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A Textbook of Translation
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Said M. Shiyab
Said M. Shiyab
A Textbook of Translation
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Antwerp – Apeldoorn
Garant
2006
192 p. – 24 cm
D/2006/5779/62
ISBN 90-441-1996-6
ISBN 978-90-441-1996-1
NUR 630
Cover Design: Koloriet/Danni Elskens
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© Said M. Shiyab & Garant Publishers

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword 9
Preface 13
Acknowledgement 17
Dedication 19
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Perspectives on Translation 21
1.1 Definition of Translation 21

1.2 Translation: Past and Present 22
1.3 What is a Translator? 26
1.4 Methods of Translation 27
1.4.1 Word for Word Translation 28
1.4.2 Literal Translation 28
1.4.3 Free Translation 28
1.5 Translation: Art or Science? 29
1.6 Why Do We Need Translation? 30
1.7 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (1) 31
1.8 Text-Comprehension and Translation 31
Importance of Translation and Interpretation 32
CHAPTER 2
Fallacies of Translation 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Misconceptions about Translation 35
2.3 Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions 37
2.4 Other Perceptions 38
A Texbook of Translation
5
2.5 Ethics and Rules in Translation 39
2.7 Multiple Choice Questions about Chapter (2) 40
CHAPTER 3
Some Relevant Terms in Translation 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Linguistic and Translation Terms 43
CHAPTER 4
Translation Theory and Practice 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Translation Theory 56
4.3 Unit of Translation 57
4.4 Effect of Translation Theory 58
4.5 How to Assess Translation 60
4.6 Effective and Successful Translation 61
CHAPTER 5
Text and Context in Translation 63
5.1 Introduction 63
5.2 Text-Types and Text-Functions 66
5.3 Discourse, Text-Types and Translation 67
5.4 Text-Type Categorization 68
5.5 Translation and Factors of Success 75
5.5.1 Pragmatics 75
5.5.2 Semiotics 75
5.5.3 Communicative Context 76
CHAPTER 6
Translation: State of the Art 79
6.1 Introduction 79
6.2 Translation and Meaning 79
Table of Contents
6
6.3 Translation and Culture 82
6.4 Translator’s Perception 85
6.5 Translating vs. Writing 88
6.6 Translating is Personal 89
6.8 Analysis and Translation of Texts 90
CHAPTER 7
Punctuation and Translation 93
7.1 Introduction 93
7.2 What is Punctuation? 93
7.3 Importance of Punctuation 94
7.4 Punctuation in Arabic 97
7.4.1 The semicolon (;) 98
7.4.2 Colon (:) 99
7.5 Test your Knowledge of Chapter (7) 102
CHAPTER 8
Translation and Literature 105
8.1 Introduction 105

8.2 Characteristics of Texts 106
8.2.1 Expressive 106
8.2.2 Denotative 106
8.2.3 Formal vs. Functional Characteristics 107
8.3 Nature of Literary Translation 107
8.4 Writer-Translator Relationship 108
8.5 Linguistic Context and Literary Translation 109
CHAPTER 9
Translation and Language Teaching 115

9.2 Translation and Language Teaching 115
9.3 Strategies in Foreign Language Learning 117
7
CHAPTER 10
Translation and Pragmatics of Discourse 121

10.2 Intercultural and Interpersonal Communication 121
10.3 Culture and Communication 123
10.4 Grice’s Maxims 124
10.5 Assessment 126
10.6 Pragmatic Variables and Interpreting 127
10.7 Test your Knowledge of Chapter (10) 129
CHAPTER 11
Translation and Scientific Texts 131

11.2 Global Language and Science 131
11.3 Language of Science vs. Language of Literature 135
11.5 Analysis and Translation of Sentences and Texts 137
11.6 Finding Equivalent Terms in the Target Language 140
CHAPTER 12
Translation and Legal Texts 155

12.2 Legal Language vs. Legal Translation 155
12.3 Characteristics of Legal Texts 157
12.4 Problems in Translating Legal Texts 158
12.5 Strategies for Translating Legal Texts 158
12.7 Finding Target Language Equivalents 160
Bibliography 183
8
FOREWORD
Peter Newmark, in his well-known book A Textbook of Translation (New York:

Prentice Hall International, 1988), states unequivocally that a translator has to have a
flair and a feel for his own language. He goes on: “There is nothing mystical about this
‘sixth sense’, but it is compounded of intelligence, sensitivity and intuition, as well
as of knowledge” (1988: 4). Professor Said M. Shiyab not only has this sixth sense for
his native language, Arabic, but he has also developed it for today’s number one
international language, Eng- lish. Shiyab is a specialist in linguistics and translation
theory and application with vast teaching and research experience in the Middle East
and the USA. With an outstanding flair and feel for both Arabic and English, he is the
ideal author for this superb pedagogical work. Students as well as their instructors
can look forward to many delightful hours of intellectual stimulation exploring the
thought-provoking ideas in the textbook which follows. Translators and interpreters
perform a very valuable service in every country in the world today. In fact, the 2005
acclaimed movie The Interpreter, starring Nicole Kid- man and Sean Penn, the first
venture filmed at the United Nations headquarters in New York City, demonstrates
the glamor, the splendor, and the crucial importance of translation work in today’s
increasingly interconnected global marketplace.
Translators have been around, however, long before the United Nations, practicing
both an art and a science (here the author and I are in agreement that translation is both
an art and a science). Witness the multilingual scribes of the ancient Near East who
produced monuments such as the Rosetta Stone (a trilingual inscription long housed
in the British Museum in London) and numerous other texts of various sorts.
The student will find this textbook to be both lucid and enjoyable. The author has
prepared a unique book for the next generation of translators, and if students carefully
study its pages, they will come away with a fine appreciation of this academic,
scholarly, and
9
practical field where many of today’s linguists are earning their living by oral and/or
written translation-interpretation endeavors. Professor Shiyab notes in his preface to
the tome that he has been involved in this exciting area of intellectual inquiry since 1980.
Chomsky was challenging for him, or as he writes, “provoked me at the beginning,”
yet somehow lacked the fascination he would soon develop for systemic linguistics and
discourse analysis. Indeed the author has succeeded in amalgamating the two
aforementioned fields of systemic linguistics and discourse analysis with the
theoretical and applied aspects of translation studies. His 23 years of teaching
experience, vast reading in the field and al- lied areas, and personal research efforts
resulting in numerous publications all combine to engage the student – to channel him
or her into a stimulating journey into a wonderful specialization within the area of
general and applied linguistics. The book, conveniently organized into a dozen
chapters, is a thorough and comprehensive survey of a vibrant and exciting discipline
with a rich bibliographical tradition (see the exhaustive bibliography at the end of
the volume).
Chapter 1, “Introduction: Perspectives on Translation,” looks at the history of the dis-
cipline from the point of view of leading 20th-century linguists, such as Roman
Jakobson and John Rupert Firth. I certainly agree with Shiyab when he asserts: “...
translating any text from one language into another yields a particular kind of
ambiguity which cannot be clarified unless the intentions of the text-producer within
his/her own social, cultural, denotative, connotative, and rhetorical contexts have
been accounted for” (p. 22).
Chapter 2, “Fallacies of Translation,” stresses that “one course in translation cannot
and will not make the student a good translator” (p. 32). Shiyab paints a very vivid
picture that translation is an intricate process and he is certainly speaking for the
profession itself when he affirms that translation “entail[s] artistic strategies and
scientific methods and processes” (p. 34). There is much food for thought to engage
even the least curious of students into a real dialogue involving provocative essay and
multiple-choice questions that force the students to come to grips with the most
pertinent and significant issues.
Chapter 3, “Some Relevant Terms in Translation,” presents the necessary tools of the
trade – the relevant terminology of important concepts, among which are: back
translation, borrowing and loanwords (Arabic kumbyuutar < English computer),
calques (loan translations) such as haatif ‘telephone’, idiomaticity, and so on. Every
scientific field has its jargon, so to speak, and translation studies are no exception.
Chapter 4, “Translation Theory and Practice,” convincingly argues that translation
work combines both theory and practice. A translator can thus be compared in many
ways to a surgeon. Just as the M.D. studies human anatomy and the causes of
diseases for many years, only then learning how to use a scalpel and cut into organs and
tissues to assist in
10
Foreword
the eventual healing of the patient, so too the translator studies semantics and stylistics,
e.g., before becoming a professional practitioner. Moreover, experience counts for a
lot in both spheres. If having cataract surgery, a surgeon with 10,000 successful
operations is preferable to the novice surgeon just beginning a surgical career! So true
for a translator as well! In other words, one gains experience on the job itself.
Chapter 5, “Text and Context in Translation,” is a tribute to teaching total
communicative competence over mere linguistic competence. Shiyab is right to argue
that “translation is to be based on the interpretation of the contextual variables
such as pragmatics, semiotics and the communicative contexts” (p. 59). In this
regard, it should be emphasized that language is the symbolic system par
excellence, which justifies considering linguistics as a part of semiotics in general.
Chapter 6, “Translation: State of the Art,” makes the all-important point that
translation “involve[s] conveying what is implied and not what is said” (p. 76). Using a
Shakespear- ean example (Hamlet), Shiyab contrasts the implications of four published
translations of the English word scholar: (1) faqiih, (2) faSHii 9aalim; (3) rajul muthaqqaf
wa faSiiH; and
(4) rajul muta9allim (p. 81). These real-life examples will stimulate productive
student discussion yielding a real understanding of many tangential cultural issues.
Chapter 7, “Punctuation and Translation,” examines the uses of the colon and semico-
lon, specifically, and other punctuation marks, such as the comma, in both English
and Arabic. The author is correct to emphasize that the entire system of Arabic
punctuation does not have well-established, universal rules in use throughout the
Arab world today. “Therefore,” he rightly maintains, “much work needs to be done in
order to identify what is considered to be the sentence in Arabic if one wants to
establish a coherent system of punctuation” (p. 97).
Chapter 8, “Translation and Literature,” is geared to be of service to the more
advanced student who already has a solid command of translating newspaper and
magazine articles. Translating literary works, such as Shakespeare or Naguib Mahfouz
(the Nobel Prize winner for literature in 1988), but especially poetry, drama, and religious
works (e.g. the Bible, the Koran, etc.), is the most difficult and sophisticated material for
a translator. A prose vs. a verse translation of an Arabic poem shows the beauty of
the latter over the former (p. 107).
Chapter 9, “Translations and Language Teaching,” presents some good arguments that
translation can provide a solid foundation for teaching foreign language structures as,
e.g. collocational nominals in the two languages. For instance, the expression fish
and chips
11
collocates in English but not in Arabic, whereas xubz wa milH ‘bread and salt’ collocates
in Arabic but not in English.
Chapter 10, “Translation and Pragmatics of Discourse,” looks at the crucial matter
of “pragmatic variables in an intercultural and interpersonal context” (p. 117). Here
Shiyab introduces the importance of H. P. Grice’s pragmatic Maxims, which were
made famous in a series of William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967.
Finally, Chapters 11 and 12, “Translation and Scientific Texts” and “Translation
and Legal Translation,” give marvelous examples in the arenas of translating
scientific and legal texts – two of the most difficult foci. Many recent texts provide
valuable training to achieve practice to attain competence and fluency; e.g., xabiith
‘malignant; cancerous’ and mujrim or mudhnib ‘criminal’ (depending on the context).
Indeed the differences between Islamic Law (sharii9ah) and western (e.g. American) law
are excellent pieces of evidence one may use to demonstrate the interrelationships
between language and culture.
Professor Shiyab’s translation textbook is an up-to-date and well-organized
presentation of all the important linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural ramifications
necessary for success as a working translator and/or interpreter. But keep in mind
that as with all textbooks, student progress is often measurable by the amount of
concentrated, focused study of the contents, which can be satisfying and enjoyable.
Alan S. Kaye
California State University, Fullerton (USA)
May 2006
12
PREFACE
I started my journey with translation in 1980 after which I started to look at

language in a somewhat unique way. How do languages express various messages and
what effect do such messages have on the audience? Every time I heard a politician
talking, I got tuned to his/her tone, winks, gestures in an attempt to understand the
many different implications behind such acts. It was those moments that enabled me
to look further into how languages work. Indeed, languages always fascinated me since
they represent human beings, their culture and traditions. Language is an important
means of communication where communication at times and under certain
circumstances does not take place in a verbal form. It was then that I realized that
studying languages across cultures can be a rewarding experience.
Languages, in the real sense of the word, manifest real people. Behind each piece of lan-
guage, there is a vehicle of thought. Only those, I thought at that moment, who
scrutinize or look deeply into language codes and symbols can understand the real
meanings behind the uses of language. I have to admit that Chomsky’s syntactic
structures provoked me at the beginning, but not to the extent where I see language in
everyday work. Then I moved into systemic linguistics and discourse analysis, and there I
started to see where I belong. What a fascination!
The fascination of translation studies prompted me to look further into languages
across cultures. I found that translation is not only a matter of decoding and re-
encoding messages. In fact, it is the transmission of one culture into another. It is
an approximation between two different people.
In this book, I define many different theoretical and practical aspects of translation.
My attempt is to enable translation students and translation teachers understand the
real
13
core of what translation is all about, minding the reader that a lot has been written about
translation, and unfortunately such writings created more confusion about this
important profession. With this modest work, I hope readers would discover what
is translation, what are the different types of translation, what is translation theory
and what is its effect, translation in its linguistic and cultural contexts, and above all
translation and its literary forms. This book not only explains and discusses all these
aspects, but also presents real and live examples from everyday writings.
Furthermore, I always thought that once I finish my teaching career, I will start
writing books on translation. However, after 23 years of teaching linguistics and
translation, I started to see many forgotten areas that are not accounted for. Therefore,
this book explains many of these areas.
In this book, I have included 12 chapters. Chapter one defines translation, provides
readers with a background on the past and present history of translation. It also
provides them with methods of translation, and explains whether translation is a
science or an art. In chapter two, I tried to clarify some fallacies about translation
whether they are student-teacher fallacies or communal fallacies. In order to
familiarize the reader with translation, chapter three defines the most important
concepts in translation. Some of these concepts may have to do with linguistics as well.
In chapter four, I attempt to answer the dilemma whether translation is a theory or
practice, followed by chapter five where I discuss the importance of context in
translation.
Translation as the state of the art is the main focus of chapter six*. This chapter
discusses different concepts that are interrelated to translation. These are translation
and meaning, translation and culture, perception and translators, and translation. This
chapter also compares between translating and writing. Chapter seven explains the
importance of using punctuation marks in translation. Although this chapter makes
reference to the Arabic punctuation marks, most of the issues discussed in this chapter
can be applied to other languages as well. Chapter eight discusses one of the important
areas in translation and that is the translation of literature. The characteristics of literary
texts, their nature, writer-translator relationship, and linguistic context and literary
translation are all defined in this chapter.
As for chapter nine*, it demonstrates how translation can help learners to enhance
their second language. It introduces strategies for learning a foreign language, and
the problems associated with it. Chapter ten examines the pragmatic variables in
translation, and shows how such variables can give rise to intercultural and
interpersonal communication. Grice’s maxims and how they are relevant to
successful communication are also discussed. In chapter eleven, the process of
translating scientific texts is introduced. Since
14
Preface
not many textbooks have included material on scientific translation, this chapter provides
the missing link. Therefore, English as a global language and its relation to science
was discussed. Also, a distinction was made between the language of science and the
language of literature. This is followed by a list of scientific terms where students were
asked to find their equivalents in the target language.
Last but not least, chapter twelve examines the link between language and law. It
highlights the characteristics of legal texts, and how the construction of language
can affect the interpretation of law. The chapter also defines the characteristics of legal
texts and the problems associated with their translation. One of the important sections in
this chapter is the discussion of the problems of translating legal texts. This is, of course,
followed by a list of legal terms that are commonly used in legal texts.
All in all, the twelve chapters are all important in teaching any translation course, simply
because they deal with both theoretical and practical aspects of translation. These chap-
ters can also be used to teach any course introducing students to the field of translation.
One other distinguished aspect of this textbook is that at the end of each chapter, there
is a set of questions, testing the student’s knowledge of the chapter. In addition,
some relevant texts are provided for students to translate into the target language. This is
something that is hardly ever found in textbooks on translation.
* Some of topics discussed in chapters six and nine were taken from two co-authored articles
with Khanji, Lateef and Shiyab (2001).
15
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In addition to those who helped this textbook along its way, I would like to thank my col-
leagues Professor Alan Kaye, University of California Fullerton, Professor Ben
Bannani, and Dr. Michel Lynch, UAE University for their valuable input and
observations. I also would like to thank the Scientific Research Office at the United
Arab Emirates University and the Office of Rare Diseases in Bethesda, Maryland
(USA) for providing me with information used in this book.
Grateful acknowledgment is also made to my family, particularly my wife, Tammy,
who constantly supported me throughout my work. Without their insight and
encourage- ment, this textbook would never have seen the light.
1
DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to all those who have contributed to its production,
especially those who happen to read it, review it and write about it.
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Perspectives on Translation
1.1 Definition of Translation

In this introduction, I will attempt to provide various perspectives on the term
“translation”. What do we mean exactly by translation and how is it understood by
linguists as well as translation professionals? First, let there be no doubt that translation
is not a new act performed between two languages. It is as old as the history of our
universe. The question that always arises is “what is translation?” To answer this
question, numerous and various definitions come to the surface.
Looking at translation from a semiotic perspective, Toury (1980: 12) believes that
translation, in particular translation of literature, is a matter of transferring entities,
underlying codes, and sets of relationships and signs from one language to another.
Translation is the process of communication in which the translator is interposed
between a transmit- ter and a receiver who use different languages to carry out code of
conversation between them (Tanke 1975). This latter definition may seem applicable to
almost all types of translation, simply because no attempt was made to identify the
framework into which literary translation is used. In a different article, Tanke (1976: 22)
provides a more complete definition of translation. He suggests that translation be
viewed as the transfer of a text from a source language into a text in the target language,
the objective being a perfect (my italics) equivalent of meaning between the two texts.
However, this definition lacks clarification as to what constitutes “perfect equivalent
of meaning.”
Others define translation as that which preserves the meaning of the original in
another language (Ross 1981: 9). Translation is always an interpretation (Bennani
1981: 135); it is the final product of problem solving and sign production of a receptor
(Diaz-Diocretz 1985: 8). “Translation is the reproduction in the receptor language of
the closest natural
2
equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and second in terms
of style” (Nida & Taber 1969: 210). Newmark (1988: 5) defines translation as “rendering
the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the
text.”
From a linguistic point of view, De Beaugrande (1978: 13) suggests several hypotheses to
work with when it comes to the theory of poetic translating. De Beaugrande believes that
translating should not be studied as a comparison and contrast of two texts, but as a
process of interaction between author, translator, and reader of the translation. The act of
translating is guided by several sets of strategies responsive to the directives within
the text.
Whatever definitions we come across, almost all of them can be subsumed under two
definitions. The first definition is the replacement of one written text from one
language to another in which the main goal of the translator is meaning. The second is
the transference of a message communicated from one text into a message
communicated in another, with a high degree of attaining equivalence of context of the
message, components of the original text, and the semiotic elements of the text (i.e.
social, connotative, addresser-addressee relationship, etc.).
As for literary translation, it lies within these two definitions of translation.
Sometimes it may even go beyond these two extremes, as the characteristics and the
norms of literary translation are of different nature. Literary translation is mainly
concerned with text functions manifested in the text’s characteristics (Shiyab 1994:
234-235).
1.2 Translation: Past and Present

Despite the large amount of literature that has been produced on the process as well as
the theory of translation, it can be said that translation is still viewed as a mysterious
phenomenon that defies understanding (Bell 1991). There is, of course, a
considerable variation as far as speculating on this process; this variation has made a
small, but useful, contribution to the attempt of identifying the theoretical
frameworks for doing such translation. In some respect, there is very little consensus
among linguists, translation theorists, and translation practitioners regarding the
principles, rules, and methods of translating. The best indication of such disparity of
views is the fact that translation has many definitions. This reflects the fact that it
involves many DIFFERENT strategies. Translation has been defined in many different
ways. However, for the sake of clarity, these definitions, roughly speaking, will be
classified into meaning-based definitions such as Nida & Taber (1969), Nida (1964),
Rabin (1958), Newmark (1981, 1988), and semiotic-based definitions such as
Jakobson (1959), Steiner (1975), Frawley (1984), etc. Meaning-based definitions are
those which take meaning as the base for interpreting and then convey the meaning
of
2
Introduction
the original text into that of the target. Here, meaning necessitates reference to
linguistic characteristics such as lexical, grammatical, phonological, etc; it also
necessitates refer- ences to non-linguistic characteristics such as thought, situation,
knowledge, intentions, and use. Semiotic-based definitions, on the other hand, are those
definitions which take translation as the study of signs, symbols, codes, etc. Within this
semiotic approach, the cultural, social, rhetorical, and communicative patterns of human
behaviors are studied. Also all aspects of human communication are analyzed as
systems of signals; they are the means which semioticians use for the interpretation and
analysis of texts. The interrelation of these definitions is illustrated in the following
table. The letter (M) stands for meaning based definitions, (S) stands for semiotic
based definitions, and (S or M) stands for either one.
Nida & Translation is the reproduction in the receptor language of

Taber (1969: the closest natural equivalent of the source language message,
210) first in terms of meaning, and second in terms of style. (M)
Translation is the interpretation of verbal signs in one

Steiner language by means of verbal signs in another. (S)
(1975: 414)
Translation is a process by which a spoken or written
Rabin utterance taken place in one language which is intended and
(1958: 123) presumed to convey the same meaning as previously existing
utterance in another language. It thus involves two distinct
factors, a ‘meaning’, or reference to some slice of reality.
(M)
Catford
(1965: 20) Translation is the replacement of textual material in one lan-
guage (SL) by equivalent textual material in another (TL).
Savory (M)
(1957: 11)
Translation, the surmounting of the obstacle, is made
possible by an equivalence of thought which lies behind the
Jakobson different verbal expressions of thought. (M)
(1959: 233)
Inter-lingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
Inter-lingual translation or translation proper is an

interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other
language.
Inter-semiotic translation or transmutation is an
interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal
sign systems. (S)
Frawley
(1984: 159) Translation means re-codification. (S)
Firth
(1968: 76) The basis for any total translation must be found in the
linguistic analysis at the grammatical, lexical, collocational, and
situational levels. (M)
De
Beaugrande Translation should not be studied as a comparing and contrast-
(1978: 13) ing of two texts, but as a process of interaction between author,
translator, and the reader of the translation. (S or M)
Tytler Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the

(1979: 9) original work.
The style and manner of writing should be the same character

with that of the original.
Translation should have all the ease of the original. (M)

Newmark Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another
(1988: 5) language in the way that the author intended the text. (M)
Ross The most natural view is that translation preserves the
(1981: meaning of the original in another language or form.
9) Translation is not a restatement, where differences are
minimized, but highlights certain equivalence in the context of
important dis- similarities. (M)
Diaz-Diocaretz Translation will be understood as the final product of

(1985: 9) problem- solving and sign production of a receptor-text (RT)
functionally equivalent to a source text (ST), by a human
being in a given language for a given group of text receivers.
(S)
Table (1) Interrelation Definitions of Translation

In fact, there are many other definitions and principles that give more or less the
same information, and a full account of these definitions as well as their
shortcomings is be-
2
Introduction
yond the scope of this book. However, the existence of these various definitions suggests
that translation is far from having a generally accepted theoretical framework. What
is also clear is that different translation theorists have concentrated on different types
and strategies of translation. For example, there are strategies or theories that are
mainly concerned with translation in a ‘literal sense’ (Vachon-Spilka 1968). These
theories demand word-for-word translation. Other theories, on the other hand, are
mainly concerned with the reproduction of equivalent lexical items of the original text
(Nida 1964; Nida & Taber 1969). Different attempts have been made to look at
translation from a pragmatic and semiotic view in which the essence of translation is
treated as an interaction between text-producer and the message along with social and
cultural contexts in which a particular piece of language is used (Jakobson 1959; De
Beaugrande 1978; Mason 1982; Wilss 1982: 135; and Hatim 1987). What is meant
by pragmatics here is the study of purpose for which the texts are used; it is the
intentionality behind all the choices made (Newmark 1988). This includes the text-
producer’s intentions and the intended function of the text.
As for semiotics, it is the interaction of various elements in the text as signs; it includes
the social, cultural and psychological reality of a particular community. In this
component, the social, cultural, and anthropological characteristics of a text are brought
together to assess its meaning. The interaction of these signs with one another
creates the semiotic meaning of a text.
Although these context specifications illuminate the intentions of the text-producer and
shed some light on the semiotic contexts in which the text is used, there is still some
kind of uncertainty as to what constitutes these particular contexts. That is, it is very
hard to always make accurate and complete predictions about the intentions of the text-
producer. Even Halliday (1985: 345) seems skeptical of the possibility of studying the
HOW and the WHY choices made by the text-producer. Also, it could be argued
that there are some choices that are easily decoded by the writer and can therefore be
more easily interpreted than others. All that we do is in fact speculate/ make
predictions on his communicative intent through the structure of the text. These
contexts do in fact facilitate translation but do not make it adequate in all respects,
because understanding the pragmatic and semiotic meaning of a text is not an easy
task, since this involves more than changing the words of the original into that of the
target.
While the translator tends to ignore the function and style in a word-for-word
translation, in a sense translation (i.e. one in which the translator relies on how
the text feels by using his own senses), there is an imitation of the source text in
terms of its function, style, semiotic and pragmatic values. By the same token, there is a
tendency to stress on the aesthetic criteria of the target text.
2
The above discussion is only brief. However, most writers on translation emphasize
the importance of language within its own cultural context, as the meaning of words or
lexical items is rooted in their text-producer’s intentionality and within his own
culture. Lado (1957) argues that learning the structure of a language involves learning its
culture. One cannot really understand a foreign language without taking into account
the culture of which it is a part. This is why translating any text from one language
into another yields a particular kind of ambiguity which cannot be clarified unless the
intentions of the text- producer within his/her own social, cultural, denotative,
connotative, and rhetorical contexts have been accounted for.
1.3 What is a Translator?

Many definitions have been proposed to illustrate the role and the function of a
translator. While the majority of linguists and translation theorists define a translator
as the one who transfers the meaning and the form of a text from one language to
another, others look at the translator in a broader context. Adams and Thelen
(1999), in The Journal of American History, beautifully argue that at a time when
people and their cultures and ideas travel across the world, translation becomes the
only possible way to interact. They argue that being a translator is not easy, simply
because it involves making crucial choices on how to transfer the text across the
barriers behind which cultures have developed characteristics and linguistic ways of
seeing and thinking things in other cultures. Adams and Thelen state that all
throughout history, people can see the creativity of individual translators pushing
their texts through filters of culture and language.
Delisle and Woodsworth (1996), in Translators through History, highlight the importance
of a translator by saying that the ancient Greek word for translator-interpreter is
her- mêneus, related to Hermes, the messenger of the gods, the god that presided
over travel, trade, and communications. The verb hermêneuo means to interpret
foreign tongues, translate, explain, expound, put into words, express, describe, write
about. The many further meanings of the Greek word for translator-interpreter
(mediator, go-between, deal- broker, marriage-broker) suggest that interpreters
almost certainly had to exist during prehistory – the period before writing was even
invented. For more information, see Delisle and Woodsworth (1996).
In ancient times, Delisle and Woodsworth (1996) suggest that ideas used to be
primarily transformed into other civilizations and cultures through travelers and
tradesmen. Slowly but surely, translation became a key factor in the growth and
expansion of other world civilizations and cultures. One may point out the role
translation played in transferring knowledge from Ancient Greece to Persia, from
India to the Arab world, above
2
Introduction
all from Islam to Christianity and from Europe to China and Japan. In a nutshell,
Delisle and Woodsworth (1996: 68) argue that:
Translators have invented alphabets, helped build languages and written dic-
tionaries. They have contributed to the emergence of national literatures,
the dissemination of knowledge and the spread of religions. Importers of
foreign cultural values and key players at some of the great moments of
history, translators and interpreters have played a determining role in the
development of their societies and have been fundamental to the
unfolding of intellectual history itself.
Along the same line, Robinson (2003: 162) makes a distinction between a novice and
a translator. He states that the key term is experience. According to Robinson, a
translator has experience, whereas a novice does not. Also, a translator talks, acts, and
writes like a translator, a novice does not. A translator has certain professional
assumptions about how language works and how translation is done, but a novice does
not have any of these qualities. All these characteristics can clearly make the difference
between a professional translator and a mediocre one.
There are many instances in which translation played an important role in
introducing one civilization to another. For example, translation helped introduce the
Buddhist literature from different Indian languages into Chinese. Another example is
the introduction of Greek philosophical works into Arabic, and in so doing it
introduces them to the Islamic world. It is this constant exposition of ideas and values
that made translation a key element in the development of cultures and societies.
Robinson (2003: 35) eloquently elaborates on the fundamental assumptions underlying
his approach to translation by saying:
1. Translation is more about people not words.

2. Translation is more about the jobs people do and the way they see the world.
3. Translation is more about the creative imagination than about rule-governed
text-analysis.
4. The translator is more like an actor or a musician (a performer) than a tape
recorder.
5. The translator, even of highly technical texts, is more like a poet or a
novelist than a machine translating system.
1.4 Methods of Translation

Many different methods of translating a text have been proposed. In his book
entitled A Textbook of Translation, Newmark (1988) highlights the different methods of
translating
2
texts: word-for-word-translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic

translation, communicative translation, idiomatic translation, free translation, and
translation as adaptation. While Newmark’s classification of translation methods is
undoubtedly helpful, his categorization of the types of translation methods is a bit
confusing. In other words, which of his methods have no bearing on meaning? In fact all
of them, otherwise the translation becomes incomplete or unacceptable. What is the
difference between semantic translation and free translation, if the ultimate goal of the
translator is to capture meanings at different levels? Also, in reality, how is faithful
translation different from semantic translation? Because of such overlapping, I believe
Newmark’s classification of translation methods is a bit over exaggerated. Based on
this, one can say that when we attempt to translate a text from one language to another,
we understand that the translation is made from the source text (ST) into a target text
(TT). The criterion for doing such translation is that the meaning for these two texts
corresponds. Translation professionals generally agree that there are many types of
translation, but one can sum up these types into three:
1.4.1 Word for Word Translation

This kind of translation involves translating a word in the source language to a word in
the target language. Although this seems very much like literal translation, in fact it is
not. The problem with this kind of translation is that the outcome may not be
meaningful; it could be awkward and discomfited, simply because meaning was not
the center of translation.
1.4.2 Literal Translation

This kind of translation focuses on the linguistic structure of the source text. It actually
ignores the semiotic, pragmatic and contextual connotations of text-structure, while
taking into account the linguistic conventions of the target language. While literal
translation is not commonly used in translating texts, it is fundamental for the study of
language structures. It is not recommended for the casual reader where adequacy
and clarity of meaning are involved. For example, in translating religious texts,
adherence to the word order of the text and idiomatic expressions may make the
translation difficult to understand. Therefore, interpreting or explaining the word
may give rise to clarity of meaning.
1.4.3 Free Translation

This kind of translation is sometimes called idiomatic translation. Other times, it is called
elegant translation. What is involved in free translation is texts are translated into
the other language based on their meaning not structure. Interpretation and
paraphrasing are two ways of understanding and translating the text into the target
language. This kind
2
Introduction
of translation is the best simply because the translation outcome is meaningful, clear and
effective as in the source text.
Taking the above three types of translation into account, it should be pointed out that
the type of texts, skill of the translator, text context and cultural dimensions are all
factors that can help determine successful and effective translation.
1.5 Translation: Art or Science?

