chemical fertilizers.
(iii) Sodium chloride is a deliquescent substance.
 305

(iv) The growth of the plants is activated by IAA (indoleacetic acid).

(v) The plants grow on the soil of high acidity.

18. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase or numerical value with unit as
necessary.
(i) Plants produce the food by the process of..............
(ii) Sugar is utilized by the plants to produce new compounds and............
(iii) NPK means................
(iv) An important nitrogen fertilizer is .............................
(v) The function of soil bateria is to convert ammonia to ..................

19. Select the correct term or terms given in the brackets.

(i) Plants get(carbon, hydrogen, oxygen) from air.
(ii) (Flowering plants, Seed bearing plants, Root crops) require good amount
of phosphorous.
(iii) Over use of (human, manure, chemical) fertilizer changes the acidity of
soil.
(iv) (Gypsum, Lime, Urea) is used to neutralize the soil acid.
(v) Gypsum used in cement is to (improve the binding capacity, increase the
bulk volume, regulate the setting time).

20. Match each of the items given in List A with the appropriate item in List B

List A List B
(a) POP (i) activate the growth of plants.
(b) Gypsum (ii) Plaster of Paris.
(c) IAA (iii) phosphate fertilizer
(d) Bone meal (iv) CaSO4.2H2O
(e) Endrin (v) an insecticide.

21. What is meant by a polymer ?

22. What are the properties of addition polymers ?

23. Draw the structural formula of the following compounds:

(a) Chloroethene (Vinyl chloride)
(b) Tetrafluoroethene and suggest the name of the polymer formed from
each compound. Write down the equations.

24. What type of polymerization would the following compounds can undergo ?
Write down the equations.
(a) CH3-CH = CH2 (b) CF2 = CF2.
 306

25. Draw the polymer formed between the following compounds.

(a) HOOC COOH and H2N NH2

(b) HO OH and HOOC COOH

26. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase or numerical value with unit as
necessary.
(a) Propene will polymerize to produce …………. .
(b) The trade name for polyester is ………. .
(c) The trade name for polyamide is ………… .
(d) Ethene will polymerise to form ……… .
(e) Chloroethene will polymerise to produce ……… .
(f) Tetrafluoroethene will polymerise to form ………. .

27. What is the long form of the following substances and mention their uses..
(a) PVC (b) PTFE (c) PP (d) PS (e) PE

28. Select the correct term or terms given in the brackets.

(a) ( CH3-CH = CH2 , CH3-CH2-Cl , CH3COOH ) will undergo addition
polymerization.
(b) ( HO-CH2-CH2-OH , CH3-CH2-COOH, HOOC-CH2-CH2-COOH ) will
not undergo condensation polymerization.
(c) (CH3-CH = CH2 , CH3-CH2-COOH, HOOC-CH2-CH2-COOH ) will
undergo condensation polymerization
(d) ( CH3-CH = CH2 , CH3-CH2-Cl , CH2 = CH2 ) will not undergo
addition polymerization.

29. Explain the following terms:

(a) thermoplastic polymers
(b) thermosetting polymers
(c) nylon
(d) polyester

30. What are the methods for recycling plastic wastes ?

31. What is soap ? Explain withsuitable example.

32. What is meant by the following terms

(a) detergent (b) soapless detergent and (c) saponification ?

33. Explain the cleaning action of soap.

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 307

Appendix 1
GLOSSARY OF CHEMICAL TERMS

CHAPTER 1
THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS, PERIODIC TABLE
AND CHEMICAL BONDS

atoms - indivisible and that it consists of three fundamental particles called

protons, electrons and neutrons.
electrons - negatively charged particles move outside and around the nucleus
in circular orbits.
protons - positively charged particles resides in the nucleus of the atom.
neutrons - uncharged particles of the neucleus of the atom.
nucleus - positively charged center of the atom.
atomic number - is equal to the number of protons or the number of electrons in a
neutral atom of that element.
mass number - is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom of that element.
isotopes - the atoms of the same element with different masses.
valence of the element - can be obtained from the essential electronic structure of
the elements.
valence - number of electrons in the outmost shell ( when the number of
electrons in the outermost shell is 4 or less than 4 )
valence - equal to 8 - number of electrons in the outermost shell ( when the
number of electrons in the outermost shell is greater than 4)
noble gases - are very inert ( ie they do not combine with other elements in
normal conditions All inert gases except He has 8 electrons in their
outermost shell.
stability of noble gases - stability of noble gases is due to their having 8 electrons
( or 2 electrons for He ) in their outermost shell.
octet rule - When an atom of one element combine with those of another
element to form a compound each of the atoms try to attain the
stable electronic structures of noble gases. This, in effect is the
octet rule.
metals - All elements in s, d, and f blocks are metals and that the elements
below the broken line in p block are metals.
non-metals - The elements above the broken line in the p block are non-metals.
electropositive elements - metals are electropositive elements.
electronegative elements - non-metals are electronegative elements.
valence electrons - number of valence electrons of an atom of a given element is equal
to the group number of that element. in the period table
ionization energy - The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called the ionization energy.
electron affinity - The amount of energy released when an electron is added to a
gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called the electron affinity
of an element.
 308

