UNIVERSITÄTSFORSCHUNGEN

Maran et al (eds.) · Objects, Ideas and Travelers

ZUR PRÄHISTORISCHEN ARCHÄOLOGIE
Aus dem Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte der Universität Heidelberg

Band 350

Objects, Ideas and Travelers

Contacts between the Balkans, the Aegean
and Western Anatolia during the Bronze
and Early Iron Age

edited by

Joseph Maran, Radu Băjenaru,

Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi, Anca-Diana Popescu
and Svend Hansen

2020

UPA
350 V E R L A G D R. R U D O L F H A B E L T G M B H, B O N N
Maran et al. (eds.) · Objects, Ideas and Travelers
 Universitätsforschungen
zur prähistorischen Archäologie

Band 350

Aus dem Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte

der Universität Heidelberg

2020

Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn

 Objects, Ideas and Travelers
Contacts between the Balkans, the Aegean
and Western Anatolia during the Bronze
and Early Iron Age

Volume to the memory of Alexandru Vulpe

Proceedings of the Conference in Tulcea,
10–13 November, 2017

edited by

Joseph Maran, Radu Băjenaru, Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi,

Anca-Diana Popescu and Svend Hansen

2020

Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn

 ISBN 978-3-7749-4248-6

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Copyright 2020 by Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn

 VORWORT
DER HERAUSGEBER
Die Reihe „Universitätsforschungen zur prähistori-
schen Archäologie“ trägt dem Bedürfnis Rechnung,
Examensarbeiten und andere Forschungsleistungen in
die Öffentlichkeit zu tragen. Thematisch findet darin
die ganze Breite des Faches vom Paläolithikum bis
zur Archäologie der Neuzeit ihren Platz.
Ursprünglich hatten sich fünf Universitätsinstitute in
Deutschland zur Herausgabe der Reihe zusammenge-
funden, der Kreis ist inzwischen deutlich größer ge-
worden. Alle interessierten Professoren und Dozenten
sind eingeladen, als Mitherausgeber tätig zu werden
Herausgeber sind derzeit:
Kurt Alt (Mainz)
François Bertemes (Halle)
Nikolaus Boroffka (Berlin)
Peter Breunig (Frankfurt am Main)
Philippe Della Casa (Zürich)
Manfred K.H. Eggert (Tübingen)
Frank Falkenstein (Würzburg)
Ralf Gleser (Münster)
Alfred Haffner (Kiel)
Albert Hafner (Bern)
Svend Hansen (Berlin)
Ole Harck (Kiel)
Joachim Henning (Frankfurt am Main)
Sabine Hornung (Saarbrücken)
Christian Jeunesse (Strasbourg)
Albrecht Jockenhövel (Münster)
Tobias L. Kienlin (Köln)
Rüdiger Krause (Frankfurt am Main)
Klára Kuzmová (Trnava)
Amei Lang (München)
Jens Lüning (Frankfurt am Main)
Joseph Maran (Heidelberg)
Carola Metzner-Nebelsick (München)
und Arbeiten aus ihrem Bereich der Reihe zukommen
zu lassen. Für die einzelnen Bände zeichnen jeweils
die Autoren und Institute ihrer Herkunft, die im Ti-
tel deutlich gekennzeichnet sind, verantwortlich. Sie
erstellen eine druckfertig gestaltete Datei (PDF). Bei
gleicher Anordnung des Umschlages haben die ver-
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Rudolf Habelt GmbH, der in jedem Fall den Vertrieb
der Bände sichert.
Johannes Müller (Kiel)
Ulrich Müller (Kiel)
Mária Novotná (Trnava)
Marco Pacciarelli (Neapel)
Bernd Päffgen (München)
Diamantis Panagiotopoulos (Heidelberg)
Christopher Pare (Mainz)
Hermann Parzinger (Berlin)
Clemens Pasda (Jena)
Heidi Peter-Röcher (Würzburg)
Britta Ramminger (Hamburg)
Katharina Rebay-Salisbury (Wien)
Jürgen Richter (Köln)
Sabine Rieckhoff (Leipzig)
Thomas Saile (Regensburg)
Roderick B. Salisbury (Wien)
Wolfram Schier (Berlin)
Thomas Stöllner (Bochum)
Wolf-Rüdiger Teegen (München)
Gerhard Tomedi (Innsbruck)
Ulrich Veit (Leipzig)
Karl-Heinz Willroth (Göttingen)
Andreas Zimmermann (Köln)
Table of Contents

The Editors Preface ......................................................................................1

Tiberius BADER Alexandru Vulpe – Der Mensch, der Professor, der

Wissenschaftler .......................................................................3

I. PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION AND MOBILITY

Anthony HARDING Interconnectedness in the European Bronze Age: From

Objects to Networks ............................................................25

Helle VANDKILDE Amber, Weapons and Circulating Ideas about Leadership

at the Threshold to the Middle Bronze Age in Europe
...................................................................................................31

Mateusz JAEGER, Janusz CzEBRESzuK, Small Links in a Long Chain. Amber Finds at a Vatya
Paweł PISzORA, Gabriella KuLCSáR Culture Fortified Settlement, Kakucs-Turján (Central
Hungary) ................................................................................43

Helena TOMAS Cetina Valley – An Ancient Pathway of Communication

..................................................................................................53

Maja GORI Kατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλασσαν. Cetina Communities on the
Move across the Central Mediterranean and the Balkans
in the 3rd Millennium BC ....................................................65