The status of translation whether it be an art or a science has been controversial for the
last two decades. Only those who work in translation can envisage whether translation
should be considered an art or a science. From my professional experience, I believe that
translation is both an art and a science. Translation is not concerned mainly with
finding words in the dictionary and replacing them with their equivalents in another
language. This is not even called translation. Translation requires artistic skills and
sometimes systematic and logical decisions. Apart from their grammatical differences, or
differences in word-order or idioms, very few words may have one-to-one
correspondence. However, some words may have many possible interpretations; others
may have words that are replaceable by other words in another language. Therefore,
knowing which words to utilize in a given text necessitates good understanding of the
text. It also requires good mastery of the target language patterns of thinking, in
addition to long experience in text analysis and text rendition.
The examples below may seem common to almost all languages. However, they en-
tail different types of meaning when used in a specific context. Consider the
following examples:
Decor Honor Attachment Enclosures Department Director Scanner Chair Vehicle Dating
2
Now, can you think of the equivalent words in your native language and compare
them with those of the target ones? Have you discovered that they entail different lexical
items? For example, the word vehicle in English could entail car, bicycle, bus,
automobile, etc. Can one explain the different lexical items such words entail in
another language? Any discussion of the equivalent meanings of such words may
entail moving from the domain of science into the domain of art. Furthermore, do
other languages use the same words for different concepts? What about the word
“dating” as in Jane is dating John. Does the word dating contain an equivalent word in
the other language? Sometimes, one may find the dictionary information confusing,
simply because it does not provide the translator with good solutions. Even in similar
languages, one may find that certain words may look or sound the same, but in actuality,
they express different meanings. Therefore, whether the term is cultural, religious,
linguistic, or literary, the artistic talent of the translator and his skills are a lifesaver
here.
Peter Newmark, in his Textbook of Translation (1995), points out that translation
should be looked at as a combination of art (applied) and a skill, a taste, and an exercise
of choices and decisions. At the same time, others believe that translation is a
scientific process of dealing with codes (Eco 2003). However, taking these two views
into account, one may look at translation as a systematic way of looking at a
particular thing. In medical science, for example, translation is used scientifically and
systematically. In social sciences, particularly literature, it is used artistically. Also, all
branches of scientific investigations of translation whether linguistic, stratificational,
computational, or even machine translation describe translation as a science.
1.6 Why Do We Need Translation?

One of the most fundamental purposes of translation lies in its definition. That is,
the purpose of translation is to transpose the meaning of the original text into the target
text. Apart from this, translation is done for different reasons. Translation has an
important role to play in the cultural life of a particular society. That is, translation
of literature provides a society with information about its cultures, life habits,
patterns of thinking, and above all its values. In another context, translation is
important as it provides us with up-to-date information about the latest discoveries.
One cannot imagine him or herself isolated from knowing what innovations and
contributions other cultures or societies have if their work has not really been
translated. So transmitting knowledge through translation is a key component to the
society’s development and progress.
Within a pedagogical context, Kasmer (1999), in an article entitled “The Role of
Transla- tion in the EFL/ESL Classroom”, believes that there are useful aspects of
translation when
3
Introduction
used in the ESL or EFL classroom. Translation can foster a student’s natural ability to
learn a foreign language. It can also enhance a student’s confidence and security level
through the usage of bilingual immersion, co-teaching, and bilingual text usage. Above
all, conscious- ness raising helps the student’s ability to recognize similarities and
differences between his mother tongue and the foreign language as far as culture, language
structure, use of specific and general vocabulary, and the order of presentation of
information are concerned.
1.7 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (1)
1. Give two different definitions of translation. Illustrate your definitions with examples.
2. Define a translator, and show how a translator is different from a writer.
3. Draw a comparison between the three types of translation and demonstrate in
what context each type will be used.
4. Do you think translation is an art or a science? Explain your answer.
5. Demonstrate how translation is important in everyday life. Can you show the
impact of translation activities on your culture?
1.8 Text-Comprehension and Translation

To test your knowledge of the English language and to see how much meaning you
can capture at the text level, read the following article on the Importance of
Translation and Interpretation very carefully, and translate it into your native or target
language using a summary method. The article is taken from the The Ukrainian
Weekly, August 17, 1997, No. 33, Vol. LXV. Remember, a summary method focuses on
the main ideas in the article. Therefore, literal translation is not recommended here.
3
Importance of Translation and Interpretation

by IRYNA KOVALSKA
KYIV - Literary translation has always played a very important role in
the cultural life of Ukrainians. In fact, it is a factor in nation-building.
Almost all major Ukrainian writers have also been translators, being well
aware that cultural isolation has always been dangerous.
Thus, translators have been the enlighteners of their downtrodden peo-
ple and fighters for their better life, having chosen literary translation as
a weapon side by side with their original creativity. After the second world
war
– owing to the brilliant school of Ukrainian literary translation –
Ukrainian translated literature developed as a kind of compensation for
Ukrainian original literature whose development was being thwarted. It
has also become a treasure-trove as an effective medium for creating,
collecting and preserving expressive means (lexical, prosodic, structural),
which now may be widely used by Ukrainian authors.
Recently the importance of training translators and interpreters became
evident in Ukraine. The country needs highly qualified interpreters and
translators for the United Nations, UNESCO, Council of Europe, Organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, for embassies and a
host of other organizations in Ukraine and throughout the world.
Thus, discussing various problems of translation and interpreting be-
came an urgent need in Ukraine. On May 29-30, Taras Shevchenko
State University in Kyiv hosted the international conference
“Translation on the Threshold of the XXI Century: History, Theory,
Methods” (organized by the Common European Project TEMPUS – TACIS
85422-94: Ukraine – Spain – France – Italy). The program included over
80 reports, which covered various problems of modern translation
studies.
Issues in the history of translation were highlighted by Prof. Oleksand-
er Cherednychenko, who gave a general overview of the development of lit-
erary translation in Ukraine and defined the main directions of Ukrainian
translation studies, while Prof. Roksoliana Zorivchak discussed the
legacy of Hryhoriy Kochur as a translator and a translation studies
researcher. Among other speakers, Dr. Orest Zemlianyi spoke about
Ukrainian translations of Irish literature.
The researchers accentuated the role of translation as a factor important
to the development of intercultural communication. Thus, Prof. Maryna
Novyk- ova underlined that translation is part of the spiritual legacy of a
nation, a way of thinking that is developed in constant contact with other
nations.
3
Introduction
The majority of the speakers dealt with the theory of translation,

suggesting various approaches to the translation norm, methods of
research, understanding the nature of the literary translation, etc.
Prof. Efim Etkind – not only a brilliant researcher but a fighter for
human rights as well – shared his views concerning the notion of
“metatranslation.” According to the researcher, the latter is an umbrella
term for all texts presented as translations but actually created as something
different (e.g. free rendering, transfusion, etc.). Thus, the word “translation”
does not cover all the diverse types of contacts between language and
literature.
One of Prof. Etkind’s studies is titled “Poeziyai Perevod” (“Poetry
and Translation”), but he considers that the German version “Dichtung
and Nachdichtung” reflects the essence of this notion, better introducing
the element of secondary creativity, and the involvement of a co-creator.
Prof. Et- kind analyzed different levels and types of metatranslation,
providing examples from German, Italian and English literatures as
interpreted by Russian classical writers.
Methods of teaching interpreting and translating were discussed by
Ion Chobanu, Nelli Kalustova, Zenoviy Partyko, Eduard Skorokhodko and
many other researchers. In his report on “Information Technologies in
Translators’ Training,” Prof. Viacheslav Karaban stressed the necessity
of updating the process of translators’ training, helping them to develop
computer skills, and teaching them how to use software and the internet.
The participants of the conference had ample opportunity to listen to the
outstanding Ukrainian lexicographer Mykhailo Balla, who spoke about his
experience in compiling a great English-Ukrainian dictionary. The new two-
volume edition comprising of about 120,000 words was published in Kyiv
in 1996. It is an important contribution to Ukrainian lexicography.
The first (rather small) English-Ukrainian dictionaries were published in
Canada in the 1920s and 1930s. The first rather substantial English-Ukrain-
ian dictionary (comprising of 40,000 words) appeared in 1946. Its
compiler, Mykhailo Podvezko, continued his lexicographic research in
cooperation with Mr. Balla. In 1974 they produced a bigger English-
Ukrainian dictionary (about 65,000 words).
According to Mr. Balla, he started working on the newest edition of the
dictionary almost immediately after 1974. The 1996 edition can be char-
acterized as more convenient for users: proper names and geographical
names are not given in the appendices but along with common words in
alphabetical order, each derived word is supplied with a translation and
listed as a separate item.
3
The Kyiv conference contributed to the establishment of contacts among re-

searchers in translation studies, helping them exchange opinions and
share their experience. Conference participants passed a resolution on the
need to organize a federation of translators and interpreters in Ukraine.
The experience of such federations in other countries shows that such a
body would be able to perform a number of significant functions: to
arrange forums for discussions on controversial subjects and research; to
protect the rights and privileges of translators and interpreters; to represent
them at international conferences and seminars; to gain recognition for
the important role translators play in modern Ukraine; to create more
appreciation for the field of translation; and to improve the quality of
translations.
The resolution was passed unanimously. Thus, one can expect that
the All-Ukrainian Federation of Translators and Interpreters will soon
become a reality, and that through the organization Ukraine’s professionals
will join the International Federation of Translators, uniting national societies
of translators into a single international body.
3
CHAPTER 2
Fallacies of Translation
2.1 Introduction
This section is not intended to discourage students from majoring or studying
translation, but to clarify misconceptions about translation. Unfortunately, translation
was perceived as an easy task which requires only basic knowledge of the two
languages involved. This erroneous assumption about translation has misled and is
still misleading students about the profession of translation. Translation is like any
other discipline; it requires hard work, good knowledge of other disciplines,
awareness and good understanding of the cultures and traditions of the two languages,
and above all an artistic talent in analyzing and synthesizing a message. As Gentzler
and Tymoczko (2002) state, translation is not only a process of faithful reproduction;
it involves deliberate acts of selection, construction, and omission. So, in this
section, and based on my teaching experience, I genu- inely want the translation
students to be aware of translation and what it requires before they embark on this
very important discipline.
2.2 Misconceptions about Translation

In an article entitled “Knowing Before Learning”, Rubrecht (2005) highlights ten
concepts he believes translation students should know before they embark on any
translation major. Rubrecht believes that in an age where media and fast communication
have transformed the world into an interconnected community, the world is getting
smaller and smaller. With the generation and dissemination of new technology, one is
more likely to believe that there is a need to prompt global level thinking, and this can
be accomplished only through institutions offering translation and interpretation courses.
For foreign language specializations, minding you translation students, translation
and interpretation
3
courses are very fundamental simply because they are instrumental tools for
language learning. Others make it clear that translation and interpretation courses are
becoming more popular. I myself belong to the latter group. However, with the proper
understanding, translation and interpretation courses are seen as valid literary
pursuits for learning the literary language. They are also seen as important means
for learning a foreign language.
Whether such courses are part of a university curriculum or offered as a four year degree
major, universities as well as teachers must understand there is a mismatch between stu-
dents’ expectations and what students can actually accomplish during these two or
four year courses. Students as well as teachers have too many assumptions as to
how these courses are taught and how much students can get out of this lecturing
process. In many cases, these assumptions turn out to be false.
Let there be no doubt that academic institutions are not professional translation and in-
terpretation schools. No matter how experienced the teacher is and how well planned the
syllabus is, there will always be a limit as to how much the teacher can give, and by
the same token how much students can learn, particularly under the limitations (i.e.
time) imposed by a course spanning a period of only one or two semesters. It is
extremely important for students to be aware of certain facts about translation and
interpretation before they choose a major or enroll in a translation or interpretation
course. As pointed out earlier, this is not to discourage students from embarking on
translation or interpretation courses, or learning but rather provide them with the
knowledge and understanding of the expectations of engaging in such courses.
Newmark (1991) has outlined the responsibilities of instructors involved in teaching
translation and interpretation courses. He believes that students should know important
facts about translation and interpretation courses. These are:
1. Like any other discipline, translation has difficulties and students should be
aware of such difficulties before they engage in any translation and
interpretation courses.
2. Students should be aware of their responsibility towards translation
difficulties, not blaming other courses or teachers.
3. Students should have already been involved in some form of translation
activities before they embark on a translation major.
4. Like physicians, translation teachers cannot cover all that is relevant to
literature in one term. They can only cover some important works of literary
figures such as Shakespeare. One course in translation cannot and will not make
the student a good translator; it can only introduce him or her to the nature
of the transla-
3
tion process and provide him or her with the methods and strategies on how
to look at or approach a text.
In order to help students understand the nature, responsibilities and requirements of
taking translation and interpretation courses, and according to Rubrecht’s ten concepts,
I believe students’ and teachers’ perceptions of each other are fundamentally significant.
2.3 Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions

First, one of the perceptions students have about translation is that they can be familiar-
ized with the techniques and methods of translating a text from one language to
another in one course. This perception is really not true. Learning the two languages will
not enable students to be professional translators, simply because translation
requires a lot of practice and this will happen over a long period of time. Students, and
sometimes teachers, erroneously believe that it is possible that students can be
acquainted with all relevant issues in translation or that they become good translators
once they finish a semester or two. This, I believe, is something that is impossible to
accomplish in one or two semesters. Let there be no doubt that translation students
should undergo extensive training in translation activities; they should also be aware of
the primary requirements behind any translation course. As for interpretation courses,
students must have skills for immediacy of response, good overall knowledge of the
subject-matter, and above all good memory. Students should also be equipped with
computer skills. Ward (1992) and Chriss (2000) believe that students cannot
appreciate the fundamental effect such requirements have on translation students’ lives.
Therefore, lack of students’ understanding with regard to these issues may have
negative repercussions on their accomplishments.
Second, from personal experience, I believe translation is a complex process. It requires
that students have good mental capacity that is extremely important to do the work.
There are in-class activities and homework assignments that are mentally and physically
draining. One can imagine himself or herself sitting for hours checking all kinds of
dictionaries, thinking of all possible meanings, writing and re-writing the text for hours.
It is even more draining for students involved in interpreting as the demand on such
students is high and they have to adapt themselves to stressful and fatigued
environments. Inter- pretation students should get used to the idea of working
without using dictionaries in a short period of time. As for good knowledge, students
must have a working knowledge of the foreign language before getting involved in
translation and interpretation courses. They should have good knowledge of the native
countries of that language.
3
Third, learning a foreign language and translating a text are two completely different
things. Learning a foreign language is a prerequisite for translating a text; translation
may partially help students learn a foreign language, but it will not be enough to
make them good translators. There is very little overlap between learning a language and
conducting translation and students should be aware of this fact. Students should also
know that they should be willing to continue learning, as language changes over the
years, and translators have to continuously update their knowledge.
Fourth, the main objective of translating a text is to convey its similar meaning to
another language. Translators or students of translation must worry about
communicating meaning very accurately to the reader. Teachers should also teach
students ways to communicate a message from one language to another.
Communicating a message depends on context, and teachers must make students
aware of the importance of context in translation. Without understanding the context,
communicating a message will be impossible or even if it can be communicated, it will
be erroneous. Here one can refer to Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) where they state
that translation is a matter of equivalence. Translation should maintain the stylistic
impact of the source language text in the target language text. According to them,
equivalence is the ultimate method for the translation of proverbs, idioms, clichés,
nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds (ibid: 342). From
a different perspective, Vinay and Darbelnet believe that there are three areas of
translation: educational, professional and linguistic. Educational translation ensures
reading and understanding a text to assess its accuracy. Professional translation ensures
text quality and precision. As for linguistic translation, it is mainly concerned with
how texts are rendered into the other language and what linguistic means are used to
convey text meaning. All these areas of translation should be mastered before students
take translation courses.
2.4 Other Perceptions

There is a misconception among linguists and some translation teachers that having
a bachelor degree in English language or literature makes you a good translator. This
assumption, based on my personal experience and some studies (Chriss 2000)
turns out to be false. In order for translation students to be good translators, they
have to master the translation skills, including fluency or near native fluency of both
languages. This may not sound good for our translation students, simply because
translation to them is not associated with mastering both languages to an acceptable
level. At the same time, translation teachers should not expect to have students
with perfect command of both languages, particularly before they enroll in any
translation or interpretation courses.
3
Another misconception about translation fed to students by teachers who lack good
knowledge of translation studies is the belief that translation is an easy discipline.
Anyone teaching or majoring in translation knows very well that translation is a
rigorous discipline. It is a problem-solving technique, entailing artistic strategies and
scientific methods and processes. It is time consuming and requires a lot of hard work.
Students must realize that doing well in translation helps them do well in other subjects.
Therefore, disciplining and organ- izing their life and above all independency and self-
discipline from the beginning of their study are key components to their success. As
Ward (1992: 580) states:
A translator must be a self-starter, an independent worker, with a good dose
of perseverance and determination to see a project through without any
guidance or supervision, and often without any help even with specialized
terminology. The translator should also have solid integrity to do the very
best job possible, to be absolutely accurate, to avoid any shortcuts or
doing any fudging.
As previously stated, translation should be taken seriously and sensibly, if and only if the
translator wants to avoid poor results. Also, education and training in translation are
vital and translators must juggle not only languages, but also understand cultures, and
the religious and political environment in which texts are produced. This is not an easy
task, if translators or those embark on translation have thought about the ethics of
translation.
2.5 Ethics and Rules in Translation

Once scholars come to grips with reality, they will come to their senses that
translation has rules and principles. Eco (2003) believes that translation is not about
comparing two different languages, but an interpretation of a text in two different
languages, thus involving a shift between cultures. He also states that irrespective of
the fact that some linguists and philosophers claim that there are no rules on whether
one translation is better than the other, translators have to use their common sense
based on their long experience of reading, editing, and translating. Within the field of
translation, therefore, there is a crisis of ethics. Some might be pertinent to translation;
others may be pertinent to interpreting. The question involving translation evolves
around whether the translator is loyal or not, and whether he is competent or not. The
comparison made by some Italian translators that “Translation is like women: the less
faithful, the more beautiful, or the more faithful, the less beautiful”, highlights the
quarrel translators had with such questions for many years.
3
1. Give four misconceptions students have about majoring in translation.

2. According to your understanding of this chapter, do you believe that
mastering the two languages involved in the translation is sufficient for
someone to be a good translator? Please explain your answer with
exemplifications.
3. Argue whether or nor not you agree with the types of misconceptions
outlined in this chapter.
2.7 Multiple Choice Questions about Chapter (2)
Based on your understanding of Chapter (2), answer the following questions:
1. The term “fallacy” means:

☐a. something good
☐b. something correct
☐c. something false
☐d. (a) & (b)
2. According to Chapter (2), if someone has a B.A. in English Language &
Litera- ture, he or she will be:
☐a. a good translator
☐b. unable to translate
☐c. able to translate but will face many problems
☐d. both (b) & (c)
3. Most fallacies about translation studies were fed by:

☐a. students
☐b. teachers
☐c. both students and teachers
☐d. none of the above
4. According to this chapter, translators are ………….…… perceived by the
community.
☐a. positively
☐b. negatively
☐c. not at all
☐d. somewhat positively
4
5. Within the field of language learning and language acquisition, studies have
shown that translation is a useful means for:
☐a. learning a foreign language
☐b. learning only one’s language
☐c. enhancing both foreign and native languages
☐d. only ( c)
6. Since translation deals with my native language, then it is:

☐a. an easy subject
☐b. a subject that does not need a lot of reading and writing
☐c. a subject that only needs practice
☐d. a subject that needs excellent knowledge of the two languages
involved and good knowledge of other subjects with lots of
translation practice.
7. Translation from one language to another can be acquired from:

☐a. just one simple course
☐b. two courses
☐c. the more you practice, the better you become in translation
☐d. just good knowledge of English
8. Ethics of translators have to do with:

☐a. whether they are polite or not
☐b. whether they lie or not
☐c. whether they are loyal to the text or not
☐d. both (b) & ( c)
9. In order to translate effectively, the translator has to follow:

☐a. his own feelings
☐b. rules and principles
☐c. what his friends tell him/her
☐d. only (c )
10. In translation, there are:

☐a. correct translations and incorrect translations
☐b. poor translations and good translations
☐c. well written texts and badly written texts
☐d. both (a) & (b)
4
CHAPTER 3
Some Relevant Terms

in Translation
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, an attempt will be made to define concepts and terms in translation stud-
ies. While it is very difficult to survey and define all terms in the studies of translation,
my attempt here is to identify terms that are relevant to the content of this book. For
those who are interested in a more complete translation glossary, see Leman (2005).
3.2 Linguistic and Translation Terms
Accuracy
It is a term that refers to maintaining the meaning of the source text. The term
overlaps with the meaning of faithfulness, although the two concepts are somewhat
different from one another. Consider the following words or expressions:
jell-O
He
died.
Two heads are better than one.
Update me.
computer
fax
television
mobile
surfing
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While it is easy to provide an equivalent for the phrase “he died”, it is very difficult
to provide an equivalent word for “jello”, simply because the word does not ring a
bell in the mind of the reader. Even though the Arabic equivalent word for “jello” is
hulam, it still makes no sense whatsoever to the common reader. In most cases, if
not all, people use the word “jello” rather than hulam. The same thing applies to
words such as “fax”, “computer”, “mobile”, etc. These words have equivalent words
in Arabic, but they are not used at all. What about the equivalent words or
expressions in other languages? Do they have the same equivalents? In French, for
example, the word “jello” means gelatine. Such a word, however, is not used in the
French culture and instead, they use the same English word “jello”. The same can be
applied to words such as “mobile” or “cellular” (in French), among other words.
Audience
This term involves those who read or hear a text. Translation practitioners must take
into account the kind of audience. In order for the audience to clearly and effectively
understand the meaning of the translated text, translators must use a language that
conforms to the expectations of their audience.
Back Translation
This kind of translation involves the process of translating a document that has
already been translated into a target language back to the original language. The
translation is usually done literally. The objective behind this kind of translation is to
enable a translator or a translation consultant who speaks other languages to
understand what a translated text means in the target language. Literality is
fundamental here so as to enable the translation consultant to identify the rules and
structure of the target text.
Borrowing
This term involves the idea of taking a word from another language. The word that is
taken is called a “loan word’.
Calques
This term refers to a word that is created through loan translation. It involves
translating the meaning parts of one language to the meaning parts of another. The
process of translating such meaning parts creates what is called “neologism” (using
new words in the language).
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Some Relevant Terms in Translation
Choppy
This is a term that refers to the quality of the translation. If the translation is clear,
accurate and effective, it is called clear translation; but if it is not, it is called
choppy translation. Therefore, choppy translation means a translation in which the parts
of the text are disjointed.
Clarity
This is a term that refers to the quality of the translation. If the translation is clear,
accurate and effective, it is called clear translation. Clear translation has the quality of
being easy to understand and free from any ambiguous or unnatural structures.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the quality of the text and involves connectedness throughout
the whole text. Cohesion also aims at preserving smooth connection and internal
unity among the sentences used in the text.
Collocation
Collocation involves placing or associating two words with one another. These words are
always used together and more likely in similar contexts. Collocation also involves
the relationship between two words that frequently go together. These two words always
co- exist with one another.
Consecutive Interpreting
This is a strategy where the interpreter starts interpreting a spoken message after
the speaker finishes the sentence. Consecutive interpretation is often used at smaller
conferences, diplomatic talks, courtroom sessions, etc. It is usually carried out by
one interpreter who accompanies the delegate or follows the speaker. Consecutive
interpreting is less stressful, simply because there is no time pressure and the interpreter
is often close to the speaker.
Context
This is a term that refers to the environment in which sentences are used. Context also
refers to the parts of a written or spoken discourse that precede or follow a
specific word.
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Effectiveness
This term refers to the message communicated by the writer or translator. It refers to
the highest level of achievement of a communicative function or objective.
Equivalent
When two words have a similar meaning or function, they are called equivalent
words. Equivalence involves two words or sentences having the same semantic
value.
Faithfulness
Faithfulness is a term that refers to the closeness and accuracy of the translated text
to the original. It also refers to how much meaning is preserved in the source language
compared to the target text.
Free Translation
Free translation involves translating the text freely based on its meaning, not
structure. Free translation aims at preserving the original meaning of the text and
utilizes normal features of the target text. Interpretation and paraphrasing are two ways
of understanding and translating the text into the target language. This kind of
translation is the best simply because the translation outcome is meaningful, clear and
effective as in the source text.
Idiom
The word “idiom” is an expression which is exclusive to a particular language.
Idioms cannot be understood by just analyzing their individual words; they have to be
examined with reference to their figurative meanings. For example, when one says “It
is time to hit the sack”, this expression does not involve hitting at all. Its figurative
meaning involves going to bed. So what we have done is actually translate its
figurative meaning.
Idiomatic Translation
Unlike literal translation, this type of translation is used where the meaning of the origi-
nal text is translated into the forms of the target language. These forms should
maintain the implicit and explicit meanings of the source language forms. Idiomatic
translation is synonymous with other methods of translation such as free translation,
dynamic translation and thought-for-thought translation.
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Inadequate Meaning
When we translate a text from one language to another we may end up conveying an
inadequate meaning, simply because the meaning conveyed is wrong or partially
expressed. Sometimes, inadequate meaning involves translating a text in which the
translation outcome does not make sense (i.e. incoherent and incohesive).
Intention
This term involves the intention of the speaker. It also involves the effect the
speaker wants to impinge on his reader. It should be pointed out here that in the
study of literature, critics avoid assuming an absolute knowledge of the writer’s
intention. All readings of intention from a text are at best provisional.
Interpretation
This term involves the process of determining the meaning of something. It refers to both
written and spoken forms of language. Interpretation can also refer to reading the text to
figure out its implicit and explicit meanings.
Legal Translation
Legal translation is the translation of legal texts and binding documents. These texts
or documents are culture-dependent subjects, which means they are embedded with the
target language culture. Legal translation is not simple, because any misinterpretation
or mis- translation of a legal text can lead to jail or lawsuits. Also, the language of legal
texts is very precise and requires good understanding. Therefore, translators have to
be familiar with the legal systems of both languages. They should also have good
knowledge of the target language culture and good knowledge of the relevant
disciplines and subject matters.
Literal Translation
Literal translation focuses on the linguistic structure of the source text. It aims at
preserving the forms of the source language. While literal translation actually ignores
the semiotic, pragmatic and contextual connotations of text-structure it also takes into
account the linguistic conventions of the target language. While literal translation is
not commonly used in translating texts, it is fundamental for the study of language
structures. It is not recommended for the casual reader where adequacy and clarity of
meaning are involved. For example, in translating religious texts, adherence to the
word order of the text and idiomatic expressions may make the translation difficult to
understand. Therefore, interpreting the word and paraphrasing it may give rise to
clarity of meaning.
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Loan word
A loan word is a word that is borrowed from another language. That is, a translator
may create a word that does not exist in the target language, provided it conforms
with the meanings of the source word. Consider the following examples:
jello computer fax

t.v. mobile
Machine Translation
This is another means of translating a text where the text is translated automatically by a
machine. The computer or any other machine made for this purpose does the translating.
Of course, machine translations are faster and cheaper, but they are less accurate
than human translators. Although machine translation is not as frequently used as
human translators, it is still helpful when the main idea of a particular text needs to be
expressed and done in a limited period of time.
Meaning
When one wants to express a message, he expresses its meaning. That is, whatever
is expressed by somebody, it involves the expression of meaning. Meaning is not
only expressed in lexical items, but it is in how such lexical items relate to one
another.
Natural
When translation is natural, it means that the text is translated in a way where native
speakers of that language feel that the patterns of constructing and translating the
text, whether lexical or grammatical, match and conform with the patterns of the native
language. Also, the text is natural when its sentences are clear and display the same
normal discourse.
Pragmatics
It is the relationship between language user and language use. Pragmatics is also
understood as language in context. It can also refer to the implicit meanings expressed
by the speaker.
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Simultaneous Interpreting
This is a strategy where the interpreter starts interpreting a spoken message before
the speaker finishes the sentence. At conferences, simultaneous interpretation is often
used to interpret seminars, conferences, and meetings. It is usually carried out by
panelists using specific equipment. Simultaneous interpreting is a stressful act, simply
because of time pressure, unfamiliarity of subject matter, voice and accent of speaker,
and environment.
Target Text
The language into which translating or interpreting is carried out.
Telephone Interpreting
It is a kind of interpreting where the act is done over the telephone.
Translation
Translation can be defined as the process of conveying the meaning of sentences
from one language to another.
Translation Theory
Translation theory involves an examination of the rules and principles of translation.
It refers to how language functions and under what circumstances. Understanding
how language works is a key element to all translators.
Translating vs. Interpreting

Translating a text has to do with the written form whereas interpreting has to do with the
spoken form. In both cases, we translate freely from the original.
Unit of Translation
Unit of translation can be defined as the smallest entity in a text that carries a
discrete meaning. It varies all the time, ranging from individual words through
phrases and sentences right up to an entire paragraph.
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Word-for-Word Translation
Word-for-word translation involves translating a word in the source language by a
word into the target language. Although this seems very much like literal translation,
in fact, it is not. The problem with this kind of translation is that the outcome may
not by meaningful; it could be awkward and discomfited, simply because meaning was
not the center of translation.
World Knowledge
World knowledge refers to whatever extra-linguistic knowledge is transported into
the process of translation and brought into the mind of the translator. Sometimes,
world knowledge is referred to as shared assumptions, or common ideas that people
share with one another.
A. Questions
1. What is meaning?
2. Make a comparison between a cohesive text and a coherent text. How can coherence
contribute to a successful translation?
3. What are your perspectives on “Natural Translation” or a “Natural Text”?
4. What is world knowledge, and how can it help the translator?
5. Discuss the differences between translating and interpreting.
6. What is translation theory?
7. Out of the linguistic terms and concepts listed in this chapter, name seven terms that
are indicative of a good translation. For example, good translation must be
natural, etc.
8. Compare between word-for-word translation and literal translation.
9. Why is idiomatic or free translation effective?
10.What is meant by the notion “equivalence”?
B. Texts for Translation
Translate the following texts into the target language. Show how world-knowledge is
shared. You may also apply other terms or concepts to the text. Also, explain how
context and text-structure play an important part in the translation of any text.
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What Determines Skin Color?
Melanin is the substance that normally determines the color of the skin,
hair, and eyes. It is the pigment produced in the cells called melanocytes. If
Text
melanocytes cannot form melanin, or if their number decreases, skin color will
become lighter or completely white – as in vitiligo.
Leukoderma is a general term that means white skin. Severe trauma, like a
burn, can destroy pigment cells resulting in leukoderma. Vitiligo is just one
of the forms of leukoderma.
In this agreement, save where the context otherwise requires, the following ex-
pressions should have the following meanings:
Text
1. State = the country in which this document is issued

2. Laws = laws of the country
3. Governor = governor of the country
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Philip Morris Incorporated is a corporation organized and existing under

the Laws of the Commonwealth of Virginia; it is a cigarette company in the
United States of America, and its principal office is located in New York
(USA).
Text
Employees’ Satisfaction and Organization Prosperity
The success of economic corporation is judged by the extent of their profit

making abilities and by the power of developing their capabilities so as to
enable them to go in sound harmony with the market conditions
Text
_
Translate the following expressions into the target language.
He is the top dog around here.