ionic bond - An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of an

electron or electrons from one atom to another resulting in the
formation of cations and anions. These oppositively charged ions
are held together by an electrostatic attraction known as ionic
bond.
covalent bond - A chemical bond formed by sharing of electrons between two
atoms.is known as covalent bond.
coordinate bond - It is a special type of covalent bond.. This bond is characterized
or dative bond by the fact that the two shared electrons are both supplied by one
of the participating atoms.
metallic bond - In metallic solids, atoms of metals are present. They form metallic
bonds.In a metallic bond, valence electrons of the atoms are very
loosely held , forming a common electron cloud. Electrons move
freely within this electron cloud. These electrons are often
described as a sea of electrons. Each metal atom is bonded to all
the atoms around it by a surrounding sea of electrons.

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CHAPTER 2
THE GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS

vapour - The gas formed from a boiling or evaporating liquid.

STP - Standard temperature and pressure
standard temperature - 0oC or 273 K
standard pressure - 760 mmHg or 1 atm.
Absolute zero temperature - If the constant contraction rate is continued, the volume
of the gas will become zero at - 273 oC . This temperature is taken
as the zero point of a new scale of temperature known as Kelvin
temperature scale and is also known as Absolute zero temperature.
Absolute zero temperature - - 273 oC or 0 K
( Value )
Kelvin temperature
Vs - TK = t oC + 273
Celsius temperature
molar volume of gases- one mole of every gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP
Avogadro's theory - At the same temperature and pressure, equal volume of gases
contain the same number of molecules. Mathematically, it may be
expressed as V ∞ n ( at the same temperature and
pressure)
pressure of the gas- force acting on the unit area.
Boyle's law - When the temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the
volume of the gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
Charles' law - When the pressure of the given mass of gas is kept constant, the
volume of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the
Kelvin scale.
 309

Relative density of a gas - equal to ½ relative molecular mass of the gas.

Dalton's law of partial pressures - When the temperature is kept constant , the total
pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of
different gases.
Graham's law of gaseous diffusion - At the same temperature and pressure , the rate of
diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the
density of the gas.
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CHAPTER 3
STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry - That part of Chemistry which deals with the quantities of
substances taking part in chemical reaction is called
stoichiometry.
Molarity - The molarity (M) of a solution is the quantity in moles of the
solute dissolve4d in one cubic decimeter (1 dm3) of the solution.
Titration - It is the procedure in which a solution of a standard reagent is
added to a specific volume of a solution of unknown molarity.
Standard solution - The reagent of exactly known concentration is called a standard
solution.
Primary standard - The accuracy of a volumetric analysis depends upon the primary
standard used to establish the concentration of the standard
solution.
Standardization - The process by which the concentration of a standard solution is
determined by the use of a primary standard is called
standardization.
Equivalence point - The equivalence point is a theoretical concept . In actual fact, its
position can be estimated only by observing physical changes
associated with the equivalence point. These changes occur at the
end of the titration.
End point - By the use of an indicator , it is the point used to indicate a change
in colour as a result of concentration changes near the equivalence
point.
Molar solution - It is the solution which contains 1 mole of solute dissolved in 1
dm3 of water.
Redox titration - Oxidation – reduction titration

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CHAPTER 4
ELECTROLYSIS
electrolytes - those substances which in the molten state or as a solution in
water, allow the passage of electricity are called electrolytes.
non-electrolyte - a substance in a solution that does not conduct electric current is
called a non-electrolyte.
insulator - a solid substance which does not conduct electricity is known as a
non-conductor or insulator.
 310

electrolysis - the decomposition of a compound in solution or in the molten

state, brought about by the passage of an electric current through it,
is known as electrolysis.
Ionic theory - The theory postulates that electrolytes contain electrically charged
particles called ions. Thus electrolytes can conduct electricity due
to the movement of these ions.Non-electrolytes do not contain
these ions and they cannot conduct electricity.
cathode - the negative electrode in electrolysis.
cation - an ion with a positive charge.
anode - the positive electrode in electrolysis.
anion - an ion with a negative charge.
electrochemical series- the arrangement of cations and anions in the order of
increasing readiness of discharge at the electrodes is called
electrochemical series.
Faraday's first law of electrolysis- The mass of element liberated is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity passes through the
solution during electrolysis.
Faraday's second law of electrolysis-When the same quantity of electricity is passed
through solution of different relative number of moles of the
elements deposited are inversely proportional to the charges on the
ions of each of the elements respectively.
electroplating - it is the electrical precipitation of one metal on another.