Martin HRISTOV Early Bronze Age Anatolian Influences in Southeastern

Europe: Some New Examples from Thrace ..................85

Philipp W. STOCKHAMMER, Travelling Objects - Travelling Ideas? A Mycenaean

Bogdan ATHANASSOV, Alabastron from the Late Bronze Age Settlement of
Hans MOMMSEN, Maxime RAGEOT Bresto (Southwestern Bulgaria) .........................................91

Florian RuPPENSTEIN Migration Events in Greece at the End of the Second

Millennium BC and Their Possible Balkanic Background
...............................................................................................107

Carol KACSó Aspekte der Bronzezeit in Nordsiebenbürgen. Kontakte

zu den südlichen und östlichen Regionen ......................123

Daria LOžNJAK DIzDAR The Paths of the Argonauts and the Western Border of
the Basarabi Complex ........................................................147
 II. NEGOTIATING THE SOCIAL ORDER THROUGH METALS

Svend HANSEN Votive Offerings between the Carpathian Basin and the
Aegean in Hoards and Sanctuaries ...............................165

Liviu MARTA The Disc-Butted Axe Hoards: The Votive Offering of

Personal Possessions and the Materialization of Social
Collective Practices ..........................................................187

Florin GOGÂLTAN, Kurt Horedt’s “Siebenbürgen und Mykenä” after more

George G. MARINESCu than 50 years .....................................................................205

Anca-Diana POPESCu Prestige Artefacts during the Bronze Age: The Perşinari
Hoard and the Precious Metal Weapons in the Area
between the Middle Danube and Mesopotamia
.............................................................................................221

Stefan ALEXANDROV Gold and Silver Ornaments in Early and Middle Bronze
Age Bulgaria ......................................................................251

zofia Anna STOS-GALE, The Aegean and the Black Sea Connecting Southeast
Radu BĂJENARu Europe and Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age:
Evidence from Metal Finds in Bulgaria, Greece and
Western Turkey ................................................................265

Sabine PABST Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and

Cultural Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its
Hinterland – New Studies on Late Bronze Age Metal
Artefacts .............................................................................287

Bogdan ATHANASSOV, A New Look at the Late Bronze Age Oxhide Ingots from
Dimitar CHERNAKOV, Kalin DIMITROV, the Eastern Balkans .........................................................299
Raiko KRAuSS, Hristo POPOV,
Roland SCHWAB, Vladimir SLAVCHEV,
Ernst PERNICKA

Bianka NESSEL, Ernst PERNICKA Aspects of the Metal Supply between Central Europe and
the Carpathian Basin in the Early and Middle Bronze Age
..............................................................................................357

III. CONSTRUCTING SPACES AND PLACES

Tibor-Tamás DARóCzI Bronze Age Ritual Meadow- and Sylvanscapes. Of

Aegean Sacred ‘Gardens’ and Eastern Carpathian Basin
Funerary Woodlands ........................................................371

Elke KAISER, Eugen SAVA, Similar but Different! Late Bronze Age Settlement.
Mariana SÎRBu, Eugeniu MISTREANu, Features in the Steppe and Forest Steppe ....................395
Valeriu BuBuLICI
Neculai BOLOHAN Landscape, Settlements and Mobility in the Inferior
Sector of the Lower Danube Area during the Late
Bronze Age .....................................................................417

Mario GAVRANOVIĆ Late Bronze Age Geometric Decoration in the Western

Balkans – Style and Status ............................................431

Sorin-Cristian AILINCĂI Early Iron Age Stamped Pottery in Southeastern

Europe. Analysis, Chronology and Interpretation
...........................................................................................447

Sven CONRAD, Raiko KRAuSS New Data on the Middle Hallstatt Period on the Lower
Danube ...........................................................................473

Cristian SCHuSTER Salt Resources, Production, Transportation and Routes

between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube in
the Bronze Age ..............................................................487

IV. WARRIORHOOD AND ITS MATERIAL CORRELATES

Joseph MARAN The Introduction of the Horse-Drawn Light Chariot –

Divergent Responses to a Technological Innovation in
Societies between the Carpathian Basin and the East
Mediterranean .................................................................505

Viktória KISS The Bronze Age Burial from Balatonakali Revisited

............................................................................................529

Paulina SuCHOWSKA-DuCKE Warfare and Warriors of the European Late Bronze

Age ...................................................................................545

Alexandra ŢÂRLEA How to Look Smashing while Smashing Your Enemies:

The Construction of the Warrior’s Image in the
Romanian Bronze Age between Local Choices and
Supra-Regional Influences ............................................559
 ALEXANDRU VULPE
(June 16, 1931 – February 9, 2016)
Preface

