Perceptions of Armor during the Edo Period

Author(s): Takaaki Suga

Source: Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts , 2014, Vol. 88, No. 1/4, Japanese Art
at the Time of the Samurai (2014), pp. 34-43
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Detroit Institute of
Arts

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 Takaaki Suga Introduction
Curator The transition from the constant fighting of
Sakūra City Education Board the medieval era to the relatively peaceful early
Secretariat Culture
modern and Edo periods (1615-1868) brought about
major changes in the production and use of armor.
An understanding of Japanese samurai culture,
and particularly Edo-period armor, requires that
we accept a few premises. One is that Edo-period
battle gear was produced with the knowledge that

Perceptions it would rarely be used in actual combat. Another is

that various elements from the old-style õ-yoroi armor,
used in medieval times, and the newer tõsei gusoku

of Armor armor, first used during battle in the Momoyama

period, were intermingled in Edo-period archaic-
revival armor. Examples of this can be seen in actual
suits of armor and in their depiction in paintings,
during the and this essay will explore how military gear was
perceived in the Edo period based on their artistic

Edo Period representations. Furthermore, to understand the

impact these perceptions had on the production of
military gear, it will also explore issues concerning
archaic-revival armor.

0-yoroi hrmor
O-yoroi (literally, "great armor") suits were mainly
used in battle during the late Heian and Kamakura
periods (ca. 900-1333), and they were so named
because they were larger than other types of armor
at the time (fig. 1). Worn by high-ranking mounted
archers, they featured sendan no ita and a kyübino
ita (right and left chest plates), which protected the
front torso; a fourpanel kusazuri (skirt) for protection
from the waist down; a kabuto (helmet), and large
õsode, which protected the shoulders and upper arms.
From the late Kamakura period to the Nanbokuchõ
period (ca. 1300S-1392), helmets displaying kuwagata
(hoe- or horn-shaped decorative elements) were
common. Õ-yoroi armor is described in many
military chronicles including Heike monogatari (The
Tale of the Heike), which is centered on the Genpei
War (1180-1185), and it was greatly favored among
elite samurai since medieval times. But as the manner
of battle shifted from man-to-man mounted combat
to a more organized, group-oriented warfare, the
õ-yoroi suits became much less popular. High-ranking
officers switched to the haramaki or dõ-maru style of
armor, a type originally worn by the infantry in the
I leian and Kamakura periods. This armor includes a
kusazuri , tied on the right side, which is divided into
seven sections to allow mobility. Suits that included
shoulder guards and helmets, however, continued to
be the basic type of military gear used throughout
medieval times in Japan.
Detail from The Daimyo Kuroda
Nagamasa among Twenty-four
Retainers (Augustin essay, fig. 1)