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CHAPTER 5
OXIDATION – REDUCTION

oxidation - the addition of oxygen to a substance is oxidation (or ) the (in

terms of oxygen & hydrogen) removal of hydrogen from a
substance is oxidation.
Reduction - the addition of hydrogen to a substance is reduction (or ) the (in
terms of oxygen & hydrogen) removal of oxygen from a
substance is reduction.
Oxidation - any element which increases in oxidation number is called
oxidation. (in terms of oxidation number)
reduction - any element which decreases in oxidation number is called
reduction. (in terms of oxidation number)
oxidation - oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
(in terms of electron transfer) .
reduction - reduction is the gain of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
(in terms of electron transfer)
an oxidizing agent - an oxidizing agent is an acceptor of electrons.
A reducing agent - a reducing agent is a donor of electrons.
Redox reaction - oxidation – reduction reaction..
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 311

CHAPTER 6
RATES OF REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIA

activating energy - the minimum energy required to form the activated complex is
called the activating energy.
Activated complex - a species of high energy formed in the intermediate state or
transition state in a chemical reaction is called the activated
complex.
Catalyst - a catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction
but remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Positive catalyst - a catalyst that usually increases the rate of reaction is called a
positive catalyst.
Negative catalyst - a negative catalyst or an inhibitor decreases the rate of reaction.
Le-chatelier’s principle - When anyone of the factors affecting the equilibrium of a
chemical system such as temperature, pressure, concentration is
changed, the system reacts in such a way as to nullify the effect of
the change.
Factors affecting reaction rates - There are six factors influencing the reaction
rates :namely; effect of concentration of reactants, effect of
pressure, effect of temperature, effect of catalyst, effect of
radiation and effect of surface area of reactants.

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CHAPTER 7
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTION

Matter possesses energy of various kinds. They may be classified as:

kinetic energy - energy due to the moving of the body
potential energy - energy due to the position of the body.., eg , mass in a gravity
field, a charged particle in an electric field.
thermal energy - energy due to the effect of temperature.
chemical energy - energy due to the structure of a substance.
electrical energy - energy produced from a generator.
mechanical energy- energy produced from a motor.
exothermic reaction- an exothermic reaction is one which releases heat to the
surroundings.
endothermic reaction- an endothermic reaction absorbs heat from the surrounding.
chemical energetics - deals with the change in energy which is either released or
absorbed when chemical reaction takes place.
units of heat change- Joule ( symbol , J )
1 joule - 1 volt x 1 coulomb
calorie - a calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1 oC . kilocalorie ( kcal) is used to represent 1000
calories.
calorie and joule- 1 calorie = 4.18 joule
enthalpy change - heat change
 312

enthalpy change in chemical reaction represented by ∆ H ( delta H)

∆ HӨ - It indicate the enthalpy change , measured at standard conditions
of temperature and pressure.
standard temperature- 298 K (or) 25oC.
standard pressure - 1 atmosphere
symbol of enthalpy change - ∆ HӨ
exothermic reaction- heat is released , ∆ HӨ- is negative (-)
endothermic reaction - heat is absorbed, ∆ HӨ- is positive (+)
heat of combustion- the heat change which takes place when one mole of the substance
is completely burned in oxygen.
heat of formation - the heat change when one mole of a compound is formed from its
elements in their standard states.
standard pressure - 1 atm. pressure
standard temperature- 25oC or 298 K
heat of neutralization- the heat change when one mole of hydrogen ions from an acid
reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions from a base.
Hess's law of constant heat summation - The net change of a given chemical reaction
remains the same, no matter by what methods the change is
carried out.
Physical states - three states : namely ; solid (s), liquid (l) and gas (g)
carbon graphite is solid , C (s) s = solid
water is liquid , H2O (l) l = liquid
oxygen is a gas, O2 (g) , g = gas

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CHAPTER 8
SOME IMPORTANT METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

alkali metals - Group IA metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and
caesium
alkaline earth metals- Group IIA metals such as magnesium, calcium, strontium and
barium.
Down's cell - the electrolytic manufacture of sodium.
caustic soda - sodium hydroxide ( NaOH)
soda ash - sodium carbonate ( Na2CO3 )
Solvay process - manufacture of sodium carbonate. ( Na2CO3 )
washing soda - sodium carbonate decahydrate ( Na2CO3 .10H2O )
baking soda - sodium hydrogen carbonate ( NaHCO3 )
photographic hypo- sodium thiosulphate crystals ( Na2S2O3. 5H2O )
epsom salt - magnesium sulphate heptahydrate ( MgSO4.7H2O )
nitrolime - calcium cyanamide , CaCN2 and carbon mixture (important
nitrogen fertilizer )
quicklime (lime) - calcium oxide , CaO
slaked lime - calcium hydroxide, Ca (OH)2
limestone (marble , chalk)- calcium carbonate, CaCO3
 313

superphosphate - a mixture of calcium hydrogen phosphate and calcium sulphate.