For more than 150 years, the prehistoric civilizations of the East Mediterranean have fascinated and
attracted numerous scholars interested both in the various manifestations of the respective social order
within this geographical zone, and by the role and impact these civilizations may have had on the
neighbouring regions.
As one would expect, our knowledge is growing continuously, triggered by new archaeological research,
the progress of interdisciplinary investigations of archaeological science, and the diversification of
theoretical approaches interpreting material culture from an anthropological perspective. The speed of
these accumulations is increasing rapidly, while the number of studies and the variety and complexity of
the themes is also continuously growing. That is why the periodic organization of conferences on well-
defined themes and the publication of the respective volumes are absolutely necessary, not only in order
to be able to integrate the new data into the broader picture, but also for the redefinition of the state of
research within certain working areas and to show the experimental investigation of new research directions.
The present volume is the outcome of a conference with the same title organized at Tulcea, Romania,
between the 10th and the 13th of November 2017, dedicated to the memory of Professor Alexandru Vulpe.
Four prestigious institutions, two from Romania (the Gavrilă Simion Eco-Museum Research Institute, Tulcea
and the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology, Bucharest) and two from Germany (the Institut für ur-
und Frühgeschichte und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, Heidelberg and the Deutsches Archäologisches
Institut, Eurasien Abteilung, Berlin), with the generous support of the Mayor’s Office in Tulcea, managed
to bring together over 50 scholars, most of them friends, colleagues, collaborators, students or simply
acquaintances of Professor Vulpe. The intention of the organizers was to provide a suitable environment
for sharing opinions and experience, and for an open and positive discussion, to recognize the current
state of research on the topic, and to establish stronger connections for future collaboration in this field.
Contacts among human communities from various cultural areas, the circulation of people, ideas and
objects, or the identification of the main communication routes as well as their role in shaping prehistoric
societies are likely to remain forever topics of intense discussion within archaeology. The relations between
the Carpathian-Balkan area and the Aegean during the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age was one of the
main themes of study for Alexandru Vulpe. As a supporter of the idea of Ex oriente lux, Vulpe always
argued for the major role played by the Helladic civilization in the cultural development of the Carpathian-
Balkan area. The lectures delivered at the Tulcea conference and the papers published in the present volume
highlight once again the complexity of these connections and the multitude of perspectives revealed when
approaching such a theme.
Although the title of the volume indicates the main geographic areas in question, contributions from
other cultural areas (i.e. Central Europe, the Middle Danube, Northern Pontic area, etc.), whose societies
were in close contact with those of the Balkans, were also welcome. The four sections grouping the studies
in the volume had not been established from the very beginning; they are the result of the subjects
approached by the authors. Reading the papers attentively, one notices the diversity of the subjects and
approaches and, in most cases, the novelty of the ideas expressed. We hope that the publication will provide
research with a reference volume, opening new perspectives on the matters discussed. The present work
is the result of the common effort of all authors, spanning a period of over three years. We wish to thank
all contributors for their promptness and seriousness in answering our invitation to the volume, as well as
for the openness and patience showed during the entire editing process. We are very much indebted to the
Mayor’s Office of the community of Tulcea for the financial help and for the hospitality provided to the
participants of the conference. Special thanks go to Douglas Fear (Heidelberg) for the careful language
editing of the contributions to this volume.

The editors

Objects, Ideas and Travelers, p. 1

Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and Cultural
Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its Hinterland –
New Studies on Late Bronze Age Metal Artefacts

Sabine PABST
Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany

During the Late Bronze Age, cultural contacts between Central Europe and the central as well as the
eastern Mediterranean can be recognized above all in the extensive spread of several pan-European bronze
artefacts. Regarding the flange-hilted swords of Reutlingen type of Central European origin, one can
observe influences moving from north to south. Details of the sword manufacture and sometimes the
composition of the bronze alloy especially indicate connections between Italian workshops in the north
and Mycenae, as well as with Cyprus and the Levant in the south (see recently Pabst 2013, 106, fig. 1, 116-
118, with further references). On the other hand, the distribution of original Carpathian violin bow fibulae
with a spiral foot or rather a variant with a special bow decoration (composed of line groups and fish
bones) shows clear contacts between the Pannonian-north Balkan-central Adriatic area and Mycenae in
the Argolid. In one of the cemeteries of Mycenae, these fibulae were part of a female costume in a chamber
tomb of the period LH III A 2/III B. The best counterpart to this costume set came to light in a Late
Bronze Age cremation burial from Langmannersdorf in the north-west Pannonian area of origin of the
fibula shape (see recently Pabst 2018, 136-144, fig. 1-5; in press, with further references). In the author’s
opinion, the first appearance of flange-hilted swords of Reutlingen type, violin bow fibulae with a spiral
foot as well as further foreign metal and pottery shapes in the Aegean during the thirteenth century BC
should be interpreted as evidence of Mycenaean trade activities in the Adriatic. It must be chiefly assumed
to have been a trade in human beings (or slave trade) because of the mainly local Aegean manufacture of
the foreign northern and western shapes. This thesis is supported by the fact that the bronze artefacts in
question (with only a few exceptions) have never been found in contexts of the Mycenaean aristocracy.
Thus, the individuals behind the objects could have been soldiers or mercenaries, kidnapped or married
women etc. (see in detail Pabst 2013, 123-124; 2018, 162).
In contrast to the Italian peninsula (cf. especially Bettelli 2002), in the eastern Adriatic and its hinterland
direct material evidence of Mycenaean trade activities is very rare (cf. Forenbaher 1995; Tomas 2005; 2009;
Teržan 2007). Only a few potsherds have been found that could be of Mycenaean origin (in particular the
potsherds from Škrip on the island of Brač in central Dalmatia). But they are rather doubtful or unspecific
and do not derive from unquestionable contexts (cf. Gaffney et al. 2002, 30-32, fig. 4/a-b; Tomas 2005,
676, pl. CLXXIII/d-e; 2009, 198-200, fig. 8/5; Pabst 2013, 134-135). The distribution of ox-hide ingots
of eastern Mediterranean origin demonstrates a slightly different situation. There is clear evidence of
miniature ox-hide ingots in Pannonia and north-eastern Italy (recently summarized in Blečić Kavur 2014,
158-159, fig. 89; cf. Pabst 2013, 135-136), but, in particular, the items of the eastern Adriatic coast are
questionable. The suspicious ingot from the island of Pag in northern Dalmatia could most probably be
the result of the intermingling of different localities (cf. Vagnetti 1967). The famous hoard of the doubtful
location of ‘Makarska’ in central Dalmatia (containing a miniature ox-hide ingot as well as several working
tools) has a Cypriot character in its entity (cf. Buchholz 2010, 336-338, fig. 228; Sherratt 2012, 153-159, fig.
13/1-2; Pabst 2013, 135). The inventory does not contain any object of central Dalmatian or north-west
Balkan origin. Thus, the location must still remain doubtful.