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Tosei gusoku Armor
Tõsei gusoku (modern armor) was used (fig. 2) in the
large-scale feudal battles that occurred from the
Momoyama period through the early Edo period
(ca. 1573-ca. 1603). Also intended for group-oriented
warfare, these suits fit the body closely, were lighter
than the õ-yoroi suits, allowed more freedom of
movement, and offered more protection. The term
gusoku, which suggests an ensemble of elements,
was used because of the many individual pieces
( ko-gusoku ) - the face mask, gloves, thigh guards,
greaves (shin coverings), and so on - which, when
assembled, formed a full set of armor. Tõsei gusoku
suits often included a type of helmet called kawari
kabuto, and these were known for their extravagant,
unusual shapes; wide variety of crests; and elaborate
decorative and symbolic elements. The emergence
of these decorative designs possibly stemmed from
the soldier's need to declare his affiliation to both
allies and enemies on the battlefield.
Edo-Period Representations of Armor
Numerous folding screens {byõbu) of battle scenes
were made during the Edo period, and they can
be divided into two types: Genpei screens, which
feature conflicts from the late twelfth-century
Genpei War (e.g., the battle of Ichinotani, the battle
of Yashima); and Warring States screens, which
portray battles from the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth century (e.g., the battle of Nagashino,
the battle of Sekigahara, the siege of Osaka). Warriors
are shown wearing both õ-yoroi and tõsei gusoku
styles of armor in these works: Genpei battle scenes
illustrate contemporary Edo-eriod armor, while those
of the Warring States period depict old-style armor.
It has been suggested that these paintings include
historical inaccuracies in their representations of
military gear.1 However, I believe that the artists
attempted to capture the cultural and symbolic
significance of õ-yoroi armor,2 and that the so-called
inaccuracies were actually made at the request of
those commissioning the paintings.
Tokugawa leyasu in Scenes from
the Warring States Period
In the Edo-period Warring States folding screens
Sekigahara kassenzu byõbu (battle of Sekigahara-, fig. 3),
Osaka natsu nojinzu byõbu (summer campaign of the
siege of Osaka), and Nagashino kassenzu byõbu (battle of
Nagashino), Tokugawa leyasu (1543-1616) wears what
36 Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts
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appears to be õ-yoroi armor. However, the samurai
surrounding leyasu, both on foot and on horseback,
wear tõsei gusoku armor and kawari kabuto helmets.
This artistic device highlights Tokugawa leyasu
prominently in the center of the scene, while the
others blend into the crowd despite the striking
designs of their gear. Though õ-yoroi suits appeared
less and less frequently in actual combat situations,
they were still used for temple and shrine dedication
ceremonies and passed down through generations in
military families. From medieval times onward, they
came to symbolize political power within samurai
culture. The depiction of leyasu in õ-yoroi armor,
therefore, emphasizes his victories and his status as
an elite samurai warrior.
The decision to use such artistic devices
may have been based on a desire to rewrite the
facts of a battle to make it more flattering to the
person commissioning the artwork. For example, the
actions of the Toyotomi clan vassals who opposed
Ishida Mitsunari (1559-1600), the de facto head of
Ieyasu's adversaries, were pivotal to Ieyasu's victory at
Sekigahara. However, in order to attribute the victory
solely to leyasu, it was necessary to emphasize his
presence and actions on the battlefield in Sekigahara
kassenzu, a folding screen now in the Osaka Museum
of History. Likewise, in the Osaka natsu nojinzu
folding screen (in Osaka Castle), it is possible to
sense the sensitive position occupied by the opposing
"outside" (tozama) daimyo Kuroda Nagamasa (1568-
1623), who commissioned the screen. ("Outside"
daimyo are regional lords who switched from
supporting the Toyotomi clan to serving Tokugawa
leyasu as allies about the time of the Sekigahara
battle, in order to establish good relationships with
the strongest daimyo, leyasu.) During the siege
of Osaka's winter campaign, Nagamasa had been
detained in Edo after being suspected of conspiracy,
and in the summer campaign, he led only a small
number of troops into battle. Consequently, this
screen, which was painted after the war, selectively
highlights the victories of leyasu and indicates
a stance biased toward the Tokugawa clan. The
Nagashino kassenzu folding screen (now in Inuyama
Castle) was commissioned by the Naruse clan, lords
of the Inuyama domain and hereditary vassals of
the Tokugawa; its focus on leyasu rather than Oda