(phosphorous fertilizer )
bauxite - an oxide ore of aluminium, alumina , aluminium oxide , Al2O3
galena - a sulphide ore of lead, lead sulphide, PbS
basic lead carbonate- Pb(OH)2.2PbCO3 , a white pigment

********************************

CHAPTER 9
METAL REACTIVITY

reactivity series - an order of reactivity, giving the most reactive metal first, using
results from experiments with dilute acids.
Thermit reaction - when aluminium powder is mixed with iron (III) oxide and the
mixture heated using a magnesium fuse, a very violent reaction
occurs as the competition between the aluminium and the iron for
the oxygen takes place. The aluminium being the most reactive
metal takes oxygen from the less reactive iron. It is a very
exothermic reaction. When the reaction is over , a solid lump of
iron is left along with a lot of white aluminium oxide powder.
Iron(III) oxide + aluminium aluminium oxide + iron
Fe2O3 (s) + 2 Al(s) Al2O3 (s) + 2 Fe(s)
This particular reaction is known as the “ Thermit reaction
“.Since large amount of heat are given out the iron is formed to a
molten state, this reaction is used to weld together damaged
rail;way lines. It is also used in incendiary bomb.
Displacement reaction- In a displacement reaction, a more reactive metal will
displace a less reactive metal from a sol,ution of its salt. For eg.,
zinc is above copper in the reactivity series. When a piece of zinc
metal is left to stand in a saolution of copper(II) nitrate, the copper
(II) nitrate slowly losses its blue colour as the zinc continues to
displace the copper from the solution and eventually becomes
colourless zinc nitrate.
Zn (s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + Cu(s)
blue colour colourless
amphoteric hydroxide- The hydroxides of metals are basic. Aqnd they react with
acids to form salts. The hydroxide of some metals , however, will
react with strong bases , such as sodium hydroxide, to form soluble
salts. Hydroxides of this types are said to be amphoteric.
Bauxite - aluminium ore, Al2O3
copper pyrites - copper ore , CuFeS2
haematite - iron ore, Fe2O3
rock salt - sodium ore, NaCl
zinc blende - zinc ore, ZnS
slag - calcium silicate, CaSiO3
pig iron or cast iron- iron which contains 4% carbon and other impurities.
 314

Rutile - titanium ore , TiO2

ilmenite - FeTiO3
silver glance - silver ore, Ag2S
brass - alloy of copper
recycling metal - Iron is recycled to steel. The main metals which are recycled
include aluminium and iron.
Rust - It is an orange red powder, consisting mainly of hydrated iron (III)
oxide (Fe2O3.X H2O ). Both oxygen and water are essential for iron
to rust, and if one of these two substances is not present then
rusting will not take place.
Rust prevention - To prevent iron rusting, it is necessary to stop oxygen (from the
air) and water coming into contact with it.
- painting, oiling/ greasing, coating with plastic, plating, galvanizing
corrosion - rusting is the common form of corrosion. Corrosion is the name
given to the process which takes place when metals and alloys are
chemically attacked by oxygen or any other substances found in
their immediate environment.
Alloys - alloys are mixtures of two or more metals and are formed by
mixing molten metals thoroughly. Steel is a mixture of the metal
iron and the non-metal carbon, is also considered to be an alloy.
Mild steel - 99.5% iron, 0.5% carbon
hard steel - 99% iron, 1% carbon
stainless steel - 74% iron, 18% chromium, 8% nickel
tungsten steel - 95% iron, 5% tungsten
brass - 65% copper, 35% zinc
bronze - 90% copper, 10% tin
ore - a naturally occurring mineral from which a metal can be extracted.
Metal extraction - The method used to extract a metal from its ore depends on the
position of the metal in the reactivity series
 Reactive metals are usually difficult to extract . The preferred method
is by electrolysis of the molten ore (electrolytic resuction) ; for example
sodium from molten sodium chloride.
 Moderately reactive metals (those near the middle of the reactivity series)
are extracted using a chemical reducing agent (eg carbon) in a furnace for
example; iron from haematite in the blast furnace.
 Unreactive metals, eg gold and silver, occur in an uncombined (native)
state as the free metal.
Blast furnace - A furnace for smelting iron ores such as haematite (Fe 2O3) and
magnetite (Fe3O4) to produce pig iron (or cast) iron. In a modified
form it can be used to extract metals such as zinc.
Recycling metals - Metal drink cans such as those made of aluminium are collected in
large ‘banks’ for the sole purpose of recycling them. Reusing the
metal in this way saves money.

