ADVANCED DESIGN OF GLASS

STRUCTURES
Lecture L2
Glass strengthening methods
Viorel Ungureanu

European Erasmus Mundus Master Course

Sustainable Constructions
under Natural Hazards and Catastrophic Events
520121-1-2011-1-CZ-ERA MUNDUS-EMMC
List of lessons
1) History, chemical composition, production
2) Glass strengthening methods
3) Laminated glass and interlayer's
4) Fracture strength and testing methods
5) Glass plates under uniformly distributed load
6) Aesthetic coatings, insulated glass units
7) General design guidelines
8) Design of compressed members
9) Design of glass beams
10) Hybrid load-bearing members
11) Curved glass members
12) Design of bolted connection
13) Design of glued connection
14) Glass roofs
15) Structural glass facades
16) Examples of glass structures
2
 Objectives of the lecture
Objectives

Introduction
• Introduction
Strength of
annealed glass
• Strength of annealed glass
Fully tempered
glass
• Fully tempered glass
Heat strengthened
glass
• Heat strengthened glass
NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass
• Chemically strengthened glass
Strength of glass
• Glass failure modes
Glass failure
modes

3
 Introduction
Objectives

Introduction Why temper (strengthen) glass?

Strength of • Increase apparent tensile strength due to compressive
annealed glass
residual stresses on the surfaces of the glass;
Fully tempered
glass
• Principally similar to “prestressing” - methods in structural
Heat strengthened
glass
engineering;
NiS inclusions
• Improve breakage performance due to small, blunt pieces/
Chemically
strengthened glass splinters – so called safety glass (a tempered glass);
Strength of glass
• Improve apparent tensile strength but still keep breakage
Glass failure
modes performance in laminated glass after fracture similar to laminated
annealed glass (heat strengthened glass).

4
 Introduction
Objectives

Introduction
Strength of glass depends on:
Strength of
annealed glass • surface condition and edge quality
Fully tempered
glass • load duration
Heat strengthened • environmental condition, especially humidity
glass
• stress distribution on the surface
NiS inclusions

Chemically • size of the stressed area

strengthened glass
• damage of glass surface – flaws and cracks
Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

5
 Influence of surface flaws
Objectives
Typical short-term strengths as a function of the flaw depth
Introduction

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

6
 Strength of annealed glass
Objectives

Introduction Annealed float glass - insufficient tensile strength due to

Strength of surface flaws → heat treatment – tempering
annealed glass

Fully tempered
• unavoidable flaws on the surface can grow under effective
glass tensile stress
Heat strengthened • tensile strength of annealed glass 45 MPa
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass
• treatment of glass: greater resistance to mechanical and
Strength of glass thermal loads
Glass failure
modes • three different basic types with regards to the strength and
fracture patterns

7
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction
1. FULLY TEMPERED GLASS (TOUGHENED GLASS)
Strength of
annealed glass Principle of the thermal tempering process
Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes • Idea: Heating the glass well above the glass transformation
temperature Tg and rapid quenching of the surfaces to ambient
temperature

8
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction Viscosity of soda-lime glass at elevated temperatures

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

9
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction Machinery for the thermal tempering process

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass Oven (furnace) section

Glass failure
Quenching section
modes

Temper equipment for flat glass

10
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction
Tempering process
Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

11
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction • quenching (fast cooling) with air blown over both sides of pane
Strength of • cooling and stiffening first on the surface, delayed cooling and
annealed glass
consolidation of the core → internal stress (parabolic distribution)
Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
• surface in compression (90 – 150 MPa), core in tension
glass

NiS inclusions
Compression
Chemically
strengthened glass Tension
0,2d
Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes
d 0,6d

0,2d

12
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives
Stress development with temperature
Introduction
Elastic material vs. viscoelastic material
Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