Objects, Ideas and Travelers, p. 287–298

288
Fig. 1. Distribution of Late Helladic bronze spearheads with a polygonal
socket and a related southern Pannonian example (after Pabst,
forthcoming). 1. Triangles: Volos type (Fig. 3/2); 2. Circles: Prosymna
type (Fig. 3/3); 3. Stars: cast spearhead from Hočko Pohorje (Figs. 2;
3/1).
Fig. 3. Late Bronze Age bronze spearheads with a
polygonal socket in Pannonia and the Mediterranean.
1. Spearhead from Hočko Pohorje, Slovenian Styria
(after Čerče and Šinkovec 1995, 308, pl. 75/16); 2.
Spearhead of the Volos type from Volos,
Thessaly/Greece (after Avila 1983, pl. 4/29); 3.
Spearhead of the Prosymna type from Ialysos,
Rhodes/Greece (after Benzi 1992, 243, pl. 179 a. T
7/10).
Sabine PABST
Fig. 2. Hočko Pohorje, Slovenian
Styria. Bronze spearhead
(photography: Vesna Koprivnik,
Pokrajinski muzej Maribor,
PMMb 2010).
However, the distribution of other categories
of artefacts shows more extensive cultural and
exchange contacts between Mycenaean Greece
and several Late Bronze Age cultural groups of
the eastern Adriatic as well as adjacent areas of
the western Balkans and the Carpathian Basin. In
the Late Bronze Age hoard from Hočko Pohorje
in Slovenian Styria, an ingot fragment was found
with a high iron content, unusual for this region
(Čerče and Šinkovec 1995, 194-195, 319, fig. 42,
pl. 86/206; Trampuž Orel 1996, 179-180, 203-204,
222, analysis no. 385). In addition, the large hoard
of mixed composition also contains a small
spearhead with a polygonal, faceted or ribbed
socket (Fig. 2) that looks foreign in the local
environment (Fig. 1/3). During the Late Bronze
Age, long flame-shaped spearheads predominated
in the region (cf. Hansen 1994, 59-74, fig. 35;
Pabst, forthcoming). The cast spearhead with a
faceted or ribbed socket from Hočko Pohorje (Fig.
2; 3/1) finds its best parallels and prototypes in
the Aegean (Fig. 1/1-2; Fig. 3/2-3). The Aegean
examples of the Volos type (with a similar laurel
leaf shaped blade) and Prosymna type have
sockets that are faceted or channelled, but mainly
split and hammered with a separate metal ring
placed at the mouth (Fig. 3/2-3). The full-cast
spearhead from Hočko Pohorje with only a ring-
Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and Cultural Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its Hinterland ... 289

Fig. 4. Distribution of bayonet-like

bronze spearheads (cf. List 1-2). 1.
Black circles: spearheads of
Aegean type (List 1; Fig. 6/1); 2.
White circles: spearheads of the
Pannonian type (List 2; Fig. 5); 3.
Black triangles: spearheads of the
Knossos sub-type of Aegean type
(List 1A; Fig. 6/2); 4. Grey
triangles: spearheads of the
Dendra sub-type of the Aegean
type (List 1B; Fig. 6/3).

like ornament at the mouth of the socket (Fig. 2; Fig. 3/1) is most probably not an import, but a local
copy of the Aegean prototypes (Pabst, forthcoming). The chemical composition of the bronze provides
confirmation of this, because it coincides with other bronze objects of local shapes (cf. Čerče and Šinkovec
1995, 180, 308, pl. 75/16; 386, pl. 153/16; Trampuž Orel 1996, 204-210, 238, no. 13, 220, analysis no.
278). A further detail of different workshops is the different position of the two opposite rivet holes,
either placed near the mouth of the socket of the Aegean examples (Fig. 3/2) or near the blade of the
spearhead from Hočko Pohorje (Fig. 2). The distribution of the spearheads of the Volos type and
Prosymna type is mainly concentrated in the Mycenaean palace centres of the Peloponnese (Fig. 1/1-2)1.
The southern spearheads were found in Cist, Tholos or Chamber tombs dated to a long period from LH
II B to LH III A/B (cf. Avila 1983, 15-16, 36-37; Pabst, forthcoming). There is no indication of a deposition
date later than LH III B. Thus, the spearhead from Hočko Pohorje must belong to the period of Mycenaean
palaces of the thirteenth century BC at the latest. From this time onwards, one can observe new local
types of spearheads with polygonal sockets in the south-east Alpine-south Pannonian area (Pabst,
forthcoming).
Several Late Bronze Age hoard finds in Pannonia contain another spear shape without any local tradition
in the area. These cast spearheads have very long, narrow blades shaped like a willow leaf and are
characterized by very short sockets (Fig. 4/2; 5). In the hoards of mixed composition from the period BA
D/Ha A1 (for references, see below, List 2), they mostly originated as fragments (e.g. Fig. 5). In some cases,
metallurgical analyses or a silver-gleaming surface (e.g. the examples of the hoard from Keszőhidegkút)2
reveal a high tin content of the alloy (cf. Čerče and Šinkovec 1995, 215-217, 362, pl. 129/9; Trampuž Orel
1996, 233). According to their great weight (relative to other spearheads of the region) and the hardness
of the material, they were obviously very powerful thrusting weapons. On the basis of the socket profiles,
one can distinguish two variants that are rectangular (Fig. 5/1-2) or oval (Fig. 5/3) in cross-section, but
varying neither in spatial distribution nor in period3. The hoard from Keszőhidegkút contains examples

