Faculty of Letters, Languages, and

Human Sciences
(FLLSH)

COURSE OUTLINE OF LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS (LTM)

Course Title LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

Course Code
Year/semester 2nd Year, Semester II
Duration
Credit Hours 2 hours a Week
Prerequisites None
Teaching and Learning lectures, discussions, question – answer …
Methods etc.
Assessment – types and Participation and Assignments = 5%
weights Midterm Exam = 15%
Final Exam = 20%
Course Description:

This course is an introduction to teaching methods of Language used in schools. Because you
have been in school for at least 12 years as a student, but are only beginning to study teaching.
You may recognize that some of these methods have been used by your teachers. However, you
know them from a student’s perspective rather than from a teacher’s perspective.

General Teaching Methods are often divided into two broad categories: teacher-centered
methods (direct instruction) and learner-centered methods (indirect instruction). An effective
teacher knows several methods, some teacher-directed and others learner-directed. From
among these methods, a teacher selects the one method or combination of methods most likely
to achieve a particular lesson’s objectives with a particular group of students.

Because teaching and learning interact, a course about teaching must also be about learning.
The content and structure of the course is based on two strong claims about learning. First,
learning results from what a student already knows, thinks, and does – and only from these
actions of the student’s mind. A teacher enables students to learn by influencing what the
student does to learn but the student has to do it. Second, as students’ progress through school,
they should learn to become their own teachers. That is, students should learn how to learn
using their teachers as models.

Course Outcomes:

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By the completion of this course, Students will be able to do the following:
• Describe and discuss their personal theory of teaching and learning based on a
critical analysis of implicit theories formed as Students.
• Summarize and debate the pros and cons of teacher-centered and learner-
centered teaching methods and state their position as a teacher.
• Summarize and discuss the pros and cons of main language teaching methods.
• Participate in a cooperative learning group that plans, teaches, and critiques a
lesson.
• Create and critique plans for teaching and learning in primary school classes.
Semester Outline:
Week # Topics Subtopics
1 Key Concept of Teaching Methods - Approaches
And Qualities of a good instructor - Methods
- Strategies / Techniques
- Qualities of a professional teacher
2&3 Types of teaching methods - Main characteristics
I. Traditional teaching methods - Forms of teacher centered teaching
(teacher centered methods) - Some teacher – centered methods: Lecture
& Demonstration .
4&5 II. Active methods (Learner- - General principles of active methods
centered methods) - Forms of learner centered teaching
- Some learner-centered methods:
Discussion & Discovery
6 III. Interactive Methods
7 - Knowing about the learners
Criteria for Choosing Suitable Teaching - The teacher’s personality
Methods - The learning objectives
- The subject contents
- The environmental constraints
- the Grammar-Translation Method
8, 9,10, Language Teaching Methods - the Direct Method
11, 12 - the Audio - Lingual Method
- the Communicative Method
- the Eclectic Method

Lecturer’s Name: Mr. MOUSSA MAIDAL GUELLEH

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PART I: GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

Chapter 1: KEY CONCEPTS OF TEACHING METHODS

Approaches, Methods , and Techniques
1.0 Teaching Approaches:

It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of learning which is

translated into the classroom. Approach is a way of looking at teaching and
learning. It is theoretical view of teaching and learning process. Furthermore,
approach sets the general rule or general principle to make learning possible.
Approach can have many methods. The following are some approaches of teaching
learning:

1. Teacher - centered approaches: Teacher centered approaches are more

traditional in nature, focusing on the teacher as the main authority figure in the
class. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively
receive information (through lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of
testing and assessment. In these approach, the teacher’s primary role is pass
knowledge and information onto their students, and then measure students
learning through objectively scored tests and assessments. In this model, teaching
and assessment are viewed as two separated entitles. Some examples of the child-
centered approaches include: lecture and demonstration method.

2. Learner centered approach: Student centered approaches place a much

stronger emphasis on the learner’s role in the learning process. When you are
using student- centered approaches to teaching, you still set the learning agenda
but you have much less direct control over what and how students learn. The

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teacher’s primary role to coach and facilitate student learning and overall
comprehension of material. Student learning id measured through both formal and
informal forms of assessment, including group project, student portfolios, and
class participation. Teaching and assessment are connected; student learning is
continuously measured during teacher instruction. Some examples of the child-
centered approach include: small group discussion, discovery, projects.

3. Inductive and Deductive approach: In inductive approach students moves

towards specified (example) to general (rules).At first many examples are put
forward to student and then he draws out a conclusion on the basis of these
examples. Deductive approach is opposite to inductive approach because in its first
principle or rule is put in front of students and then it is clarified by giving
examples.

4) Evaluation Approach or Bloom’s Approach: The concept of evaluation approach

is given by B.S.Bloom. His main emphasis was that testing should be based on
teaching and both these activities should be objectives centered. Today teaching is
organized by using the evaluation approach. Under this approach yearly plan and
unit plan are prepared. It has three main steps:

a) Formulating Educational Objectives

b) Creating Learning Experiences

c) Evaluating the Change behavior

2.0 Teaching Methods:-

It is the term of pedagogy used for classroom instruction; the systematic way of
conducting a learning activity. It implies an orderly, well-planned, and logical

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procedure or arrangement of steps toward facilitating and enhancing students’
learning.Teaching method is a style of presentation of content in classroom. There
are two main types of teaching method which are participatory method and non-
participatory method.