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 315

CHAPTER 10
NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

major constituent of atmosphere- 79% by volume of air or 76% by weight of air.

Dry air - 21% by volume opf oxygen, 79% by volume of nitrogen.
Nitrogen - obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air.
Liquid air - distilled and nitrogen boils off at - 196oC (77 K)
Haber process - manufacture of ammonia from N2 and H2 (1: 3) ratio - 200
atm/ atalyst by volume , finely divided Fe impregnated with Al2O3
fountain experiment- test for the solubility of ammonia in water.
Eudiometer - equipment for the dissociation of ammonia into nitrogen and
hydrogen.
Laughing gas - dinitrogen oxide (N2O ) .It is used as anaesthetic for minor
surgical operation.
Ammonia - oxidation process- manufacture of nitric acid from oxidation of ammonia by
passing 4 volume of NH3 and 5 volume of O2 over heated
Pt(90%) and rhodium (10%) catalyst (Pt - Rh).
Nitrogen cycle - When a plant dies compounds of ammonia are produced. These
compounds are attacked by “nitrifying bacteria” in the soil and are
thereby converted into nitrates which are retained in the soil. In
this way, the cycle is complete.

***********************************

CHAPTER 11
SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS

pyrites - sulphide ore of iron, FeS2 .

gypsum - CaSO4.2H2O(sulphate ore)
Epsom salt - magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, MgSO4 7H2O
Frasch process - This process is used for mining sulphur on the commercial scale.
three allotropic forms of sulphur - two are crystalline forms and the other non-
crystalline form.
two crystalline forms- rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur
rhombic sulphur - When a solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide is allowed to
evaporate slowly at room temperature , the crystals of rhombic
sulphur are deposited from the solution.
monoclinic sulphur- Molten sulphur is poured into a wet filter paper in a funnel. When
the sulphur has nearly set to solidify, the filter paper is carefully
unfolded. Long, dark yellow, needle-like crystals of monoclinic
sulphur will be seen.
plastic sulphur - When any form of sulphur is heated almost to its boiling point and
then poured into cold water , plastic sulphur is formed.
Contact process - Manufacture of sulphuric acid starting from sulphur or iron
pyrites..
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 316

CHAPTER 12
HALOGENS

halogen - A term derived from Greek, meaning ' salt formers', because they
combine readily with metals to form salts
halogens - The four elements: namely; fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
are known as halogens.
bleaching action - removal of colored dye to colorless substances.
tincture of iodine - a dilute solution of iodine in alcohol is a household medicine.
Group VIIB elements- are known as halogens . They are p block elements and are
non-metals.
oxidation number of chlorine - positive oxidation number from +1 to +7 and
oxidation number of 0 to - 1 (negative oxidation number )
fluorspar - fluorine ore, CaF2
cryolite - fluorine ore, Na2AlF2
interhalogen compounds- halogens combine among themselves to give interhalogen
compounds.
*********************************

CHAPTER 13
ACIDS. BASES, AND THEIR NEUTRALIZATION

Arrhenius concept of acid and base - An acid is a compound which could produce
hydrogen ions in water solution.
A base us a compound which could produce hydroxide ions in
water.
Bronsted concept of acid and base - An acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton
acceptor.
Lewis concept of acid and base - Lewis defined bases as species which can
donate an electron pair aznd acids as species which can accept an
electron pair.
A strong acid - An acid which is capable of losing a proton rteadily and is highly
ionized in specified condition is called a strong acid.
A weak acid - An acid which losses a proton with difficulty and is slightly
ionized is called a weak acid.
A concentrated acid- An acid which contains the pure acid or a predominantly large
proportion of the acid.
A dilute acid - An acid which contains a relatively small amount of the acid in the
form of a solution in water or some other solvent.
Buffer solution - A solution that resists changes in pH as a result of (i) dilution (ii)
small addition of acids or bases.
Indicators - Organic dyes are used as indicators in acid – base neutralization .
Dye molecules whose colour depends on the H+ concentration
provide the way of estimating the pH of a solution. These
indicators are weak acids or weak bases.
Phenol red indicator- colour red pH = 8 (base), colour yellow , pH = 6 (acid)
 317