Nobunaga (1534-1582), who was the actual victor at
Nagashino, was intended to promote the victories
of the Naruse clan.
 These artistic devices can also be seen in
Folding Screens with Scenes from
illustrated scrolls {emaki) from the same period.
the Genpei War
The scroll Tõshõgu engi emaki (Fate of the Nikkõ
Kawari kabuto helmets are also depicted in Edo-
Toshogū shrine),3 commissioned by the third shogun
period screens portraying the twelfth-century Genpei
Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604-1651), depicts the battle
War, even though these styles of helmets had been
of Sekigahara, the siege of Osaka, and the battles
developed many centuries later. Kawari kabuto
of Komaki and Nagakute. The battles of Komaki
helmets can be seen in a folding screen in Chishaku-
and Nagakute occured in 1584 between the forces
in temple that represents the battle of Ichinotani,
of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobukatsu against
and it is one of the oldest types of Genpei screens.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi and were notable victories for
These helmets are represented in both screens to
the Tokugawa warriors through the Edo period.
emphasize the battle scene.6
As in the Warring States folding screens, Ieyasu is
The scenes painted on folding screens were
shown wearing old-style õ-yoroi armor and a helmet
based on descriptions in Heike monogatari ,7 as were
with a dragon's head crest, while the other samurai
depictions of personal military equipment, and
wear kawari kabuto helmets. This scroll not only
figures can often be identified by referring to the
highlights Ieyasu but also demonstrates that Iemitsu
text. For example, the garments worn by Minamoto
has inherited the military power of his grandfather,
no Ifoshitsune (1159-1189), the archer on horesback
Ieyasu, who was victorious in these battles. Iemitsu
inTenshinji temple's battle ofYishima folding
was steadfast in his support of Ieyasu, who had
screen (fig. 4 ), accord with his description in Heike
been deified as the Tõshõ daigongen ("Great Avatar
monogatari : "head magistrate Kurõ, as his outfit for
Who Shines from the East"). Desiring to prove
that day, wore purple-dyed armor over a ceremonial
himself as Ieyasu's legitimate successor, he carried
court robe with a red cloth brocade, had a long
out large-scale construction on the Nikkõ Toshogū
golden sword at his hip, and placed a kirifu-no-ya
shrine. When Iemitsu was shogun, the shogunate-
(arrow winged with spotted falcon feathers) the
style feudal system was firmly in place, but tensions
middle of his Shigetõ bow."8
had developed in Japan's relations with the outside
world. Events such as the Shimabara and Amakusa Edo-period artists may have used historically
inaccurate military equipment, such as the kawari
uprisings and the establishment of Japan's "closed-
kabuto helmets, for samurai who weren't described
door" policy in the 1630s called into question
in the text, because they felt more freedom to create
the shogunate's (in other words, Iemitsu's) use
their own interpretation of the warriors' armor.
of military force.4 By commissioning this scroll,
The decorative use of battle scenes from
Iemitsu may have wanted iconic images portraying
well-known literary works became even more
Ieyasu in õ-yoroi armor, the military gear that came
widespread as they were reproduced on objects
to symbolize authority, to visually assert his own
other than folding screens, and this indicates their
military power.
popularity. For example, a samurai appears on both
Representing Ieyasu wearing old-style
sides of a sword guard (fig. 5) in the collection of the
military gear was a widespread practice not only
Detroit Institute of Arts. This iconic image from
within shogun clans but also among members
Heike monogatari ,9 in which Yoshitsune loses his bow
of the samurai community, such as the opposing
and risks his life to retrieve it, was undoubtedly taken
tozama daimyo and the hereditary vassals who
from a Genpei screen.
supported the Tokugawa. Depictions of medieval
õ-yoroi armor in paintings and illustrations in
Portraits with Subjects Wearing Armor
general were still in demand at this time, despite
There are many portraits of samurai wearing armor
the use of tõsei gusoku armor in actual combat.
dating to the early Edo period. Most of these depict
Although, for their own portraits, warriors preferred
military commanders from previous generations
to be shown wearing the extravagantly designed
of a clan, and they are wearing the tõsei gusoku-
kawari kabuto helmets and tõsei gusoku armor,
style suit that was probably used in actual combat.
other figures were shown wearing traditional õ-yoroi
Many of the suits of armor depicted in these
armor for various symbolic reasons.5
portraits still exist today, or the descendants have
had reproductions made. For example, in the DIA