1. Participatory methods (Learner Centered Methods): This refers to the way in

which teachers and students are in constant interaction, active involvement and
continuous exchange of views and ideas in the overall teaching and learning. These
methods are sometimes known as interactive teaching method or learner centered
teaching method. It is a shift from a belief that learners are empty plate who are
supposed to be imparted with knowledge to a belief that learners can construct
knowledge and learn on their own if properly guided. They are designed only for
smaller groups of participants, but their advantage is that they encourage better
retention of learned. They are contemporary modern methods of education. .
Examples of such methods are discussion method, question answer method,
project method, problem solving method etc.

2. Non-Participatory methods (Teacher Centered Methods): In these type of

methods teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject
matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority.
Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are lecture method and
demonstration method.

3.0 Teaching Techniques:-

These are steps that we follow when we teach. It is the personal style of the
teacher in carrying out specific steps of teaching process. Through technique, the

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teachers enable to develop, create and implement the procedures of teaching.
Thus, it’s the individual teachers’ unique way of applying a strategy. For instance,
two teachers may decide to use group discussion method as their means of
delivering a lesson, but each may have a unique way of conducting the process of
the discussion. One may decide to use two pupils to conduct the discussion; the
other mat decide to employ four pupils for that. Furthermore, each teacher will
definitely have a unique way of delivering his/her lesson.

Differences and relationships:

Teaching Approach Teaching Method Teaching Technique

Teacher - Centered Approach Lecture method, demonstration Lectures, talks, chalks,

method, whole group discussion
Conferences, symposium, etc.
Learner - Centered Approach Small group discussion, discovery Pair work discussion,
method, projects. collaborating, teaching
technology

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1: Identify whether each sentence below suggests an
a. Approach b. Method c. Technique
1. A procedural variation of a teaching strategy. (………………….)
2. A general rule or principle that guides the whole process of teaching (…………….)
3. A sound philosophy and orientation, which used as bases in the process of instruction ……….)
4. Guiding students by following an established patterns/steps of teaching (…………….….….)
5. A highly personalized style of carrying out a particular step (………………….)
6. A viewpoint that suggests what teaching procedure is to be used. (………………….)
7. Implementation due to its instant classroom application (………………….)
8. Embracing the entire spectrum of the teaching – learning process (………………….)
9. Procedural in nature since it is a series of logically arranged courses of action.( ……..……….)
10. An overall plan for the orderly presentation of a lesson (………………….)
11. Guiding teaching from planning to evaluate (………………….)
12. Making teaching an organized and systematic process (………………….)
13. Developing the teacher’s own distinctive way of carrying out some aspect of instruction
(……..
14. Teaching is done following a well spell-out procedure. (………………….)
15. An example of which is looking at the learner as the center of the educative process….……….)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2:

1. State four (4) teaching approaches.
2. State two (2) teaching methods with more explorations.
3. Identify main steps of Bloom’s Approach.
4. What are the main differences between approach, method and technique.

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Chapter 2: GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

I.0. Introduction
In this part, you will get to know about teaching methods. Methods are ways of
doing things. In any human endeavor where results are expected, there must be
ways of attaining the goals. The various educational goals (or curriculum
objectives) have resulted in the adoption of various methods in dissemination of
knowledge in class settings. For effective teaching-learning of any subject, a variety
of methods need to be brought to play.

2.0. TYPES OF TEACHING METHODS

There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorized into four
broad types. These are teacher-centered methods, learner-centered methods,
content - focused methods and interactive/participative methods.

(a) Traditional teaching methods (teacher centered methods)

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject
matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority.
Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are lecture methods,
which require little or no involvement of learners in the teaching process. It is also
for this lack of involvement of the learners in what they are taught, that such
methods are called “closed-ended”.

3.0. Main characteristics:

Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the
learning environment. Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and he

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plays the role of instructor and decision maker. He regards students as having
“knowledge holes” (lack of knowledge) that need to be filled with information. In
other words, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that causes
learning to occur. By this method, knowledge is imposed to the learner without
considering his/her psychological level, especially the interests and tendencies. The
lecturing teaching method constitutes the educational pillar of this school. Brief,
the traditional school is the school where the teacher talks and the students listen
passively.

The traditional school is being accused as follow

• The teacher talks too much and neglects the learner

• The learner is passive and does not participate actively in the teaching/learning
process.

4.0. Forms of teacher centered teaching:

1) It is a transmissive method ( learning by listening)

Lecturing is certainly the most familiar method. This is what we usually mean
when we talk about the “traditional method”. Typically, the teacher stands in
front of the class, he/she speaks and the students take notes; the lecture can
be interrupted by questions. The teacher controls everything during his/her
lecture which takes the aspect of a conference. It becomes more important as
the size of the group increases. In fact, the lecture becomes more
authoritative, the students listen passively and they are not fully involved in the
learning process.
The figure below illustrates the traditional method:

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 2) It is an inciting teaching method (questions-answers method)

This method is commonly known as the questioning or question and answer

method. They aim to transmit information while taking into account the way the
learners receive the information. The questions asked by the teacher check or
assess whether the learners have understood or facilitate understanding/learning.
We know that the fact of asking questions is one of the oldest and commonest
practices. Moreover, the results of several studies have shown that the learners
ask very few questions compared to the great number of questions the teachers of
the primary and secondary education ask to their learners. Some studies have
established that:

o In one-hour class, the teacher has asked about 84 questions while

learners have asked 2 questions only.
o A learner asks one question per month throughout the whole school
year.