Text
He passed the buck.
He is beating around the bush.
She broke my heart.
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It is raining cats and dogs.
His eyes are bigger than his stomach.
He is still horsing around.
Adam spilled his guts.
She hit the nail on the head.
You are just pulling my leg.
He punched his lights out.
He fell off the wagon.
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CHAPTER 4
Translation Theory and Practice
4.1 Introduction
During the past two decades or so, many views have been put forward towards the
importance of teaching translation theory to students of translation. Other views
advocate the idea that students of translation need only translation practices. In this
chapter, I would like to first look at translation as an exercise. Second, I would like
to argue that translation is a combination of theory and practice; it is neither a practical
nor theoretical exercise, but rather a combination of both. The comments made here are
not intended to be applied only to the process of translating a text from Arabic into
English, but can also be applied to the process of translating all texts.
In his article on “The Role of Translation Theory in the Translation Classroom”, Mason
(1982) points out that graduate or undergraduate translation students, enrolling in a
translation course, will definitely benefit from making themselves aware of the prin-
ciples and rules of translation theory. Such rules involve different kinds of topics
such as semantics, contrastive linguistics, communication strategies, and above all, the
idea of equivalence. There may be some theoretical arguments students may
capture, but these are at an abstract level. To this effect, translation students may not
understand or perceive the link between these theoretical issues and the practical
exercise of translating different, non-native texts into their own. Now, translation is
taught as a language teaching exercise. The problem-solution technique involved in
the process of reading the text and comprehending it inevitably encourages the
learning of language. It also promotes learning the vocabularies, understanding
syntax, idiom, and style. All these are to be captured from a close analysis of the
source text which translation requires. The goal of the translation activities should
not be limited to these issues; it should
5
involve other modern language exercises at a professional level. For more

information on this issue, see Mason (1982: 18-33).
The objective of translation training, as Mason indicates, is to elicit, from students,
activities which do not merely demonstrate the lack of source text comprehension,
but which also indicate the appropriateness of the translation as a publishable work.
The most important thing, however, is to demonstrate whether linguistics or, in
more specific terms, translation theory, helps students in their translation training.
4.2 Translation Theory

Translation theory involves studying the rules and principles of translation. It also
evolves around how language functions. Translation theory identifies different languages
as having different forms to encode meaning, although its function is to give translators
insight on how to preserve meaning while maintaining the appropriate forms each
language utilizes. In order for translators to produce good and effective
translations, they have to explore the effect of translation principles on the actual text
to be translated. In addition to this, the rhetorical effects and the notions of both
cohesion and coherence should also be examined.
Based on the above assumption, translators must have good knowledge of the two
languages involved along with the subject-matter they are translating. Since translators
explore meaning, in its various forms, then understanding language in its multifaceted
nature, is a must for the translator if he/she wants to perform his/her job successfully.
Larson (1984) believes that translators find meanings behind the forms of the source
language. The translator’s attempt after that is to match it with the meaning of the
target language. Such a matching process has to take into account that the two meanings in
both languages are as close as they could be, including the effect and the intention of the
authors/writers.
In terms of the choices and decisions the translators make, Newmark (1988) believes that
translators should utilize the contrastive linguistics approach simply because it is
useful enough to deal with choices and decisions of the source language text (see
Mason 1982 for more information on this topic). The contrastive linguistics approach,
Newmark continues, is mainly concerned with the mechanics of the text, the
technical aspects of the text. “Translation theory is concerned with choices and
decisions, not with the mechanics of either the source language text (SL) or the target
language text (TL).”
In view of the above, the invalidity of the contrastive linguistics approach, as
demonstrated by Mason (1982), is asserted simply because translation activity is
an entirely
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different activity from contrastive linguistics. The purpose of the contrastive

linguistics approach is to focus on the differences between one language and another
especially in a language teaching context. It does not focus on establishing a set of rules,
principles, and appropriate methods of handling a particular text. Furthermore, the
contrastive linguistics approach is different from translation activity in the sense
that it is a text-oriented activity. That is, the contrastive linguistic approach focuses on
language, whereas translation activity focuses on text (Newmark 1988).
Along these lines, Widdowson (1980) views translation as an important pedagogical
device, especially where a foreign language is being learned. He believes that
translation is an affective means of learning a language. Taking this into account, one
may consider the practicality of the contrastive linguistics approach in improving
student’s performance in language learning. In other words, the contrastive linguistics
approach is a technique for teaching languages and not for teaching translation
activities.
Despite what has been stated against the contrastive approach, Mason (1982)
believes that this approach is not to be entirely avoided. At the language level,
generalizations supporting translation principles and rules can be made. Any
consideration of these rules is indeed helpful for making necessary changes in certain
contexts. They are also helpful in demonstrating the necessary loss of information
contained in structures whose constituent parts are not in a one-to-one
correspondence. This can simply be manifested in the different grammatical categories of
the two languages. For example, in an Arabic text where anta “you” and antum “you”
(singular & amplified) are used, especially when taking place in a conversation
between two people, there is an inevitable loss of information when translated into
English. Both Arabic pronouns are translated as “you” in English. In the same way,
when “you” in English is used, there is a gain of information when translated into
Arabic, as it can be translated as anta (masc.), anti (fem.), antum (singular amplified),
antum (plural), antuma (masc. dual) antunna (fem. dual). Other issues like gender
(absent or present), etc. in various languages may give rise to the same problem. Having
said so, languages, as Jakobson (1959) states, are not different in what they can
convey; they are different in what they must convey. Therefore, the contrastive
linguistics approach emphasizes these non-equivalences as such, and the theory of
translation attempts to demonstrate how these issues are compensated for in
certain situations. For more information on this issue, see Mason (1982).
4.3 Unit of Translation

It should be made clear that, to the translator, the minimum unit of translation is not
a word or a phrase, but a text. Any attempt to look at translation in terms of words
or
5
phrases would definitely yield unacceptable results. Some suggest an approach in

which one can analyze words into their main components. This method is known as
the ‘com- ponential analysis’ method (Newmark 1988). Unfortunately, however, this
method, as pointed out by Mason (1982), has some drawbacks, some of which are
represented in its unsuitability to the training of translators. Second, this approach
focuses on semantic distinctive features isolated from context. Also, this method is of
limited applicability, simply because a word taken in isolation from its context is not a
translation unit. In this connection, it has been suggested that the relevant language
unit for translation is not the individual word, but rather the text (De Beaugrande
1978).
4.4 Effect of Translation Theory

It was stated that a text is the minimum unit of analysis in translation. Any analysis
of the source text consists of inducing information about form and content together
with information regarding source, authorship, and aim. The relevant branch that
focuses on the analysis as well as the description of texts is called pragmatics. Here,
pragmatics refers to the relationship between the sender of the message, the message
itself, and the receiver of the message. The relation is represented in Figure (1).
Sender Message Receiver
Interaction
Figure (1) Sender-Receiver and Message Interaction
There is a constant interaction taking place between the sender, message, and receiver.
The aim for which the text is written, and the readership for whom the text is
addressed establishes the characters of any text. Here the translator should be able to
know whether or not the text is religious, political, literary, journalistic, legal, or
technical. Once the text is characterized, the translator is not only identifying the
text subject matter,
5
but also delimiting the social context in which the text is produced. Therefore,
situat- ing a text in a particular context, and familiarizing himself with the text in a
particular context, and familiarizing himself with the text and its English equivalents
is indeed the translator’s first priority.
After establishing the domain of the text, features such as tone, function, and feeling are
to be taken into account. Awareness of these, as Mason (1982) points out, will have a
great bearing on the translator’s rendition of the text. Emphasis should also be
placed on the formal features that are significant to the make-up of the text. Such
features are important in terms of the text-linguistic and text-function categorization,
i.e. whether the text is persuasive, narrative, descriptive, etc.
Within text-function, awareness of the referential meaning of lexes is also significant
in determining the nature or domain of the text. Emotive and associative meanings, in
Yule’s sense (1985), will partly account for text-function. Words put together are all
means of indicating the field, function, and tone of the text. For example, the use of
contracted forms are pointers to informal English. The use of infinitives is also
indicative of instructional texts. These issues are pointers to the texture and structure
of the text through which a number of ‘speech acts’ can be recognized. Understanding
the conditions represented for an utterance may give insight into how language is
used.
In terms of the linguistic categories of text, a scientific text may exhibit a series of
acts or definitions, classifications, generalizations, and/or qualifications, forming larger
communicative units such as explanations, descriptions, and reports (Widdowson 1980).
The translator may analyze a text in a way in which its formal features are
demonstrated. However, an experienced translator may not need to do that; he may
intuitively draw these conclusions. Therefore, a translation exercise should make the
translator more aware of the multi-faceted nature of translation. It should also enable
him to instinctively single out the text’s linguistic features. For more details, see
Mason (1982).
Based on the above, any analysis of text may yield information relevant to text-
structure. Once this is achieved, the text-message becomes very clear. It is this message
that has to be rendered effectively and communicatively, simply because, according to
Mason, it may lead us to a particular translation method. However, the question
remains as to whether we should look at this message in terms of its literal vs. free
sense, or formal or dynamic equivalence, or whether emphasis should be placed on
form or function. For example, an Arabic translator may translate ‘Ahmad kicked the
bucket’ as ‘tuwuffiya ahmad’. Here the translator renders this expression functionally,
making the ‘meaning of the message’ or its function his point of departure. If the
translator adheres to form rather than function, his translation would be
unacceptable or irrelevant.
5
Sometimes the translator may resort to adherence to the form of the text. This is
applicable to literary translation. In these texts, the main concern of the translator is
to highlight the effectiveness of the same semantic and syntactic structures of the source
text. Impor- tant features should be accounted for such as tone, rhyme, order, etc.
because these are all essential elements to the make-up of texts.
Within literary translation, the textual and contextual pressures are not only
semantic. The visual or physical presence of the text and its international qualities are
also significant. The non-correspondence between either prosodic or semantic
structures does not necessarily imply the impossibility of translating a given unit (Diaz-
Diocaretz 1985). On the contrary, it can be an opportunity to actualize the potential
structures manifested in the original text, and recorded in the translation of the text
that will be semantically dependent and rhythmically independent.
Furthermore, repeated lexical items, nominal vs. verbal sentences, etc. may not
remain acceptable items or sentences when translated into English. This results from the
fact that Arabic and English are linguistically and culturally remote languages. In order to
produce some publishable work, the translator has to assess the text textually and
structurally, and then find the best strategy and style that would yield adequate
translation.
4.5 How to Assess Translation

In his article entitled “The Role of Translation Theory in the Classroom Class”,
Mason (1982) points out that assessing the final product of a particular text is the
translator’s main concern. Such an assessment is manifested in what is called ‘a
translated text’. Look- ing at a translated text, Mason tried to trace such a text from
its authorship to its final product. One significant feature to be accounted for as a final
product, he states, is its acceptability or readability. Acceptability and/or readability
have to be assessed according to the text-producer’s intention. To increase the
familiarity of significant aspects of translation, one has to view this along with the
communicative theory, as this theory has an important role to play in bringing up the
theoretical course. It also introduces the student translator to the information theory,
i.e. what is important or what is not in a message. It is possible that some of the
natural linguistic and cultural trivialities may be avoided if not lost in translation,
thus bringing forth the important information. For an in-depth analysis of this topic,
see Mason (1982).
The message Mason is trying to convey is that when evaluating a text, the translator
should take into account the intention of the ST and its impact on the reader. The
relationship between author and reader has to be checked. Also, does the translation
aim at
6
a reader or particular readers? In any kind of translation, the translator’s main aim is
to produce a text that is equivalent in response to the ST. From a pedagogical point of
view, the student translator may find comparing the original text and target text
significantly useful. This activity does not involve finding the translator’s mistakes, but
rather analyzing the problem and finding the solution. Similar exercises are also
helpful in terms of enabling students to differentiate between important and
unimportant information.
4.6 Effective and Successful Translation

In order to attain effective and successful translation one may ask the following
questions:
1. How long does a quality translation take?
Some translations can be completed within hours. Others may take longer.
Translation depends on the length of the text and the type of text. If the text’s
language/topic is complicated (i.e. scientific) it would take a long time.
2. What does it mean to translate from one language to another?

To translate is to decode the meaning of the source language text and re-encode it
in the target language text. Encoding requires that the translator recognizes the text’s
main features. This is followed by interpreting, analyzing, and understanding the
segments of the text (translation units). The process of decoding a text from one
language to another requires good knowledge of the source language grammar,
semantics, syntax, idioms, and those that are equivalent or similar in the target
language. In addition, the cultures of both languages must be perfectly understood.
3. How can we define a well and effective translation?

In order to guarantee effective translation, the translator has to ensure that both the
source language and the target language texts convey the same message, taking into
account the many different constraints placed on the translator. In almost all
circumstances, a good and successful translation can be assessed according to two
key factors:
A. Was the translator faithful while translating the text? In other words, to what extent
the translation accurately conveys and expresses the meaning of the source text,
without adding to it or deleting from it, and without intensifying or weakening any
part of the text’s meaning.
6
B. Was the language of the translated text natural? That is, to what extent the
translated text sounds natural to a native speaker of the target language to have
originally been written in that language, and conforms to the language’s
grammatical, syntactic and idiomatic conventions.
4.7Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (4)

Define translation theory and show how translation theory is important for the translator.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a contrastive linguistics approach to the analysis a
Can translation be assessed? How? Explain your answer.
What is meant by “information theory”?
Define the term “pragmatics”, and show its relation to translation.
In evaluating a text, what criteria should the translator take into account?
Teacher should ask students to translate a text and see how understanding translation theory can contr
6
CHAPTER 5
Text and Context in Translation
5.1 Introduction
Various attempts have been made to look at translation in terms of words or sentences as
the minimal units of translation (Newmark 1981: 140; Nida 1964: 12-24), but
unfortunately, these attempts have achieved little since they ignored the situational
elements in which words and sentences are embodied. In this chapter, I would like to
argue that translation is a text-oriented activity; it involves the approximation of text
function. Transla- tion is to be based on the interpretation of the contextual variables
such as pragmatics, semiotics and the communicative contexts; these are the basic
components and the determining factors that can lead to successful and adequate
translation.
It should be pointed out that communication has two appropriate existing forms: lin-
guistic and non-linguistic. If communication takes a linguistic form, then it appears
in textual form (i.e. sentences, paragraphs, texts, etc.). In other words, it takes a
form of written translation. If communication takes the non-linguistic form, then it
appears in a non-textual form (i.e. sign, gesture, intention, movement, implication, etc.).
Translation should combine both forms (linguistic and non-linguistic). Texts, therefore,
are the basic form of linguistic and non-linguistic manifestation. They show various
conditions or origins, structures and various functions. Diagram (1) is a
representation of both forms of communication
To this effect, texts are designed for different types of text receivers; they are produced
for a large spectrum of communicative purposes.
From another perspective, texts have different forms and structures; they also
perform different functions and have different purposes (i.e. entertaining, exposing,
informing,
6
Smoking prohibited in this area
Diagram (1) Representation of Forms of Communication
persuading, etc.). Texts are written for various readers. Along these lines, Snell-Hornby
(1995: 49) suggests that text, or what she sometimes calls “the concrete utterance”, is a
real-life situation. It is a real reflection of the system of language. Texts are not
neutral vessels only filled with information. They are actually a piece of writing that
carries with it a section of the world view of the language users (Neubert 1988: 15).
One may think of the following exchange as strange, peculiar or irrelevant, but in
fact it represents an everyday exchange between parents and their kids.
Father: How did you do in school, Sara?
Sara: I got 3 out of 10 in the Math
exam. Father: Wonderful.
Now, one may look at these sentences as unrelated. However, within the context of fam-
ily concerns, we can understand that the father was sarcastic. The word wonderful can-
not be understood here as the father’s admiration of his daughter’s performance in the
Math exam, but as a negative response showing the father’s feeling about his daughter’s
low performance.
Another example to show how context plays an important role in understanding a
text is to look at a sentence as a whole, taking into account what comes before or what
comes after. Examine the word rose in the examples below:
People rose.
This is a nice
rose. Only rose!
As shown above, the word “rose” has been used in the three examples, indicating
different meanings. First, the translator may have in mind the meaning of “rose” as the
past tense
6
of “to rise” or he/she may have in mind the meaning of “rose” as the adjective in “this is
a beautiful rose”, to mean a flower.
The translator here has to understand that a word is part of its multiword expression,
and to render this word accurately and appropriately, he has to think of it as part of a
whole, otherwise, his translation will be ambiguous, incomplete or unintelligible.
Therefore, only context can determine whether the word “rose” means “to rise” or a
sort of flower. Let us consider other examples where context has an important role to
play in translation:
Adam broke the record this year.
Here, the word “record” cannot be understood unless it was treated as part of the
expression “break the record”. If these two words are isolated from the context in
which they are used (i.e. collocational or idiomatic contexts), then “break” means to
shatter or smash and the word “record” means a “disc”. Of course there are other
meanings for the word “record”, but to take it out of its collocational context may
alienate or ambiguate its actual meaning with the phrase. So, “to break the record”,
as an idiomatic or collocational expression, has nothing to do with “smashing a disc”.
Its contextual or what is sometimes called collective meaning indicates that “break
the record” has one unit of meaning, which indicates “the act of doing better than
anyone else”.
Taking all this into account, translation activities should deal with texts and not only
words or phrases unless these words or phrases are preconditioned to meet certain com-
municative functions. That is, they are used in a specific way and denote one
particular meaning. This, in turn, and in addition to real life language and the language
system, ac- tivates the framework for the development of translation theory. These
layers of meaning (i.e. denotative, preconditioned and implied) can be applied to
translation simply because the translator is supposed to go beyond words or sentences,
unless these words or sentences have a status of being texts (De Beaugrande &
Dressler 1981: 19-21).
Furthermore, texts are of great significance as the clearing-house for thoughts and ideas
(Neubert 1988: 15); they should be regarded as the way in which society is
structured; they should also be considered as a house where information gets sorted
out, classified and distributed. Texts bring together all kinds of transactions among
words, sentences and exhibit the way in which they are organized. This is, in fact,
how communication is carried out and how it provides accurate and deep
understanding of a community within a particular society, particularly when it comes to
the use of different symbols, the representation of its history, its aspects of life, and
the way it divides its communicative labor. Also, the way texts are produced and
received is regarded as an activity that has a bearing on the bonds that bring the
society together.
6
Robinson (2003: 75) believes that the setting in which things exists is fundamental to the
association of meaning. He states that without context, words have no interlocking
net- work of meaningful things. The physical and cultural contexts in which a learner
learns can also help figure out the exact meaning of a specific word.
5.2 Text-Types and Text-Functions

One of the important features of texts is that they should be understood within their
specific contexts. To characterize texts as minimal units of translation, one has to exam-
ine texts in accordance with their communicative functions. That is, texts are supposed
to perform several communicative functions, and it is in this particular context that
texts can be categorized into text-types (argumentative, descriptive, narrative, etc.). As
for translation, I have argued (Shiyab 1994: 7) that every text has its own writing strat-
egy and this implies that it requires its own translation strategy too. In other words, the
methods of transferring the original text into that of the target language are different
from one text to another. For example, in transferring a literary text, does the transla-
tor use the communicative or the semantic approach? According to Newmark (1981:
52-53), communicative translation attempts to produce on its reader the same effect
as close as possible to that obtained on the reader of the original. Semantic
translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures allow,
the exact contextual meaning of the original. Also, in semantic translation, there is
emphasis on the content whereas in communication translation, the emphasis is on
the force of the message. To this effect, texts manifest different elements and
require different strategies; each strategy tends to emphasize a particular element
at the expense of another. For the translator, it is extremely important to
understand the infrastructure of the text (i.e. the internal structures of texts); he
should analyze and interpret the text in a way that enables him to understand the
text’s syntactic, semantic, stylistic and pragma- semiotic dimensions. In the
interpretation of texts, the recipient’s perception and the meaning of the text should
ideally be in agreement with the intentions of the text. As Hlebec (1985: 130)
suggests, interpretation depends on knowledge of language; it also depends on the
cultural background and events in the community in which the text is produced.
Hlebec believes that interpreting the text requires learning the facts about it that
influence its interpretation; it also implies the identification of the significant codes in
a text which require special attention in the reproduction of it. It is only in this particular
way that the translator is able to translate a text from the source language and carry it
over adequately into the target language.
It follows from all this that translation requires combining linguistic, socio-linguistic
and psycholinguistic aspects of the language involved; it should also seek the aid of
significant
6
theoretical issues involved such as the definition of text, its delimitation, coherence,
cohesion, textuality, inter-textuality, etc.
Taking all this into account, it should be emphasized that while attention should be
placed on contextual factors embodied within the texts, special emphasis should also
be placed on the type of text. The fact that translation deals with different types of
texts has led Neubert (1988: 123) to classify texts into types. The criteria taken for
such classification is translatability. To this effect, Neubert suggests that text-types are
never fixed once and for all; he classifies texts as follows:
1. Easy texts.
2. Intricate texts.
3. Literary or dramatic texts.
Neubert (1988: 123-125) argues that every text-type represents a degree of translat-
ability. That is, texts can be classified into easily translatable texts (i.e. technical
and descriptive texts), intricately translatable texts, and literary or dramatic texts. Texts
that are easily translatable should display clear structure and texture while intricately
translatable texts display textual as well as non-textual complexity that the
translator may not find easy to convey into the target language. Therefore, each of
these texts requires a different transferring method, a method that is incongruent with its
surface structure as well as its deep structure. All these have an impact on the
translation adequacy and translatability of texts.
5.3 Discourse, Text-Types and Translation

In the previous section, I examined texts in terms of their communicative functions.
In order to understand the theoretical issues relevant to text-structure, an attempt
will be made to investigate the interrelation between discourse, text-types, and
translation. Since discourse is defined as a social phenomenon by which meaning is
communicated and constructed, it follows that discourse relies heavily on the domain of
sociolinguistics (i.e. the study of language in relation to society (Lyons 1981). The
interrelation between discourse and translation is evident in the fact that translation
involves the social function of discourse within a society, reference to its context of
situation, the speaker’s role in constructing a text, (i.e. his intentionality), and its
contextual configurations, (i.e. field, mode, and tenor), all of which make up the social
reality of the text. These elements are unequivocally important components for
translation. Translation is not mediation between two languages; it is not the use
of one language to convey a message whose form and content were originally directed
to different language users (Neubert 1988). Rather,
6
it is the construction of the social reality, the linguistic and rhetorical patterns of
thought that suit the target language and the community in which language is used.
The history of translation, past and present, has many examples indicative of triumph and
failure in terms of the way translation should be carried out. These examples reflect, in a
way, the gap between the original and the target text. It is the talented translator who is
unequivocally aware of the importance of bringing, as much as possible, the source
and the target texts together. This involves the speaker’s intentionality, text function
with reference to its semiotic components (i.e. social and cultural), and the context of
situation. All these pragmatic, semiotic, and contextual elements may bridge the gap
between the source text and the target text.
5.4 Text-Type Categorization

Having demonstrated the connection between discourse and translation, and that of
translation, meaning and culture, an attempt will be made to show how text-
categorization into text-types gives insights to the main components of text. Such
categorization helps us translate the text and then convey it into the target language.
It should be noted here that in the last decade or so, a considerable amount of material
has been produced on methods of text-categorization (Longacre 1976, 1983; De
Beaugrande 1980; De Beaugrande and Dressler 1981; Werlich 1983; Zydatiss 1982;
Hatim 1983, 1984; and John 1988). These approaches have not been studied and
developed relatively inde- pendently of each other. Bearing this in mind, this section is
an attempt to compare three approaches: De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981);
Werlich (1983); and Hatim (1984). Conclusions will be drawn and the similarities and
differences will be noted.
The above mentioned approaches lead to similar categorizations and definitions of
text- types (i.e. argumentative beliefs). However, they are different in the way they look
at and approach text-types. This is to say that they are different in terms of how they
focus on a particular text. For example, De Beaugrande and Dressler’s model is different
from that of Werlich’s (1983) in that De Beaugrande and Dressler differentiate text-
types along ‘functional lines’. Text-types are supposed to perform specific and
intended functions and in so doing contribute to the process of human and social
communication. De Beaugrande and Dressler adopt this analysis because they look at
text-types as a linguistic product, whereas Werlich looks at text-types as a linguistic
process occurring in the communicant’s mind (i.e. judging, planning,
comprehension, etc.).
6
In distinguishing between ‘text’ and ‘non-text’, Werlich takes the variables

‘completion’ and ‘coherence’ as the main determining factors. He believes that the
categorization of texts, which is unequivocally significant for the translator, is mainly
concerned with their underlying structures and how these connect or relate to
specific contextual factors. In identifying a particular text, Werlich (1983: 21) believes
that “texts distinctively correlate with contextual factors in a communication
situation”. That is, texts focus attention on specific circumstances from the total set of
factors. As a result, texts can be grouped together and classified on the basis of their
dominant contextual focus. Such groupings are hypothesized in terms of the following
five dominant contextual foci:
1. When the focus is on ‘factual phenomena’ such as persons, objects, and relations
in the spatial context, texts are called DESCRIPTIVE.
2. When the focus is on ‘factual’ and ‘conceptual’ phenomena in the temporal context,
texts are called NARRATIVE.
3. When the focus is on ‘de-composition’ (analysis) into constituent elements or
‘composition’ (analysis) from constituent elements of concepts, texts are called
ExPOSITORY.
4. When the focus is on ‘relations between concepts’, texts are called ARGUMENTATIVE.
5. When the focus is on the ‘formation of future behavior’, texts are called InsTRUCTIVE.
Unlike De Beaugrande, Werlich maintains that contextual factors are not sufficient
to determine text-types. Werlich believes that contextual factors and innate biological
properties should be correlated for such a classification. Werlich (1983: 21) states:
Texts do not only correlate distinctively with specific contextual factors
but also appear to correlate with innate biological properties of the
communicant’s mind.
Werlich explains this in the following terms:
A text grammar can be based on the hypothesis that texts, conceived of
as assignable to text types, primarily derive their structural distinctions
from innate cognitive properties. Accordingly, the five basic text types
correlate with forms and range of human cognition. They reflect the basic
cognitive processes of contextual categorization. These are:
(1) Differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in space in the text type
of description;
(2) Differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in time in the text
type of narration;
6
(3) Comprehension of general concepts through differentiation by analysis

and/or comprehension of particular concepts through differentiation
by subsumptive synthesis in the text types of exposition;
(4) Establishment of relations between and among concepts through
the extraction of similarities, contrasts, and transformations from
them in the text type of argumentation;
(5) Planning of future behavior by subdivision or subsumption in the
text type of instruction.
Like Mason (1982), Hatim shares with De Beaugrande and Dressler, in general terms, the
notion of ‘function’ (i.e. that a text may be known by its function). However,
according to Hatim, this is not the whole story. Hatim believes that “it is a definition
of text function which determines the efficiency, effectiveness, and appropriateness of
textual occur- rences” (Hatim 1987: 104). Hatim also believes that, for translation
purposes, variables such as pragmatics, semiotics, and communicative purposes should
be introduced. These variables have to be presented to define the interface and the
correlation between linguistic expression and categories from ‘social theory’.
Pragmatics here refers to action on the environment; semiotics refers to interaction
with the environment, and communicative purpose refers to the transaction which
creates an environment in which ‘text-typological focus’ realizes the communicative
purpose of a given text. Neither De Beaugrande and Dressler nor Werlich specify
these variables. Hatim’s interest then may be due to the fact that his study was
conducted at a later stage when there were different approaches to text-typology that
had been explained and developed.
Unlike Werlich, Hatim adopts De Beaugrande and Dressler’s notion that a typology
of texts must be correlated with typologies of discourse and situations. Unless the
appropriateness of a text-type to its setting of occurrence is judged, participants
cannot even determine the means of upholding the criteria of textuality. For De
Beaugrande and Dressler, the demands for cohesion and coherence are less strict in
conversation, whereas the demands in scientific texts are elaborately upheld.
According to De Beaugrande and Dressler, one would at least be able to identify
some ‘dominances’, though without a strict categorization for every conceivable
example. The term ‘text-type’ according to De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981: 186) is:
A set of heuristics for producing, predicting, and processing textual
occur- rences, and hence acts as a prominent determiner of efficiency,
effectiveness, and appropriateness.
7
Taking this wide perspective into account and the kinds of parameters each ap-
proach has, one can illustrate these three models diagrammatically as shown on
the following pages.
One other difference that needs to be analyzed between Werlich’s approach and
Hatim’s is the notion of ‘context specification’. As shown in Diagrams (2) and (3),
Hatim’s model is different from that of Werlich in that he takes context as an
alternative to the commonly adopted notion of ‘register’. According to Hatim, the
analysis of register, in practice, is very important but is not sufficient or
explanatorily adequate. This analysis, he argues, produces the so-called “languages”
such as the “language of science”, while ig- noring the rich range of textual activities
which characterize the communicative potential of “doing a science”. In
commenting on Werlich’s model, Hatim (1984: 146) states:
The analysis of context in terms of language use (field, etc.) and user
(idiolect, regional register analysis, leaves important aspects of textuality
unaccounted for. This inadequacy sum total of its constituent parts.
Functional approach Discourse Subsuming Functional

and Speaker’s Intention
Situation
Give Rise To
Text-Types
DESCRIPTIVE NARRATIVE ARGUMENTATIVE

describe objects or arrange actions promote acceptance of
situations and events beliefs and ideas
Diagram (1) The interpretation of text-categorization of De Beaugrande (1981)
7
Contextual & Psycho- Contextual Factors

Analytical Approach
Innate Biological
Properties
Give Rise
To Text-
Types
DESCRIPTIVE NARRATIVE ExPOSITORY ARGUMENTATIVE InSTRUCTIONAL

(focuses on (focuses on (chooses con- (purpose rela- (tells X
factual factual stituent elements tions between
phenomena & what to do)
phenomena & manifested in a concepts of
relations in relations in term or a phenomena)
space) time) mental
construct mani-
fested in a text)
Diagram (2) The interpretation of text-categorization according to Werlich (1983)
Pragma-Semio- Context Pragmatics