Phenolphthalein indicator - purple colour , pH = 10 , colourless , pH = 8

litmus indicator - blue colour , pH = 8, red colour , pH = 6
methyl red indicator- yellow colour , pH = 6, pink colour , pH = 4
methyl orange indicator- yellow colour, pH = 5, pink colour , pH = 3
Equivalence point - The equivalence point in a titration is a theoretical concept. Its
position can be estimated only by observing physical changes
associated with the equivalence point. These changes occur at the
end point of the titration.
End point - A common method of end point detection in volumetric analyses
involves the use of an indicator that exhibits a change in colour as
a result of concentration changes near the equivalence point.
Kw - The symbol used to describe the ionic product of water.
Kw = [H+] [ OH- ]
= ( 1 x 10-7 ) mol dm-3 x ( 1 x 10-7 ) mol dm-3
-14 -3
= 10 mol dm
************************************

CHAPTER 14
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry- The chemistry of carbon compounds derived from living things
both animal and vegetable.
Saturated hydrocarbons- Alkanes are known as saturated hydrocarbons. They are
represented by the general formula, Cn H2n + 2 .
IUPAC or (Geneva system)- International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
System
Unsaturated hydrocarbons- Alkenes and alkynes are known as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
They contain unsaturated double bonds (alkenes) and unsaturated
triple bonds (alkynes) respectively. Alkenes are represented by the
general formula CnH2n and alkynes are represented by the
general formula , CnH2n – 2
Homologous series- A series of compounds like the alkanes in which mewmber differs
from the preceding or succeeding one by a CH 2 group
is known as the homologous series.Nomenclature of alkanes -
Naming of alkanes
Substitution reaction of alkanes- It is the replacement of hydrogen atoms in alkanes
with other elements such as halogen atoms. Substitution may
be brought about by light , heat or catalysts.
Chlorination of methane- When methane is mixed with chlorine in diffused sunlight,
the following stepwise reactions occur, where one chlorine atom
replaces one hydrogen atom in each step.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
methane methyl chloride
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
methylene chloride
 318

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl

chloroform
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
carbon tetrachloride
Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)- Addition of hydrogen to ethene in the presence
of Pt or Pd catalydt in finely divided form at room temperature to
form ethane.
Addition of chlorine and bromine- The addition of halogen to alkenes can take place in
the dark, but is accelerated by light. This reaction also takes place
readily in the liquid phase, or in a solvent such as petrol or ethanol
and is catalysed in solution by halide ions.
Addition of hydrogen halides or halogen acids- The conditions for the addition are
similar to those for halogens.
Markownikoff's rule- When an unsymmetrical addendum (HX) adds on to an
unsymmetrical alkene, two products are possible; but that product
where the negative part of the addendum adds on to the carbon
with least number of hydrogen atoms is the major product.
Formation of ozonide and ozonolysis - When a stream of ozonized oxygen is passed
into a solution of alkene in glacial macetic acid or chloroform,
addxition of ozone to alkene takes place with formation of alkene
ozonide. This ozonide is readily decomposed by water. The
complete process of preparing the ozonide and decomposing it is
called ozonolysis.
Hydroxylation of alkenes- When ethene is passed into cold dilute potassium
permanganate solution (1% KMnO4 ), ethene glycol is formed. In
this reaction violet colour of 1% KMnO4 solution is discharged in
the formation of ethene glycol. This reaction can be used in the
identification of alkenes.
Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation- Starch is used as the raw material for the
preparation of ethanol industrially. Potatoes , maize, rice and other
starchy cereals may used in the process.The major steps in the
manufacturing process may be summarized as follows:
(a) Starch is pressure-cooked to release the starch granules. The
cooked starch is cooled and then treated with freshly germinated
barley which is called malt for 1 hour at 60 oC . Malt contains the
enzyme diastase. Starch so treated breaks down into a sugar
called maltose.
(b) Yeast is added to the maltose at room temperature when an
enzyme, maltase present in it , catalyses its breakdown into
glucose. In the next step, another emnzyme , zymase, present in
yeast catalyses the decompositon of glucose to ethanol.
Starch + water diastase maltose
maltose + water yeast glucose
(maltase)
glucose yeast ethanol
( zymase)
 319