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(b) Active methods (Learner - centered methods)

Since the end of the 19th century, the traditional method faced an opposition of
every strong international trend of the New School. Then, the 1st half of the 20th
century was dominated by the confrontation and opposition of the defenders.
Despite some differences among their ideas, M. MONTESSORI, J.DEWEY, O.
DECROLY, E. CLAPAREDE, R. COUSINET and all their disciple accuse the
traditional school of abusively being coercive and ignoring the psychology of
the child.

Today, “active methods” are the methods that really involve the learner;
his/her effort to develop knowledge from the case study, games, the contexts
suggested by the learner or the teacher whereby the learner’s role is
particularly significant.

According to modern pedagogy,

• The child has gifts, needs, intellectual curiosities, creative energy and
assimilation which must occur from the inside to outside.

• Education must comply the spontaneity of the child;

• Education must be done in an atmosphere of joy;

• Education must always take as its starting point the natural and social
environment of the child.

Representatives of the new school condemn a teaching process which

originates from the objectives arbitrary defined by the adults. They commonly
recommend the respect of the student’s interests as they are felt relatively to

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his/her nature; they thus advise to organize the school according to the needs
of the child, rather than impose what he/she must learn. This is the sense of
“the active teaching methods”.

By opposition to the previous case, the teacher’s role in a student-centered

learning environment is to facilitate and to guide. The students are in control of
their own learning and the power and responsibility are the students concern.
Learning may be independent, collaborative, cooperative and competitive. The
utilization and processing of information is more important than the basic
content. Learning takes place in relative contexts and students are engaged in
constructing their own knowledge. For this method, the teacher’s involvement
would include questioning, disciplining, guiding, validating, monitoring,
motivating, encouraging, suggesting, modeling and clarifying. Examples of
learner-centered methods are discussion method, discovery or inquiry based
approach and brainstorming, etc.

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5.0. General principles of active methods

1) Principle of activity

Activity means that a person learns better if he/she is completely involved in an

action. In active methods, the teacher creates a learning environment where
the learners take part and communicate among themselves in the group. The
teacher avoids speeches. In active methods, the learners learn how to live
together, how to behave, they take part and work together to achieve a
common goal, the know-how is also acquired in active methods.

The learner’s activity is a central concept in most of the explanatory theories

of development and learning. The purpose of active methods is to give to the
learner more autonomy, more initiative, and more personal motivation and to
develop his/her creativity.

2) Principle of motivation

Education must meet the specific needs of the leaner, it is necessary that the
learner is motivated and not forced to learn.

Motivated learners develop behavior which pleases the teacher:

➢ Learners are interested in what has been taught

➢ They are constantly attentive
➢ They put more personal efforts
➢ They do not get tired and they never get discouraged
➢ They are interested in their progress and achievements
➢ They learn more quickly than other learners and understand better

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On the other hand, a leaner who is negatively motivated will always seek and
find excuses to avoid or neglect his/her studies, with the same courage and the
same zeal as the motivated student, but in the opposite direction.

The uncaring learner is physically present and mentally absent. She/he is not
motivated even if she/he has the goodwill because he is not interested.

3) Principle of progression

Generally, what seems obvious for an adult or an expert could be mystery for
children or beginners. That is why it is necessary to distinguish between
mathematical and psychological progression.

Mathematical progression is purely logical and mechanical. Mathematical

progression is for an adult who designs programs or drafts textbooks.
Psychological progression takes into account child psychology and his/her level
of mental development. It also takes into account problems and psychological
difficulties encountered by a young learner. It is therefore advisable to take
into account mathematical and psychological progression, not to follow
mechanically the programs established by adults (Curriculum development
centers).

It is advisable to check if the content of the program is adapted to the level of

the learners. If this is not adapted, then find other ways of presenting the
contents and provide enough time so that learners can assimilate them. The
teaching must take place gradually, the teacher must be ready to make
readjustments, revisions, summaries, receptions. For instance, the teacher will
have to avoid mechanical application of the procedures or rules while dealing

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with mental calculation. Mental calculation is truly assimilated by the learners
only when the learners have already mastered the procedures.

The teacher must help the learners to list effectively the data of the problem.
These data must be selected by taking into account everyday life experience.
The language and the vocabulary used in the statement of the problem must
be adapted to the level of the learner.

(c) Content – Focus Methods

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into
the content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be
taught are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on
the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners
cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example
of a method which subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the
content is the programmed learning approach.

(d) Interactive / Participative Methods

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without
necessarily laying emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher.
These methods are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most
appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation of learners and the
teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied domains and
factors.

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In summary, four types of methods commonly used in instruction are: -

 Teacher-centered methods
 Learner-centered methods
 Content-focused methods
 Interactive/participative methods.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE :

1. State four (4) types of teaching methods .
2. State two (2) forms of teacher centered methods with more explorations.
3. Identify three (3) principles of learner centered method.
4. What are the main differences between teacher centered methods and
learner centred methods .

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 Chapter 3: SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

In this chapter, we can now consider a number of specific instructional methods

which can be drawn from the course of classroom instruction. It is however,
important to note that the choice of any form of methods should not be
arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the criteria we have already examined.
At the same time each method is not fool-proof, but it has its own advantages
and disadvantages. That is why we would recommend the use of
complementary methods rather than one method.