Communicative Approach Specifications Semiotics
Communicative
Purpose
Give Rise
To Text-
Types
ExPOSITORY ARGUMENTATIVE InSTRUCTIVE
(can be overt (following future
DES. NAR. Conc. (counter argument) behavior)
(focuses on (focuses on (focuses on or covert
objects and events and concepts) (propaganda tract))
relations In relations in
space) time)
Diagram (3) The interpretation of text-categorization according to Hatim (1984)
7
It is evident that there is a clear resemblance between Hatim’s text-typology and that of
De Beaugrande and Dressler. Hatim is partially concerned with the fact that text-linguis-
tics involves the setting up of a text-typology in which language is classified in terms
of text-communicative purposes. It has also been argued by Zydatiss (1982) that the
whole notion of text types is not a linguistic one, but that linguistic analysis must be
supple- mented and correlated with the analysis of ‘function’ of language in the
process of communication. For Hatim as well as for De Beaugrande and Dressler,
language users (writers, producers as well as receivers of language) approach texts by
reacting and interacting with different kinds of contexts. This is done through a
process of construction which identifies a number of contextual variables; these are
called context-specifications and involve pragmatics, semiotics, and communicative
purpose (as discussed above).
Basing himself on context-specifications, Hatim (1983) goes further than De Beaugrande
and Werlich to work out his own text-typology. In modifying Werlich’s model, for
example, Hatim reduces Werlich’s five text-types to three (see Diagram 3). Hatim
considers ‘Descriptive’ and ‘Narrative’ sub-text types as ‘Expository Texts’. This is due to
the fact that both of these texts exhibit or provide similar information. Hatim also
introduces another ‘sub-text-type’ within the expository text, and that is the
‘conceptual text’ (focuses on concepts). All these texts are subsumed under the
category “Expository Texts”.
Within these context-specifications, unlike Werlich, Hatim demonstrates that the
user of language responds to a set of signals related to text or discourse. He argues that
these signals constitute the most favorable conditions for the successful realization
of texts. Hatim (1984: 147) says:
It is this pragma-semio-communicative decision on the part of discourse us-
ers, and the acceptance of such a decision by discourse receivers, which
constitute the optimum conditions for the successful realization of the
text.
To sum up, text-types are characterized or defined similarly by the three models
presented above. However, they are different in terms of focus. In their functional
approach, De Beaugrande and Dressler suggest that discourse actions or situation and
the speaker’s intention (function of the text) appear to be the determining factors
between text-types. In contrast, Werlich, using a psycho-analytical approach, believes
that not only contextual factors but also innate biological properties in the
communicant’s mind should be correlated in order to identify text-types. De
Beaugrande and Dressler look at text-types as a linguistic product stemming from
the function of process occurring in the speaker’s/hearer’s mind. Above all, De
Beaugrande and Dressler view text-types from a theoretical perspective; they are not
interested in structural analysis which is orientated towards applied linguistics.
7
Hatim believes that contextual variables of pragma-semio-communicative/conceptual/

spatial/temporal transaction give rise to text-types. These context-specification
variables should be presented to define the interaction between linguistic expression and
the categories from social theory. While Hatim’s text-typology is relatively useful, his
definition of what he calls ‘context-specifications’ seems to be always changing and
inconsistent. In defining ‘pragmatics’ and ‘semiotics’, Hatim proposes varying
definitions. For example, Hatim (1984: 147) defines pragmatics as ‘action on the
environment’; later, he defines it as ‘when language users react to signals’. Hatim
(1987: 102) defines it as ‘what the text- producers attempt to achieve’; and in Hatim
and Mason (1990: 12), they define it as that ‘which attempts to account for the ways in
which we perceive the underlying meaning on the basis of what we already know or
assume to be the case’. At the same time, Hatim and Mason (1990: 51) propose a
definition of ‘functional tenor’ as “what language is used for”. This kind of definition
represents their definition of ‘pragmatics.’ As for ‘semiotics’, it is almost the same
case; sometimes it is defined as interaction with the environment (Hatim 1984: 147); at
other times, it is defined as when language users react to signals related to interaction
with the environment; it is treating a communicative item as a sign within a system of
signs (Hatim and Mason 1990: 57). This kind of inconsistency will reflect negatively on
Hatim’s context of specification.
As for Werlich’s shortcoming, John (1988) claims that one of the delinquencies of his
approach, which is not realized by Hatim, is that he does not account for poetic texts
(e.g. poems), although some poetic texts can be discovered which are congruous to
at least some of the types of texts recognized by Werlich such as “The Rhyme of the
Ancient Mariner”. This poetic text can be identified as ‘narrative’. Despite these
shortcomings, the model of Werlich as well as those of De Beaugrande and Dressler,
and Hatim are helpful in terms of the process of text-categorization and analysis of
text-typology.
Basing myself on the text-typological model of Hatim in particular, I see text as the
product of interaction of the producer/writer of the text and the expected reaction of
the text receiver. For translation purposes, this is important for the receiver in order
to understand the properties and the main purpose of the text. The text-
producer’s interaction has to meet the text-receiver’s reaction in order for the text to
be effective, appropriate, and meaningful.
7
5.5 Translation and Factors of Success

There are, of course, certain contextual factors that play an important role in
conveying an adequate meaning of the original text into that of the target language.
These are as follows:
5.5.1 Pragmatics
Pragmatics evolves around the function of the text. What are the text producer’s inten-
tions behind writing such a text? Is he trying to persuade, instruct, describe, or tell
a story? These functions are what make text-types emerge. Understanding this
contextual variable is indeed very significant.
Within text function, the semantic, syntactic, stylistic, and the pragma-semiotic
structure of the text are also important; these are what determine the translatability of
text. In other words, the content of text, the thematic-rhematic structure and their
position and function, the way the text producer initiates the text, and the chains or bonds
utilized within the text are all basic characteristics of written texts (for more
information, see Shiyab 1996).
In understanding text function, the translator and/or interpreter should carefully consid-
er the relationship of the text producer to the text receiver. In other words, does the
text producer have something in mind he needs to deliver to the hearer? What is his
personal relationship to him (i.e. status, rank, etc.)? Is the language used formal or
informal? All these, while falling within the pragmatic function of texts, highlight the
communicative presuppositions that are suggested and implied by the text producer.
5.5.2 Semiotics
Of equal importance as the pragmatic dimension is the semiotic one in which text is
represented as a sign. From a contextual point of view, signs can be classified in terms of
the communicative functions they perform; this term is now taken to be implied
within speech act theory (Austin 1962: Section 6.3).
Austin argues that text is a piece of language that depends on certain conditions in order
to be adequately understood. These are represented through the signs inherent in
the internal and external structure of texts.
7
Context
Message
Addressor Addressee
Context
Code
Diagram (4) Constituents of Speech Event)
Jakobson (1971: 703) points out that there are six constituent factors that make up
any speech event; these are represented in Diagram (4). For Jakobson, any kind of
communication is composed of a message that requires a contact between the
addressor and the addressee; such a contact may take an oral, visual, electronic form or
whatever. This form is manifested in a code, speech, number, writing, sound formation,
etc. Also, the message should refer to a context understood by both interlocutors; it
should also make sense through a context.
It should be emphasized that Jakobson’s main focus here is that the message cannot
fully provide the totality of the meaning of the transaction, as the meaning of such
Jakobson believes that semiotics as the science of sign, evolves around
understanding the structures of all signs, their utilization, and the specifics of the
various sign system, all of which have a significant role to play in the interpretation of
a message.
5.5.3 Communicative Context
It is the context which emphasizes the writer’s awareness of the formal patterning of
his language as opposed to the formal patterning of the target language; this context
helps the translator to be ascertained of the naturalness of the translation and of the
totality of meaning of both texts.
In this particular category, emphasis here is placed on the significant and functional
appropriateness of language uses. This is in addition to the variables affecting all
aspects of communication. Above all, the relationship between the communicative
function and the natural forms and patterns of language may give insights into
translation theory.
7
5.6Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (5)

What is context? Give examples to explain your definition.
What is the role of context in translation?
Define text-types. What are they, according to Neubert (1988)?
How does context give rise to text-types?
Explain three factors that determine the efficiency of translation.
Choose and explain three words or expressions that show how context helps translators produce more
7
CHAPTER 6
Translation: State of the Art
6.1 Introduction
Scholars from all over the world have frequently discussed aspects of technical and gram-
matical translations from one language to another. However, I believe a significant aspect
of translating texts creatively and artistically has been overlooked. The term
“creative” is treated here as the process of translating texts expressively and
artistically through the reader’s life experiences or through his own senses of the world.
This does not mean that the translator is completely free to do whatever he wants,
nor should he be literal, but rather free to be creative and artistic in his work.
Translation is believed to involve transferring thoughts behind words, sometimes
between the words, or transferring the sub-text (Delisle 1981, cited in Newmark
1988: 76). This is a procedure that should be regarded as the heart or the central
issue of translation.
6.2 Translation and Meaning

Because of the fact that the connection between translation and meaning is very obvious,
there is no need to elaborate. However, it should be pointed out that translation
attempts to uncover all the potentialities of meaning in the two languages concerned. To
this effect, meaning in all its linguistic and non-linguistic aspects has to be carefully
considered in translation. As Dummett (1993) argues, to grasp the meaning of a word
is to understand the context and the occurrence in which the word is used, and this
requires understanding the function this particular word performs in language.
Meaning revolves around the notion of how language functions, and such function is
itself derived from all aspects of meaning. Translation aims at using all aspects of
meaning in such a way the source text and the target text are approximated to one
another from all linguistic aspects. Mean-
7
ing in semantic or lexical terms has been thoroughly studied (Ogden and Richards
1923; Ullmann 1962; Lyons 1968, 1977, 1981), but it has been apparent, at least since
Ogden and Richards, that semantic meaning cannot account for all aspects of meaning
relevant to the translator. For this reason, meaning in this study will be treated as the
totality of the information conveyed – not simply that type of information which is
treatable under a formal semantic theory (e.g. of a truth-conditional nature). This is so
because meaning is not an abstract entity but an interaction between the translator and
the text. Meaning and/or function of the text is the interpretation of a given message.
This usage of meaning coincides with that of Halliday (1970, 1973), Leech and Short
(1981), De Beaugrande (1978), and Mason (1982). Those views share the assumption
that meaning is understood as action and interaction; it is a process and, at the same
time, a product. The translator looks at meaning as the intention of the text-producer in
the social and cultural environment in which the text is used. Here, Ogden and
Richards (1923:187) state that meaning is:
That to which the interpreter of a symbol

a) refers.
b) believes himself to be referring.
c) believes the user to be referring.
When it comes to meaning, translation is believed to involve conveying what is
implied and not what is said (Meyer 1974). This, according to Meyer, is the meaning
behind meaning. However, in translating the implied meaning, i.e. the sub-text, the
translator must word a sentence in such a way that the sub-text is equally clear in
the target text. One cannot translate the following English sentence into Arabic,
relying on the explicit wording of it as follows:
English: When John died, his wife could not send his boy to Harvard.
(cindama tuwuffiya John lam tastatic zawjatahu irsala ibnihi ila harvard)
In the above sentence, the adverbial expression cindama (when) is translated as a

time expression. However, a more appropriate and meaningful translation to this
expression would be translating its prepositional meaning. Therefore, the best rendition
to this term is bacda (after).
It should be borne in mind here that “when” could be used in the first translation to refer
to: at the time of John’s death, as soon as, during the time at which something
happens, while, etc. However, the preposition “after” is used to refer to: subsequent in
time to the event, at a later time, because of, afterward, etc.
8
Furthermore, the word “Harvard” in the above sentence could also raise the same prob-
lem, particularly if one ignores its function (the most prestigious school in the
United States). Therefore, relying on the explicit meaning of the word is not enough.
Text-producers bring their own assumptions, presuppositions, and general world-
view to bear on their processing of text at all levels. Individual lexical choices are
also important. In such cases, the translator should go beyond the explicit meaning
towards perceiving the potential meaning of particular choices within the cultural and
linguistic community of the source text (Mason 1992: 23). The translator should
carefully measure the thought behind meaning as the thought that is carried on by
the word is its essential meaning. It is this kind of meaning that should not be
tampered with.
Based on the above example, it is axiomatic that translation is not a direct
transference of a word in the original to a word in the target text. It is a careful
analysis written with a good choice of words. Here, the translator is in a situation
where he chooses from among several more or less equally acceptable target language
versions. This, according to Gutknecht and Rolle (1996: 2) depends on the following
factors:
1. The type of text to be translated.

2. The extent to which the source language text bears stylistic markings.
3. The intended target language audience.
4. The extent to which the translator can comprehend the source
language text and identify himself with.
5. The translator’s stylistic preference and his ability to recognize and
handle stylistic register.
Now the translator has to consider many things when translating a text. Among the situ-
ational factors stated above, translation should be performed in such a way that the
essence, spirit, and sense of sentences are carefully maintained.
It follows, therefore, that within the core of the translation process, there lies a
choice, or a free will of the translator that, in one way or another, plays a significant
role in the process of translation. The choice of the translator has to be made if
things have to be accomplished, only because what the translator is confronted with is
a text whose forms and functions have been creatively and expressively used by the
writer.
Regardless of the decision made, whether it is based on careful scrutiny,
reconstruction or on the outcome of the translator’s trained instinct, the final decision
that must be made has to come down to selecting the choice that the translator thinks is
the closest equivalent to that of the target text. At the same time, the translator tries
very hard to maintain the norms and functions of the source text; he also tries very hard
not to add new shades
8
of differing points or any of the values, norms, forms and functions that are not
included within the text. Therefore, the translator works here as a coordinator who is
free to choose whatever but at the same time responsible for whatever he chooses.
6.3 Translation and Culture

There is almost a general consensus that conveying a message from one language to
another does not only arise from the mere use of different words and symbols, nor
from the arrangement of words together in a sentence, but rather how words,
sentences and paragraphs are presented to the foreign reader. Also, it is universally
well-acknowledged that languages have distinct realities in which each shapes and
moulds its own. As a result, the culture of one language is bound to vary from another
as speakers of a particular language have their own way of thinking. How a writer thinks,
therefore, determines how he writes. These are the views of Sapir (1951) and Nida
(1964). They argue that in different cultures, approaches to writing, particularly
making a paragraph tend to be different and these approaches are culturally influenced
by patterns of thinking. Such a rhetorical device has its real effect when translating a
text from one language to another across two different cultures, where the rhetorical
form of the source language does not conform fully with the rhetorical form of the
target language.
This is not to say that the stylistic or rhetorical device of paragraphing in one
language is better than in another, but it only shows how languages adhere to their
own particular pattern of thought. In English, for example, sentences or paragraphs
should actually be joined together, as they are complementary to each other. There is
no benefit from paragraphs illogical division, for the reader gets confused while reading
the text. It is common to all readers that every sentence or paragraph expresses one
single theme, and within such paragraphs, there are signaling devices that inform the
reader when to move from one point to another. Here is a representation of what the
English language patterns of writing might look like compared to some other
languages.
English Language
8
Language X
Two types of paragraphing according to Seale (1979: 5)

Along the same lines, Brooks and Warren (1952, 1970), commenting on the paragraph as
a ‘convenience to the reader’, argue that the paragraph is a division of composition
which signals to the reader that the division which is set off constitutes a unit of thought;
it also makes the divisions of the writer’s thoughts visible. Brooks and Warren go further
in saying that this division, for the reader, is a convenience.
On the psychological reality of the paragraph, Koen, Becker, and Young (1969) compare
the paragraph with the sentence; they argue that if the importance of grasping the
underlying structure of the sentence contributes to its understanding, then the
perception of the paragraph performs a similar function. Also, Kieras (1978) suggests
that the role of the paragraph is to minimize memory load: the text-reader does not
have to burden his memory by the different kinds of information presented in the text.
Kieras goes on to say that the function of the paragraph is to make it easy for the reader
to digest the contents of the text. Therefore, common sense dictates that the lack of
unified and coherent sentences or paragraphs in any language or if sentences or
paragraphs were constructed inconsistently in relation to the language targeted by the
translator, there is a possibility that the translated text will not meet the requirement
of acceptability and naturalness demanded by the other language reader.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that language is a reflection of culture (Jakobson
1985). These two concepts are intrinsically correlated and interconnected. Jakobson
(1985: 103) argues that “language is a cultural phenomenon”, and culture according
to him is:
The totality of behavior patterns that are passed between generations by
learning, socially determined behavior learned by imitation and
instruction.
8
Jakobson goes on to say that learning a language involves learning social

conventions simply because language has cognitive and expressive aspects that are
cultivated. Simi- larly, Kaplan (1966, 1983) and Jakobson (1971) stress the fact that
language affects our conceptualization of reality; they argue that the linguistic categories
that form the way we think are different from one language to another. Jakobson
(1985: 107) says:
Language is situated between nature and culture and it serves as a
foundation of culture. We may go even further and state that language
is THE [his emphasis] necessary and substantial foundation of human
culture.
In discussing the impact of culture upon language, Jakobson (1985), Sapir (1921,
1951, 1956), Hymes (1964), and Whorf (1956) suggest that each language exists within a
particular culture and has its own particular lexicon which shapes the perception of
its speakers. Languages reflect cultural differences, and these differences are
manifested in the categorization of gender, number, color, etc.
Within the process of translation, the awareness of the cultural as well as the
socially equivalent frameworks in which a particular text is used is extremely significant,
although perfect cultural equivalents are indeed unattainable. What is attainable is the
approximation of cultural and social context of the two languages, which makes the
translated text functionally similar and relatively natural with respect to its original.
Regarding this, Malinowski (1923: 309) states:
Since the whole world of things to be expressed changes with the level of
culture, with geographical, social and economic conditions, the consequence
is that the meaning of a word must always be gathered, not from a
passive contemplation of this word, but from an analysis of its function,
with reference to a given culture.
Nida shares this notion with Malinowski that any translation that excludes
consideration of cultural elements is doomed to be inadequate. Nida (1964: 90) says:
The person who is engaged in translation from one language into another
ought to be constantly aware of the contrast in the entire range of
culture represented by the two languages.
These views indicate that the link between language and culture cannot be ignored,
and that a community’s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in
order to create in a manner acceptable to its members. This is what makes translation a
difficult task as the translator has to be aware that the text he is translating is not only
formed by a
8
linguistic capability but it also relates to things, people, cultural and social values,
behaviors, and emotions. All these operate within the situational context of the
text.
6.4 Translator’s Perception

It is to be noted that translators are different from one another; they differ
conspicu- ously in their perception of the real world. They are also different in their
capabilities and talents. It is axiomatic to point out therefore that in translating
literature, for example, four translators would more likely produce four different
versions or translations of the same text or expression. This is highly logical because
each translator looks at the text or expression from his own perspective. For example, in
Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, one can see how the expression “Thou art a scholar, speak
to it, Horaito”, uttered by Marcellus in Act I, Scene I has been translated differently by
four translators: Mutran, Jabra, Jamal, and Al-Khumyri. Because the word “scholar” is
polysemous, each one of those four translators has translated it differently, reflecting
their own personal talent or possible synonyms available to him/her. The four
translations are listed below for the sake of exposition:
(1) anta faqih (you are a jurisprudent) – Jabra.

(2) anta fashi alim (you are eloquent and knowledgeable) – Mutran.
(3) anta rajulun muthaggafun wa fasih (you are both a cultured
and eloquent man) – Jamal.
(4) anta rajulun muta’ allim (you are an educated man) – Al-Khmyri.
Taking into account the religious context in which the word “scholar” was used by
Marcel- lus, and because Marcellus looks at the addressee as a man of knowledge, we
understand and agree with several literary critics, who favored the Arabic rendition
of the above expression you are a jurisprudent simply because it is a more acceptable
equivalent than all other words provided by other translators. It also gives the gist of the
meaning in this context. However, the question always arises: can the idea that is
expressed intelligently by the writer be maintained in the translation? To answer this
question, we should note that translation is a matter of interpretation, and when we
write about translation, we only write about it from a translator’s perspective. The
translator generally sees things from his own subjective evaluation. He sees them
from his untrammeled viewpoint. To him, words have personal perception; they have
different kinds of recognition. Therefore, it would be hard for the translator to express
the words exactly in the same form and function of the target language. In such
cases, the translator has to convey the idea according to his own perception.
8
When the translator is confronted with a word that has to be conveyed into the target
language, his choice makes all the difference in the world. The lexis he chooses may
have almost the same meaning to that of the other language, paying his utmost
attention to avoid contamination or not to allow translation nuances to interfere and
distort the meaning of the original. For the sake of clarity, the translator digs for
textual and situational resemblance. The search for resemblance and synonymity is
what made some linguists and translation practitioners believe that translation is a
form of synonymy. Graham (1991: 10) clearly and flatly comments on Quine’s idea
of synonymy, stating that the natural alternative is to abandon the notion of two
messages synonymous in all respect with one another and replace it with the
requirement that similarity of meaning be attained in some particular respects, never
all.
From a philosophical point of view, Quine (1992: 57-62), while discussing the
indeter- minacy of translation, proposes that synonymy roughly consists in
approximate likeness in effect on the hearer. Quine’s use of the word “synonymy” is
not restricted. He points out that the word “synonymy” carried the full generality of
“same in meaning”, whatever that is. Quine distinguishes between two types of
synonymy: broad type and narrow type. Broad synonymy can be formulated in intuitive
terms. That is, two sentences command assent concomitantly and dissent
concomitantly. This kind of concomitance is due strictly to word usage rather than how
things happen in the world. As for the narrow type, Quine believes that it is synonymy
of parts and not synonymy of wholes. Quine states:
Synonymy of parts is defined by appeal to analogy of roles in synonymous
wholes; then synonymy in the narrow sense is defined for the wholes by
appeal to synonymy of homologous parts.
Part-whole relationships always exist in synonymy. When two sentences have, what
is called by philosophers sameness of confirming experience and of disconfirming
experience (Grice & Strawson 1956), then we have wholly synonymous sentences;
however, when two sentences partially confirm and disconfirm experience, then we have
partially synonymous sentences. Here, one can argue, to this effect, that synonymy
involves partial overlapping or whole overlapping. That is, the meaning of one message
may partially or wholly overlap with the meaning of another and the idea of partial and
whole overlapping is something inevitable in translation. In other words, the meaning of
one word is wholly or partially covered by the other. The idea of partial and whole
overlapping is represented in Figure (1):
8
A&B
A X Y B
Figure (1) Representation of Partial and Whole Overlapping
It is axiomatic to point out that total or complete overlapping, if it exists, does not cause
any problem. However, for partial overlapping, one could look at A as the original
word or even text. Then B is the target word of the target text. The relationship is that
of a mir- ror image, i.e. one word in a text is mirrored to create the target image.
Inevitably, this kind of overlapping cannot always be total, because of at least
phonological differences. The most difficult part, however, is that one part is being
partially or wholly covered and another part does the covering. There is a neutral part
that is not covered in partial overlapping, and this is the area where the translator finds
himself free to move. Here, portion X in the original occupies accompanying meaning
which is not encumbered in the meaning of the word B. Also, portion Y holds a
concomitant meaning that is not included in the meaning of A. Therefore, the
translator, if possible, must target a total overlapping, a very complicated if not
impossible task.
It is to be noted that complete synonymy does not exist, and the translator seeks to pre-
serve the meaning that is similar to the meaning of the original. Ross (1981: 12)
states:
The translator seeks to convey the same meaning in a new language as is
found in the original. Not only must he choose among the various
respects in which similarity of meaning is to be preserved; this is less
sameness in any particular respect, and is more an equivalence satisfactory
to the constraints, which govern his work.
The translator here makes his choices with differing degrees of ease or
sophistication. This actually depends on the subject matter he is dealing with.
Furthermore, it often happens that one discovers that, upon looking over the
printed copy of a translation, particularly when it comes off the press, he could, if
given the choice and the chance again, introduce a different alternative. Hence,
people/or some translators often dislike their translation of a particular subject-matter
after it was published. It could be those translators feel that they have not done well
in their translation. However, when one reads his own writing, he reads it with some
satisfaction; he may not change a single jot.
8
This is the difference between translating and writing. Translating, if not done intui-
tively, is interpretation. On the other hand, writing is an art. It is a creation of the mind.
Therefore, translation is done through the creation of the individual’s mind, paying
his utmost attention to the original message and the other was done intuitively based
on the writer’s intellect and imagination.
6.5 Translating vs. Writing

It is to be noted here that having the capability to write effectively and clearly should
have a bearing on translating appropriately. After all, translating is writing creatively
with the translator’s utmost attention to the meaning of the original text. The difference
between the two activities (i.e. translating and writing), however, is a matter of
perception. Writ- ing, particularly in literature, is a matter of creation whereas
translating is a matter of text-comprehension, as the idea of the text to be translated
has already been determined by the writer. Therefore, writing focuses on creating the
idea whereas translating focuses on choosing the closest natural equivalent to a particular
lexis. Following is a manifestation of these two skills:
Writing Translating
Text-Transference
Creation Text-Comprehension
Figure (2) Writing-Translating Representation
In this regard, the translator must be modest; he should not be too creative nor
should he be too literal. Being too creative may result in distorting the beauty and
intricacy of the original text. Being literal may result in ambiguating the text. Therefore,
the translator faces a dilemma. The solution to such information immoderation is to
be accurate in such a way that the two texts are closely approximated.
8
6.6 Translating is Personal

As the translator seeks to choose his closest natural equivalent, he looks backward
and forward. He may see that words have changed and therefore he acts upon this.
He may also discover that words have drifted, have disappeared over the years, and
there is no reason to believe that they will not continue to do so. This implies that the
translator has a sense of what is called “the other meaning” in relation to the text to
be processed. He should experience the text in his own way, feeling words as mobiles,
sensing all possible avenues. It is through his own perception he is capable of
changing this into likeness. After all, he is the “fixer” and the one who puts things into
their proper perspective. He is the one who looks backward and forward into language
for the purpose of understanding, making changes, maintaining text functions, etc. In
this regard, one finds it relevant to refer to the concept of ‘moving in language’, and
in this sense, translating would be a movement in the words used to make language
along the context in which words or sentences are used. Bakhtin (1981: 15) states:
The word is not a thing, but rather the eternally mobile, eternally
changing medium of dialogical intercourse. It never coincides with a single
conscious- ness or a single voice. The life of the word is in its transfer from
one mouth to another, one context to another, one social collective to
another, one generation to another. In the process, the word does not
forget where it has been and can never wholly free itself from the
domination of the contexts of which it has been a part.
From a different perspective, some believe that translation is an imitation. In
translating literature, for example, one often finds that Horace details the
problems of rivaling Pindar (odes iv. ii) and proceeds to apply his precepts (odes iv.
iv) on an essentially Ro- man theme. Horace’s work was an imitation of another, but
it was an art that consisted of bending the technique of another author to his own
subject and language. The many different translations of the Arabian Nights or the
One Thousand Nights and One Night is another case in point where the style of the
original work was imitated by translators although it was alien to them.
Furthermore, translation can be viewed as an artistic activity. Kelly (1979: 44) argues
that the translator attempts to create his own personal relationship with the text-
producer. He follows this with grasping the inner significance of the text he studies. As
for the relationship between the translator and the text, translators should know how
to use their minds, not only in a rational way, but also in an intuitive and creative way.
Panoulle (1993: 89)
8
believes that translators are expected to be creative, because texts, particularly literary
texts, use language creatively.
Some believe that translation is an interpretation. The concept Gadamer (1975:10) refers
to here is what is called the “hermeneutic circle.” This concept refers to knowledge as
the lived-experience. Lived-experience is what gives meaning to language and
thought. A compelling factor in support of translation as a personal lived-experience is
the continual renewal of translating traditional texts. If the goal of the translator were
to capture the intentions of the text-producer, one translation of The Iliad would be
sufficient proof. In- stead, one finds new and different translations for almost every
poetic or literary work.
1. How can the sense and intuition of the translator play an important part in translation?
2. What is the difference between being creative and being simplistic?
3. Are translators different in their perception of the world? How? Can you provide
translation examples demonstrating this?
4. What is synonymy? Give examples.
5. Does “Complete Synonymy” exist? Give examples.
6. How is translating different from writing?
7. Is translation personal? How? Explain your answer.
6.8 Analysis and Translation of Texts

Considering what has been discussed in this chapter, read the following text,
examine it carefully, and then translate it into the target language. You should
examine areas in the text where improvement and clarification must be made once
the text is translated. You may also examine the word choices that are indicative
of the writer’s personal judgments.
9
Dear Dr Beast,
Since the University is looking forward to becoming one of the top
universities in the world through providing the appropriate support for its
students and employees, and since we are aware of the educational programs
your college offers, we would like to ask you to approve on nominating Dr.
Text
John Jane June to give an English course for the Department staff. The course
will be given outside his official working hours in the college. The
Department will give the lecturer a financial reward.
We appreciate your cooperation.
Wallace E. Stremming
Director
9
CHAPTER 7
Punctuation and Translation
7.1 Introduction
This chapter attempts to describe the pragmatic and semantic functions of
punctuation marks, particularly the most frequently used punctuation marks:
semicolon (;) and the colon (:). The rationale behind describing these two punctuation
marks is that no studies have provided a detailed description of the pragmatic and
semantic functions of these marks, which are mostly used in Arabic for intonational
or decorative purposes.
It was found that the system of punctuation marks in Arabic is misrepresented as users
do not specify rules for using such punctuation marks. However, in this study, it was
found that punctuation marks have linguistic implications that are not recognized by
linguists or by translators. The implications discussed here are the emphatic, additive,
contrastive, and substantiative functions.
7.2 What is Punctuation?