13
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives
ADVANTAGES
Introduction
• high value of bending strength (compressive surface
Strength of
annealed glass stress + tensile strength of annealed glass)
Fully tempered • compressive stress not influenced by surface defects
glass
• withstand local temperature differences up to 150°C
Heat strengthened (float glass 40°C)
glass
• overloading or damage – glass breaks into numerous
NiS inclusions small pieces, not dangerous
Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass
DISADVANTAGES
Glass failure • thermal treatment after mechanical work (cutting,
modes drilling, edge finishing)
• greater initial deformation – sinusoidal waves from
transport roller
• spontaneous fracture by nickel sulphide inclusions

Fracture pattern of
tempered glass: small
fragments or dice
14
 Fully tempered glass
Objectives

Introduction TEMPERED GLASS UPON LOADING

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions
stress distribution
bending stress
Chemically in tempered glass
strengthened glass compression
Strength of glass
tension
Glass failure tension
modes
+ =

compression tension compression

15
 Resistance of Tempered Glass
Objectives

Introduction

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

16
 Residual stress distribution
Objectives
Zonation of toughened glass panel – different pre-stress
Introduction
distributions
Strength of
annealed glass glass panel with Zone 1: central area
bore hole
Fully tempered
glass compression
tension
Heat strengthened compression
glass

NiS inclusions Zone 2: panel edge

t, glass
Chemically thickness
strengthened glass

Strength of glass plan

Zone 3:
Glass failure ~3,0 t Zone 3: panel corner
modes
Zone 4:
~1,5 t

Zone 2: Zone 4: bore hole

axis
Zone 1 ~1.5 t

R, radius
17
 Residual stress distribution
Objectives

Introduction Residual stress distribution at edges and holes

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

Edges and Corners Holes

18
 Residual stress distribution
Objectives

Introduction Weakened areas of the edge stresses in

Strength of comparison to the body stresses –
annealed glass

Fully tempered
tempered glass
glass

Heat strengthened
1 ~2,1

0,2D
glass weakening A B

0,2D
NiS inclusions
-
- -

0,6D
Chemically

0,2D 0,6D
+ σ2 = 0 + +
strengthened glass D D
+ +
Strength of glass -

0,2D
-
Glass failure -
modes σ1 = σ2, σ3 = 0 σ1 ≠ σ2, zone 2 zone 1
σ3 ≠ 0 ~D σ1 = σ2
Zone 1: central area Zone 2: edge σ3 = 0

19
 Heat-strengthened glass
Objectives

Introduction
2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS (PARTIALLY
Strength of
TEMPERED GLASS)
annealed glass

Fully tempered
• similar production – from same initial temperature slower cooling
glass
• reduction of the surface pre-stress level (35 – 55 MPa)
Heat
strengthened • withstand local temperature differences up to 100°C
glass
• greater initial deformation in comparison with float glass
NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass
compression tension compression tension
Strength of glass
0,2d 0,2d
Glass failure
modes
d 0,6d d 0,6d

0,2d 0,2d

internal stress: 90 – 150 MPa internal stress: 35 – 55 MPa

20
 Heat strengthened glass
Objectives

Introduction ADVANTAGES
Strength of • without spontaneous failures due to nickel sulphide inclusions
annealed glass
• fragmentation similar to annealed glass = keep glass panes in
Fully tempered
glass
position after cracking when they are framed or laminated
Heat
strengthened
glass

NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

comparison of fracture pattern: float annealed, heat-strengthened glass

and fully tempered glass

21
 Strength refined glass
Objectives

Introduction
Determination of the surface stress
Strength of destructive tests: fragmentation test – BS 6206, pr EN 12150
annealed glass
• struck in a controlled manner
Fully tempered
glass • number of glass fragments in a standard area are counted
Heat
strengthened
• surface compression can be deduced from the number of
glass fragments (higher number of fragments = increasing surface
NiS inclusions stress in given area)
Chemically
strengthened glass non-destructive tests: optical instrument – differential surface
Strength of glass refractometr
Glass failure
modes

22
 Strength refined glass
Objectives

Introduction
Initial deformation
Strength of • float glass – initial deformation < L/2500
annealed glass
• thermally strength refined glass – initial deformation in the shape of
Fully tempered sinusoidal waves ~ L/300
glass
edge dip
Heat roller wave
strengthened • roller wave and edge dip caused by
glass sagging in semi-molten state
NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened glass overall bow
• overall bow caused by differential slow cooled
Strength of glass cooling of the two sides of the plate face
Glass failure
modes fast cooled
face