Some Various Methods of Teaching

1- Lecture or the chalk and talk method

2- Demonstration method

3- Discussion method

4- Discovery method

1. LECTURE METHOD

A lecture is an ( oral presentation of information by the teacher). It is the method of

relaying factual information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all
theoretical knowledge about a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains,
describes or relates whatever information the students are required to learn
through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-centered. The teacher
is very active, doing all the talking. Students on the other hand are very passive,
doing all the listening, and taking down notes, asking few questions, or no
questions at all. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement
of learners limits its usefulness as a method of instruction. The lecture method of
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instruction is recommended for learners with very little knowledge or limited
background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for presenting an organized
body of new information to the learner. To be effective in promoting learning, the
lecture must involve some discussions and, question-answer period to allow
learners to be involved actively.

In the Universities and other institutions of higher learning, the lecture method
is the acceptable means of imparting information. At the secondary school level,
the students have not been trained to follow chains of reasoning. Therefore
lecture method should not be used in its pure forms.

SOME ADVANATAGES OF A LECTURE:

 It is cheap to operate as no special apparatus or equipment is needed.

 It is appropriate to teach large classes of the students (hundreds of students).
 It facilitates giving a vast amount of knowledge in a short period of time .
 Both the teacher and students feel more secure: the teacher has full control
over the content he teaches and the way of presenting it, while the students
trusts the content taught by the teacher.

SOME DISADVANTAGES OF A LECTURE:

❖ Lecture presentation does not allow learners to share their knowledge and
experience.
❖ If lecture is given too much importance or if it is too long, it can be boring.
❖ During the lecture, it is not easy to evaluate the content which the learners
have understood and others which require more details.
❖ Lecture relies more on teachers and learners’ competences and skills.

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 ❖ Lecture does not easily allow to achieve major psycho-motor or cognitive
objectives.
❖ Lecture can develop a feeling of isolation among learners and between
teacher and learners.
❖ Learners do not take full responsibility for their learning. They develop a
negative attitude of listening passively, they do not develop critical thinking
and they do not develop any spirit of initiative.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the learners’ attention
span (up to 25 minutes).

2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.

4. A good lecture uses familiar examples and illustrations.

5. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

6. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Briefly state the definition of teaching methods.

2. Explain lecture method of teaching.

3. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of lecture method.

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 2. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it... one of
the two most essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the
ability to explain. Both are vital to the success of either an operation lesson or an
information lesson.

What is a demonstration?

In demonstration method, the teacher will do a display or exhibition while the

students watch. It typically involves showing students the correct use of science
apparatus, illustrating a technique, performing an “experiment” which is either
dangerous, risky, difficult or expensive for individual students use. Sometimes
demonstrations can be performed by students either individually or in groups. Also
in trades like sewing, weaving, barbing, pot making and the like demonstration
method is best adopted using the teaching learning processes.

Advantages of the Demonstration Method:

• It is an inexpensive method since only the demonstrator needs materials.

• It shows how something is accomplished properly or expertly, since the teacher
is supposedly more competent than most students.
• Demonstration method is especially beneficial in the areas of skills and attitudes.
• The proficiency displayed reduces the length of trial and error time.
• It can reduce hazards e.g. breakage and accidents before students embark on
individual or group work with materials involved.
• A good demonstration method holds the learners attention thus facilitating
learning by giving students the opportunity to see and hear what is actually
happening.
Disadvantages of the Demonstration Method:

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 • The assumption made that all the students see and hear equally well does not
necessarily follow. Visibility of details of what is being demonstrated is not assured
in large classrooms or in circumstances where extremely small objects are used.
• Where the demonstration is restricted to the teacher alone, students will be
denied the opportunity to acquire manipulative skills in handling of the materials
and apparatus.
Teacher Preparation

1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.

2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions etc.
3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and
check their useful condition.
4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.
5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.
6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and
proximity to electric, gas and water outlets.
7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one
step at a time.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Explain demonstration method of teaching.
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of demonstration method of teaching.
3. List five (5) steps of how the teacher prepare demonstration method.

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 3. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

The Discussion method

Discussion method is based on the philosophy that knowledge arises within the
students and not from any external source. The students take over the subject
from various points of view and the teacher serves as a moderator.

What is a classroom discussion?

Discussion is an orderly process of face-to-face interaction in which people

exchange ideas about an issue for the purpose of solving a problem, answering a
question, enhancing their learning, or making a decision. Discussion can be
considered as cooperative thinking aloud. Because students are expected to share
their thoughts as they discuss academic issues, discussion is both active and
student centered learning. Discussion can be used in many different ways, either
as part of a lesson, as a whole lesson, or integrated with one or more other
teaching strategies.

When might you use discussion as a teaching strategy?

A discussion can either focus on solving a problem or focus on exploring an open-

ended issue. Some of the most appropriate times for whole class discussions may
be:

• When you want students to develop a sense of ownership over their new
knowledge and responsibility for their own learning
• When you want students to think critically about the subject and develop their
skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation, rather than just memorize facts
• When you want students to develop their understanding by drawing on their
prior knowledge and experience

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 • When your aim is to develop students’ communication skills such as stating their
ideas clearly, listening to others, or responding appropriately to others.
Advantages of the Discussion Method

• Students maintain a high degree of mental alertness to develop clear thinking.