Punctuation, though a non-verbal communicative process, is an important and
cohesive device in all kinds of written discourse. It uses standard marks to separate
words, phrases, clauses and sentences for the purpose of cohesion. Writers use such
marks to signal the ends of sentences, express strong emotion, to separate closely related
sentences or clauses, etc. Inadequate punctuation burdens the reader and forces him to
go over the text several times to understand its meaning. At the same time, using too
many punctuation marks, and in places where they are not supposed to be used, can
confuse the reader. Under- standing the uses and functions of punctuation marks,
therefore, is extremely important
93
for writers and teachers as well as translators, as their purpose is to clarify the meaning
of a particular construction within the sentence and beyond the sentence level.
In this chapter, I will try to show how punctuation marks fulfill specific semantic and
pragmatic functions, i.e. substantiation, counter-argumentation, explanation, etc. These
functions have a significant bearing on translating an expression or a text from one
language to another. The marks this chapter attempts to investigate are limited to a
couple of intra-sentential ones (Leggett et al 1982). They are the semicolon and the
colon. Marks like these are called ‘internal’ because they show the relationship of each
word or group of words to the rest of the sentence.
The reason for selecting these specific punctuation marks is that they are frequent in
Eng- lish written discourse and tend to be problematic when translating into other
languages, particularly Arabic. To this latter effect, a questionnaire was distributed to 20
M.A. translation students in the English Department at Yarmouk University,
Jordan. The sample was made up of students who had taken at least eighteen credit
hours (theoretical and practical courses), to ensure that they had knowledge of
translation practice and theory. Students were asked to translate sample texts from
English into Arabic. Special attention was paid to their translations of the punctuation
marks to see whether the students were aware of their semantic and pragmatic uses.
The results were unexpected and illuminat- ing: hardly any of the students were
aware of the way in which these punctuation marks are or ought to be used. The
mistakes and translations will be discussed in later sections.
7.3 Importance of Punctuation

Let there be no doubt that we all agree that punctuation is important in all kinds of writ-
ten discourse; however, few people know the extent of its importance. If a writer neglects
or pays no special attention to the functions and uses of punctuation marks, or he
mis- punctuates, it is more likely that he will be misunderstood. Even when the sense of
a particular construction is clear, a mispunctuated text may be deprived of its impetus,
driving and persuasive force, spirit, and meaning. In spoken discourse, pauses and
gestures have particular functions to perform. They are used to emphasize meaning and
stress, pitch of our own tones and voices. They are used in a variety of ways to
demonstrate the beginning and the end of a particular unit of meaning or a particular
paragraph. In this respect, speech can be ‘punctuated’ as well as a written discourse.
For example, the following utterances can express different meanings although the
same words are used.
94
Private. No parking Private? No.

allowed. Parking
(1) (2)
allowed.
It is to be noted here that example (1) indicates that no parking is allowed while example
(2) indicates that parking is allowed. What marks the difference between the two
meanings is the punctuation marks.
Furthermore, through punctuation marks, one can signal different information units.
Hal- liday (1985) and Baker (1994) point out that through punctuation marks, one
can signal different information structures in written language. Baker states, for example,
that using a comma can signal new information. She demonstrates this by the
following examples:
(1) He was waving to the girl who was running along the platform (DC).
(2) He was waving to the girl, who was running along the platform
(NDC). DC: Defining Clause
NDC: Non-defining Clause
The above two examples are similar in terms of wording. The difference is only
realized through the use of the comma. If one carefully examines the implications created
by the use of the comma, one will observe that the first clause does not add any new
information; it presumes the reader already knows enough about the girl to identify her
from this description. At the same time, if one examines the implications created in the
second clause, one can observe that there is a particular information structure signaled
by using the comma, and this structure represents new information. Consequently, a
comma, as tiny as it appears, makes a big difference between two units of
information worded similarly.
Moreover, in the above examples, two linguistics functions have been established: defin-
ing clause (DC) and non-defining clause (NDC). These two functions are commonly
realized through the use of the comma (Quirk et al 1985).
In order to clarify the point further, here is another example:

1. A woman without her man is nothing.
2. A woman, without her man, is nothing.
3. A woman: without her, man is nothing.
In the above three examples, one can see that meaning changes based on the specific use
of punctuation marks. For example, in sentence (1), there is a general statement
that a woman without her man is nothing. Prominence was given to man as the
important one.
95
In sentence (2), the meaning changes in relation to sentence (1), although we are still us-
ing the exact words. Here, prominence is still given to man, but with specific
reference to a woman, as opposed to something else. In sentence (3), there is a
complete shift of meaning. Prominence is given to the importance of the woman, as if
man does not exist without the presence of the woman. All these meanings have been
represented as a result of the different uses of the punctuation marks.
From a different angle, discussing the meaning of punctuation requires paying special
attention to the delimitation and boundaries between semantics and pragmatics.
Almost all the studies that have been done on these two major fields of linguistics have
associated the delimitation of the two terms with the delimitation of Chomsky’s
competence and the performance or Saussure’s langue and parole (Hawkes 1986). The
distinction between langue and parole, according to Hawkes (1986: 20) is more or less
one that pertains to the difference between the abstract language system simply called in
English ‘language’ and individual utterances made by the speakers of the language in
concrete everyday situations called ‘speech’. According to Hawkes, langue is both a
social product and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a
social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty. As for parole, it is the tip of
the iceberg. Langue is the larger mass that supports parole, and it is implied by it, both
in speaker and hearer, but which never itself appears (Hawkes 1986: 21). Thus,
semantics is the input to pragmatics. However, in this book, semantics is used to relate
to the language system whereas pragmatics is used to relate to utterances.
Many definitions have been proposed for the notions of semantics and pragmatics
(see Leech 1974: 319 and 1983; Levinson 1983). In order to show where
punctuation lies, I shall adopt Leech’s complementary position in which he defines
semantics as what something means. The weather is hot means The weather is hot (a
statement), and pragmatics as what somebody means by something, i.e. The weather is
hot means Open the window (a request). The former example is mainly concerned
with meaning as a property of language whereas the latter example is mainly
concerned with meaning as what the speaker intends by his utterance (his intention).
From all of this, one can conclude that punctuation and its functions lie within the field of
pragmatics. The meaning of a particular utterance has to be deduced from the speaker’s
intention with reference to the context of situation in which the utterance is used.
Con- text here is taken to mean the background knowledge which the speaker
assumes to be known to the hearer at the time of speaking; it does not represent
brute facts but rather institutional facts of text or context (Leech 1983: 341). In
accordance with this view and for the sake of exposition, the semantic and pragmatic
functions will be referred to together here as linguistic functions.
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7.4 Punctuation in Arabic

Williams (1982) believes that teachers must take into account the punctuation
conventions when teaching composition if they are to forestall some of the problems
which they face; he also believes that a consideration of punctuation may yield some
useful clues to the large semantic units which users work with or see themselves
working with. In his study of some of the differences between Arabic and English
punctuation, Williams describes two systems of Arabic punctuation; the first system is
a very simple one in which commas are used to delimit sentences and full stops are used
along with the conventional line break to mark the ends of the paragraphs.
The second system, as indicated by Williams (1991), contains a whole plethora of
signs, 21 in all. They are as follows:
1. comma ‘
2. double comma “
3. semicolon ;
4. full stop .
5. colon :
6. dash -
7. double dash --
8. diagonal line /
9. underlining the
10. extended line
11. curved brackets ( )
12. square brackets [ ]
13. hollow brackets ( )
14. curly brackets { } (To indicate a paradigmatic group)
15. dots … … (To indicate words missed out)
For16.
more questioninformation
detailed mark on this subject,‫ ؟‬see Nafi (1981).
17. exclamation mark !
18. double quotation marks “ “
19. equal sign =
20. ditto sign ”” ”
21. concluding sign 
97
Most of the above Arabic punctuation marks have their equivalents in the English punc-
tuation system; however, there are differences when it comes to the uses of the
colon and semicolon. These are problematic in translation. Therefore, the linguistic
functions of punctuation will be investigated below and the problems associated with
their uses will be highlighted.
7.4.1 The semicolon (;)

This punctuation mark indicates a close linkage between two clauses. Apart
from the well-known functions of this mark, in Arabic as well as in English, it
occasionally tends to express a contrastive relation between two clauses. Consider
the following example taken from The Economist (1983: 52):
Text (1) – English

The Nicaraguan people say that their families were taken away by members
of the Security Forces; the Sandinists claim that the missing have joined
the contras.
An inexperienced translator may read the English text and consider the relationship be-
tween the two clauses or sentences as that of addition; he may also not realize that the
true relationship is significant for relaying the exact meaning of the original.
Looking at the students’ translation, it was found that 12 students translated this
punctuation mark as addition, and 6 of them did not even attempt to translate it. Only
2 students translated it correctly. The relationship expressed here is that of contrast,
where two different points of view are being stated. Therefore, the translator should
utilize the Arabic conjunctive ‘bayanama’ or ‘amma’ “however”.
In a different context, the translator may sometimes fail in the opposite way to
identify the exact or intended meaning of this punctuation mark; he may think that the
semicolon is always used as above, to contrast between two clauses. However, the
semicolon may indeed sometimes be used as an additive conjunctive. Here is an example
taken from The Economist (1983: 105):

In America in the mid 1970s, the causes of several helicopter crashes
were traced to bogus replacement parts; in 1977, 200 fake fire detection and
control systems for Boeing aircraft were discovered.
98
It is clear that the original text does not indicate grammatically or structurally
whether or not the clause preceding the semicolon and the clause following it have
similar values. The reader has to guess at the writer’s implication behind the semicolon.
The relationship expressed between these two clauses is in fact that of addition.
Looking at the students’ translations, it was found that 10 students expressed an addi-
tion relationship; none of them expressed a contrast relationship. At the same time, 3
students have not even attempted to translate it. It was observed that 7 students trans-
lated it as fa (causative), expressing a relationship that is not implied. There is
another function which can be performed by the use of the semicolon. This function
is its contrastive emphatic meaning. That is, the semicolon in English can be interpreted
to mean emphasis, requiring a different mark in Arabic. This mark is the conjunction
‘bal’. It emphasizes the clause in which it is used in a prominent position, compared
to the preceding clauses. Here is an example taken from Cary (1984: 64):

Loui must have gone to the police. What right had they to persue him
like this? He had done no wrong; he was trying to do the right thing, the
sensible thing.
It was found that only 3 students translated the semicolon correctly as emphatic; 2
translated it as an additive; 11 students did not translate it at all; 4 expressed a
causative relationship. It should be pointed out that the way the semicolon is used
in English, in the above three examples, is very clear to the native speakers of English.
However, this punctuation mark tends to be problematic in Arabic. The students’
translation of examples 1, 2 and 3 shows that Arabs tend to treat the English semicolon
as additive, as is the case with almost all punctuation marks in their own language.
Sometimes it is not even looked into, and the semantic and pragmatic implications are
completely ignored. This indicates that there is a language interference problem in
the way this punctuation mark is used.
7.4.2 Colon (:)

This colon is different from semicolon in the fact that the colon is cataphoric (i.e.
referring or pointing forward). From a semantic point of view, it is a way of marking
the identity between what is being expressed and what is about to be expressed. For
example, I said this …, where the meaning of what follows the colon must be
equivalent to this but more specific (see Quirk et al 1985: Ch. 12 for more
information on this topic).
From a translation point of view, and according to Newmark (1981), when the
sentence is viewed logically and not grammatically, or used in such a way that it
requires clarifi-
99
cation or illustration, it is normally punctuated with a colon. Therefore, the colon has a
cataphoric function: it is always followed by an explanation or an illustration
(Halliday 1985). That is, the clause following it is a substantiation of something in
the one which precedes it.
When it comes to translating the colon, the translator should account for it by marks
that have the same semantic and pragmatic functions. These functions are represented in
the following example taken from Cary (1984: 63):

Tom, without thought, answered: “My name is Stone,” and then, angry
to see himself faced by a policeman, went on: “What do you want here?
Why should I answer your questions?”
It should be noted here that the translator has to interpret the uses of the colon
carefully; he should account for the non-verbal uses of this punctuation mark during
the process of translation. To provide an accurate translation of the above example,
the translator should opt for equivalent words such as ‘fa’ (causative) or ‘id’
(substantative).
In the students’ translations, it was found that 13 students translated the colon as an
additive, and only 2 translated it expressing contrast. At the same time, 1 student
translated it as emphatic and 3 students did not translate it at all.
As the text above shows, the first colon has not been translated; it does not need to
be translated simply because what follows after the verb ‘answered’ is axiomatically
understood as substantiation. However, the second colon should have been
translated because its presence in the sentence adds a temporal sequence. Thus, it
can be seen how punctuation marks which need to be conveyed into the target
language are not appropriately conveyed by translation students. This shows that
students have only a vague idea about the specific semantic and pragmatic functions
of punctuation marks. It also shows that students, when they attempt to translate
punctuation marks, do not think of the distortion they may create from not
conveying the correct meaning of this punctuation mark in the target text. The
following table shows the results of students’ translations of the texts under
discussion:
10
Additive Contrast Causative Emphatic Not Translated
Text (1) 12 2 — — 6
Text (2) 10 — 7 — 3
Text (3) 2 — 4 3 11
Text (4) 13 1 2 1 3
Table (2): Students Translation of the Semicolon and Colon
As the above table shows, students seem to be confused about the uses of the semicolon
and colon; they also seem to be influenced by the writing patterns of their native
language. It is, therefore, important for translators to be made aware of these functions
and see to it that these punctuation marks are not misunderstood or simply
overlooked.
Based on their translations, we can observe that students are not only unfamiliar
with the way most punctuation marks are used in English; they are also not familiar
with the punctuation marks used in their own language. Therefore, it is to be expected
that any attempt by them to translate an English text into Arabic will suffer so long as
they have not captured the exact meaning (i.e. semantic and pragmatic implications)
of these marks.
To sum up, the purpose of this chapter has been to investigate the specific semantic and
pragmatic functions of two important but problematic punctuation marks. These were
the colon and semicolon. Emphasis was placed on how to maintain such implications
in the translation process.
It was noted that the system of punctuation in Arabic is inadequate because it does
not have well-established rules for the use of specific punctuation marks. Therefore,
much work needs to be done in order to identify what is considered to be the sentence in
Ara- bic if one wants to establish a coherent system of punctuation. As for the
semantic and pragmatic functions of the colon and semicolon, they include what is
called rebuttal, emphasis, addition, substantiation, and contrast.
Moreover, this chapter has illustrated that translating punctuation marks from
English into Arabic is indeed very problematic to translators and translation
students. This has been exemplified by the translations of the 20 Arab M.A.
translation students. The results were disappointing: it was found that most of
these students are not familiar with
10
the semantic and pragmatic functions of punctuation marks in general and the
specific punctuation marks discussed in this chapter in particular. Therefore, translation
students need to be taught not to allow the source language punctuation marks to
influence the punctuation marks in their translation, simply because languages have
different systems of punctuating. Students should also dig deeper for implications
springing from the use of a specific punctuation mark so as to maintain those
implications in their translations.
To enhance the student and working translators’ understanding of the essence of
punctuation marks, more contrastive studies of the marks are needed, not only from a
linguistic point of view but also from a translation point of view. Our hope is to make
professional translators as well as students aware of this important yet problematic
issue.
7.5Test your Knowledge of Chapter (7)

What is punctuation? How is it used in your own language?
Are there rules by which speakers use punctuation marks?
What are the semantic and pragmatic functions of punctuation?
Give a few examples where misunderstanding the uses of punctuation marks can give rise to translat
7.6Analysis and Translation of Texts

Read the following text very carefully, and then rewrite it using correct punctuation marks where n
10
*Translation Rules are Ethical Decisions
Radical individualism should thus be taken with a large grain of salt if works
like Luther’s Bible and the King James Version can legitimately be
criticized for fantasy and inconsistence it nevertheless seems difficult to
classify them as automatically second-rate because of group authorship such
Text
prejudice should quietly be absorbed by the more global principle that the
collective profession provided the conditions necessary for the rise of the
authoritative individual
* Taken from Translation Rules are Ethical Decisions at < http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-line/ttt/7.html>.
10
CHAPTER 8
Translation and Literature
8.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is twofold: (a) to show that translating literature is
different from translating other kinds of texts (i.e. descriptive, journalistic, etc.).
Emphasis will be placed on all literary forms, particularly poetry, and (b) to argue that
literary texts contain words that are often unusual in some way and used to create a
special effect on the reader. This special effect is manifested in plays, poetry, drama,
novels, and other creative written works. Translating literature is problematic simply
because it involves translating the metaphorical or figurative meanings utilized in texts.
The spirit and text’s artistic qualities in such texts play an important role in the make
up of what is called a literary text.
In order to show the difficulty of translating literature, particularly poetry, an
example will be taken from the works of Philip Freneau, an American poet, to
demonstrate this point. This example will be translated into Arabic in two different ways:
verse and prose. A comparison will be made between the two types of translations to
show which type (verse or prose) can attain the highest degree of acceptability and
equivalency.
The example has been taken from Philip Freneau because he is known for his love of
nature; his language is figurative and full of poetic images. Therefore, translating some of
his work may give us insight on what is involved in literary translation. It may also give
us insight on whether poetry is best translated through verse strategy or prose
strategy.
10
8.2 Characteristics of Texts

According to Neubert (1988:123), text is not just a neutral vessel filled with information.
It is actually a piece of writing that fulfills a particular communicative function. This
text also carries with it a segment of the world’s view of the language users. It has
certain characteristics. These are illustrated below. There are many different types of
texts, and the following are only one such many classifications:
8.2.1 Expressive
One of the main characteristics of a literary text is that it is expressive. Since text is
language, then language can be expressive. The term expressive here is used to refer
to works of art whether such art is manifested through the use of compositional
elements or symbols. Both means aim at merely suggesting meaning. According to
Newmark (1988: 39), the core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the
writer, and the origina- tor of the utterance. Therefore, the translator, like a writer,
expresses his own vision of the world; he gives his own realization of a specific reality he
wishes to express. This is in addition to the fact that he speaks his own language, uses
his own strategy, expresses his emotions about a specific object, and about his
provocation and reaction.
In writing poetry, however, the writer chooses his words with far more attention to
their sounds than to what is customary or necessarily known in the writing of prose.
This is encapsulated in the writer’s mental capacity through which he can write with
emotions, rhythm and percipience.
8.2.2 Denotative
This function is mainly concerned with the classification of meaning. It refers to the emo-
tional associations (personal or communal) which are suggested by lexis (i.e. see
Lyons 1977, Chapter. 7). A text may manifest emotive, rhetorical, seductive, and
stimulative features. To this effect, a literary text is not mainly concerned with
context or information; it is actually concerned with explicit and implicit meanings.
For example, tone, melody, and sequence are essential components of any literary text.
These represent the internal image (Frege 1960: 16) and essential components of the
literary message in general, and poetry in particular. Therefore, the loss that may
occur is when the original words contain something that is not explicitly stated.
This “something” may manifest itself in the harmony between sense and sound. It
may also manifest itself through a subtle allitera- tion, construction of metaphors, or
in onomatopoeia or any figures of speech.
10
8.2.3 Formal vs. Functional Characteristics

A literary text is not only a means of communicating something to the reader. It is
also a way of provoking the reader. The objective of literature, in particular poetry,
therefore, is not to teach the reader but rather entertain him. In addition, the writer
uses a special kind of language, a language of his own. The style of writing a text is
actually a reflection of his own character. Therefore, the writer uses metaphors, creates
images, and uses collocations that are not frequently used in ordinary texts. The writer
does this as he intends to manifest the nature and function of the text in a way that we
see the image provoked or intended as something never seen before or at least as
something different.
The attitude of the literary translator is also of considerable importance. Unlike transla-
tors of other texts, a translator of a literary text should be self-expressive; he should
leave traces of his own character just as an artist leaves his own impressions in his
paintings. To this effect, the literary text translator has a high degree of freedom in
transferring a text from one language to another. This is contrary to translators of other
texts in which accuracy and faithfulness to the original texts may be the basic
prerequisites. One can imagine, for example, what a wrong translation of heart
surgery procedure can do. Also, the kind of effect a wrong translation can have on how
a particular machine works. These wrong translations can have serious effects on
people. However, in literary translation, the translator is relatively free in his
interpretation of a text, as long as he adheres to the overall meaning.
As a result of the translator’s freedom, one can realize that it is this particular kind
of freedom that translators are capable of adapting, borrowing, arabicizing, and
familiarizing Arab readers with new words. All of these are translation processes in
which words are approximated in terms of their target equivalents. This is exactly what
made Al-Man- faluti arabicize a novel for the writer De Saint Pierre, whose title is
transformed into “Virtue”. Also, Hafiz Ibrahim translated a novel for Victor Hugo entitled
“Al-Bu’asa” (The Wretched People). All these are being arabicized or translated as a
result of the free activity of literary translation.
8.3 Nature of Literary Translation

Features that are relevant to the translation of literary texts are reflected in the
aesthetic values and their implied underlying meanings. A literary text is written in a
way that a translator is sometimes incapable of handling. The language of the literary
texts is far from the ordinary language and its common form. Poetry, for example, is
never written with simple language. Therefore, the translator should be intelligent and
capable of feeling and understanding the poetic text. Also, the translator should be
acquainted with the
10
literary works in terms of the way sounds, words, imagery expressions, and
sentences are conveyed or relayed. They should be conveyed carefully, conforming to
the writer’s original work.
For an excellent translator, it is not enough to convey literary works from one
language to another, but such conveyance should be creative, profoundly imaginative and
talented. The translator can limit or identify the kind of work contemplated and the
literary flavor manifested in it. This is why translating poetry is different from
translating novels. Also, translating both poetry and novels is different from
translating theatrical texts. The way theatrical texts are written conforms with the
feature of ‘speakability’ (Wellwarth 1981: 140), i.e. the text is written to be read aloud
so the writer can have access to the kind of rhythm or projection so as to help the actor
perform his role. The writer of a theatrical dialogue is also an artist. He has to sense
the word, and see whether it suits the actor or not. He feels the text to see whether or
not it has a persuasive effect on its audience, particularly if one takes into account
that in translating literary works, one deals with feelings, emotions, melodies, senses,
and above all, the writer’s own experiences of the world.
8.4 Writer-Translator Relationship

One of the characteristics of a good translator is his capability of writing well. There
is a difference between a writer and a translator. A person only translating other
people’s work is not a translator, he is a conveyer or a text presenter, as he is only
reading the text (not his own) and presenting it to another reader who belongs to a
different culture. If the translation of a literary text arises out of the reading
process, then the writer is the translator of that text. The relation between the two
(i.e. writer and translator) is reflected in what is called “creativity”. This may be
represented in the following diagram:
Writer Translator
Transference
Creative Writing Proper Reading
Diagram (1): Writer-Translator Relation
10
To this effect, some believe (see Diaz-Diocretz 1985: 33-37) that translation is a
process of creation. The writer does not write his text at one time, but at different
times. First he reads it, then writes a draft, and then rewrites it again and again. The
distinction between writing and translating is therefore a matter of creativity.
However, both are creative works, but the difference between them is that the
translation process is less creative in the way that it is less imaginative. In more
specific terms, in writing, the writer has to come up with an original idea or thought
whereas in translation, the translator has to base his translation on an idea that has
already been formulated. Therefore, the writing process is more creative, as it
requires more imagination.
Within the literary translation process, a good translator is not the one who remains
faithful and close to the original text, but the one who is close to the mentality and
thinking as well as the experience of the writer. The former involves translating the text
whereas the latter involves creating the text. As for the first, a given message can be
perceived from quite a different perspective (Jakobson 1960: 353). This depends very
much on the text’s readership. Therefore, the text varies according to its readers.
Creative translation creates and reforms the text in a way that the writer and the
translator are in full harmony and conformity.
8.5 Linguistic Context and Literary Translation

Within the framework of literary translation, the linguistic context is regarded as raw ma-
terial to the translation process. Literary texts have a more sophisticated context, which
implies the approximation of two cultures, two different ways of thinking, two
different methods of realization and above all, two different mentalities. For example,
in the Arab world, one always hears words such as ird. This word cannot be translated as
just honor, since the word has different connotations not common in English. The
word ird evolves around a woman’s dignity, family reputation, chastity, etc. These
kinds of connotations are not applicable when it comes to its English counterpart.
Therefore, it cannot be understood and translated just by relying only on its
linguistic context, without taking into account the general context in which the word
is used. The following diagram illustrates the two kinds of context:
10
Co-text
Linguistic Context Language-specific
Linguistically interpreted
Contex Linguistic context

General Context Culture-specific
Culturally interpreted
Diagram (2): Types of Context
Another example is the English word dating. This word is used freely and frequently
within the English culture. In Arabic, however, it has no exact equivalent. Therefore,
relying only on the linguistic context would provide an unacceptable translation, as
the English word implies connotations that are not implied in the Arabic culture (i.e.
intimate relations).
To this effect, translating literary texts requires understanding paralinguistic
features. Translators should possess the capability of analyzing, sensing and feeling
the literary text. A mastery of the foreign language and its culture and the translator’s
own language and culture would form a good base for the translator. However, only
mastering the foreign language itself is not good enough for making a good
translator of literature, as he needs to be more familiar with the effects of sounds and
the rhythmic setting of the text, particularly in poetry.
As for poetry, it is the art of employing words in such a manner as to produce an
illusion on the senses: the art of doing by means of words what the painter does by
means of colors (Savory 1957: 76). Savory also points out that poetry has certain
features such as rhythm, metrical rhythm, emotion, sensuous emotion, increased
figure of speech, conventional word-order, and above all imagination. The ability to see
features as an object or in a particular situation which another might miss is one of the
necessities the translator of literature should possess. Full mastery of both languages and
cultures enables the translator to at least produce the form as well as the manner or the
style of the original text.
As for the strategy of translating poetry, some believe that poetry is translatable
either through “prose strategy” or “verse strategy”. Tytler (1979: 107) believes that
by using “prose strategy”, some of the sweetness and melody of the versification of the
poem may perish. Therefore, it is believed that verse strategy is close to the original
form of the text than that of prose. Verse strategy gives us an opportunity to enjoy and
experience figures
11
of speech. It also allows us to utilize any word-order that may prove to be suitable. To
this effect, the translator may opt for verse strategy in translating poetry, simply because
it has the power of stirring the emotions of readers better than that of prose.
To make these remarks more convincing, the following example, taken from the work
of an American romantic poet, Philip Freneau, demonstrates how verse strategy in
translating English poetry into Arabic is more effective and provocative than that
of prose. In describing his love of nature, Freneau (1970: 149) wrote:
“Faire flower, that dost so comely grow,
Hide in this silent, dull retreat,
Untouched thy honey’d blossoms blow,
Unseen thy little branches greet:
No roving foot shall crush thee here,
No busy hand provoke a tear.”
If the translator opts for prose translation, the translation in Arabic should look like this:
Translation (1):
،ΪϴϠΒϟ‫ ا‬Ϧ‫آ‬Ύδϟ‫ا ل‬ΰόϤϟ‫ا ا‬ά‫ ه‬ϲϓ ΔΌΒΘΨϣ ‫ و‬،ΔϗΎΒϠΑ ϮϤϨΗ ΔϠϴϤΟ ‫ة‬ή‫زه‬
ϚΑΎπϏ.‫ى ا‬ήΗ ‫ دون ان‬ϲϴΤΗ ‫ و‬،ϲδϤΗ ‫ دون ان‬ΔϠόδϤϟ‫ ا‬ϚϤϋ‫ا‬΢ΘϔΗ ήΑ
.ϚΑ ΚΒόΗ ‫ة‬ήΑΎϋ Ϊϳ ‫ك‬ΎϨ‫ه ن‬ϮϜΗ Ϧϟ‫و ك‬،ϮγΪΗ ‫م‬Ϊϗ ‫ك‬ΎϨ‫ه ن‬ϮϜΗ Ϧϟ‫و‬
(Below is a literal translation of the above Arabic text.)
You are the beautiful flower that grows elegantly. You are hidden in this calm
and boring retreat. Your honeyed blossoms blow without someone
touching you, and your little branches greet without being seen. There
will not be a foot that will crush you, nor will be a hand that fools around
with you.
Compare the above prose translation with the following verse translation, in which
the focus and preference are given to the form of the original text.
Translation (2):
،ΔϗΎΒϠΑ ϮϤϨΗ ϲΘϟ‫ ا‬ΔϠϴϤΠϟ‫ا ة‬ή‫ه‬ΰϟ‫ ا‬ΎϬΘϳ‫ا‬
،ΔΌΒΘΨϣ ΪϴϠΒϟ‫ ا‬Ϧ‫آ‬Ύδϟ‫ا ل‬ΰόϨϤϟ‫ا ا‬ά‫ ه‬ϲϓ
،΢ΘϔΘΗ ΔϠδόϤϟ‫ ا‬ϚϤϋ‫ا‬ήΑ ϲδϤΗ ‫ان دون و‬
،ϲϴΤΗ ‫ة‬ήϴϐμϟ‫ ا‬ϚϧΎμϏ‫ى ا‬ήΗ ‫ودون ان‬
‫ة‬،ήΑΎϋ ‫م‬Ϊϗ ΎϨ‫ه ك‬ϮγΪΗ Ϧϟ
.ΔΒΛΎϋ Ϊϳ ϚΘόϣ‫ د‬ήϴΜΗ Ϧϟ ‫و‬
11
You beautiful flower that does comely grow,

Hidden in this solitude and dull retreat,
Untouched, your honeyed blossoms blow,
Unseen, your little branches greet,
No roving foot will crush you here,
No busy hand will provoke a tear.
The comparison clearly shows that translation (2) is more effective than translation
(1), simply because it stirs the emotions and provides us with an accurate and precise
meaning. Verse translation provides us with something that is similar to the way in
which these verses in their original context are constructed.
Another literary form that should be accounted for is drama, which has three main
features: speakability, style, and tension (Wellwarth 1981: 140). Speakability is the way
words are enunciated and style is how words are expressed and reformed on stage. As
for tension, it is an easy suspense. A good translator is the one who is able to create
the tension of dramatic situations without misrepresenting the playwright’s intension
of dramatic credibility within the new context.
1. What is your definition of literary translation?

2. Explain the most fundamental function of literature.
3. What are the forms of literature? Which form is the most difficult to translate? Why?
4. Why is translating a literary text difficult? How is it different from other kinds of
translation?
5. What are the characteristics of texts? Can you think of other text categorizations?
6. It is well known that literary texts are very expressive? Do you agree? Explain
your answer.
7. Explain how “general context” is different from “literary context”?
8. Is there a difference between a literary context and a linguistic context? Explain your
answer.

Read the following texts very carefully, analyze their connotative and or figurative mean-
ings, and then translate them into the target language.
11
*The Ebony Horse
Once upon a time there was a great and powerful king of Persia named
Sabur, whose wealth and wisdom surpassed all mother monarchs. He comforted
those whose spirits were broken, and he treated those who fled to him for
refuge with honor. He loved the poor and was hospitable to strangers, and he
Text
always sought to defend the oppressed against their oppressors.
King Sabur had three daughters as beautiful as flower gardens in the full
moon and a son as handsome as the moon. And it was his custom to
celebrate two holidays during the year, the New Year, or the Autumnal
Equinox. On both oc-
casions he threw open his palace, gave alms to the people, made proclamations of
safety and security and prompted his chamberlains and viceroys. The people of his
realm came to him, saluted him, and celebrated these holy days with joy, and they
also brought him gifts, servants, and eunuchs.
* Arabian Nights, Burton (1997: 70)
11
Translate the following sonnet by William Shakespeare into the target language.
You must translate it in two ways: one through prose translation, and the
other through verse translation. After you finish, compare the two
translations.
Sonnet 130
Text
My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the

sun; Coral is far more red, than her lips
red:
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her
head. I have seen roses damask’d, red and
white,
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes is there more delight
Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know
That music hath a far more pleasing
sound: I grant I never saw a goddess
go,--
My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground:
And yet by heaven, I think my love as rare,
As any she belied with false compare.
11
CHAPTER 9
Translation and Language

Teaching
9.1 Introduction
Since we are discussing the status and role of translation in the teaching of a foreign
language, it is important to distinguish between translating into the native language
and translating into the second language (i.e. the foreign language). According to
Barhoudarov (1983), there is an important difference between translating into the
native (mother tongue) language and translating into the second or foreign
language. In translating into the native language, the foreign text to be translated is
the point of departure. That is, the foreign text is the first thing the translator deals
with and accounts for. Here, the translator runs into the problem of analysis. That is,
the translator analyzes the text for the purpose of understanding it and perceiving
the implicit and explicit shades of meaning behind it.
In translating into the second language, the foreign text is the targeted one. That is, the
translator aims at producing a foreign text not native to him. Here, the translator
runs into the problem of synthesis. That is, the translator goes into the process of
reconstruction and production. The text to be reconstructed or produced should
express all aspects of the intricate meanings (explicit and implicit) manifested in the
original.
9.2 Translation and Language Teaching

The issue of using translation as a means of teaching a foreign language remains a
controversy. Some believe that translation could be utilized as a means of
developing language within learners; others have some suspicions about this.
Kopczynski (1983) summarizes these for and against arguments on the use of translation
by saying that translation should
11
not be used in foreign language teaching because it causes language interference.