• these two effects can occur together

resulting like this shape

23
 NiS inclusions
Objectives

Introduction DISADVANTAGES of tempered glass

Strength of • spontaneous fracture: nickel sulphide inclusions (NiS), which
annealed glass
expand their volume, up to about 2 years after production –
Fully tempered invisible
glass

Heat strengthened
glass • destructive HEAT-SOAK TEST (DIN 18516) (additional thermal test
NiS inclusions
– heated up to 290 ± 10°C, constant temperature for 8 hours)
Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

“butterfly” failure mode

24
 NiS inclusions
Objectives
NiS inclusions and related failure of tempered glass
Introduction
• Spontaneous breakage – sudden failure of thermally tempered glasses
Strength of
annealed glass
(apparently) without external action.

Fully tempered • Phenomena is known since the 1960s.

glass
• For high-rise buildings a big echo in media occurs generally („flying glass
Heat strengthened debris“).
glass
• One reason for spontaneous breakage are small (50 µm to 500 µm
NiS inclusions
diameter) that undergo a volume change.
Chemically
strengthened glass • The typical breakage pattern („butterfly“) is one indication, but not a
sufficient indication for NiS.
Strength of glass

Glass failure
• Today, the heat-soak-test is the most efficient measure to bring panes with
modes inclusions to failure in advance.

light microscope
pictures

25
 NiS inclusions
Objectives
NiS inclusions – phase change mineral
Introduction

Strength of
• Nickel-Sulphide is a mineral with a
annealed glass high- and a low-temperature phase.
Fully tempered • NiS undergoes a temperature-related,
glass
time-dependent phase change in
Heat strengthened glass at temperatures < 379°C from
glass
a-NiS to b-NiS which is connected to
NiS inclusions a volume increase.
Chemically
strengthened glass • The volume increase leads to failure
in thermally tempered glass if the
Strength of glass
inclusion is in or near the tension
Glass failure zone of the temper stress.
modes
• 1 g of Nickel can affect days of the
production of a typical Float-line!

phase change at temperatures that

are present during tempering

26
 Heat soak testing
Objectives

Introduction
Heat-Soak-Test (HST)
Strength of
• continuous heating
annealed glass • temperature: 280-320°C
Fully tempered • holding temperature: 290-300°C
glass
• holding time ≥ 2 or 4 hours
Heat strengthened
glass • cooling
NiS inclusions

Chemically • phase change of NiS is strongly

strengthened glass
accelerated
Strength of glass
• panes break already in the oven
Glass failure
modes
• Open question: failure probability after heat
soaking? – some research available
• Quality measures (e.g. color change stamps,
nano-marking …)

27
 3. Chemically strengthened glass
Objectives
Process for chemically strengthening
Introduction
• chemical pre-stressing is realized by ionic exchange
Strength of
annealed glass • glass pane is immersed in a hot molten salt (hot potassium chloride bath) – at
elevated temperature about 500°C
Fully tempered
glass • smaller sodium ions in the glass surface are exchanged for the larger
Heat strengthened potassium ions
glass
• fracture behaviour corresponds to float glass
NiS inclusions

Chemically
strengthened
glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

28
 Chemically strengthened glass
Objectives
ADVANTAGES
Introduction

Strength of
• without thermal deformation ⇒ suitable for very thin glass panes
annealed glass
• chemically strengthened glass can be cut, edge has strength of
Fully tempered normal glass
glass

Heat strengthened
DISADVANTAGES
glass
• small depth of penetration ⇒ highly susceptibility to surface
NiS inclusions defects because strengthened zone is not very deep
Chemically
strengthened
glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes

29
 Strength of glass
Objectives

Introduction Residual stress and strength in thermally treated glass

Strength of Property Tempered Heat Strength. Chemically strength.
annealed glass
Glass Glass Glass
Fully tempered Surface compression 100 - 160 MPa 40 – 60 MPa 300 – 900 MPa
glass
stress
Heat strengthened
glass Core tension stress 50 - 80 MPa 20 – 30 MPa depends on height of
NiS inclusions compression zone
Characteristic 120 MPa 70 MPa 150 MPa - to be used
Chemically
strengthened glass bending strength (5%- with great caution due
fractile, after to vulnerability of
Strength of glass European standards) compression zone
Glass failure Allowable stress in a 50 MPa – 70 29 MPa – 40 not given
modes global safety concept MPa MPa

Fracture pattern small dices, ca. big pieces, big pieces, comparable
1 cm2 comparable to to annealed glass
annealed glass
Compression zone 20% of thickness 20% of thickness typically about 100 µm

30
 Glass failure modes
Objectives

Introduction Typical glass failure

Strength of
annealed glass

Fully tempered
glass

Heat strengthened
glass
a) thermal failure b) hard body impact c) soft (spherical) body
NiS inclusions impact
Chemically
strengthened glass

Strength of glass

Glass failure
modes
d) hard spot on the edge e) inclusion

• instability failure – compression member or flexural member

• overstressing of the glass in tension – by excessive uniform load, blast,
impact, thermal stresses or uneven / inappropriate supports
• surface and edge defects
• solid inclusions
31
 Typical glass failure
Objectives

Introduction
It is possible to recognize:
Strength of
annealed glass • failure origin
Fully tempered
glass
• failure patterns – crack in
annealed glass often
Heat strengthened
f) uniform lateral load, g) uniform lateral load, nucleate roughly
glass
2-edge support, low 2-edge support, high
perpendicular to the major
NiS inclusions load intensity load intensity
principle stresses
Chemically
strengthened glass • topographical features – e.g.
Strength of glass presence of localized
Glass failure crushing on the surface of
modes glass indicates impact from
hard object
h) uniform lateral load, i) uniform lateral load,
4-edge support, low 4-edge support, high
load intensity load intensity

32
 References
Educational pack of COST Action TU0905 „Structural Glass - Novel design methods and next generation
products“

Aben H., Guillemet C.: Photoelasticity of Glass. Berlin, Springer, 1993.

Aronen , A.: Modelling of deformations and stresses in glass tempering. Dissertation, Tampere University
of Technology, April 2012.

Aronen , A., Karvinen, R. (2011) Modeling of Deformations and Stresses During Glass Tempering.
Proceedings of the ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition, Nov. 11-17,
2011, Denver, USA.

Gardon, R., Narayanaswamy, O. S. (1970) Stress and volume relaxation in annealing flat glass. Journal of
the American Ceramic Society, 53(7), 380-385.

Karlsson, S., Jonson, B. and Stålhandske, C. (2010) The Technology of Chemical Glass Strengthening - A
Review, European Journal of Glass Science and Technology Part A, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 41-54.

Nielsen, J.H., Olesen, J.F. and Stang, H. (2009) The Fracture Process of Tempered Soda-Lime-Silica
Glass. Experimental Mechanics, 49(6): 855-870.

Nielsen, J.H., Tempered Glass - Bolted Connections and Related Problems. PhD-thesis, DTU Civil
Engineering, 2009.

Scherer, G.W., Relaxation in Glass and Composites. Wiley, New York 1986.

Schneider J. (2004) Glass Strength in the Borehole Area of Annealed Float Glass and Tempered Float
Glass. International Journal of Forming Processes (IJFP), Special Issue on Glass, Vol. 7, No.4, pp. 523-
541.

Schneider J., Festigkeit und Bemessung punktgelagerter Gläser und stoßbeanspruchter Gläser.
Dissertation, TU Darmstadt, 2001 (in German).

33
This lecture was prepared for the 1st Edition of SUSCOS
(2012/14) by Prof. Sandra Jordão (UC).

Adaptations brought by Prof. Viorel Ungureanu (UPT) for

2nd Edition of SUSCOS

34
 Thank you
for your kind attention

viorel.ungureanu@upt.ro

http://steel.fsv.cvut.cz/suscos