• Interest is maintained and a feeling of confidence as students learn to express
themselves freely.
• Students learn through discussion method owing to active participation and
involvement in the lesson.
• Discussion method provides good practice for problem-solving.
• It provides the teacher with information about the students which can aid in a
better understanding of the students.
• Teaching by discussion leads to positive attitudinal change because a student
may find his or her own values and beliefs challenged by the views of fellow
students.
Disadvantages of the Discussion Method

• A lot of time would be wasted before the students arrive at satisfactory answers.
• Discussion method cannot be used so often as it does not allow for easy
coverage of the syllabus.
• In most cases, most students do not participate in the discussion because they do
not know or know little about the topic of the lesson. They may even be shy or
fearful.
• Students who have no background of the topic being discussed may become
bored or disinterested in the lesson.
• Since the attention span of the students (young ones) is very short, they cannot
maintain high level of attention.
Some Guidelines to the Discussion Method

• The topic to be discussed and the teacher’s questions should meet the level of
the students.

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• The topics for discussion should be within students’ background.
• The teacher (you) should not allow some students to dominate the topic under
discussion.
• You should treat all remarks as being serious and reject the irrelevant comments
that do not fit into the discussion. You should, however, do this gracefully.
• You should avoid vague questions.
• You should summarize frequently in order to guide your students towards
understanding the main concepts and principles of the topics under discussion.
• At the end of the lesson ensure that anyone who leads the discussion has the
ability to break down the whole topic into smaller units.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Explain discussion method of teaching.

2. List the advantages and disadvantages of discussion method of teaching.
3. Outline the guidelines of discussion method of teaching properly or expertly,
since the teacher is supposedly more competent than most students.

4. DISCOVERY METHOD / REARCH METHOD

What is a discovery method?
Discovery method is a teaching strategy which enables students to find the
answers themselves. It is a learner centered approach hence it is called a
heuristic method or inquiry-based learning. Jerome Bruner is considered as a
father of discovery method of learning. It is of two types, the guided discovery
and the unguided discovery. In the guided discovery, the teacher guides the
students to discover for themselves solutions to given problems by providing
them with general principles, but not the solution to the scientific problem. The
unguided discovery type involves the students discovering for themselves both
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 the general principles and solution to a scientific problem. It is sometimes
called the pure discovery.
- Bicknell-Holmes and Hoffman (2000) describe the three main attributes of
discovery learning as 1) exploring and problem solving to create, integrate, and
generalize knowledge, 2) student driven, interest-based activities in which the
student determines the sequence and frequency, and 3) activities to encourage
integration of new knowledge into the learner’s existing knowledge base.

Characteristics of discovery method:

The main characteristics of this method are:

1) learning is active rather than passive: Learning is not defined as simply

absorbing what is being said or read, but actively seeking new knowledge.
Students are engaged in hands-on activities that are real problems needing
solutions.

2) learning is process-oriented rather than content-oriented: the focus shifts from

the end product, learning content, to the process, how the content is learned. The
focus in discovery learning is learning how to analyze and interpret information to
understand what is being learned rather than just giving the correct answer from
rote memorization.

3) failure is important: failure in discovery learning is seen as a positive

circumstance. Discovery learning emphasizes the popular lesson learned from
Thomas Edison. Thomas Edison is said to have tried 1,200 designs for light bulbs
before finding one that worked.

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4) feedback is necessary: an essential part of discovery learning is the
opportunity for feedback in the learning process. Student learning is enhanced,
deepened, and made more permanent by discussion of the topic with other
learners. Without the opportunity for feedback, learning is left incomplete.

5) understanding is deeper: incorporating all of these differences, discovery

learning provides for deeper learning opportunities. Learners internalize concepts
when they go through a natural progression to understand them.

Stages of discovery method:

Discovery method of learning is divided into two steps namely:

1) Preparation: establishing the goals, identifying students’ attitude, selecting

learning materials, choosing topics, elaborating the materials, and preparing
assessment.
2) Implementation: stimulation, problem statement, data collection, data
processing, verification, and generalization.
3) Evaluation:

Advantages of the Discovery Method:

 Discovery method makes the student an active participant rather than a
mere passive recipient.
 Since the method poses a challenge for the student to discover the
information or knowledge for himself, retention of any information or
knowledge so discovered will be increased. The training acquired in finding
out things for oneself independently can be applied to new learning and
problem solving.
 The joy in discovering something provides the students with intrinsic
motivation.

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 Disadvantages of the Discovery Method:
⚫ Discovery method is time consuming and progress is comparatively slow.
⚫ The method leaves open the possibility of not discovering anything. Students
may end up discovering things other than what was intended to be discovered.
⚫ The method is expensive considering the equipment and materials needed.
⚫ Discovery method is only good for a small class where effective teacher
supervision is possible.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Define discovery method of teaching.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of discovery method of teaching.
3. Differentiate between guided and unguided discovery methods of teachings.

5- CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING SUITABLE TEACHING METHODS:

What Is the Best Method of Teaching?

There is no “best” method of teaching. However, some methods do prove to be
more effective than others. Many researchers today agree that including more
student-centered learning approaches to the classroom can improve learning.
Using only a teacher-centered approach leaves out many skills and learning
opportunities for students. Yet, there may still be space for teacher-centered
learning for some specific topics and learning objectives. However, teacher-
centered learning shouldn’t be the only strategy in your teacher toolbox.
Here are five (5) factors which determine the choice of teaching-learning
methods:

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  Knowing who the learners are,
 The teacher’s personality,
 The learning objectives,
 The subjective contents,
 The environmental constraints.
1. Knowing who the learners are

No doubt the learner ought to be the main focus of the teacher when deciding
the best teaching method to use. If teaching means to facilitate learning, then it
is necessary to keep in mind the learner’s needs, area of interest, age,
aptitudes, preferred style of learning and study timetable.