Transla- tion can inhibit thinking in the foreign language and can produce compound
bilingualism rather then coordinate bilingualism. Besides, using translation in
foreign language teaching can interfere in attaining automatic habits. It also makes
the learner assume that there is one-to-one-correspondence of meaning between
native language and foreign language. Using translation directs the learner’s attention
to the formal properties of foreign language items rather than their communicative
functions.
From a different perspective, translation is extremely important for foreign language
teaching simply because it allows conscious learning and control of the foreign language,
and as a result, it reduces native language interference. It is to be noted here that
conscious learning does not preclude automatic habits. Driving a car and tying a
tie can be thought of as an example. Using translation can make learning meaningful
because the learner is an active participant in the process. Learning a foreign language
is not like acquiring a native language, as learning a language involves conscious
learning (i.e. through grammar books, etc.) whereas acquiring a language involves
unconscious learning. The fact that children acquire the language and become native
speakers in it is an example of unconscious learning. Linguists and translators agree to
the fact that translation, since it is done consciously, is an excellent exercise for
language learning, but the pity in it is that most translators have partial understanding
of the text they read.
In learning a native language, the learner is there to fall back on prior knowledge.
Such knowledge is extremely important for learning new knowledge. Here, one has to
assume that the learner makes use of the prior knowledge that exists within him and, in
that, there is a process of mental translation going on throughout the process of
language learning. It could be, in this respect, that the use of translation is helpful
even more for advanced learners. For beginners, of course, it is useful simply
because it expounds grammar and teaches vocabularies.
It should be noted that the above pro or against arguments for using translation
have been made by different scholars such as translation practitioners, linguists,
psycholin- guists, sociolinguists, etc. Those scholars have more likely linguistic and
behavioristic backgrounds. However, one attraction towards using translation as a
means of teaching foreign language has to do with the teacher, and that is, whether or
not the teacher wants language learners to use translation for learning a foreign language.
Teachers and university professors, in particular, know this fact very well. They know,
whether they like it or not, that language learners indirectly and unconsciously use
the translation method for learning a language. Harris and Sherwood (1978) claim
that a child is conscious of his bilingualism and freely switches from one language to
another while learning a language. Harris and Sherwood call this “natural translation”
(i.e. translation which is done by peo-
11
Translation and Language Teaching
ple who have not had special training in translation). This kind of language learning
led Harris and Sherwood to believe that translation is co-extensive with bilingualism.
Other studies have touched upon the subject of translation and bilingualism,
indicating that from the earliest stages of bilingualism, the two languages are
compounded. That is, they are made up from one another. Therefore, avoiding native
language interferences while learning a foreign language is almost impossible (Harris
and Sherwood 1978: 10-12).
9.3 Strategies in Foreign Language Learning

There are of course strategies in which learners can learn a foreign language and
communicate with it effectively. One of these strategies is called “code-switching.”
According to Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Crombie (2004), code-switching is a
linguistic behavior in which speakers may switch between one language and another;
it also means switching between standard forms and regional forms of the same
language. Code switching is mixed discourse. That is, when a word or phrase is used
occasionally in a host language, the user is inserting or using that word in a way that
it becomes part of his way of using his own language.
Foreignizing is another strategy used in foreign language learning, namely the
invention or creation of a word or phrase that does not exist in the learner’s second
language, particularly when applying his native language morphology of second language
lexical items. Transliteration and interlingual transfer are other strategies used in
learning a foreign language. According to Bialystok and Frolich (1980) and Izzy
(2005), transliteration is a literal rendition of the native language word or phrase. As for
interlingual transfer, Faerch and Kasper (1980) and Odlin (2001) suggest that
interlingual transfer is rewording the text and interpreting verbal signs by means of
some other languages. Interlingual transfer has to account for total and full translation.
There are common questions that should be asked when considering the role of
translation in foreign language teaching. These questions are represented in the type of
translation, the function of translation, for whom we translate, and at which phase
of language should we introduce translation. First of all, according to Odlin (2001)
interlingual translation is the type of translation that should be fully taken into account
in teaching translation for the purpose of leaning a foreign language. In this
approach, translation is looked upon as a series of operations of which the point of
departure and the end product are functions within a give culture. Interlingual
transfer of information has to account for total and full translation. Total or full
translation refers to the translation of language at all levels. It should not be restricted
to some partial analysis or analysis at some specific
11
levels. Although the word-for-word translation and the grammar-translation

methods are the earliest types of translation, one should note that interlinear
translation is used in the grammar-translation method, whereas word-for-word and
literal translations are used in contrastive analysis.
As for the function of translation, it is to be remembered that expounding and interpret-
ing a text is not only a matter of providing equivalence but, in fact, it is a translation
of the grammatical and lexical aspects of the text. For example, at the phonological
level, students should be made aware of the different and similar sounds between the
two languages, the native language (NL) and the foreign language (FL). In Arabic,
for example, there are [c], [kh], [h], and [gh] that are glottal and palatal sounds that
do not exist in English and are pronounced with difficulty by non-native speakers of
Arabic. At the same time, other sounds such as [a], [b], [d], [e], [f], [j], [t], [s], [z], [m],
[n], [k], [l], and [r], among other sounds, are pronounced the same in English.
Therefore, making students aware of the two phonological systems of the two
languages is extremely significant and undoubtedly useful. It is indeed useful in the
sense that it makes them familiar with the different pronunciations of the sounds of
the two languages.
The other translation approach through which students can learn a foreign language
is the semantic approach. Semantics, in its simplest form, is defined as the study of
meaning (Ogden and Richards 1923; Saeed 1997). Through semantics, students become
acquainted with the relations connecting between sentences compared with
equivalent sentences in their native language. They also become acquainted with the fact
that the vocabulary of a particular language is not simply a listing of independent
items, but is organized into areas or fields with which words interrelate and define
each other in different ways (Bolinger and Sears 1981). Furthermore, semantization
of foreign language meanings is known to be the oldest use of translation
(Kopczynski 1983). That is, teachers within this field are mainly concerned with
translating words, phrases and sentences into the native language to explicate their
meanings. This approach was developed later as the contrastive linguistic approach
by Fries (1999), Lado (1957, 1968), Granger (2003) and later by Stockwell and Bowen
(1965), Di Pietro (1971), Fisiak et al (1981), and James (1980). Fries, cited in
Kopczynski (1983: 10), states:
The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific
description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a
parallel description of the native language of the learner.
Along the same line, Kuchlwein (et al) (1981) suggest that one of the important
techniques of comparing between two languages is translation. Although
contrastive linguistics has been through its ups and downs, it has become an
established science and
11
Translation and Language Teaching
a necessary component in preparing teaching materials. Even nowadays, according

to Kopczynski (1983), it is hard to find a pedagogic grammar which would not make
contrastive statements.
Furthermore, translation has also been used to teach grammar structures (Marton et
al 1976). Here, teachers can show students equivalent and non-equivalent structures.
For example, the sentence Adam goes to college can be explained in terms of its
grammatical equivalents. Adam is equivalent to (subject) as in English and goes can
be explained in terms of its grammatical equivalent (prepositional phrase). In terms
of non-equivalent structures, the focus in the sentence Adam is a good student
should be on comparing adjectives.
In English, adjectives precede nouns (S+V+ADJ+N) whereas in Arabic, adjectives
follow nouns (S+V+N+ADJ). Making students aware of these grammatical structures
will benefit them significantly in understanding both foreign and native languages.
Translation has also been used for teaching the lexis of a foreign language. Lexis is
used here in a variety of technical phrases. It could incorporate a unit of vocabulary
(lexical item or lexeme) or a complete inventory of lexical items of a language
(lexicon). It could also incorporate items that are cited in a lexicon as a set of lexical
entries (for more information, see Crystal 1986).
As for the translation method of teaching foreign language lexis, Marton (1977) suggests
that an example of translation, as an important factor in teaching lexis, is the teaching of
what is called conventional syntagms as words that are bound in advanced level of learn-
ing. Syntagms are words that are bound in collocation relationships. He rightly states
that the problem of learning new vocabulary items at the advanced level is not
learning the items themselves, but it is the conventional collocation, which they
enter. In a foreign language, there are fixed expressions which are different from
expressions in the native language. They differ in the fact that their meanings are
conclusive from their component parts. For example, in English, one can say fish and
chips as an English collocant whereas the same expression cannot collocate in Arabic.
That is, in Arabic, fish does not collocate with chips. The expression khobs and malh
(bread and salt) are an Arabic collocant but not in English, as bread does not collocate
with salt. These collocations and their importance can be put in focus through
translation.
It is to be noted that translation can also develop language skills at an advanced
level. An experimental project, conducted at Poznan University, Poland, Skowronski
(1982), confirms that student groups in the English Department, trained using
translation techniques, had better results in developing the skill of speaking and
writing than the groups
11
that did not use translation techniques. This shows that using translation is indeed
significant in the teaching of foreign language skills.

Explain how translation contributes to learning a foreign language.
What is the difference between language and language acquisition?
What are the strategies for learning a foreign language?
One of the methods of learning a foreign language is the “Semantic Approach”. Explain this method with
What is collocation? Give examples from your native language.
12
CHAPTER 10
Translation and
Pragmatics of Discourse
10.1 Introduction
This chapter has three objectives: first, it examines the pragmatic variables in an
intercultural and interpersonal context. Second, it argues that the use of a common
language across cultures does not always guarantee mutual understanding. Third, it
highlights areas where miscommunication is likely to occur as a result of
intercultural and interpersonal differences. Finally, this chapter provides
implications for interpreters in terms of how to eliminate factors giving rise to
intercultural/interpersonal misunderstanding.
10.2 Intercultural and Interpersonal Communication

In the last two decades, approaches have been gaining grounds in intercultural and inter-
personal communication (Gumperz 1982; Antaki 1994). These approaches do not
only seek to examine the differences in the verbal behaviors of any linguistic
communication, but rather the intercultural and interpersonal communication as well.
Intercultural and/ or interpersonal communication is understood here as a strategy used
to create meaning in cross-cultural communication. Such an interactional view is also
known as the theory of pragmatics, as it solely depends on a specific situation at
hand.
Furthermore, theories developed within what has become known as pragmatics in re-
cent years are directly relatable to the oral mode of interpreting speakers do all the
time. In order to help the theory and the practice to meet as well as possible, one
has to look at it from the end of the oral mode of spoken language, which we call
interpreting. I have chosen the oral mode of spoken language because it is easier
to perceive the pragmatic variables at work in the oral mode than it is in the written
mode. This
12
is simply due to the many contextual variables such as facial expressions, hand
move- ments, tone and quality of voice, etc. These variables may not really be
ubiquitous in the written mode of discourse. This does not mean that such variables
are not all equally present in the written mode of translation, but they tend to be
easily manifested in the oral mode of language (i.e. interpreting).
Although spoken and written languages in cross-cultural communications are viewed
as if they were two separable entities, one has to take into account the fact that in both
activities, there is a transference and/or conversion of meaning from one language
system to another language system and from one community to another community.
However, this particular transference can be done in speech and in writing. It can also
be done through subtitling below a television screen or a film screen. In all of this,
speaking and writing involves meaning transference or conversion. There is no need to
go into the controversy of what constitutes meaning. However, one needs to point
out that meaning is generally understood here as the totality of the information
conveyed in a particular message, whether stated or implied (Shiyab 1990). To this
effect, what is called ‘meaning’ in the oral mode of language (i.e. interpreting, is
what this chapter is going to investigate).
To relate theories of pragmatics to writing in an intercultural/cross-cultural context, one
has to understand the relationship between the addressor and the addressee. What
was the message and for whom was it destined? Unless these issues are taken into
account, understanding will be obscure and murky. One can imagine, for instance,
that when speakers have words on a printed page, they (words) are, in a sense,
disassociated from the people who produce those words and from the people for
whom those words are destined. For example, look at a particular message written on a
page; one sees the words on the page; however, no one sees who wrote those words in
the first place. It might have been the speaker or somebody also. Who knows? In a
sense, since we have seen the message, then we are the people whom it is destined
for, but we should be aware that it is a message that was not originally destined for
us; it was destined for somebody else.
It is axiomatic that in a large number of, but not all, situations of speaking, the text-pro-
ducer and text-receiver are both present in one situation, in one moment in time, and in
one place; therefore, it is easy to observe communication happening.
One can reflect on the fact that during meetings, whether political or social, one
might think of the position of chairs and tables in the meeting room before the
meeting even starts. The point here is that this particular preparation might have taken
minutes or even hours. The question: why is that? I think that when people put a great
deal of thought into exactly where they place the tables and chairs, it hardly matters,
although there might be a particular configuration of tables and chairs which perhaps
may not be an entirely
12
Translation and Pragmatics of Discourse
symmetrical one and might have its significance, but nevertheless, for such a meeting, it
took minutes and hours.
My second example is a stylized form of an exchange that took place between two people
coming from two different cultures. These people were speaking English to each
other and it was the opening exchange of these two businessmen who had a task to
negotiate a business deal, which they failed to negotiate. The meeting was unsuccessful
and the difficulty can be traced back to the very first words they spoke to each other
and these are the first words in a largely stylized form. Here is the conversation that
took place between these two people:
A: ‘Hello!’
B: ‘Hello,’ he replied as he turned around to see who was talking to
him. A: ‘It has been a long time since we have seen each other.’
B: ‘Yes. Too long, I am afraid,’ he replied.
A: ‘Well, that depends on what you mean by a long time,’ he remarked.
Here one can realize that at this stage of the conversation, something has already
gone wrong. There is already something not working properly in terms of
communication and the questions are: can one identify what has gone wrong here and
where does it start? The point is, that by the end of this short exchange, a very
competitive atmosphere is being created because (A) is saying “it has been a long
time” and (B) is saying “well, that is your fault, not mine, etc…” and for people who
are trying to work out a successful business deal, they got off on the wrong foot.
Things have already started to go wrong, and instead of being cooperative, they are
finding themselves competing with each other.
10.3 Culture and Communication

Based on the above observations, one can relate this to two important points that
have been observed when people negotiate with each other. The first point is that
there is a constant need to foster good relations between the people speaking to each
other. All of us know that this is not specific to any particular culture in the sense that it
is experienced in all cultures; however, it finds its way out linguistically in different
forms. When people try to negotiate or even converse with someone, they are aware
that there is a constant need to ensure that the relations between the two people
speaking to each other are taking place on the right terms; they do things
linguistically with language to ensure that happens. The second point, which is
relatable to this and other exchanges, is that in different cultures, there are unwritten
rules for when it is someone’s turn to speak (Wells 1981; Gumperz et al 1981;
Gumperz 1982). One might have observed this in some cultures
12
and/or in some linguistic cultures. In some languages, Arabic for example, it is more ac-
ceptable to interrupt the person one is speaking with than it is in other cultures. English
is a case in point. But if one is going to interrupt, there are ways of doing it linguistically;
there are ways when one should not do it linguistically. These, incidentally, are among
the most difficult problems facing language learners at all times. We are all familiar
with the kind of difficulty we face when we learn a foreign language. We actually
commit, in one way or another, a number of verbal and non-verbal offences, which are
either very aggressive towards the person we are speaking to or not aggressive
enough.
10.4 Grice’s Maxims

At this point, one has to introduce Grice’s (1975) maxims. Until the 1970’s, more or
less, not a great deal of attention had been paid to the way in which people use
language to achieve their own ends and to the rules which people implicitly obey
when conversing with other people. It was this that led Grice to talk of what he calls
“the cooperative principle”. Grice states the principles as “Make your
conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage of which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose and direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice
1975: 45).
What Grice is saying here is that when you talk to someone and someone is talking
to you, it is a natural assumption in the first instance, unless you have evidence to the
contrary, that the person talking to you is trying to be cooperative. He is not
deliberately trying to mislead you; he is not deliberately going to try and bore you; he
is not going to talk to you about a lot of things that are not relevant to you, and so
on. This is the basic assumption that people make. Here, Grice formulated these
assumptions into a number of what he called “maxims”: quality, quantity, relation,
truthfulness, and manner. The first maxim is quality. This maxim means that the
speaker or writer should include all information that the audience requires to
understand the message. In other words, speakers should be truthful and say nothing
that lacks adequate evidence. If the speaker or writer leaves out significant information,
there is a possibility that there will be a breakdown in communication or at a least a
necessity on part of the speaker to provide further information. The second maxim is
quantity, which has to do with the notion that when people speak to each other, they
go on long enough to make their point. They should be brief and should not include
unnecessary information. There is no need, on part of the speakers, to keep rambling
on without providing new information. When they feel they have made their point,
they stop talking. In other words, speakers should not be more or less informative
than required. The point is that when you are having an ordinary conversation with
someone, you know that time is limited, because when you are talking, the other
person cannot really talk. You know that there is joint cooperation whereby the
12
conversation time is shared to a certain extent. Therefore, you will not go on longer than
you feel necessary. If someone asks you a question like, Can you show me the way to
the White House?, you will try to give him/her instructions on how to reach the White
House, which will be as short and explicit as possible. You would not say, “Well, in
America, as a whole, there are many white houses. There are small white houses and
large white houses. I assume the one you want to go to is the one where the President
resides. On the other hand, if you got a taxi, you could take X street, but if you do not
have one, you could take Y street.” No one would do that because they know time is
limited. Grice states that the maxim quantity is to “make your contribution as
informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange. Do not make
your contribution more informative than required” (Grice 1975: 47).
The third maxim is the maxim of relevance or relation. It is very simply stated “be
relevant”. Let us consider the previous example:
Can you show me the way to the White House?
You would not normally expect a response such as:
I saw a nice woman walking down the street.
The above would not be a relevant reply. Therefore, the maxim indicates that if we
assume that the person speaking to us is being cooperative, which is the underlying
assumption if he/she is being cooperative, then he/she will give us a reply which is in
some sense relevant to what we have said in the first place.
The fourth maxim is the maxim of truthfulness. Grice states “Do not say what you
believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence” (Grice 1975:
48). In other words, do not lie, but then why should that be a normal maxim of talk
exchanges. One can see that this maxim is very closely related to the maxim of quality,
and Grice receives a lot of criticism about the overlapping of both maxims. However, this
maxim, as well as the other quality maxim, relates back to this cooperative principle
that when someone is talking to you, your first assumption is that they are not telling
you a pack of lies. You may have other evidence, which would lead you to the conclusion
that perhaps they are telling you a pack of lies. However, the first natural (my italics)
assumption is that when you go up to someone and ask Can you show me the way to the
White House?, they are not going to show you the way to a white house instead,
otherwise their response will be untruthful.
The last maxim is manner and is stated as “Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of
expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. Be orderly.” Perhaps “be orderly” is important
because what we
12
normally expect, when one asks somebody a question, is that the answer that comes back
to us will be in a sequence and the elements which are used will be in a certain order.
This will make it easy for us to understand what has been said. This is the normal
assumption. Grice (1975: 51), in trying to show how these maxims work, gives this
little exchange:
A: I am out of petrol.
B: There is a garage around the corner.
Now Grice says on the face of it if we just look at this as a sequence of linguistic
elements, people could say, if they knew nothing about the way the world works, in
general, that (B) is not being relevant. (A) says “I am out of petrol” and (B) starts talking
about something that is around the corner. The point here, however, as Grice says is
that “the normal assumption is the person that we say this to “I am out of petrol” is, in
fact, being cooperative. Therefore, rather than assuming that (B) is being
uncooperative, we start looking at the words that (B) says to see if there is some
meaning. In other words, there are contextual variables in the utterance that would
enable the audience to make a connection between the real world and the implication
behind uttering that statement. According to Grice (1975: 45-51), this is called
implicature. This particular maxim is one that has had a lot written about since it is
certainly something essential for interpreters and translators.
10.5 Assessment
Grice’s maxims are very useful in the semantic analysis of texts. Such usefulness,
however, is reduced by the generality, not to say vagueness, with which they are
formulated (Lyons 1977). According to Lyons, evaluating utterances is far more difficult
than quantifying the amount of semantic information in an utterance.
Taking this into account (i.e. conversation between people) one can say that what is
in- teresting about a breakdown in communication is that the people who are
experiencing the breakdown do not even notice that communication has broken down
until much later when things start to get aggressive.
At this point, one needs to add bi-cultural dimension to Grice’s Cooperative
Principle, because Grice is talking about it in relation to all people everywhere. So,
what should the interpreter do in cases where the interpreter notices that something
is going wrong in the interpreting act or feels that the speaker has lost his way in the
conversation? The dilemma is whether the interpreter can intervene and say, “you have
got this wrong; you are not understanding each other. This is not intended as a criticism.
It is intended to be cooperative, etc.” Conversely, do the interpreters have this right?
12
10.6 Pragmatic Variables and Interpreting

One can make the proposal that conference interpreters should be given the right
and the duty to actually stop the proceeding in an international conference if they
know that some talk exchange is based on a misunderstanding, however slight. They
should not be criticized for actually intervening. There is a linguistic problem, although
it is likely to be cultural as much as linguistic. Here one can see two objections: first,
this problem places an intolerable burden on the interpreter himself/herself. If
interpreters intervene in an international conference halfway through a speech from a
delegate from Jordan or Canada or wherever, they are not going to be appreciated at all
for it. What they say had better be right and had better be demonstrably right as well.
The second objection is that in negotiations, people very often will deliberately
misunder- stand the person they are talking to as a negotiating policy. As a strategy in
argument, one deliberately fails to hear something or one deliberately takes the
wrong sense of something. It happens all the time and consequently, how is the
interpreter going to deal with this? This is a very controversial issue and it is certainly
true, not so much for conference interpreters, but for liaison interpreters. There is a real
need for a systematically arranged and comprehensive collection of rules for
professional liaison interpreters, stating what interpreters should do and what they
should not do in these situations. At the moment, there is no code of practice and
consequently interpreters get criticized for whatever happens. If interpreters allow the
miscommunication to continue, they are criticized. People may not like the idea that
interpreters did not clear it up and stop it, then they may find themselves more
subject of criticism than if they had said nothing. So, it is an unsolved problem.
Consider the following extract between two people coming from two different
cultures. Speaker (A) is a Jordanian whereas speaker (B) is an American.
A: ‘Excuse me. What is your name?’

B: ‘My name is Adam, he replied, with the sound of curiosity in his
voice.’ A: ‘How long have been in this city?’
B: ‘Well, I’ve been here for only two years,’ he answered.
A: ‘Two years,’ huh. ‘What do you do for a living, he asked?
B: ‘I work in a supermarket,’ replied the American after some
hesitation. A: ‘How much money do you make monthly?’ he asked
boldly.
B: ‘I don’t know exactly,’ he replied with a frowned face.
A: ‘You don’t have to say exactly how much,’ he recommended.
B: ‘If you will excuse me, please. I’ve got to go,’ he replied with astonishment as
he turned and walked away suddenly.
12
In this conversation, there is a problem that is traceable back to the fact that (A) kept
on asking (B) very personal questions, and (A) finally interpreted this as an attempt
to un- dermine his respect, his position, etc. As a result, both speakers did not get on
very well with each other. However, it should be pointed out that this is a finding
which comes in via social-psychology that we all have what is known as ‘close group’
and ‘neutral group’. Your ‘close group’ is those people in your immediate
surrounding with whom you identify, with whom you have close relations (i.e. your
family, your close friends, etc.). In different cultures, these are defined in different
ways and there are different norms. There are such things as ‘close group’, although
we never meditate or think of who is or is not in the ‘close group’ or in the ‘neutral
group’. Nevertheless, we instinctively feel this. Of course, there is the ‘neutral group’
which is everyone else.
Another complexity in cross-cultural communications is that which results from
differences in the perception of one’s cultural and linguistic elements (Noss 1986). For
example, in the Jordanian culture, it is considered polite to welcome strangers from
a foreign country by treating them immediately as part of your ‘close group’.
Therefore, at times you ask them some personal questions. It is a way of welcoming
people, or getting close to them, trying to make him/her feel at home. However, this
is not so for the Americans and consequently one gets these misinterpreted
intentions which are a source of difficulty. Now, in going on about that, one may
talk about the different kinds of difficulties which people are observed to have, and
the sources of intercultural communication difficulties. There are four kinds: first,
people’s language behavior; secondly, peoples’ non- verbal behavior; thirdly, the basis
on which we make attribution about other people; and fourthly, the inside/outside group
bias. When it comes to language behavior, people may fail to understand each other
because they do not understand the language (i.e. cultural aspects) that each other
speak. The point here is that people are behaving linguistically in a proper manner
within their own language community, but misinterpreted within another language
community due to cultural differences.
A similar point to be made here, which concerns different races and cultures, is that it so
happens that the socio-economics of a particular country, Britain for example, are
such that the people who serve food in many establishments are largely of Pakistani or
Indian origins. The people receiving the food, in this case, are mostly British. The
language of exchange between these two groups is English. When we all speak a
foreign language very often, one of the last things to change is our intonation
patterns. We might get the grammar right, but we do not always perceive that
intonation patterns carry meaning. In certain languages (i.e. Urdu), people ask
questions with falling intonation which might be interpreted as an insult,
uncooperative, impolite, and rude in other languages. English is an example. This may
give rise to breakdowns in communication and may result in
12
unpleasant encounters due to cultural barriers. For more information on this subject, see
Gumperz et al 1981 and Gumperz 1982.
To relate breakdown in communication back to the business of interpreting, court inter-
preting is one of the situations where this is most difficult. It is a well observed fact
that in a courtroom where there is one interpreter representing what the judge is saying
to the witness and what the witness is saying to the judge, the pressures on that
interpreter are very great. Sometimes interpreters feel uneasy about what they do
because, for the witness or the accused person, they are agents of the court,
employed by the court for the court’s purposes and therefore potentially an enemy or
hostile. The accused person tends to treat interpreters as distant people, very much like
‘out group’ people. Conversely, the judge and the magistrates in the court will tend to
think people may ask for interpreters because they want to erect a smoke screen;
they want to make everything very indirect and “to stop us getting them”. They,
therefore, distrust interpreters because they regard them as an ally of the accused
person. So, interpreters are halfway in between and have this problem of loyalties.
Under those circumstances, the interpreter, for whom the accused person is, by
definition, part of the ‘inside-group’ (may have the same nationality, same age,
same cultural background, etc.), has to assume a neutrality which is very difficult to
maintain.
To sum up, I would like to conclude at this point that there is a need for interpreters
to have very explicit training in the pragmatics of discourse and the way in which they
operate particularly in an intercultural context. This unfortunately is not explicitly part
of the interpreter’s training. Moreover, what I have stated about interpreting, (i.e. the
oral mode of using language), is equally applicable to the written mode of using language.
However, the pragmatic variables of discourse in written languages (translating) are
more difficult to perceive than in spoken languages (interpreting).
10.7 Test your Knowledge of Chapter (10)

What are the main ideas you have learnt from this chapter?
Define the term “pragmatics” and explain how it can effect communication.
What are Grice’s maxims?
Compare between the maxim of “relevance” and the maxim of “quality”.
Are there any codes of ethics in interpreting? Why do you think so?
What is Grice’s main principle?
Look through this chapter again, and explain the term “Implicature”.
Give two factors that contribute to breakdown in cross cultural communication.
12
CHAPTER 11
Translation and Scientific Texts
11.1 Introduction
In this chapter, an attempt will be made to examine why scientific translation is more
important today than it was yesterday. Could it be the fact that translation is linked
to everyday technology or the impact technology has on translation? Could it be a
combination of both? Could it be due to the fact that English, as a global language, is
important? What are the factors that give rise to problems in scientific translation? Can
we reduce the gap between the language of science and the language of art? These
questions, I believe, have a lot to say about translation and science.
11.2 Global Language and Science

Crystal (2003), in an article entitled “English as a Global Language”, asks many
questions about the status of the English language. As he points out, what does it
mean for a language to be global? What are the advantages or disadvantages of a
global language? Such questions inspired many linguists to debate the prominent role
of English as an international language. Witt (2000) states that although English is not
the language with the greatest number of native speakers, in Europe for example, its
importance for communication is growing. One may find that the English language
plays an important role in many fields such as media, foreign language teaching,
business, etc. It is the key to access the Western modern sciences and technological
advances (Shaobin 2002). Re- searcher, Graddol (1997), argues that two billion
people will be learning English as it becomes a truly “world language”. All this points
to the fact that since there is a close link between language dominance and economics,
technological and cultural power (Crystal 2003: 7), then one expects to see that acts of
translation across languages will flourish.
13
Translation has and will continue to play a significant role in human interaction and
in the transference of knowledge (ibid: 11); this unquestionably will put a greater
demand on translation. With the dissemination of information, whether it be internet
or computer information, medical terminologies, technological and scientific
discoveries, the demand on transferring this knowledge from one language to another
will definitely increase, simply because the world progresses scientifically, and many
lexical items emerge by the minute. Therefore, translators have to find ways to render
these new items into other languages.
At the present time, translators unfortunately have little to say about newly
scientific terms, and this may hinder the translator from translating effectively. I assume
people as well as linguists have to develop a sense of appreciation of what translators
go through before they read a translated scientific text. Words such as bolt, gaskets,
stave sheet, tank chime, all have their own translation problems, resulting either from the
lack of such terms in one language or another or the difficulty of approximating
between target language and source language terms. In any act of translation, an
engineering project, for example, translators do not only deal with linguistic
terminology, but also with terms that are relevant to building projects. That is,
translators working on an engineering project may work on translating non-existing
terminology related to project foundation, grounding, drainage, external paving,
electric systems, multimedia communication systems, doors and windows, glazing,
pluming, tiling, paintwork, wall covering, carpeting, false ceil- ing, lifts, air
conditioning, fittings and fixtures of all kinds, etc. This is only one kind of
environment translators may choose to work in. Other areas of scientific translation may
include new discoveries, internet and computer technology, new species or disease
discoveries, space and aviation worlds, etc. People may think at times that translation
skills are homogeneous, but a cursory look at a simple scientific text will prove the
contrary. Translators have to develop skills to translate scientific texts, but such skills
are not the same to translate literary or journalistic texts. Here is a text that
manifests one level of difficulty in scientific translation:
Notched Panel Installation Supplement

Taken from Liquids Storage Erection Manual (2005)
Care must be used in erecting a notched panel tank. The tank must be
protected from wind damage at all times. Rings should be stable before
attempt- ing to use an inside drive-out ladder.
Installation of the notched panel tank proceeds as outlined in the Liquid
Erection Manual for the floor and bottom chime connection. The follow-
ing procedures are for preparation of the tank panels (gasket and bolts) and
13
installation of tank panels. Tank panels generally consists of a bottom panel,

(figure 1) and intermediate panel, (figure 3) and a top panel (figure 6). Panels
can be one row vertically punched without a notch, two rows and three rows
vertically punched with a notch.
A cursory look at this text indicates that this text is loaded with scientific terms. I
wonder how many of these words can be found in other languages. This is a
question worth pondering. Also, words such as fax, steering wheel, car switch,
sandwich, and any other borrowed words from English have their roots in all cultures
that it becomes very hard to come up with an equivalent. So based on this, there
must be some requirements for a translator to be a good translator for scientific
texts.
Nida (1964), in his book entitled Toward a Science of Translating, elaborates on the
difficulty of translating scientific texts. Apart from describing the fundamental
elements of translating and setting translation into the context of historical changes in
principles and procedures over the last two centuries, and with his emphasis on texts
being understood within their cultural contexts, he believes that translating a scientific
text entails familiarity with sciences in different languages. He believes that if
translating scientific material from a language contributing to the progress of science
is difficult, then translating scientific material from a language that is outside the
domain of science would be extremely difficult. Nida (1964: 223) states:
If, however, the translation of scientific texts from one language to
another participating in modern cultural development is not too difficult,
it is not surprising that the converse is true-that translating scientific
material from a modern indo-European language in a language largely
outside the reach of western science is extremely difficult. This really is one
of the pressing problems confronting linguists in Asia today.
Having said so, translating scientific material requires different skills and familiarity with
scientific material regardless of its source. Whether a specific language contributes to the
progress of technology and science or receives technology and science, translating mate-
rial will contribute in either way.
In an article entitled Aspects of Scientific Translation, Al Hassnawi (2004) states require-
ments that are necessary for scientific translation. According to the London Institute, Al
Hassnawi points out that to be a scientific translator one should have the following:
13
1. broad knowledge of the subject-matter of the text to be translated;

2. a well-developed imagination that enables the translator to
visualize the equipment or process being described;
3. intelligence, to be able to fill in the missing links in the original text;
4. a sense of discrimination, to be able to choose the most suitable
equivalent term from the literature of the field or from
dictionaries;
5. the ability to use one’s own language with clarity, conciseness, and
precision; and
6. practical experience in translating from related fields. In short, to be
a technical translator, one must be a scientist or an engineer, a linguist
or a writer (see Gasagrade 1954: 335-40; Giles 1995; Latfipour 1996
cited in Al Hassnawi).
Along the same line, Ilyas (1989: 109) describes scientific translation as being
difficult since its language is direct and technical. He believes that scientific texts do not
express views or opinions, but rather facts, experiments and hypotheses. Therefore, it
does not accrue emotional association and implications. This, according to Ilyas,
explains why a scientific text is more direct and free from alternatives. A scientific text
is also less artistic, and its language is characterized by impersonal style and a precise
signification. Ilyas believes that the difficulty of translating scientific material emerges
when one translates from a language spoken by a developed nation into the language
spoken by a developing or underdeveloped nation. One wonders then how the
following examples (taken from Ilyas) can be rendered into other languages:
Bismuth
Nadir
Alcazar
Borax
Sherbet
Algebra
Cipher
Elixir
Alembic
Alkali
Alcohol
Carburetor
13
The question here is whether or not such terms have equivalents in other languages.
Translators, therefore, have to resort to methods of extraction or derivation,
loanwords or borrowing, coinage, innovation or creation.
11.3 Language of Science vs. Language of Literature

In an attempt to differentiate between the language of science and the language of litera-
ture, Al Hassnawi (2004) highlights some language details pertaining to both types of
languages. Al Hassnawi successfully demarcates the defining features and characteristics
between a scientific language and a literary language in the following table:
- Logicality - Lack of argumentative progression

- Scientific Texts
Precision - Literary Texts
Vagueness
- Reason - Emotion
- Truth to particular reality - Truth to the ideal
- Generalization - Concretion
- Referential meaning - Emotive meaning
- Denotation - Connotation
- Lexical affixation - Grammatical affixation
- Idiomatic expressions are rare - Idiomatic expressions are frequent.
- Use of abbreviations, acronyms, and - Very few abbreviations, acronyms,
registers and registers
- Standard expressions - Almost all varieties
- Use of scientific terminology, spe- - No use of scientific terminology,
cialized items, and formulae or formulae
- No use of elements of - Expensive use of figurative language
figurative language
Table (1): Differences between Science and Literature According Al Hassnawi (2004)
13
Like some other disciplines, science has specialized terminology. It has its own
jargon and its own writing style. Jones (1965) presents the following ten stylistic
characteristics as a summary of good scientific writing:
1) It presents facts. It deals with the application of scientific
generalizations to specific situations.
2) It is accurate and truthful. It does not guess. It tells the whole truth.
3) It is disinterested. Its purpose is to inform, not to achieve selfish
purposes or to persuade a reader. Facts alone do not make writing
scientific.
4) It is systematic and logically developed.
5) It is not emotive. Its appeal is to reason and understand, not feel.
When it generalizes, it does so in accordance with the laws of
inductive reasoning. It avoids high-level abstraction with
emotional appeal.
6) It excludes unsupported opinions.
7) It is sincere. It tells the truth and avoids language that would make
a reader question its sincerity.
8) It is not argumentative. It reaches its general conclusions on the basis
of facts.
9) It is not directly persuasive. It is concerned with facts, with the general
laws that may be derived from the study of facts, and with the
application of general laws to specific problems. If it persuades, it
does so by logical reasoning.
10) It does not exaggerate. Because it is disinterested, it does not distort facts.
It should be pointed out here that while the above differentiation between the
language of science and language of arts is extremely significant, in the end it all boils
down to the translator’s experience in this particular field. I believe experience with
capacity to visualize the scientific term, and invention and creativity along with the
requirements of a scientific translator are key elements to translation, particularly
scientific translation. As Robinson (2003) states that experience is everything. While
experience is important, he flatly asserts that some experiences are richer and more
memorable than others (ibid 136).
13
1. What constitutes scientific translation? Provide exemplifications.