Formation of esters (Esterification) - When acetic acid (ethanoic acid ) is treated with
ethanol in the presence of a small amount of sulphuric acid , ethyl
acetate (ethyl ethanoate) ester is formed . It has a pleasant fruity
odour . The process is known as esterification.
Fractional distillation - Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. At a
refinery, crude oil is separated into different fractions consisting of
groups of hydrocarbons that have different boiling points.
Catalytic cracking - Large molecules from heavier fractions such as kerosene (paraffin)
and diesel can be broken down into smaller, valuable molecules by
the use of heat and catalyst containing silica, alumina and zeolite.
Diesel - is a heavy liquid fuel containing hydrocarbons (consisting of six to
20 carbon atoms) which can power the diesel engine.
Biodiesel - It is derived from plant seed oil which can be used as a substitute
for diesel fuel. The plant seed oil has to be converted to biodiesel
by the chemical process known as "Transesterification".
LPG - Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) composed of propane and butane.
(hydrocarbons).
CNG - Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is composed of 90% methane gas.
Biogas - Biogas can be produced from cowdung and organic waste in the
absence of air. It is the mixture of methane and carbon dioxide
produced naturally from the decay of organic waste in the absence
of air.(anaerobic fermentation process).
********************************
CHAPTER 15
CHEMISTRY IN SOCIETY
Elements required by plants- All plants require at least 22 elements for their gwowth.
Ten essential elements for plants- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron.
Sources of plant nutrients- Three sources such as air, water and soil
Fertilizers - Fertilizers are substances that supply nutrients to plants They may
be classified as (a) natural and (b) chemical fertilizers.
Natural fertilizers - Two types of natural fertilizers are manure and humus.
Chemical fertilizers- Chemical fertilizers are salts and other chemical compounds
containing elements necessary for plant growth.
Classification of chemical fertilizers- Chemical fertilizers are divided into the
following groups: (1) nitrogen fertilizers (2) phosphorus
fertilizers (3) potassium fertilizers
Nitrogen fertilizers- are urea, ammonium sulphate , ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate
and calcium nitrate
Phosphorus fertilizers-are superphosphate, and bone meal.
Potassium fertilizers- are potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.
Growth substances - Indoleacetic acid (IAA) and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
Cement - Cement finds use as binder in construction works.
Composition of cement- It is composed of lime, alumina, silica and iron(III) oxide
(haematite) as tetracalcium alumino-ferrate, dicalcium silicate,
tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate.
 320

Raw materials for making cement- Raw materials are haematite , Fe 2O3 , limestone
CaCO3 and clay which is composed of silicon dioxide, SiO 2 and
aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Four stages in the manufacture of cement- Mixing, heating , cooling and grinding.
Plaster of Paris (POP)- It is the hydrated calcium sulphate, 2 CaSO4.H2O
Gypsum - CaSO4 2H2O
undissolved substances in sea water - Al2O3 , CaCO3 , CaSO4.
Dissolved substances in sea water - NaCl, KCl, MgSO4, MgCl2 , MgBr2
Common salt - sodium chloride , NaCl
Polymers - Polymers are large organic macromolecules All living things
contain polymers. Proteins, carbohydrates, wood, natural rubber
are known as natural polymers.
Addition polymerization - Alkenes such as 320thane contains C=C double bond.
They can take part in addition polymerization under high pressure
and proper catalyst at room temperature. Thus 320thane forms
addition polymer known as poly(320thane)
Condensation polymerization- Nylon is the condensation polymer formed from two
different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid. From the
two monomers, element of water is eliminated from the
condensation reaction producing a polymer containing a peptide
linkage. Thus nylon is known as a polyamide.
Polyester - Condensation polymerization can take place between two
monomers one containing alcohol functional group and the other
carboxylic functional group. The product contains the ester
functional group. The polymer so formed is known as polyester
Thermoplastic polymers - Most of the plastics that we use such as poly(320thane),
polythene, poly(chloroethene)(PVC), polystyrene can be softened
on heating and melted. They set again when cooled. Such plastics
are useful because they can be re-moulded. These polymers are
known as “ thermoplastic polymers”
Thermosetting polymers -… Another , more restricted group of polymers can be heated
and moulded once, for example melamine. Such polymers are
known as “thermosetting polymers” The chains in these
polymers are cross-linked to each other. These cross-links in
plastic are permanent chemical bonds. They make the structures
rigid when moulded, and no softening takes place on heating.
Biodegradable - There are no natural microorganisms that can break them down.
Soap - Soap is the sodium salt of fatty acid formed from the chemical
reaction of oil or fat molecule with caustic soda known as
"saponification"
Soapless detergent - The new substances do not form scum with hard water since they
do not react with Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in such water.The soapless
detergent are designed so that they are biodegradable. Bacteria
readily breakdown these new molecules so that they do not persist
in the environment.
**************************
321