Types of Learners

Since students are centers of teaching/learning processes, teachers must be

able to identify the different types of learners in order to be able to help them.
According to Rasaq A. O. (2003), understanding the different types of learners
will be of immense value in assisting the teachers in preparing suitable
materials to cater for the varying learning needs. There are mainly four
categories of learners and they are:

1) Slow Learners (Backward Learners);

2) Gifted and Talented Learners (Fast Learners);
3) Normal Learners (Average Learners)
4) Physically disabled.

The slow learners and the gifted learners are highly problematic whereas the
normal learners need to be stimulated and encouraged to make maximum use of

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their potential and to develop their individual talents. The fourth group of learners
are those that are physically disabled. These disabilities have nothing to do with
their intellectual capacity to learn. They are characterized by different types of
physical deformities like deafness, blindness and lameness.

Slow Learners

Slow learners are the category of students who lag behind in virtually all that
they do, and especially in their school work. They exhibit numerous learning
difficulties that seem to defy all learning methodologies and procedures. This
category of learners is made up of mentally retarded and the learning disabled.

The Characteristics of Slow Learners:

➢ The slow learners have a short attention span, that is, they cannot
concentrate for long.
➢ They have short memory and they don’t remember easily what they
have been taught.
➢ The slow learners are always bored and generally have no interest in
learning.
➢ They have poor communication skills. They are poor in both oral and
written languages.
➢ They have poor eye-hand coordination. They cannot see properly nor
even copy correctly.
➢ Their numeric ability is very low and they are very poor in calculation.
➢ They have poor social interaction and cannot get along with others
easily. In fact they exhibit aggressive behavior most of the time.
➢ They score low in all types of tests and assessment.

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Gifted and Talented Learners

The gifted and talented learners are those whose intellectual abilities are
exceptionally and constantly outstanding.

The Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Learners

➢ They rank high in academic achievement and cover a wide ground within a
limited period of time.
➢ They are fast thinking, highly creative and imaginative with very high
constructive abilities.
➢ They have very good cordial relationships. They make friends easily.
➢ They have outstanding leadership qualities and can work well under
pressure.

Normal Learners

Majority of learners can be classified as normal learners. That is to say that

majority of learners are of average abilities.

Characteristics of Normal Learners

➢ They manifest average ability

➢ They have their own learning problems like lateness to school, truancy,
wrong peer group etc.
➢ They manifest giftedness when faced with challenges.
➢ They are mostly invariably good in all subjects i.e. science, languages,
arts and even sporting activities.

Learners have several needs such as socialization, self-esteem, etc. They also have
their areas of interest. Learners can be more motivated in some contexts than in
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others. They may prefer to express themselves orally or in writing, they may prefer
lectures to question and answer method or group work, etc. Bright students for
instance, prefer well-structured presentations while dull students prefer Socratic
questioning. In the same way, some methods are good for upper secondary
schools and university students. The teacher must also consider the stage where
the learner is: introduction, acquisition, improvement, demonstration, new
learning.

The number of learners is also a significant factor. The psychology of a large group
differs from that of a smaller group. The same learners can adopt different
behaviors according to whether they are in large group or small group. For
example, the one who expresses himself/herself readily in front of 8 classmates
may hesitate to do it in front of about 30. The size of the group is undoubtedly one
of the factors mostly called upon to justify the unused of certain didactic methods.

2. The teacher’s personality

The teacher, like the learner, has his/her own interests which inevitably have an
impact on teacher’s enthusiasm in teaching. In addition to the teacher’s interest,
his/her aptitude to use a particular teaching method is another significant element.

Some teachers do not have the skills to use effectively some methods. Although
others have the aptitudes to use these methods in an efficient way, they do not
find any satisfaction in using them. In either of these cases, the teacher may
perform poorly. Finally, if the teacher does not know how to apply the methods
this could limit his/her performance.

3. The learning objectives

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Here again, the teacher must know the nature, how to formulate, the importance
and the end-results of the learning objectives.

The nature of objectives deals with cognitive, socio-affective or psychomotor

domains. The choice of the didactic methods will depend to a great extent on the
domain under consideration. The setting of objectives can focus on knowledge,
reproduction of a procedure or a predetermined behavior, developing originally or
creativity. If the teacher wants his/her learners to report a historical fact (objective
aiming at reproducing facts), he/she will be obliged to use a method which is
different from that of essay writing (objective aiming at developing cognitive skills,
creativity).

It is necessary to acknowledge that the achievement of some objectives requires

more time and energy than others. Finally, an objective can be reached at various
levels, from minimum success to perfect mastery.

4. The subject contents

In theory, all methods are appropriate to teach any discipline. But, the amount of
information to be taught in course can be more or less significant. When the
subject contents are too big, teachers will try to allocate appropriate time to some
parts of the contents. The content to be covered is another element which must
lead the teacher to the right choice of the best teaching methods to use.

Preferably, the contents of a more practical nature will be associated with the
didactic methods which give priority to application and manipulation; while the
contents of a more theoretical nature will be associated with the didactic methods
which require understanding.