1
Locations of spearheads of the Volos type: Mycenae, Prosymna, Stephani, Vapheio, Volos (cf. Avila 1983, 15, pl. 4/26-29, 30,
pl. 11/65). – Locations of the Prosymna type: Pylos, Ialysos, Nauplia, Prosymna (cf. Avila 1983, 36-37, pls. 12/76-77, 13/78-80,
82A). See Pabst, forthcoming.
2
Author’s autopsy in the Hungarian National Museum Budapest (Fig. 5/2-3).
3
Locations of spearheads with a rectangular cross-section of the socket: Bonyhád, Borotín, Brodski Varoš, Keszőhidegkút,
Mezőkövesd, Paß Luftenstein, Podcrkavlje-Slavonski Brod, ‘Šebelce’, Slavonski Brod, Tab, Waldstein (see references in List 2). –
Locations of spearheads with an oval cross-section of the socket: Alun, Keszőhidegkút, ‘Central Dalmatia’, Poljanci, Simontornya
(see references in List 2).
290 Sabine PABST

Fig. 5. Bayonet-like bronze spearhead

fragments from Pannonian hoards.
1. Bonyhád, Tolna County/
Hungary (Weight 145.40 g); 2-3.
Keszőhidegkút, Tolna County/
Hungary (Weight 191.2 g and
227.2 g). (drawings: Beate Pabst. –
Hungarian National Museum
Budapest 95/1889/101; 66/1926/
89).

Fig. 6. Bayonet-like bronze spearheads of the Aegean type. 1.

Bayonet-like spearhead of the classical Aegean type from
Knossos, Zapher Papoura, Crete (after Avila 1983, pl. 33/869);
2. The Knossos sub-type of the Aegean type from Knossos,
Crete (after Avila 1983, pl. 33/865). 3. The Dendra sub-type of
the Aegean type from Knossos, Isopata, Crete (after Avila 1983,
pl. 33/867).

of both variants (Fig. 5/2-3). The spatial distribution of these

cast bayonet-like spearheads is restricted to Pannonia and
adjacent areas of the eastern Alps and the north-western
Balkans (Fig. 4/2). The easternmost sites in the Carpathian
Basin are locations of hoard finds of the period Ha B1
(horizon IV or Hajdúböszörmény [tenth century BC]). Each
of these later hoards from Alun in Serbia and Mezőkövesd in
north-east Hungary contains a complete bayonet-like
spearhead (cf. references in List 2). The Pannonian bayonet-
like spearheads find their best parallels or prototypes among
the Aegean spearheads of Höckmann’s group H
(‘Bajonettlanzenspitzen’). Although obviously locally
produced, the Aegean examples (Fig. 4/1) are similarly long
and narrow, with lengths between 40 and 50 cm (Höckmann
1980, 55-64; cf. Höckmann 2007, 222-223; Steinmann 2012,
45-46; Лещаков 2015, 26-28, pls. 4-5). One can distinguish an
undecorated variant (Fig. 6/1) from two faceted or ribbed ones
(Fig. 6/2-3). In contrast to the northern, Pannonian type (Fig.
5), the bayonet-like spearheads of the Aegean type normally
have divided, hammered sockets with a metal ring placed at
the mouth (Fig. 6/1-2)4. There are only a few cast examples,
especially in Crete (Fig. 6/3). Relative to the large blade, the
examples of the Aegean type have a short socket that is
practically incorporated into the blade. The bayonet-like spearheads of Aegean type came to light in tombs
of the period LH II until LH III B (for the contexts and their dating, see references in List 1). The latest

4
The cast sockets of the Pannonian examples are merely decorated with ring-like line groups (cf. Fig. 5).
Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and Cultural Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its Hinterland ... 291