Appendix 2
 322

Appendix 3 start
Table of relative atomic masses of the elements
Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic
mass mass
Actinium Ac 227 Mercury Hg 200.61
Aluminium Al 26.98 Molybdenium Mo 95.95
Americium Am 243 Neodymium Nd 144.24
Antimony Sb 121.76 Neon Ne 20.183
Argon Ar 39.944 Neptunium Np 237.05
Arsenic As 74.91 Nickel Ni 58.71
Astatine At 210 Niobium Nb 92.91
Barium Ba 137.36 Nitrogen N 14.008
Berkelium Bk 247 Nobelium No 255
Beryllium Be 9.01 Osmium Os 190.2
Bismuth Bi 209.00 Oxygen O 16
Boron B 10.82 palladium Pd 106.4
Bromine Br 79.916 Phosphorus P 30.975
Cadmium Cd 112.40 Platinum Pt 195.09
Calcium Ca 40.08 Plutonium Pu 244
Californium Cf 251 Polonium Po 209
Carbon C 12.011 Potassium K 39.100
Cerium Ce 140.12 Praseodymium Pr 140.91
Caesium Cs 132.91 Promethium Pm 145
Chlorine Cl 35.457 Protactinium Pa 231.04
Chromium Cr 52.01 Radium Ra 226.05
Cobalt Co 58.94 Radon Rn 222
Copper Cu 63.54 Rhenium Re 186.21
Curium Cm 247 Rhodium Rh 102.91
Dysprosium Dy 162.5 Rubidium Rb 85.47
Einsteinium Es 254 Ruthenium Ru 101.07
Erbium Er 167.26 Samarium Sm 150.4
Europium Eu 151.96 Scandium Sc 44.96
Fermium Fm 257 Selenium Se 78.96
Fluorine F 19.00 Silicon Si 28.09
Feancium Fr 223 Silver Ag 107.880
Gadolinium Gd 157.25 Sodium Na 22.991
Gallium Ga 69.72 Strontium Sr 87.63
Germanium Ge 72.59 Sulphur S 32.066
Gold Au 197.0 Tantalum Ta 180.95
 323

Appendix 3 end
Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic
mass mass
Hafnium Hf 178.49 Technetium Tc 97
Helium He 4.003 Tellurium Te 127.60
Holmium Ho 164.93 Terbium Tb 158.93
Hydrogen H 1.008 Thallium Tl 204.37
Indium In 114.82 Thorium Th 232.04
Iodine I 126.91 Thulium Tm 168.93
Iridium Ir 192.22 Tin Sn 118.70
Iron Fe 55.85 Titanium Ti 47.90
Krypton Kr 83.80 Tungsten W 183.86
(Wolfram)
Lanthanum La 138.91 Uranium U 238.07
Lawrencium Lw 260 Vanadium V 50.94
Lead Pb 207.21 Xenon Xe 131.30
Lithium Li 6.940 Ytterbium Yb 173.04
Lutetium Lu 174.97 Yttrium Y 88.91
Magnesium Mg 24.32 Zinc Zn 65.38
Manganese Mn 54.94 Zirconium Zr 91.22
Mendelevium Md 258
 324

Discovery of New Elements

Sr Atomic Symbol Name Atomic Electronic Metal Discovered

No. Wt Structure Year

1 104 Rf Rutherfordium 261 2.8.18.32.32.10.2 Transition 1969

2 105 Db Dubnium 262 2.8.18.32.32.11.2 Transition 1970
3 106 Sg Seaborgium 266 2.8.18.32.32.12.2 Transition 1974
4 107 Bh Bohnium 264 2.8.18.32.32.13.2 Transition 1976
5 108 Hs Hassium 263 2.8.18.32.32.14.2 Transition 1984
6 109 Mt Meitnerium 268 2.8.18.32.32.15.2 Transition 1982
7 110 Ds Darnstadtium 271 2.8.18.32.32.17.2 Transition 1994
8 111 Uuu Unununium 272 2.8.18.32.32.18.1 Transition 1994
9 112 Uub Ununbium 277 2.8.18.32.32.18.2 Transition 1996
10 113 Uut Ununtrium 284 2.8.18.32.32.18.3 Other 2003
elements
11 114 Uuq Ununquadium 285 2.8.18.32.32.18.4 Other 1998
elements
12 115 Uup Ununpentium 288 2.8.18.32.32.18.5 Other 2003
elements
13 116 Uuh Ununhexium 292 2.8.18.32.32.18.6 Other 2000
elements
14 117 Uus Ununseptium - - Other -
elements
15 118 Uuo Ununoctium - - Other -
elements
 325

Appendix 4
Vapour Pressure of Water

Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure

C mm Hg C mm Hg
0 4.6 23 21.2
1 4.9 24 22.4
2 5.3 25 23.8
3 5.7 26 25.2
4 6.1 27 26.7
5 6.5 28 28.3
6 7.0 29 30.0
7 7.5 30 31.8
8 8.0 35 42.2
9 8.6 40 55.3
10 9.2 45 71.9
11 9.8 50 92.5
12 10.5 55 118.0
13 11.2 60 149.4
14 12.0 65 187.5
15 12.8 70 233.7
16 13.6 75 289.1
17 14.5 80 355.1
18 15.5 85 433.6
19 16.5 90 525.8
20 17.5 95 633.9
21 18.7 100 760.0
22 19.8 105 906.1
 326

Appendix 5
Table of Activity Series