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 5. The environmental constraints

Pedagogical tools also play a major role in the choice of didactic methods. In his
efforts to achieve the objectives, the teacher must know how to manage his/her
time when he/she uses pedagogic tools.

The budget allocated to a course or a program can also limit considerably the
choice of didactic methods. The teacher may not use useful methods because he
lacks financial resources. He/she has to resort to other methods, which require
modest budget.

Lack of equipment (audio-visual, data-processing or other material) may prevent

teachers from using useful teaching methods. Even when there are facilities and
equipment, it is not always easy to benefit from these resources. The planning of
schedules, the distribution of resources and the use of material constitute a
significant activity which must be done in collaboration with other education
stakeholders.

Finally, the school environment, the choice of a suitable classroom, the

dimensions of the classroom, the number of learners, the possibility to modify and
arrange furniture, the acoustics, the possibility to black out windows for
projection… are some elements to be taken into consideration.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1- What is the best method of teaching?
2- What are five (5) factors which determine the choice of teaching/learning
methods?
3- List the three categories of Learners.
4- Define each category of Learner in a sentence.

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PART II: LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

Introduction
Language teaching has a long, fascinating but rather tortuous history, in which a
debate on teaching methods has evolved particularly over the last hundred years.
The names of many of the methods (Grammar-translation Method, Direct Method,
Audio-lingual Method, Communicative Teaching Method, etc) are familiar enough,
yet the methods are not easy to grasp in practice because a method, however ill-
defined it may be, is more than a single strategy or a particular technique. As a part
of language teaching theories, these methods derived partly from social,
economic, political, or educational circumstances, partly from theoretical
consideration (new changes in language theories and in new psychological
perspective on language learning), partly from practical experience, intuition, and
inventiveness. Therefore, to some degree, they represent a combination of
language teaching beliefs, but it is evident that they are characterized by the over-
emphasis on single aspects as the central issue of language teaching and
learning.Method

Language
Teaching
Methods

Grammar -
Audio - Lingual Communicative -
Translation Direct - Method
Method Teaching Method
Method

1- The Grammar-Translation Method

This was the predominant method in Europe during the nineteenth century. Some
of its main proponents are Seidenstücker Johann, Johann Karl Plötz and Meidinger.
It is based on learning grammar rules and vocabulary of the language. One of its

34
main objectives is that students become able to translate from one language to
another. Reading and writing basically works, leaving aside the more oral
expression and comprehension. Classes focus on the teacher, who provides
grammar rules and vocabulary to be memorized. Grammar is taught with
explanations in the native language and only later applied in the production of
sentences through translation from one language to another. The sentence is the
basic unit of learning and practising the language. Most sessions are based on
phrase translation from one language to another. The student's native language is
the medium of instruction, that is, it is used to explain new items and to make
comparisons between the target language and the native language. As already
mentioned, the mother tongue is kept as a reference in the process of learning a
second language.

The principles or features on which this method could be defined are based on the
following points:

➢ It’s previously referred as Classical Method;

➢ Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language (the mother tongue is medium of instruction);

➢ Accuracy is greatly emphasized. It is expected that students acquired

competent translation skills;

➢ Teachers use textbooks by translating every word and phrase from target
language into the mother tongue.
➢ Major focus is on Reading and Writing skills;
➢ Little or no attention is paid to Listening and Speaking skills;
➢ Little or no attention is given to pronunciation;

35
➢ It’s a teacher-centered model: Language learners are passive in language
learning and teachers are regarded as an authority;
➢ Vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
➢ Grammar is taught deductively/directly through presentation and studio
grammatical rules.
➢ Deductive learning: first the language is presented, then it is practiced.
Q: What are the major weaknesses of the Grammar - Translation Method?

2. The Direct Method / Natural Method

The Direct Method was born in France and Germany in the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth century and was consecrated in the United States with
Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz. The appearance of this method was a response to
dissatisfaction with the grammar-translation method.

Its creators argue that a language can be taught without translation or the use of
the native language if learning is based on demonstration and action. The language
is best taught using it actively in class, rather than using analytical procedures that
focus on the explanation of grammatical rules. Teachers should encourage direct
and spontaneous use of the language learned in class. Thus, students will be able
to learn the language and induce grammatical rules. The vocabulary learned can be
used to teach the new one, using mime, shows and clips.

It' involves the immersion of students in the target language in the same way
that they learned their mother tongue. It is focused on preparing students to use
the language in order to achieve communication. All language learning is done in
the language you want to learn and new learning is taught orally. The new
vocabulary is taught through demonstration and focuses primarily on speaking and
36
listening, giving much importance to correct pronunciation. Students must devote
much class to oral practice.

The key principles/features are:

➢ Second language learning is similar to first language learning;
➢ Naturalistic principles of language learning: use the target language as a means
of instruction and communication in the language classroom;
➢ Translation was forbidden: never translate, but demonstrate;
➢ Demonstration action is used as procedure: never explain, but act;
➢ No textbooks used in the very beginning of the learning stage: never use the
book, but use your lesson plan;
➢ It’s a teacher-centered model: Language learners are active in language
learning, and teachers are regarded as a guide, (Never speak too much, but
make your students speak much
➢ Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
➢ Concrete vocabulary is taught through pictures and objects, while Abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
➢ Both speaking and listening comprehension are taught;
➢ Grammar is taught inductively/indirectly in context;
➢ Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
Q: What are the major weaknesses of of the Direct Method?