specimen belongs to a grave find from Spaliareika Lousikon (Achaia) of the period LH III C
Middle/Advanced (cf. Giannopoulos 2008, 179, 221, pls. 34/55; 50/55). Thus, the Aegean examples are
without a doubt earlier in date than their northern, Pannonian counterparts of hoard finds of the period
BA D/Ha A1 (cf. List 2). Most probably, the first appearance of bayonet-like spearheads in Pannonia
should be dated to the thirteenth century BC5 or the late period of the Mycenaean palaces. Thus, the
adoption of the Aegean spear shape in Pannonia coincides with the spread of Reutlingen-type swords
from Central Europe to the Mediterranean (see above). The distribution pattern of bayonet-like spearheads
in Central and Southern Europe suggests a spread or communication route via the eastern Adriatic and
Ionian Sea (Fig. 4)6. In the Aegean and in Pannonia, the first appearance of long, heavy bayonet-like
spearheads corresponds to the invention or adoption of bronze cuirasses. This kind of bronze armour
was introduced in the Aegean around the fifteenth century BC and in Pannonia around the thirteenth
century BC (see recently Mödlinger 2012; Petres and Jankovits 2014; Borgna 2016). With regard to the
Aegean bayonet-like spearheads, Höckmann has postulated that these large, heavy thrusting weapons must
have been invented for fighting against armoured soldiers (Höckmann 1980, 58-64; Steinmann 2012, 48).
Thus, one can assume the same explanation for the adoption of the northern, Pannonian bayonet-like
spearheads. Furthermore, it is assumed that the bronze cuirasses (as well as other defensive arms) in
Pannonia derived from Aegean prototypes (cf. especially Müller-Karpe 1962, 284; Petres and Jankovits 2014,
66). Comparing the distribution of bayonet-like spearheads (Fig. 4) with the distribution of bronze cuirasses

Fig. 7. Distribution of different blade cross-sections of flange-hilted bronze swords of the Stätzling type (Circles)
and Casale type (Stars). 1. White symbols: blade with rapier-like ridges; 2. Black symbols: blade of rhombic cross-
section; 3. Large grey symbols: blade with narrow midrib and parallel grooves. Small grey symbols: blade lentiform
or unknown in cross-section. (after Pabst 2013, 113, fig. 3; 2017, 123, fig. 6).
5
For the difficulty of absolute dating of the period BA D/Ha A1 see in detail Pabst 2014.
6
It seems unlikely that the spread occurred via the eastern Balkan route, because of the Ha B1-date of the easternmost examples
from Alun and Mezőkövesd (see above). On the other hand, there is no evidence that the Pannonian spears could originate from
the Nordic tradition. Similar long, narrow spearheads of the northern Ullerslev type (cf. Jacob-Friesen 1967, 143-149; říhovský
1996, 71-72, pl. 12/109; Gedl 2009, 62-63; Laux 2012, 20-21) seem to be the result of direct Aegean influence in the Nordic
Bronze Age during Period II.
292 Sabine PABST

in Central and Southern Europe (cf. Mödlinger 2012, 14, fig. 10; Petres and Jankovits 2014, 64, fig. 16;
Borgna 2016, 149, fig. 50), one can suppose a communication route via the Ionian and Adriatic Sea for the
spread of both arms elements. Most probably, foreign mercenaries in the service of the Mycenaean palaces
transmitted not only Aegean weapon shapes, but also fighting techniques to their northern regions of
origin.
In the period after the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces, the widespread flange-hilted swords of
the Allerona or Stätzling type demonstrate more precisely the cultural and social relationships in the
Adriatic. The Stätzling type of the twelfth century BC is typologically related to the earlier Reutlingen type
of sword (see above). The swords of the Stätzling type differ from the latter only in their pommel tang.
The swords of the Stätzling type display a wide area of distribution, stretching from Zeeland in the north
to the Alpine and Carpathian-north Balkan regions, as well as to parts of Italy and Greece (Fig. 7).
Typological aspects indicate a development of this type of sword in the Mycenaean-Minoan cultural region.
The symbiosis between the original Pannonian and north-east Italian flange-hilted sword of the Reutlingen
type and the original Mycenaean-Minoan pommel-tang construction could have occurred here only in the
twelfth century BC (see in detail Pabst 2013). With regard to the swords of the Stätzling type, it is possible
to distinguish several regional workshops on the basis of different kinds of cross-sections of the blade. A
specific blade shape with rapier-like ridges frequently occurs in the north-western Peloponnese and other
parts of Greece (Fig. 7/1). In Achaia and adjacent regions, the swords were outstanding elements of the
funerary equipment in the chamber tombs of the local warrior aristocracy during the period LH III C
Middle/Advanced (see in detail Pabst 2013, 108, 125, with further references). Recently, an extraordinary

Fig. 8. Distribution of late Bronze Age bronze spearheads with a polygonal socket and willow-leaf-shaped blade as
well as related types (after Pabst, forthcoming). 1. White star: cast spearhead from Ometala (Fig. 9/1); 2. White
triangles: Palaiopyrgos type with split socket (Fig. 9/2); 3. Grey triangle: Lithovouni sub-type (Fig. 9/3); 4. Black
circles: related Clauss type (Fig. 9/4).
Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and Cultural Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its Hinterland ... 293

Fig. 9. Late Bronze Age bronze spearheads with a polygonal socket and willow-leaf-shaped blade, as well as related
types. 1. Cast spearhead from Ometala near Prozor/Bosnia and Herzegovina (after König 2004, pl. 67/1); 2.
Spearhead with a split socket of the Palaiopyrgos type from Palaiopyrgos, Arcadia/Greece (after Avila 1983, pl.
16/110); 3. Spearhead from Lithovouni, Aetolia-Acarnania/Greece (after Avila 1983, pl. 16/106); 4. Spearhead
with a split socket of the Clauss type from Preveza, Epirus/Greece (after Avila 1983, pl. 16/105).