2. Describe the language of science.
3. How is the language of science different from the language of literature?
4. What are the problems associated with scientific translation?
5. What method can be used for scientific translation?
11.5 Analysis and Translation of Sentences and Texts

Read the following sentences/texts very carefully, and then translate them into the target
language.
1. As the ship moves along, its specially designed hull shape forces any oil it encounters
underneath the boat past the holes.
2. The standard way of mopping oil spills starts by containing the slick, using large
float- ing booms and then the salvage team uses skimming equipment to scoop up
the oil.
13
Prevention and Management of Diabetic Foot Ulcers

(Taken from Research Affairs, Vol.5, Issue 2, 2003)
An unwelcome consequence of the dramatic changes in life style and eating

habits that have occurred in the United Arab Emirates in recent times has been
Text
the rise of Type II diabetes (formerly known as maturity onset diabetes or non-
insulin–dependent diabetes). It is believed that among the urban population
of UAE nationals, the incidence of Type II diabetes is about 20% - 30%,
which is among the highest in the world.
Foot ulcers are a major problem for patients with diabetes and statistics in-
dicate that at least 15% of such patients have suffered at one time or another from
this condition. Several factors place diabetic patients at high risk for ulceration of the
foot. These include foot deformities such as bunions, corns and calluses, peripheral
neu- ropathy (damage to nerves supplying the feet), micro or macro angiopathy
(damage to blood vessels leading to decreased blood flow to the feet) and obesity
leading to high pressure on the foot. Other risk factors include poor glucose control,
duration of diabetes over 10 years and smoking.
13
A Slicker Way to Clean up Oil Tanker Spills

(Research Affairs, Vol.5, Issue 2, 2003)
Giant fuel tankers spewing oil into the sea are an all too familiar sight.
When an oil spill accident occurs within a marine environment, it usually
Text
leads to serious environmental and economical impacts on the whole
society. Oil spill mitigation techniques are complex and evolving. In this
research project, the research team headed by Dr. Mamdouh Ghannam has
investigated the possibility of developing a new technique based on the
density difference between crude oil and water as well as the energy of the
injected air bubbles to move the crude oil spill towards a recovery unit.
The Unit has been designed and built (see Graphic) by a team of female
students, Nadia Saleh, Nada Naser and Fatima Khaliefa, as part of their
graduation project during the first semester of the academic year
2002/2003.
13
11.6 Finding Equivalent Terms in the Target Language

The following terms are scientific terms. Many of the terms are in the fields of
medicine, engineering, biology, physics, etc. Some of these terms were taken from
the National Institute of Health (2003) – University of Kansas Medical Center (USA);
others were taken from Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia (2006b). Study the scientific
terms or concepts below and find equivalents in the target language.
Acceleration Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity

Scientific Terms vector changes. Definition TL
Equivalent
Acquired mutations Gene changes that arise within individual cells
and accumulate throughout a person’s
lifetime; also called somatic mutations.
Adenine (A) A nitrogenous base, one member of the base
pair A-T (adenine-thymine).
Acupuncture It is the practice of inserting very thin needles
in specific acupuncture points or
combinations of points on the body to
improve health and well-being.
Alleles Variant forms of the same gene. Different alleles
produce variations in inherited characteristics
such as eye color or blood type.
Allopathy The term “Allopathy” was coined by Samuel
Hanemann. The term “Allopathy medicine” is
used most frequently in the context of
critiques of conventional medicine.
Alpha-fetoprotein
(AEP) A protein excreted by the fetus into the
amniotic fluid and from there into the
mother’s blood- stream through the
placenta.
Amino acid sequence The linear order of the amino acids in protein
Amniocentesis or
Prenatal diagnosis method using cells in the
amniotic fluid to determine the number and
kind of chromosomes of the fetus and, when
indicated, perform biochemical studies.
14
Autosome Any of the non-sex-determining chromosomes.

Human cells have 22 pairs of autosomes.
Bates method The Bates method is an alternative approach to
eyesight improvement and maintenance.
Bone marrow
transplantation A procedure in which doctors replace marrow
destroyed by treatment with high doses of anti-
cancer drugs or radiation.
Breathing meditation Deep breathing involves slow, deep inhalation
through the nose, usually for a count of 10,
followed by slow and complete exhalation
for a similar count.
CAM CAM is an acronym for complementary and
alternative medicine. It also includes the recent
addition of integrative medicine.
Carrier An individual heterozygous for a single reces-
sive gene.
Catheter A thin plastic tube.
Chelation therapy Chelation therapy is the use of chelating agents
such as EDTA to remove heavy metals from
the body.
Chiropractic
medicine Chiropractic is a popular form of alternative
medicine whose physical mode of action is
spi- nal manipulations that allegedly unblock
nerve signals sent by the brain so that the
body can heal itself.
Clone A group of identical genes, cells, or
organisms derived from a single ancestor.
Cloning The process of making genetically identical
copi
Codon A sequence of three nucleotides in messenger
mRNA that specifies an amino acid.
Colonoscopy Examination of the colon through a flexible,
lighted instrument called a colonoscope.
Consanguinity Genetic relationship.
Conserved sequence A base sequence in a DNA molecule (or an ami-
no acid sequence in a protein) that has
remained essentially unchanged throughout
evolution.
14
CT or CAT scan Detailed pictures of areas of the body created

by a computer linked to an x-ray machine.
Also called computed tomography scan or
computed axial tomography scan.
Current Current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
Diploid A full set of genetic material, consisting of
paired chromosomes one chromosome from
each pa- rental set. Most animal cells except
the gametes have a diploid set of
chromosomes. The diploid human genome has
46 chromosomes.
Distance One of the undefined qualities of physics, it
measures the separation of two points.
DNA The substance of heredity; a large molecule that
carries the genetic information that cells need
to replicate and to produce proteins.
DNA hybridization A technique for selectively binding specific seg-
ments of single-stranded (ss) DNA or RNA by
base pairing to complementary sequences on
ssDNA molecules that are trapped on a nitro-
cellulose filter.
DNA probe Any biochemical used to identify or isolate a
gene, a gene product, or a protein.
Domain A discrete portion of a protein with its own
function. The combination of domains in a
single protein determines its overall
function.
Double helix The shape that two linear strands of DNA as-
sume when bonded
E. coli Common bacterium that has been studied in-
tensively by geneticists because of its small ge-
nome size, normal lack of pathogenicity, and
ease of growth in the laboratory.
Electrophoresis A method of separating large molecules (such as
DNA fragments or proteins) from a mixture of
similar molecules. An electric current is
passed through a medium containing the
mixture, and each kind of molecule travels
through the medium at a different rate,
depending on its electrical charge and size.
Separation is based on these differences.
Agarose and acrylamide gels are the media
commonly used for electrophoresis of proteins
and nucleic acids.
14
Enzyme A protein that facilitates a specific chemical

reaction.
Erythrocytes The hemoglobin-containing cell found in the
blood of vertebrates, red blood cells.
Euchromatin The chromatin that shows the staining behavior
characteristic of the majority of the chromo-
somal complement.
Eugenics The improvement of humanity by altering its
genetic composition by encouraging
breeding of those presumed to have desirable
genes.
Eukaryote Cell or organism with membrane-bound, struc-
turally discrete nucleus and other well-devel-
oped subcellular compartments. Eukaryotes in-
clude all organisms except viruses, bacteria, and
blue-green algae.
Exogenous DNA DNA originating outside an organism.
Exons The protein- coding DNA sequences of a gene.
Fecal occult blood
test (FEE-kul-o- A test to check for hidden blood in stool.
Fecal refers to stool. Occult means hidden.
KULT)
FISH Florescent in situ hybridization: a technique
for uniquely identifying whole chromosomes
or parts of chromosomes using florescent
tagged DNA.
Flower essence
therapy Flower essence therapy is a sub-category of
homeopathy which uses homeopathic
dilutions of flowers. This practice was begun
by Edward Batch with the Baxch floweer
remedies but is now practiced much more
widely, utilizing flowers all over the world.
There are numerous makers of flower essences,
using the flowers that are local to their region.
Flow karyotyping Use of flow cytometry to analyze and/or sepa-
rate chromosomes on the basis of their DNA
content.
Gamete Male or female reproductive cell (sperm or
ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23
for humans).
14
Gene A unit of inheritance; a working subunit of

DNA. Each of the body’s 50,000 to 100,000
genes contains the code for a specific product,
typically, a protein such as an enzyme.
Gene expression The process by which a gene’s coded informa-
tion is translated into the structures present and
operating in the cell (either proteins or
RNAs).
Genetic linkage map A chromosome map showing the relative posi-
tions of the known genes on the chromosomes
of a given species.
Genome All the genetic material in the chromosomes
of a particular organism; its size is generally
given as its total number of base pairs.
Genotype Genetic constitution of an organism.
Golden Age
of Quackery Eighteenth-century England is remembered
as the Golden Age of Quackery, since Queen
Ann patronized and gave credibility to myriad
swin- dlers and frauds.
Grahamism Grahamism recommended hard mattresses,
open bedroom windows, chastity, cold show-
ers, loose clothing, pure water and vigorous
exercise.
Haploid A single set of chromosomes (half the full set
of genetic material), present in the egg and
sperm cells of animals and in the egg and
pollen cells of plants. Human beings have 23
chromosomes in their reproductive cells.
Hardy-Weinberg law The concept that both gene frequencies and
genotype frequencies will remain constant from
generation to generation in an infinitely large,
interbreeding population in which mating is at
random and there is no selection, migration
or mutation.
Hereditary mutation A gene change in the body’s reproductive cells
(egg or sperm) that becomes incorporated in
the DNA of every cell in the body; also called
germline mutation.
Heterogeneity The production of identical or similar pheno-
types by different genetic mechanisms.
14
Heterozygosity The presence of different alleles at one or more

loci on homologous chromosomes.
Heterozygote Having two alleles that are different for a given
ge
Homeobox A short stretch of nucleotides whose base se-
quence is virtually identical in all the genes that
contain it. It has been found in many
organisms from fruit flies to human beings. In
the fruit fly, a homeobox appears to
determine when particular groups of genes
are expressed during development.
Homologies Similarities in DNA or protein sequences be-
tween individuals of the same species or
among different species.
Homeopathy Homeopathy is an alternative medical practice
founded on resemblances. The underlying
theory is that diseases are cured by remedies
which produce, on a healthy person, similar
effects to the symptoms of the patient’s
complaint. For example, someone suffering
from insomnia may be given a homeopathic
dose of coffee. Admin- istered in diluted
form, homeopathic remedies are derived from
many natural sources, including plants,
metals, and minerals. Numbering in the
thousands, these remedies have been used to
treat a wide variety of ailments including sea-
sonal allergies, asthma, influenza, headaches,
and indigestion.
Homozygote Having identical alleles at one or more loci in
homologous chromosome segments.
Hormones Chemicals produced by glands in the body.
Hormones control the actions of certain cells or
organs.
Housekeeping genes Those genes expressed in all cells because they
provide functions needed for sustenance of all
cell types.
HUGO Human Genome Organization.
Hybridization The process of joining two complementary
strands of DNA or one each of DNA and RNA
to form a double- stranded molecule.
14
Imaging Procedures that produce pictures of areas inside

the body.
Immune system The complex group of cells and organs that de-
fends the body against infection and disease.
In situ hybridization Use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the pres-
ence of the complementary DNA sequence in
cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells.
In vitro Outside a living organism.
Inborn errors
of metabolism Inherited diseases resulting from alterations
in genes that code for enzymes.
Incomplete The gene for a condition is present, but not ob-
penetrance viously expressed in all individuals in a family
with the gene.
Informatics The study of the application of computer and
statistical techniques to the management of
information. In genome projects, informatics
includes the development of methods to
search databases quickly, to analyze DNA
sequence information, and to predict protein
sequence and structure from DNA sequence
data.
Interferon
A type of biological response modifier (a sub-
(in-ter-FEER-on) stance that can improve the body’s natural
response to disease). It slows the rate of
growth and division of cancer cells, causing
them to become sluggish and die.
A type of biological response modifier (a sub-
Interleukin-2 stance that can improve the body’s natural
(in-ter-LOO-kin) response to disease). It stimulates the
growth of certain disease-fighting blood cells
in the immune system.
Introns The DNA base sequences interrupting the
protein- coding sequences of a gene; these
sequences are transcribed into RNA but are
cut out of the message before it is translated
into protein.
Iridology Iridology is the study of the iris to determine
heal
Journaling Journaling is a technique for reducing stress by
writing about stressful events in your life.
14
Karyotype A set of photographed, banded chromosomes

arranged in order from largest to smallest.
Kilobase (kb) Unit of length for DNA fragments equal to 1000
nucleotides
Kinetic energy Notice that this energy of motion is proportion-
al to the square of the speed. The unit of
Joule may also be expressed as
kg(m/sec)(m/sec).
Ligase An enzyme that functions in DNA repair.
Local treatment Treatment that affects the tumor and the area
close to it.
Localize Determination of the original position (locus)
of a gene or other marker on a chromosome.
Locus (plural is loci) The position on a chromosome of a gene or oth-
er chromosome marker; also, the DNA at that
position. The use of locus is sometimes restrict-
ed to mean regions of DNA that are
expressed.
Lod score Logarithm of the odd score; a measure of the
likelihood of two loci being within a
measurable distance of each other.
Lymph (limf) An almost colorless fluid that travels through
the lymphatic system and carries cells that
help fight infection and disease.
Lymph nodes Small, bean-shaped organs located along the
channels of the lymphatic system. Bacteria or
cancer cells that enter the lymphatic system
may be found in the nodes.
Macrorestriction map Map depicting the order of and distance be-
tween sites at which restriction enzymes
cleave chromosomes.
Malignant
(ma-LIG-nant) Cancerous.
Mammogram An x-ray of the breast.

(MAM-o-gram)
Mass One of the undefined qualities of physics, mass
Megabase (Mb) is theofmeasure

Unit of DNA fragments equal to 1
length for
million nucleotides and roughly equal to 1 CM.
14
Meiosis The doubling of gametic chromosome number.

Meiosis results in four rather than two daughter
cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Melanoma Cancer of the cells that produce pigment in the
skin. Melanoma usually begins in a mole.
Metaphase A stage in mitosis or meiosis during which the
chromosomes are aligned along the equatorial
plane of the cell.
Metastasis
The spread of cancer from one part of the
(meh-TAS-ta-sis) body to another. Cells in the metastatic
(secondary) tumor are like those in the
original (primary) tumor.
Missense mutation A change in the base sequence of a gene that
al- ters or eliminates a protein.
Mitochondrial DNA The mitochondrial genome consists of a circular
DNA duplex, with 5 to 10 copies per organelle.
Mitosis The process of nuclear division in cells that
produces daughter cells that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent
cell.
Molecule A group of atoms arranged to interact in a
particular way; one molecule of any substance
is the smallest physical unit of that particular
substance.
Monoclonal
antibodies Substances that can locate and bind to
cancer cells wherever they are in the body.
They can be used alone, or they can be used to
deliver drugs, toxins, or radioactive material
directly to the tumor cells.
Moxa Moxa is an herbal preparation of mugwort
dried and rolled into a pole which resembles a
cigar. It is not smoked, but used for warming
regions on the body including
acupunturepoints. The use of moxa is called
moxibustion.
Mutation A change in the number, arrangement, or
molecular sequence of a gene.
Newborn screening
(for genetic disorders) Examining blood samples from a newborn
infant to detect disease-related abnormali-
ties or deficiencies in gene products. There
are other purposes for, and methods of,
screening newborns.
14
Nitrogenous base A nitrogen containing molecule having the

chemical properties of a base.
Nucleic acid A large molecule composed of nucleotide
subunits.
Nucleotide A subunit of DNA or RNA, consisting of one
chemical base plus a phosphate molecule and
a sugar molecule.
Oncogenes Genes that normally play a role in the growth of
cells but, when over expressed or mutated, can
foster the growth of cancer.
Oncologist
(on-KOL-o-jist) A doctor who specializes in treating cancer.
Pap test Microscopic examination of cells collected

from the cervix. It is used to detect changes
that may be cancer or may lead to cancer, and
it can show noncancerous conditions, such as
infection or inflammation.
Parthenogenesis The development of an individual from an egg
without
Pedigree A diagram of the heredity of a particular trait
through many generations of a family.
Pelvic Having to do with the pelvis, the lower part
of the abdomen, located between the hip
bones.
Penetrance A term indicating the likelihood that a given
gene will actually result in disease.
Phage A virus for which the natural host is a bacte-
rial
Phenotype Observable characteristics of an organism pro-
duced by the organism’s genotype interacting
with the environment.
Plasmid Autonomously replicating, extrachromosomal
circular DNA molecules, distinct from the
normal bacterial genome and nonessential
for cell survival under nonselective
conditions. Some plasmids are capable of
integrating into the host genome. A number of
artificially constructed plasmids are used as
cloning vectors.
14
Pleiotropy The phenomenon of variable phenotypes for

a number of distinct and seemingly unrelated
phenotypic effects.
Plum blossom Plum blossom is the name of both a tool (also
called “Seven Star”) and a technique in
traditional Chinese medicine, as well as a
metaphor used by several different Chinese
martial arts.
Polygenic disorders Genetic disorders resulting from the combined
action of alleles of more than one gene (e.g.
heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers).
Although such disorders are inherited, they
depend on the simultaneous presence of
several alleles; thus the hereditary patterns
are usually more complex than those of
single-gene disorders.
Polymerase Any enzyme that catalyzes the formation of
DNA or RNA from deoxyribonucleotides or
ribonucleotides.
Polymerase, DNA or
RNA Enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of
nucleic acids on preexisting nucleic acid
templates, as- sembling RNA from
ribonucleotides or DNA from
deoxyribonucleotides.
Position The position of an object is its distance from
zero. The position depends on the zero
(origin) of the measurement.
Predisposition To have a tendency or inclination towards some-
thing in
Primer Nucleotides used in the polymerase chain re-
action to initiate DNA synthesis at a
particular location.
Proband Individual in a family who brought the family to
medical
Probe Single-stranded DNA labeled with radioac-
tive isotopes or tagged in other ways for ease in
identification.
Promoter A site on DNA to which RNA polymerase will
bind and initiate transcription.
15
Protein A large, complex molecule composed of amino

acids. The sequence of the amino acids, and
thus the function of the protein, is determined
by the
sequence of the base pairs in the gene that en-
codes it. Proteins are essential to the structure,
function, and regulation of the body. Examples
are hormones, enzymes, and antibodies.
Purine A nitrogen-containing, single-ring, basic com-
pound that occurs in nucleic acids. The purines
in DNA and RNA are adenine and guanine.
Pyrimidine Qigong is an increasingly popular aspect of
Chinese medicine. Qigong is mostly taught for
health maintenance purposes, but there are also
some who teach it, especially in China, for ther-
apeutic interventions.
Radionuclide
scanning An exam that produces pictures (scans) of in-
ternal parts of the body. The patient is given an
injection or swallows a small amount of radio-
active material. A machine called a scanner then
measures the radioactivity in certain organs.
Recessive A gene that is phenotypically manifest in the ho-
mozygous state but is masked in the presence of
a dominant allele.
Recombination The natural process of breaking and rejoining
DNA strands to produce new combinations
of genes and, thus, generate genetic
variation. Gene crossover during meiosis.
Reiki Reiki purports to be an energy healing
therapy, which is claimed to help the body’s
ability to heal itself through the flow and
focusing of healing energy (Reiki means
universal healing energy).
Remission Disappearance of the signs and symptoms of
cancer. When this happens, the disease is said
to be “in remission”. Remission can be
temporary or permanent.
Reproductive cells Egg and sperm cells. Each mature reproductive
cell carries a single set of 23 chromosomes.
Resolution Degree of molecular detail on a physical map of
DNA, ranging from low to high.
15
RNA Ribonucleic acid, a chemical similar to DNA.

The several classes of RNA molecules play
important roles in protein synthesis and
other cell activities.
Sanger sequence “Plus and minus” or “primed synthesis” method;
DNA is synthesized so it is radioactively labeled
and the reaction terminates specifically at the
position corresponding to a given base.
Sarcoma A type of cancer that starts in the bone or
muscle.
Screening Looking for evidence of a particular disease
such as cancer in persons with no symptoms
of disease. Checking for disease when there are
no symptoms.
Sequencing Determination of the order of nucleotides (base
sequences) in a DNA or RNA molecule or the
order of amino acids in a protein.
Shotgun method Cloning of DNA fragments randomly generated
from a genome.
Side effects Problems that occur when treatment affects
healthy cells. Common side effects of cancer
treatment are fatigue, nausea, vomiting,
decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and
mouth sores.
Sigmoidoscopy (sig-
moy-DOS-ko-pee) A procedure in which a doctor looks inside
the rectum and the lower part of the colon
(sig- moid colon) through a lighted tube. The
doctor may collect samples of tissue or cells
for closer examination.
Single-gene disorder Hereditary disorder caused by a mutant allele of
a single gene (e.g. Duchenne muscular
dystro- phy, retinoblastoma, sickle cell
disease).
Somatic cell hybrid Hybrid cell line derived from two different spe-
cies; contains a complete chromosomal comple-
ment of one species and a partial
chromosomal complement of the other;
human/hamster hy- brids grow and divide,
losing human chromosomes with each
generation until they finally stabilize, the
hybrid cell line established is then utilized to
detect the presence of genes on the
remaining human chromosome.
15
Southern blotting Transfer by absorption of DNA fragments sepa-

rated in electrophoretic gels to membrane filters
for detection of specific base sequences by radi-
olabeled complementary probes.
Syndrome A recognizable pattern or group of multiple
signs, symptoms or malformations that char-
acterize a particular condition; syndromes are
thought to arise from a common origin and
result from more than one developmental
error during fetal growth.
Tandem repeat
sequences Multiple copies of the same base sequence on
a chromosome; used as a marker in physical
mapping.
Tantra The word Tantra emphasizes the connection
with the old Indian cultural background where
the body is seen as the temple of the soul.
The tantric tradition used sexual rituals for
spiritual development – a concept which is far
away from todays experience. For example in
tantramas- sage as a spriritual approach to
sexual blockade. Used in various groups and
massage sessions.
Telomere The ends of chromosomes. These specialized
structures are involved in the replication and
stability of linear DNA molecules.
Transferase Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of functional
groups between donor and acceptor molecules.
Translation The process of turning instructions from mRNA,
base by base, into chains of amino acids that
then fold into proteins. This process takes place
in the cytoplasm, on structures called
ribosomes.
Vector A self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers a
DNA segment between host cells.
Velocity vector The “length” of the velocity vector is the speed.
The direction of the motion (Ø) is also part of
the velocity vector.
Voltage Voltage is an energy measure, the energy
carried by one coulomb of electrical charge.
The voltage between two points in a circuit is
the amount of energy available for pushing
each coulomb of charge from one of these
points to the other.
15
Western blotting
A technique used to identify a specific protein;
analysis the probe is a radioactively labeled antibody
raised against the protein in question.
Wholeness Wholeness has come to connote more than
mere completeness or fullness. It implies a real-
ity, system or truth in which all parts or aspects
are present in right and healthy relationship
with each other.
Wilms’ tumor A kidney cancer (tumor) that occurs in chil-
dren, usually before age
15
CHAPTER 12
Translation and Legal Texts
12.1 Introduction
Many studies have been conducted on translation, but very few have been
conducted on legal translation. Translators find it hard to venture into the field of
legal translation simply because it involves awareness and familiarity with the two legal
systems of the two languages involved in translation. This is not easily attainable since
familiarizing oneself with the two legal systems takes lots of time, effort and
perseverance. Also, legal translation is difficult due to the diversity of the legal
systems pertaining to the two languages.
Furthermore, in an age where the world is becoming a small community, legal trans-
lations or legal translators are in demand. International treaties, communal and world
conflicts, international trade and joint ventures are all in demand, and so too legal trans-
lators. So what is it that puts legal translation at the forefront of this emerging discipline?
Could it be the subject-matter itself or the distinctive language quality? Could it be
the collaboration and cooperation between countries? Perhaps it is all of these. I believe
legal translation is on the rise since we live in a changing world where technology
and economics affect the world community.
12.2 Legal Language vs. Legal Translation

There is a correlation and direct link between language and law. If language provides
the form which determines its meaning, then this form has a great bearing on how
legal language is interpreted. According to Wikipedia (2006a), language plays a
significant role in the make up and interpretation of law. So those who are mainly
concerned with the lan-
15
guage of law (i.e. philosophers of law) have to come up with their theory of
understanding law and how it is used. The use of language, according to Wikipedia
(2006a), is:
Crucial to any legal system, not only in the same way that is crucial to politics
in general, but in the specific respect that law makers typically use language to
make the law and courts typically use language to state their grounds of
decisions.
While language has a huge impact on the interpretation of the law, it is sometimes
littered with vagueness and ambiguity. Some philosophers of law believe that vagueness
is a must in legal language, and vagueness is an inescapable attribute of language (see
Chris- tie 1964: 886). Christie believes that the exploitation of vagueness in
language reaches maximum utilization when groups in control of the legislators and
those in control of the courts are antagonistic to each other. It seems that common
people are excluded from this language as if legal language was destined for only those
who utilize the law. It is no wonder that the layman has no capacity to interpret the
legal language, and he resorts to lawyers for legal language interpretation. The way
legal language was vaguely construed makes it hard for the ordinary man to
understand. As Christie (1964: 889) states:
Vagueness has some uses in law which permits men, through the use of
language, to achieve more sophisticated methods of social control, for
example, the use of vague language in legal directives to postpone
ultimate decision. Such postponement may be desired for a variety of
reasons that are often interconnected.
As for legal translation, it is understood here as the translation of binding documents
such as marriage or business contracts, birth certificates, agreements, etc. From a differ-
ent angle, legal translation is the translation of texts within the field of law
(Wikipedia 2006a). The word “law” comes from the late old English Lagu of probable
Germanic origin. According to Wikipedia, law in politics or jurisprudence is a set of
rules or norms of conduct which mandate, prescribe or permit specified relationships
among people and organizations, intended to provide methods for ensuring the
impartial treatment of such people, and provide punishments of /for those who do not
follow the established rules of conduct. There are different kinds of law: legal law, civil
law, religious law, customary law, common law, etc. Also, within the body of law, there is
private law, public law, procedural law, international law, philosophical law,
anthropology of law, history law, etc. For more information on these types of law, see
Wikipedia (2006a).
It is really too hard to appreciate what is involved in legal translation, unless one is
familiar with legal language. However, like literary translation, many translation
theorists and practitioners believe that legal translation is hard to handle simply because
its language is
15
embedded within its culture. De Leo (1999) believes that legal translation is “littered”
with a series of different obstacles that makes the translator’s job extremely difficult.
Capellas- Espuny (1999) rightly states that terminological problems are among the
problems posed by legal translation. Therefore, legal translators have to be professional
translators. They should also be aware of the two legal systems involved.
12.3 Characteristics of Legal Texts

Legal texts are texts that are written for describing a specific law. They are not
written to entertain or to inform, but to explain what a word means and entails.
Therefore, legal texts can inform, communicate and describe language. It is this multi
faceted nature that makes it hard to handle. Sager (1988) believes that any form of
translation must be based on the type of text. The objective behind classifying texts
into types is to delimit their communicative, social and informative functions. Legal
texts subjected to translation can therefore be classified into different categories. Such
categories are outlined by Szabari (1996) as follows:
1. Statutes (e.g. constitutions, laws, decrees), whose source language
texts are primarily directive and whose target language texts are
informative.
2. International and particularly bilateral treaties and agreements, in
which case both source and target language texts are binding upon the
audience. Often the two texts are articulated simultaneously, so there
is in fact no point to differentiating between the source and target
texts. A good example is the European Union, which drafts statutes
binding upon member states in all twelve official languages and
working languages.
3. General texts in the field of jurisprudence which examine the
elements of a particular national legal system from a broad perspective,
on a high level of abstraction, or by comparing them to other legal
systems.
Having classified legal texts into categories, one may realize that the problem of trans-
lating legal texts results from the lack of finding equivalent items in the target lan-
guage. I wonder if words such as invoice, agreement, contract, white paper, back-up
documents, and scripts are all having one to one correspondence. Also, some legal
documents can also give rise to some translation problems. For example, words such as
draft, original, proof are all types of documents. Can any two languages involved in the
translation have exact equivalents?
15
12.4 Problems in Translating Legal Texts

In most normal cases, translating legal documents poses many problems to translators.
Some of these problems may result from the nature of the two legal systems of the
two languages involved. Culture-specific terminology is an additional problem, and
legal translators have to overcome the conceptual differences between the two
languages involved. Newmark (1988) clearly states that if a word is denoting an object or
referring to an institution but does not exist in the target language, then it becomes
extremely difficult to add a psychological characteristic alien to that language.
Translators therefore have to come up with a solution, particularly for terms that are
non-existent in the target language.
12.5 Strategies for Translating Legal Texts

It is axiomatic that law does not entail passion, and therefore, cannot be emotive as
the case with literary texts. The language of law is very precise, although it is subject to
semiotic restrictions. However, legal language has a distinctive quality that marks it
off from ordinary language (Grazone 2000). The distinctive quality, according to
Grazone, has been pigeonholed by jurists and jurilinguists, particularly those who
have pointed out that the legal translator has to deal with problems that are dissimilar
to those encountered in other fields. Some of these problems are:
1. Fidelity:
This term refers to whether or not translation is accurate. Although fidelity is exchange-
able with the term faithfulness, it can sometimes be differentiated from faithfulness in the
sense that faithfulness refers to how closely the translation acknowledges the target lan-
guage structure. In legal translation, preserving the letter of the law is hard and
tradition- ally, translators were bound to fidelity of the source text. Therefore, the legal
translator’s ultimate goal is to re-enact and recreate the form and substance of the text
as closely as possible. Word-for word translation or literal translation used to be the
only acceptable method of translating a legal text. While there are variations as far
as the methods of translating legal texts are concerned, the literal method is still in use.
Sarcevic (2002) cites Didier (1990: 280) stating that translating legal documents
depends on the kind of text. For example, the method of translating a legislative
document is different from translating a judgment document. According to Didier,
the translation of legislation and other informative texts requires absolute literalness.
At the same time, judgments, he continues, can be translated more freely, thus
reorganizing that text type also plays an important role in determining the strategy of a
legal translation.
15
2.Sense Translation:
There is still a controversy whether legal translation should be literal or free. As
indicated above, translating legal binding documents can be literal, but at other times
they can be translated with some form of freedom. The translation strategy used will
depend on the type of text. Free translation focuses on meaning or content whereas
literal translation focuses on form. From a practical perspective, methods and
techniques of translating legal binding texts vary from one institution to another.
Weisflog (1987) cited by Sarcevic (2002) asserts that authenticated translations must
be comprehensible. Substance must prevail over form. This is contradictory to what
other legal translations have advocated (see Didier 1990). Koutsivitis (1988) believes
that legal texts must be translated freely, and the sense of the word in legal texts has to
be completely understood otherwise the translated text will be littered with ambiguity.
Koutsivitis believes that the translator’s ultimate task is to transfer the sense of the
original. So what are the ways in which legal texts can be translated? Altay (2002), in an
article entitled “Difficulties Encountered in the Transla- tion of Legal Texts”, suggests
ways of translating concepts that do not exist in the target language and culture as
follows:
1. Paraphrase: This method is used to explain the SL concept that is alien or
peculiar to the target reader. Such peculiarity results from the fact that this
concept has no equivalent concept in the target culture.
2. Functional Equivalence: Here the legal translator uses the closest equivalent concept.
It happens that providing functional equivalents of a legal SL term becomes very
difficult as the two legal systems have nothing in common.
3. Word-for-Word Translation: This method is sometimes exchangeable with literal
translation, although there is a slight difference between the two methods. Word-
for word translation involves translating a lexical item for a lexical item in the target
language. The translator may make some linguistic adjustments to the text when
needed. Adjustments include prepositions, endings, grammatical features, etc.
Regardless of what method or strategy legal translators use in translating legal
documents, I believe it all boils down to the kinds of texts and the constraints
surrounding its production. In some parts of the world, legal texts have been adopted
from other western countries (Syria, Lebanon and France are a case in point). Within
these countries, translators may find the same legal terminology unless there is a legal
institution that does not exist in one country or another. In this case, translators have to
extract terminology relevant to the target culture. Capellas-Espuny (1999) maintains
that the translation of certain technical terms is impossible because institutions and
legal systems in one country may differ from those in another country due to social,
cultural and historical differences. In such
15
cases, functional equivalence is the ideal translation for such technical terms. According
to Wikipedia (2006a), when translating a legal text, translators have to keep in mind that
the legal system of the source language is structured in a way that suits the culture,
and this is reflected in the legal language. Therefore, the target text is to be read by
someone who is familiar with the legal systems of the two languages involved.
1. What is a legal text?