3. The Audio-Lingual / Audio-Visual method:

This method appeared as a result of the need to possess good oral and aural
mastery of a foreign language during and after World War II. It’s also called ( the
Army Method); the America became aware that it needed people

37
(translators/interpreters) to learn foreign languages very quickly as part of its
overall military in World War II.

This method proposes a learning process based on listening and oral production
as opposed to writing and reading. The material presented is based especially on
dialogues and exercises as major learning techniques. In this method, the use of
the mother tongue in the classroom is not recommended, although the use of the
mother tongue in the classroom or materials is not as restrictive as it is in the
direct method. The lessons are organized by grammatical structure and presented
through short dialogues. Generally students repeatedly hear different
conversations and focus on mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical
structures in these dialogues. Simple and active practice is emphasized. The
intention is to prevent learning the language from being a mental burden and
make it a relative effort through repetition and imitation.

The Audio-lingual Method has introduced memorizing dialogues and imitative

repetition as specific learning techniques. It is an interpretation of learning in
terms of stimulus and response. The main objectives of this method are to develop
oral proficiency in the language through a wide choice of vocabulary, and to make
the students capable of communicating using language learned automatically.

Its basic principles are:

➢ Listening and oral production should be taught before writing and reading.
➢ Instructions and exercises are given in the target language.
➢ Dialogue is the way to present vocabulary, structures, and is learned through
repetitive drills.
➢ Mistakes/errors are avoided because they lead to the formation of bad
habits.

38
 ➢ Interaction occurs between students and teacher; the students imitate their
teacher.
➢ There is dependence on mimicry, memorizing and action of set phrases, and
over-learning;
➢ There is little or no grammatical explanation. It’s taught inductively;
➢ Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context;
➢ There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids;
➢ Great importance is attached to pronunciation, rhythm and intonation;
➢ Very little use of the mother tongue by teacher is permitted;
➢ Positive reinforcement helps students develop good habits.
Q: What are the major weaknesses of the Audio - Lingual Method?

4. Communicative Teaching Method:

Under the influence of British applied linguists, such as (John Firth, M.A.K.Halliday)
who stressed the functional and communicative potential of language, and
sociolinguistics works (Dell Hyms, and W.Labov) and some philosophy work (J.
Austin and J. Searle), the communicative method was advocated in language
teaching. It saw the need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on
mere mastering of structures. This communicative teaching method aims to make
communicative competence the goal of language teaching, and develops
procedures for teaching the four skills that acknowledge the interdependence of
language and communication. It encourages activities that involve real
communication and carry out meaningful tasks. It believes that language is
meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. Language learners are
expected to be negotiators, teachers to be an organizer, a guide, an analyst, a
counselor, or a group process manager. It is no doubt that the communicative
39
method developed quite fast, it dominates language teaching in many countries,
including Djibouti because it not only makes language learning more interesting,
but helps learners develop linguistic competence as well as communicative
competence. However, problems also arose in the initial wave enthusiasm about it.

The main objectives of this method are:

1. The development of communicative competence in students

2. 2. Involving students in the learning process
3. Giving equal emphasis to the four language skills: speaking, listening, reading
and writing.
Key Principles of the Method:

➢ The language should be submitted as used in actual cultural context.

➢ Learned language should be the vehicle of communication in class.
➢ Pupils should be given the opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.
➢ Errors are seen as a normal process in the development of communication
skills.
➢ Fluency is more important than accuracy.
➢ One of the responsibilities of the teacher is to create situations that promote
communication.
➢ An additional function of the teacher is to foster student learning in the role of
activity manager and communicative advisor.
Q: What are the major disadvantages of the Communicative Teaching Method?
5.Eclectic Teaching Method

⚫ Eclecticism involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, each of

which may have very different characteristics and may be motivated by
different underlying assumptions.

40
⚫ The use eclecticism is due to the fact that there are strengths as well as
weaknesses of single theory based methods.
⚫ The teacher decides what method or approach to use depending on the aims
of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books
have a mixture of approaches and methods.
Advantages of an Eclectic Methods:

❖ Safety: the use of a variety of ideas and procedures from different existing
approaches and methods will increase the chances of learning taking place.
❖ Interest: teachers need to use different techniques to hold the learners;
attention.
❖ Diversity: different learning/teaching contexts require different methods.
❖ Flexibility: awareness of a range of available techniques will help teachers
exploit materials better and manage unexpected situations.

References:
- Azman Makokha & Michael Ongwea. (1997). A 14 Days Teaching Methodology Course.
Trainer’s Handbook. Chairman Development Service, Kenya.
- Tanzila Nabeel, et al., General Methods of Teaching. Allama Iqbal Open University, faculty of
Education.
- Consolée MUHIMBAZA. (2017). General Teaching Methodology. Catholic University of Rwandan,
Faculty of Education.
- Ishak, S.Pd., M. Pd. (2011). Approaches and Methods in Language teaching. PMN Publisher
Surabaya.
- N. Benmostefa. Methods and Approaches. University of Tlemen. Dep. Of English.
- Richards, Jack, C. & Renandy, Willy, A. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge
University Press.
- Alejo, Alejandro, Aznar. (2014). Different Methodologies of teaching English. Unversidad de
valladolid.
- Overview of Language Teaching Methodology. Centre Regional des Metiers de l’Education et la
Formation English Department, Oujba.

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