group of bronze objects was acquired by the Military History Museum of Budapest. The bronze artefacts
are most probably the remains of a cremation burial assemblage of north-west Hungary containing warrior
equipment with a Stätzling-type sword in a rapier-like variant (cf. the distribution map Fig. 7/1) as well as
defensive armour, such as a bronze bell helmet and greaves, usually deposited in Carpathian Late Bronze
Age hoards (cf. Tarbay 2015). Similar military equipment is well known from the chamber tombs of the
north-western Peloponnese (cf. especially Giannopoulos 2008), but it represents an outstanding exception
in the Late Bronze Age burial rites in Hungary.
The late Mycenaean warrior tombs of the north-western Peloponnese contain not only swords, but
also often spearheads of hammered Aegean types (cf. e.g. Giannopoulos 2008). One characteristic spear
type with a polygonal socket and willow-leaf-shaped blade is very common in the chamber tombs of the
north-western Peloponnese during the twelfth century BC (Figs. 8/2; 9/2)7. A locally produced cast copy
of such an Aegean spearhead of the Palaiopyrgos type came to light in the Late Bronze Age hoard from
Ometala (cf. König 2004, 214, pl. 67, cat. no. 27) in the Rama Valley in the hinterland of the central
Dalmatian coast (Figs. 8/1; 9/1). Even though in the region of central Dalmatia the current state of Late
Bronze Age sources and research is unfavourable, this spearhead can be seen as clear evidence of contacts
between the post-palatial civilisation of the north-western Peloponnese and the communities of central
Dalmatia and the Balkan hinterland8.
7
Locations of the Palaiopyrgos type (Figs. 8/2; 9/2) in the Peloponnese and in Crete: Knossos, Miraka, Oinoi, Palaiopyrgos
Spaliareika Lousikon, Tragana (for references see Pabst, forthcoming). The specific spearheads of the Palaiopyrgos type are
typologically related to the spears of the Clauss type (Figs. 8/4; 9/4).
8
But it is difficult to date exactly the manufacture and deposition of the spearhead from Ometala. The hoard find usually is dated
294 Sabine PABST

If more distributions of finds are included, for instance the amber beads of the Tiryns type (recently
summarized in Blečić Kavur 2014, 57, fig. 25; cf. Pabst 2013, 133-134; 2017, 128, fig. 10), in the Adriatic
and Ionian Sea, this phenomenon can be interpreted as a part of the extensive trade and exchange contacts
between the late Mycenaean society in the north-western Peloponnese and the communities bordering to
the west and the east of the Adriatic (Pabst 2013, 133-136). The exchange network of the advanced twelfth
and early eleventh centuries BC certainly involved not just people of the late Mycenaean cultural
environment. Behind the vast majority of the locally-produced foreign weapon shapes in Pannonia and
Dalmatia, the local elites must be suspected of being allies of the Mycenaean chiefs and local organizers
of trade.

Acknowledgements
I am most grateful to the organizers for inviting me to take part in the conference and for their hospitality
in Tulcea, Romania. I am also grateful for useful information at the conference, especially that provided
by Zofia A. Stos-Gale and Helena Tomas. I wish to express my gratitude to Vesna Koprivnik (Pokrajinski
muzej Maribor) for providing me with photographs of the spearhead from Hočko Pohorje. My thanks
go, too, to Ildikó Szathmári and János Gábor Tarbay for their support in the Hungarian National Museum
Budapest and for permission to publish several spearheads of the hoards from Bonyhád and
Keszőhidegkút. I also wish to thank Beate Pabst (Berlin) for preparing drawings and Biba Teržan (Ljubljana)
for intense discussions

Lists of Bayonet-like Spearheads

List 1: Bayonet-like Spearheads of the Aegean Type

Supplemented according to Höckmann 1980, 144-146 (‘Gruppe H’)
Agios Ioannis near Knossos, Ep. Temenos, N. Iraklion, Crete/Greece. Chamber tomb. Period
LM III B. Karantzali 1986, 72, fig. 14.
Amyklaion near Sparta, Ep. Lakedaimon, N. Lakonia, Peloponnese/Greece. Avila 1983, 18, pl.
5/34.
Athens, Agora, N. Attica/Greece. Chamber tomb. Period LH III A1. Höckmann 1980, 57, pl.
11/H 1; Avila 1983, 22, pl. 7/42; Παπαδόπουλος 2009, 576-578, fig. 1η.
Eleona, Ep. Kos, N. Dodecanese/Greece. Grave. Avila 1983, 133, pl. 33/868.
Ialysos, Ep. Rhodes, N. Dodecanese/Greece. Grave and single finds. Period LH III B. Avila
1983, 133, pl. 32/862-864.
Knossos, Zapher Papoura, Ep. Temenos, N. Irakleion, Crete/Greece. Graves. Period LM II-III
A and LM III A2. Avila 1983, 21, pl. 7/41, 133-134, pl. 33/869-870.
Kričim, distr. Plovdiv/Bulgaria. Sandars 1963, 121, pls. 22/10; 28/67; Leshtakov 2011, 27-28,
fig. 1/1; Лещаков 2015, 247, cat. no. 14, 380, pl. 64/1.
Lesura, distr. Vraca/Bulgaria. Hoard. Leshtakov 2011, 29-30, fig. 2/1; Лещаков 2015, 274, cat.
no. 17, 324, pl. 8/1.
Mageiras, ‘Kioupia’, N. Elis, Peloponnese/Greece. Chamber tomb. Period LH III A2. Vikatou
2012, 304-305, cat. no. 1/44.
Pazhok near Elbasan/Albania. Bodinaku 1995, 266, fig. 5/5; Лещаков 2015, 385, pl. 69/1.
‘Pisa’ (‘Lakkopholia’), N. Elis, Peloponnese/Greece. Chamber tomb. Period LH III A2. Avila
1983, 134, pl. 34/872.