2. Explain three characteristics of a legal text.
3. What makes legal texts difficult to translate? Give three examples.
4. Explain three methods of translating legal texts.
5. Give two examples of “sense translation”.
6. Is vagueness a characteristic of legal texts or does it pertain to all kinds of
text? Explain your answer with exemplifications.
12.7 Finding Target Language Equivalents

Read the following table very carefully, and translate the legal terms into the target
language. The list below is an example of how some legal terms and concepts in one
language may not have the same or similar equivalents in the target language. Some
of the terms were adopted from the United States District Court – District of Idaho
(1997). Others were adopted from Her Majesty’s Court Service, HMCS (2005). Very
few terms were adopted from the encyclopedia AllRefer.com (2003), listing U.S legal
terms and concepts.
16
Accused The person charged. The person who has alleg-

Legal Terms edly committed theDefinition
offence. TL
Equivalent
Acknowledgement of
Service Form of reply to, or confirmation of, service of
process.
Acquittal Discharge of defendant following verdict or di-
rection of not guilty.
Act Law, as an act of parliament.
Adjudication Judgment or decision of a court or tribunal.
Administration Order An order by a County Court directing a debt-
or to pay a specified monthly installment into
Court in respect of outstanding debts. The
Court retains the payments made and at
intervals dis- tributes it between the creditors
on a pro-rata basis.
Adoption An act by which the rights and duties of the
natural parents of a child are extinguished
and equivalent rights and duties become
vested in the adopter or adopters, to whom
the child then stands in all respects as if born
to them in marriage.
Adultery Voluntary sexual intercourse between a mar-
ried person and another person who is not
the spouse, while the marriage is still valid.
This is common fact relied on for divorce.
Advocate A barrister or solicitor representing a party in
a hearing before a court.
Affidavit A written statement of evidence confirmed on
oath or by affirmation to be true and taken
before someone who has authority to
administer it.
Affirmation Declaration by a witness who has no religious
belief, or has religious beliefs that prevent
him/ her taking the oath, that the evidence
he/she is giving is the truth.
Alternative Dispute
Resolution An alternative method by which parties can re-
solve their dispute – could be arbitration.
16
Ancillary Relief Additional claims (e.g. in respect of mainte-

nance) attached to the petition for divorce/judi-
cial separation/nullity.
Annul To declare no longer valid
Appeal Application to a higher court or authority for
review of a decision by a lower court or
authority.
Appellant Person who appeals
Appellate Court A court of appeals which hears appeals from
lower court decisions.
Applicant Person making the request or demand (e.g. per-
son who issues an application).
Application The act of applying to a court
Appraisement or
Appraisal Valuation of goods seized under warrant of
execution prior to sale.
Attachment of An order that directs an employer of a debtor
Earnings to deduct regularly an amount, fixed by the
court, from the debtor’s earnings and pay
that sum into court.
Award Result of an arbitration hearing or the amount
of damages assessed by a court.
Bail Release of a defendant from custody, until
his/ her next appearance in court, subject
sometimes to security being given and/or in
compliance with certain conditions.
Bailiff Officer of the county court empowered to
serve court documents and execute warrants.
Bankrupt Insolvent – unable to pay creditors and having
all goods/effects administered by a liquidator or
trustee and sold for the benefit of those
creditors; as a result of an order under the
Insolvency Act 1986.
Barrister A member of the bar; the branch of the legal
profession which has rights of audience before
all courts.
Bench Warrant A warrant issued by the judge for an absent
defendant to be arrested and brought before
a court.
16
Brief Written instructions to counsel to appear at a

hearing on behalf of a party prepared by the so-
licitor and setting out the facts of the case
and any case law relied upon.
Case Conference Usually the first hearing in a multi track claim
and an opportunity to take stock and consider
the way forward.
Case number A unique reference number allocated to each
case by the issuing court.
Caution Notice given to the Land Registry by any
person with an interest in particular land to
ensure that no action is taken in respect of the
land without the person’s knowledge.
Caveat A notice given to the registrar that effectively
prevents action by another party without first
notifying the party entering the caveat.
Certificate of Legal
Aid Costs A certificate of costs allowed following
taxation by a judicial or taxing officer.
Cessate A grant of representation of limited duration
which has ceased and expired.
Chambers Private room or Court from which the public
are excluded in which a District Judge or
Judge may conduct certain sorts of hearings.
Charge A formal accusation against a person that a
criminal offence has been committed.
Charging Order An order directing that a charge be registered
at the Land Registry on property owned by
the debtor. This is also a form of enforcing
civil debt. An order preventing the sale or
disposal of a property until the charge has
been cleared.
Circuit Court The circuit court is the trial court with the
broadest powers in a state. It handles all civil
cases with claims of.
Circuit Judge A judge who sits in the County Court and/or
Crown
Civil Matters concerning private rights and not of-
fences against the
16
Civil Justice The result of the access to justice report by Lord

Woolf. The aim is to provide more effective
access to justice through quicker, cheaper
and more proportionate justice for defended
cases. It introduced a unified set of Rules and
Practice Directions for the County and High
Courts, and Judicial Case Management The
reforms came into effect on 26 April 1999.
Claim Proceeding issued in the County or High Court.
Claimant The person issuing the claim.
Claim form The form that a claim is issued on.
Codicil An addendum signed and executed which
amends or adds something to a will.
Commissioner of
Oaths Solicitors authorized by the Lord Chancellor
to administer oaths and affirmations to a
statement of evidence.
Committal Committal for trial: following examination by
the magistrates of a case involving and
indictable or either way offence, the
procedure of directing the case to the Crown
Court to be dealt with.i)
Common Law The law established, by precedent, from judicial
decisions and established within a community.
Compensation Sum of money to make up for or make amends
for loss, breakage, hardship, inconvenience or
personal injury caused by another.
Concurrent Sentence A direction by a Court that a number of sen-
tences of imprisonment should run at the
same time.
Concurrent Writ A duplicate of the original writ bearing the
same date and expiring at the same time as
the original.
Conditional
Discharge A discharge of a convicted defendant without
sentence on condition that he/she does not
re- offend within a specified period of time.
Conduct Money Money paid to a witness in advance of the hear-
ing of a case as compensation for time spent at-
tending court.
16
Consecutive Sentence An order for a subsequent sentence of impris-

onment to commence as soon as a previous
sentence expires. Can apply to more than two
sentences.
Contempt of Court Disobedience or willful disregard to the judicial
process.
Contributory Partial responsibility of a claimant for the injury
in respect of which he/she claims damages.
Co-respondent A person named as an adulterer (or third per-
son) in a petition for divorce.
Corroboration Evidence by one person confirming that of an-
other or supporting evidence, for example fo-
rensic evidence (bloodstain, fibers, etc.) in mur-
der cases.
Counsel A Barrister.
Count An individual offence set out in an indictment.
Counterclaim A claim made by a defendant against a claim-
ant in an action. There is no limit imposed on
a counterclaim, but a fee is payable according
to the amount counterclaimed.
County Court Sometimes inaccurately referred to as the Small
Claims Court, County Courts deal with civil
matters including all monetary claims up to
₤15,000. Many County Courts have extra pow-
ers which enable them to deal with divorce
and other family proceedings, bankruptcy
actions, matters relating to children and
cases involving ships and boats known as
admiralty actions. Some County Courts are
also branch offices of the High Court known
as District Registries.
Court Body with judicial powers.
Court of Appeal Civil and Criminal divisions and hears appeals:
from decision in the High Court and County
Court and, against convictions or sentences
passed by the Crown Court.
Court of First
Instance It is a generic term for a trial court of original
or primary jurisdiction. It hears employment
disputes brought by employees.
16
Court of It refers to courts that are limited in the

Limited types of criminal and civil cases they may
Jurisdiction hear. For example, traffic violations generally
are heard by limited jurisdiction courts.
Court of Protection The branch of the High Court with jurisdiction
over the states of people mentally incapable of
handling their own financial affairs.
Court Room The room in which cases are heard.
Covenant A formal agreement or a contract constituting
an obligation to perform an act.
Creditor A person to whom money is owed by a debtor.
Criminal Person who has been found guilty of a criminal
offen
Crown Court The Crown Court deals with all the crime com-
mitted for trial by Magistrates Courts. Cases
for trial are heard before a judge and jury.
The Crown Court also acts as an appeal
Court for cases heard and dealt with by the
Magistrates. The Crown Court can also deal
with some civil and family matters.
Damages An amount of money claimed as compensation
for physical/material loss (e.g. personal injury,
breach of contract).
Debtor Person owing money to another party.
Decree An order of the Court in proceedings com-
menced by
Decree Absolute A final certificate, resulting from an application,
dissolving a
Decree Nisi Order for divorce unless cause to contrary is
Declaration shownorder
Court withinsetting
a set out the rights of a party
in the form of a
Deed A legal document which sets out the terms of

an agreement, which is signed by both
parties.
Default Judgment Obtained by the claimant as a result of the fail-
ure of a defendant to comply with the
requirements of a claim (i.e. reply or pay
within a 14 day period after service of the
claim).
16
Defendant Person sued; person standing trial or appearing

for sentence.
Deponent Person giving evidence by affidavit.
Deposition A statement of evidence written down and
sworn on oath, or by affirmation.
Designated Civil
Judge A judge designated to deal with the Civil Justice
Reforms for a group of courts.
Detailed Assessment Where costs are dealt with by the drawing of a
bill of costs.
Determination Act of scrutinizing a bill of costs in criminal
proceedings to see if the work done and
amount claimed is reasonable.
Devi Person to whom freehold land is given by a
will.
Disability The inability of a person to handle their own
affairs (e.g. through mental illness or a mi-
nor under 18 years of age) which prevents in-
volvement in civil legal proceedings without
representation.
Discovery of
Documents Mutual exchange of evidence and all relevant
information held by each party relating to the
case.
Discontinuance Notice give by the court, on instruction by the
claimant that they no longer wish to proceed
with the case.
Dismissal To make order or decision that a claim be
ceas
District Judge A judicial officer of the Court whose duties
involve hearing applications made within pro-
ceedings and final hearings subject to any
limit of jurisdiction previously known as
Registrars.
Divisional Court As well as having an original jurisdiction of their
own, all three divisions of the High Court
have appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals
from lower Courts and tribunals. The
Divisional Court of the Chancery Division
deals with appeals in bankruptcy matters from
the County Court.
Divorce Dissolution or nullity of marriage.
16
Dock Enclosure in criminal Court for the defendant

on
Enforcement Method of pursuing a civil action after judg-
ment has been made in favor of a party.
Estate The rights and assets of a person in property.
Execution Seizure of debtors goods following non payment
of a Court
Executor A person or persons specified to carry out the
provisions of a
Exempt To be freed from liability or allegiance.
Exhibit Item or document referred to in an affida-
vit or used as evidence during a Court trial
or hearing.
Expert Witness Person employed to give evidence on a subject
in which they are qualified or have expertise.
Federal Courts The court system which handles civil and crimi-
nal cases based on jurisdictions enumerated in
the Constitution and Federal statutes.
Fee Monies payable on issue of a claim or subse-
quent
Fiat A decree of command.
Garnishee A summons issued by a plaintiff, against a third
party, for seizure of money or other assets in
their keeping, but belonging to the defendant.
Guarantor Someone who promises to make payment for
another if payment is not made by the person
responsible for making the repayments of a
loan or hire purchase agreement.
Guardian A person appointed to safeguard/protect/man-
age the interests of a child or person under
mental disability.
16
High Court A civil court which consists of three divisions:

i) Queen’s Bench (can be known as King’s
Bench Division if a King is assuming the
throne) – civil disputes for recovery of
money, including breach of contract, personal
injuries, libel/slander;
ii) Family – concerned with matrimonial mat-
ters and proceedings relating to children (e.g.
wardship);
iii) Chancery – property matters including
fraud and bankruptcy.
Indictable Offence A criminal offence triable only by the Crown
Court. The different types of offence are classi-
fied 1, 2, 3, 4. Murder is a class 1 offence.
Injunction An order by a court either restraining a person
or persons from carrying out a course of
action or directing a course of action be
complied with. Failure to carry out terms of
the order may be punishable by
imprisonment.
Insolvency The condition of having more debts (liabilities)
than total assets.
Inspection of
Documents Following disclosure of each parties
documents by discovery, the arrangements
made by the parties to allow mutual exchange
and copying of documents.
Interlocutory Interim, pending a full order/decision, e.g. in-
terlocutory judgment awarded an entered as fi-
nal judgment.
Intestate Without leaving a will.
Issue To initiate legal proceedings in pursuit of a
clai
Judge An officer appointed to administer the law
and who has authority to hear and try cases
in a court of law.
Judgment Final decision of a court A monetary judgment
requires the payment of a sum of money by
one party to another.
Judicial/Judiciary i) Relating to the Administration of justice or
to the judgment of a Court.
ii) A judge or other officer empowered to act
as a judge.
16
Jurat A statement contained at the conclusion of

an affidavit which states the name of the
person
giving the evidence, the name of the person be-
fore whom and the place where the oath or af-
firmation was taken.
Juror A person who has been summoned by a court
to be a member of the jury.
Jury Body of jurors sworn to reach a verdict
according to the evidence in a court.
Justice of the Peace A lay magistrate – person appointed to adminis-
ter judicial business in a Magistrates Court.
Also sits in the Crown Court with a judge or
recorder to hear appeals and committals for
sentence.
Jurisdiction The area and matters over which a court has le-
gal authority.
Juvenile Person under 17 years of age
Law The system made up of rules established by
an act of parliament, custom or practice
enjoining or prohibiting certain action.
Lease The letting of land or tenements, e.g. rent,
for property for a prescribed period.
Legal Personal
Representative The person to whom a grant of probate of letters
of administration has been issued.
Legatee Person to whom personal estate is given by will.
Levy A duty carried out by a bailiff or sheriff under
the authority of a warrant or writ of fi-fa, for
a sum of money whereby goods of value
belonging to the debtor are claimed with a
view to re- moval and sale at a public auction
in an attempt to obtain payment.
Libel A written and published statement/article
which infers damaging remarks on a person’s
reputation.
Licence Permission to carry out an act that would other-
wise be considered
Lien A legal right to withhold the goods/property
of another until payment is made.
17
Listing This form is used to ensure that all issues are

re- solved and that the parties are ready for
trial.
Litigation Legal proceedings.
Lord Chancellor The cabinet minister who acts as speaker of the
House of Lords and oversees the hearings of the
Law Lords.
Lord Chief Justice Senior judge of the Court of Appeal (Criminal
Division) who also heads the Queens Bench
Di- vision of the High Court of Justice)
Lord Justice of Appeal Title given to certain judges sitting in the Court
of
Magistrates Court A court where criminal proceedings are com-
menced before justices of the peace who
examine the evidence/statement and either
deal with the case themselves or commit to
the Crown Court for trial or sentence.
Master of the Rolls Senior judge of the Court of Appeal.
Matter Proceedings commenced by way of originating
applicatio
Minor Someone below 18 years of age and unable to
sue or be sued without representation, other
than for wages. A minor sues by a next friend
and defends by a guardian.
Mitigation Reasons submitted on behalf of a guilty party in
order to excuse or partly excuse the offence com-
mitted in an attempt to minimize the
sentence.
Mortgage A loan of money advanced to purchase prop-
erty. The transfer of the property is withheld
as security for payment.
Mortgagor The party obtaining the loan.
Mortgagee The party that advances the loan.
Motion An application by one party to the High Court
for an order in their
Non-Molestation An order within an injunction to prevent one
person physically attacking another.
17
Non-Suit Proceedings where the plaintiff has failed to es-

tablish to the Court’s satisfaction that there is a
case for the defendant to answer.
Notary Public Someone who is authorized to swear oaths and
certify the execution of deeds.
Notice of Issue Notice sent by a Court to the claimant giving
notification of the case number allocated to
their action and details of fees paid. Confirms
date of service.
Nullity Application to the Court for a declaration
that a marriage be declared ‘void’ or be
annulled i.e. declared never to have existed or
to have sub- sisted until the Court dissolved
it.
Oath A verbal promise by a person with religious
beliefs to tell the truth.
Official Solicitor A solicitor or barrister appointed by the Lord
Chancellor’s Department. The duties include
representing, in legal proceedings, people
who are incapable of looking after their own
affairs,
i.e. children/persons suffering from mental
illness.
Oral Examination A method of questioning a person under oath
before an officer of the Court to obtain details
of their financial affairs .
Order A direction by a Court.
Originating
Application A method of commencing proceedings under
the authority of a specific act of parliament
(e.g. Landlord and Tenant Act), whereby the
applicant asks the Court to grant an order in
their favor.
Ouster An order within an injunction to force a person
Particulars to leaverelevant
Details a to a claim.
Party Any of the participants in a Court action or
proceeding
Penal Notice Directions attached to an order of a Court stat-
ing the penalty for disobedience may result in
imprisonment.
17
Petition A method of commencing proceedings

whereby the order required by the petitioner
from the
Court is expressed as a prayer (e.g. the peti-
tioner therefore prays that the marriage be dis-
solved – divorce proceedings).
Petitioner A person who represents the petition.
Plaintiff See claimant.
Plaint Note See notice of issue.
Plaint Number Old-fashioned term for Claim Number.
Plea A defendant’s reply to a charge put to him by a
court (i.e. guilty or not guilty).
Pleading Documents setting out claim/defense of parties
involved in civil proceedings.
Possession
Proceedings Legal proceedings by a landlord to recover land/
property (i.e. house, flat, garage etc.).
Power of Arrest An order attached to some injunctions to allow
the police to arrest a person who has broken the
terms of the order.
President of the
Fam- ily Division Senior judge and head of the Family Division of
the High Court of Justice.
Pre-trial Review A preliminary appointment at which the DIS-
TRICT Judge consider the issues before the
Court and fixes the timetable for the trial.
Probate The legal recognition of the validity of a will.
Probate Court A court found in some jurisdictions which is
primarily concerned with the proper distribu-
tion of the assets of the deceased.
Prosecution The institution or conduct of criminal proceed-
ings against a
Prosecutor Person who prosecutes.
17
Public Trustee A person (usually a barrister or solicitor) ap-

pointed by the Lord Chancellor as:
i) trustee for trusts managed by the Public
Trust Office;
ii) Accountant General for Court Funds;
iii) Receiver (of last resort) for Court of Protec-
tion patients (Pronounced Puny) High Court
judge. Any judge of the High Court other
than the heads of each division. The word
puisne means junior and is used to distinguish
High Court judges from senior judges sitting
at the Court of Appeal.
Putative Father The alleged or supposed father of an illegitimate
chil
Quash To annul (i.e. to declare no longer valid).
Quantum In a damages claim the amount to be deter-
mined by the
Queens Council Barristers of at least ten years standing may ap-
ply to become queen’s counsel. Queens
Coun- cils undertake work of an important
nature and are referred to as ‘silks’ which is
derived from the Courts gown that is worn.
Will be known as King’s counsel if a king
assumes the throne.
Receiver Person appointed by the Court of Protection to
act on behalf of a
Recognisance An undertaking before the Court by which a
person agrees to comply with a certain condi-
tion (e.g. keep the peace/appear in court). A
sum of money is normally pledged to ensure
compliance.
Recorder Members of the legal profession (barristers or
solicitors) who are appointed to act in a
judicial capacity on a part time bases. They may
progress to become a full time judge.
Redetermination An application by a solicitor or counsel for
amounts assessed by determination to be
reconsidered.
Remand To order an accused person to be kept in
custody or placed on bail pending further
court appearance
17
Respondent The person on whom a petition or originating

application is served.
Right of Audience Entitlement to appear before a Court in a legal
capacity and conduct proceedings on behalf of
a party to the proceedings.
Service Delivery by post or personal service of the
claim, or other court documents.
Sheriff An officer of the Crown whose duties,
amongst other things, consist of the
enforcement of High Court writs of execution.
Silk Queens Counsel, a senior barrister
sometimes referred to as a leader or leading
counsel.
Slander Spoken words which have a damaging effect
on a person’s reputation.
Small Claims Track The path that defended claims of no more than
₤5000 (and Personal Injury and Housing Dis-
repair claims of no more than ₤1000) are al-
located to.
Solicitor Member of the legal profession chiefly con-
cerned with advising clients and preparing
their cases and representing them in some
courts. May also act as advocates before
certain Courts or tribunals.
Specified Claim A type of claim which is issued for a fixed
amount of money allegedly owing. Previously
known as a liquidated claim.
Squatter A person occupying land or property without
the owner’s consent.
Statement A written account by a witness of the facts of
details of a matter.
Stay of Execution An order following which judgment cannot be
enforced without leave of the court.
Stipendiary
Magistrate A legally qualified and salaried Magistrate.
Subpoena A summons issued to a person directing their

attendance in Court to give evidence.
Suit Legal proceedings commenced by petition.
17
Suitor Person bringing a suit before the Courts.

Summary Judgment Judgment obtained by a plaintiff where there is
no defense to the case or the defense contains no
valid grounds.
Summary Offence A criminal offence which is triable only by a
Magistrate Court.
Summing-up A review of the evidence and directions as to the
law by a judge immediately before a jury
retires to consider its verdict.
Summons Order to appear or to produce evidence to a
Court.
Summons (Jury) Order to attend for jury service.
Summons (Witness) Order to appear as a witness at a
hearing. Superior Court It is a basic county trial court.
Supreme Court The highest court in the United States, which
has the ultimate power to decide
constitutional questions and other appeals
based on the jurisdiction granted by the
Constitution, including cases based on federal
statutes, between citizens of different states,
and when the federal govern- ment is a party.
Supreme Court
of Judicature Collective name encompassing – High Court of
Justice, Crown Court and Court of Appeal.
Surety A person’s undertaking to be liable for
another’s default or non-attendance at
Court.
Surrogate Court A court where a surrogate/an officer especially
in some states of United States, presides the
probates of Wills and estates, and which has
jurisdiction over such probates.
Suspended Sentence A custodial sentence which will not take effect
unless there is a subsequent offence within a
specified period.
Territorial Courts A court in an administrative territory of the Unit-
ed States that has local and federal jurisdiction.
Testor A person who makes a will
17
Tipstaff An officer of the Supreme Court whose duties

involve the enforcement of High Court arrest
warrants.
Tort A civil wrong committed against a person for
which compensation may be sought through a
civil Court (e.g. personal injury, negligent driv-
ing, libel, etc.).
Trial Window A period of time within which the case must be
listed for
Tribunal A group of people consisting of a chairman
(normally solicitor/barrister) and others who
exercise a judicial function to determine mat-
ters related to specific interests (e.g. VAT
tribunal appeals against the amount of duty
levied by Customs and Excise Lands tribunal
– appeals against the valuation of land).
Trust Property legally entrusted to a person with
instructions to use it for another person.
Trustee A person who holds or administers property in
a trust for
Verdict The finding of guilty or not guilty of a jury.
Vice Chancellor Senior judge and head of the Chancery Division
of the High Court of Justice (although the
Lord Chancellor is the nominal head).
Walking Possession A signed agreement by a debtor not to remove
goods levied by a bailiff under the authority of
a warrant of execution and to allow the bailiff
access at any time to inspect the goods, in con-
sideration of which the bailiff leaves the goods
in the possession of the debtor.
Ward of Court The title given to a minor who is the subject of a
wardship order. The order ensures that custody
of the minor is held by the Court with day to
day care of the minor being carried out by an
individual(s) or local authority. As long as the
minor remains a ward of Court, all decision
regarding the minors upbringing must be ap-
proved by the Court (e.g. transfer to a
different school, medical treatment, etc.).
17
Warrant of Method of enforcing an order of the Court

Committal whereby the penalty for failing to comply with
its terms is imprisonment; the bailiff is
authorized to carry out the arrest and deliver
the person to prison (or in some instances the
Court) from the debtor and return them to
the creditor.
Warrant of Delivery Method of enforcing a judgment for the return
of goods (or value of the goods) whereby a
bailiff is authorized to recover the goods (or
their value) from the debtor and return them
to the creditor.
Warrant of Execution Method of enforcing a judgment for a sum of
money whereby a bailiff is authorized, in lieu
of payment, to seize and remove goods
belonging to a defendant for sale at public
auction.
Warrant of Possession Method of enforcing a judgment for possession
of a property whereby a bailiff is authorized
to evict people and secure against re-entry.
Warrant of
Restitution A remedy available following illegal re-entry
of premises by person’s evicted under a
warrant of possession. The bailiff is authorized
to evict all occupants found on the premises
and redeliver the premises to the plaintiff.
Will A declaration of a person’s intentions to
distrib- ute his/her estate and assets.
Winding Up The voluntary or compulsory closure of a com-
pany and the subsequent realization of assets
and payment to creditors.
Witness A person who gives evidence in Court.
Writ of Summons A writ directing a person to appear in court to
answer a
17

The following two texts are legal texts. Read the texts carefully, analyze their distinctive
features and translate them into the target language.
Minutes of Regular General Meeting

A.B.C. Company
(Limited Liability Company)
On this …….……day of ………..… 19 at 10:30 a.m., the regular Meeting
Text
of A.B.C. Company (Limited Liability Company) was held at the
Company’s Head Office at …….………., upon an invitation served by
registered mail by the Company’s Chairman to Partners, Companies’
Department and the Company’s Auditor.
The meeting was attended by Partners representing 100% of the
Company’s total capital stock.
The meeting was presided over by Mr............, the Chairman of the Board of Directors.
Mr.....................was appointed a secretary of the meeting.

Mr. ………………and Mr......................were appointed as vote counters and their ap-
pointment was approved by the attendants.
The attendance list showed that the attendants represented 100% of the total capital
stock of 1000.
17
18
*Articles of Partnership
Articles of Agreement, made......................., 19

by: 1- ………..…. 2- ……..………
Text
The said parties hereby agree to become copartners, under the firm name of
…………….., and as such partners to carry on together the business of
buying and selling all sorts of dry goods, at...............street, in the city of
………………...…..
The said...............agrees to contribute Two Thousand Dollars ($2,000) to the

capital of said firm; and the said.....................agrees to contribute One Thousand Dol-
lars ($1,000) to the same; the sum of Twenty-Five Hundred Dollars ($2,500) of said
capital to be expended in the purchase of a stock in trade.
The said...............shall have exclusive charge of all the buying for the firm.
* Passage adopted from New Webster’s Law for Everyone by Hugo Sonnenschein (1982).
18
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A TEXTBOOk Of TRRnsLRTiOn

ThEORETicRL RnD PRRcTicRL imPLicRTiOns

© Said M. Shiyab & Garant Publishers

1.1 Definition of Translation 21

8.1 Introduction 105

9.1 Introduction 115

10.1 Introduction 121

11.1 Introduction 131

12.1 Introduction 155

Peter Newmark, in his well-known book A Textbook of Translation (New York:

I started my journey with translation in 1980 after which I started to look at

1.1 Definition of Translation

1.2 Translation: Past and Present

Nida & Translation is the reproduction in the receptor language of

Translation is the interpretation of verbal signs in one

Inter-lingual translation or translation proper is an

Tytler Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the

The style and manner of writing should be the same character

Translation should have all the ease of the original. (M)

Diaz-Diocaretz Translation will be understood as the final product of

Table (1) Interrelation Definitions of Translation

1.3 What is a Translator?

1. Translation is more about people not words.

1.4 Methods of Translation

texts: word-for-word-translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic

1.4.1 Word for Word Translation

1.4.2 Literal Translation

1.4.3 Free Translation

1.5 Translation: Art or Science?

1.6 Why Do We Need Translation?

1.7 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (1)

1.8 Text-Comprehension and Translation

Importance of Translation and Interpretation

The majority of the speakers dealt with the theory of translation,

The Kyiv conference contributed to the establishment of contacts among re-

2.2 Misconceptions about Translation

2.3 Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions

2.4 Other Perceptions

2.5 Ethics and Rules in Translation

2.6 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (2)

1. Give four misconceptions students have about majoring in translation.

2.7 Multiple Choice Questions about Chapter (2)

Based on your understanding of Chapter (2), answer the following questions:

1. The term “fallacy” means:

3. Most fallacies about translation studies were fed by:

6. Since translation deals with my native language, then it is:

7. Translation from one language to another can be acquired from:

8. Ethics of translators have to do with:

9. In order to translate effectively, the translator has to follow:

10. In translation, there are:

Some Relevant Terms

3.2 Linguistic and Translation Terms

jello computer fax

Translating vs. Interpreting

3.3 Test Your Knowledge of Chapter (3)

B. Texts for Translation

What Determines Skin Color?

1. State = the country in which this document is issued

Philip Morris Incorporated is a corporation organized and existing under

Employees’ Satisfaction and Organization Prosperity

The success of economic corporation is judged by the extent of their profit

Translate the following expressions into the target language.

He is the top dog around here.