to the period Ha B or horizon 5, but there is no information about the original composition and the character of the inventory
(cf. König 2004, 214, pl. 67, cat. no. 27). Perhaps the spearhead from Ometala could also be characterized as an ‘heirloom’ in the
bronze hoard. The spearheads of the Palaiopyrgos type were deposited in tombs of the north-western Peloponnese during the
twelfth century BC or the period LH III C (cf. especially Avila 1983, 52, pl. 16/110-111; Giannopoulos 2008, 221, pl. 32/51). Only
one damaged example, most probably belonging to that type, came to light in the Sub-Mycenaean tomb 201 of the North cemetery
of Knossos (Coldstream and Catling 1996, 195, fig. 163/f 8; 277/f 8, 520-521).
Material Remains Indicating Mycenaean Trade and Cultural Contacts in the Eastern Adriatic and its Hinterland ... 295

Spaliareika Lousikon, N. Achaia, Peloponnese/Greece. Grave. Period LH III C

Middle/Advanced. Giannopoulos 2008, 179, 221, pls. 34/55; 50/55.

List 1A: Bayonet-like Spearheads of the Knossos Sub-type of the Aegean Type
Agios Ioannis near Knossos, Ep. Temenos, N. Iraklion, Crete/Greece. Grave. Period LM IB-II.
Avila 1983, 133, pl. 32/861.
Knossos, Hospital, Ep. Temenos, N. Irakleion, Crete/Greece. Grave. Period LM II/III A1. Avila
1983, 133, pl. 33/865-866.
Sellopoulo near Knossos, Ep. Temenos, N. Irakleion, Crete/Greece. Chamber tomb. Period LM
III A1. Avila 1983, 23, pl. 8/46.

List 1B: Bayonet-like Spearheads of the Dendra Sub-type of the Aegean Type
Dendra, Ep. Nauplia, N. Argolis, Peloponnese/Greece. Tholos tomb. Period LH III A1. Avila
1983, 20, pl. 6/37-39.
Knossos, Isopata, Ep. Temenos, N. Irakleion, Crete/Greece. Grave. Period LM III A1.
Höckmann 1980, 63, fig. 13/H 19; Avila 1983, pl. 33/867.
Knossos, Hospital, Ep. Temenos, N. Irakleion, Crete/Greece. Grave. Period LM III A1. Avila
1983, 22, pl. 7/43.

List 2: Bayonet-like Spearheads of the Pannonian Type

Alun near Brza Palanka, Kladovo/Serbia. Hoard. Period Ha B1 or horizon IV. Vasić 2015, 60,
pl. 15/211.
Bonyhád (surroundings), Tolna County/Hungary. Hoard. Period BA D/Ha A1 or horizon Kurd.
Mozsolics 1985, 102-104, 274, pl. 36/2 (Fig. 5/1).
Borotín, distr. Blansko, Moravia/Czechoslovakia. Hoard. Period BA D/Ha A1. říhovský 1996,
56, pl. 9/69.
Brodski Varoš, distr. Slavonski Brod, Slavonia/Croatia. Hoard. Period BA D/Ha A1 or horizon
II. Vinski-Gasparini 1973, 212, pl. 60/14.
Keszőhidegkút, Tolna County/Hungary. Hoard. BA D/Ha A1 or horizon Kurd. Mozsolics 1985,
135-137, 270, pl. 32/12, 17 (Fig. 5/2-3).
Mezőkövesd (surroundings), Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County/Hungary. Hoard. Period Ha B1
or horizon Hajdúböszörmény. Mozsolics 2000, 56-57, pl. 54/10.
‘Central Dalmatia’/Croatia. Marović 1981, 37-38, fig. 10/5.
Paß Luftenstein, St. Martin, distr. Zell am See, Salzburg/Austria. Hoard. Schauer 1979, 70, 72,
fig. 2/3.
Podcrkavlje-Slavonski Brod, distr. Slawonski Brod, Slavonia/Croatia. Hoard. Period BA D/Ha
A1 or horizon II. Vinski-Gasparini 1973, 217, pl. 67/13.
Poljanci, distr. Slavonski Brod, Slavonia/Croatia. Hoard II. Period BA D/Ha A1. Hansen 1994,
570, pl. 27/13.
‘Šebelce’ (unknown site), probably Šebrelje or Šebrelenc near Idrija/Slovenia. Hoard (?). Čerče
and Šinkovec 1995, 215-217, 362, pl. 129/9.
Simontornya, Tolna County/Hungary. Born and Hansen 2001, 140, 143, fig. 112; Лещаков 2015,
385, pl. 69/2.
Slavonski Brod, Slavonia/Croatia. Hoard. Period Ha A1 or horizon II. Harding 1995, 29, cat.
no. 47, pl. 62/5.
Tab, Csabapuszta, Somogy County/Hungary. Hoard. Period BA D/Ha A1 or horizon Kurd.
Mozsolics 1985, 199, 355, pl. 117/10.
Waldstein, Styria/Austria. Hoard. Windholz-Konrad 2002, 405, pl. 3/14.
296 Sabine PABST

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