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38 Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts

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Fig. 1

Illustration showing Toroi armor.

©The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York

Fig. 2

Illustration showing Tõsei gusoku

armor. ©The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New "York

Fig. 3

The Battle of Sekigahara

(Sekigahara gassenzu by òbu)
(detail) (Japan), early Edo
period, 17th century. Pair of
eight-panel screens, ink on
paper; 76 3/8 x 233 7/8 in.
(194 x 594 cm), each.
Osaka Museum of History

Fig. 4

The Battle ofTashima (Yashima

gassenzu byôbu) (detail) (Japan),
early Edo period, 17th century.
Pair of six-panel screens, ink on
paper; 47 x 120 7/8 in. (119.5 x
307 cm), each. Tenshinji Temple

Fig. 5

Signed by Seiyoken Yoshichika

(Japanese, 19th century),
Tsuba: Samurai Attacking Through
Water , Edo period, 19th century.
Shakudo with gold, silver,
and copper inlay; 3x23/4 in
(7.6 x 7 cm). Gift of Mrs.
Christian H. Hecker (DIA
70.686)

39

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painting Kuroda nijü-yon shõ zu (Twenty-four
Kuroda commanders) (see Augustin essay, fig. i),
Kuroda Nagamasa, wearing tõsei gusoku armor
and his trademark helmet with large water buffalo
horns {daisuigyü kaimto), is at the top, presiding
over a group of twenty-four warriors, all of whom
wear military gear of various design. These types
of paintings are called shüdan shõzõga (group
portraits),10 and variations exist with either sixteen
or twenty-four figures led byTakeda Shingen
(1521-1573) orTokugawa Ieyasu.
Later generations of the Kuroda clan of the
Fukuoka domain had suits and daisuigyü helmets
made in the style worn by Nagamasa.11 The headgear
of the figure in the center of the painting also has
large horns, likely signifying that this is Kuroda
Kazushige, chief retainer of Nagamasa (see opening
image, this essay); a helmet similar to Kazushige's
is in the collection of the Fukuoka City Museum.
According to the seal, this painting is by Kanõ
Masunobu (1625-1694), and it is thought to date to
the latter half of the seventeenth century. Portraits
with twenty-four warriors continued to be produced
for the Kuroda until the mid-Edo period, but the
oldest surviving example, now in a private collection,
is attributed to Kanõ Shõun (1637-1702), formerly
goyõ eshi (official painter) for the bakufu (shogunate
government) and later employed by the fourth-
generation Kuroda leader Tsunamasa.12 If, however,
this painting was actually made by Masunobu, it may
be even older.13
In addition to tozama daimyo like the Kuroda,
a great number of fiidai (Tokugawa vassals) and
shinpan (blood relatives to the Tokugawa) daimyo
lords had portraits made of themselves wearing
the battle gear and extravagant helmets of their
ancestors. Through its continual reproduction and
depiction in images, tõsei gusoku armor used by a
clan's ancestors eventually functioned in the same
manner as the õ-yoroi suits, as symbols of political
authority. I believe that this trend began later in
Iemitsu's administration and continued through the
generation of the next shogun, Ietsuna. In his late
years, Iemitsu had Ieyasu's tõsei gusoku suit - the
famed shida gusoku (literally, "fern armor") - brought
annually to Edo from Kunõyama. Ietsuna displayed a
suit similar to Ieyasu's in ceremonial armor displays
( gusoku iwaí).H
I believe that analyzing the military
equipment in battle scenes in Edo-period folding
screens and portraits will demonstrate that, at the
40 Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts
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time, armor and military gear were viewed as more
than heirlooms. Even though they fell out of use in
actual combat, õ-yoroi suits lived on in paintings.
Over time, õ-yoroi armor was manufactured again,
but the form it took in this so-called archaic revival
was influenced by tõsei gusoku armor, which was still
used in battle.
Archaic-Revival Armor
Edo-Period Trends in the Study of Historical
Artifacts
Around the mid-Edo period, there was a growing
interest in the historical exploration of medieval
customs and practices and a concomitant interest
in old-style military gear. Previously, perhaps due to
the prevalence of tõsei gusoku-style suits, it appears
that there had been only vague knowledge about
õ-yoroi armor.15
Honchõ gunki kõ (An investigation of the
military equipment of our land), written by Arai
Hakuseki in 1709, can be cited as a starting point
for the historical exploration of military gear.
Honchõ gunki kõ examines the changes in armor's
structure, part names, and terminology, from
antiquity though the Edo period, based on a survey
of documents and on observations of suits of old-
style armor.16 This penchant for historical research
was also reflected in the manufacture and repair
of armor. For example, Tokugawa Yoshimune
(1684-1751), the eighth shogun, had reproductions
made of a tatsugashira no kabuto (dragon's head
helmet), the original of which was stored, according
to records, at Kuramadera temple. However, after
examining an old-style suit of armor with plates
bound by red-threaded leather straps (akai ito odoshi
yoroî) at Musashi-Mitake shrine, Yoshimune had the
helmets corrected, and these revised reproductions
better replicated the older style.
Also notable is the Shūkojūshu, written by
Matsudaira Sadanobu in 1800. Of this exhaustive
compilation of fifty-four texts, twelve are related to
armor, providing detailed information on its shape,
structure, size, and material composition through
partial and developmental views.17 Circulated in both
manuscript and printed form, this work served as the
blueprint for the production of archaic-revival armor.
Characteristics of Archaic-Revival Armor
Archaic-revival armor began to be produced at the
turn of the nineteenth century, and it melded the
old-style design of late Hęian-period õ-yoroi armor
(see fig. i) with elements from the later tösei gusoku
armor (see fig. 2). The old-style helmets, of the
hoshi kabuto (star helmet) type, had raised rivets,
and the front ornament might feature a kuwagata,
a dragon's head, or a shishigami (literally, "biting lion").
The front of the suit included the right and left chest
plates (fendati no ita and kyübi no ita), with a sheet of
dyed leather ( tsurubashiri egawa) stretched across
them. A waidate (arm shield) covered the right side,
and the shoulders were protected by large õ-sode.
For ease of use on horseback, the thigh-protecting
kusazuri had four panels. On their feet the warriors
wore tsuranuki (shoes covered or trimmed with fur).
Archaic-revival armor could incorporate all or some
of these elements. For example, some suits might
have a style of helmet called a suji kabuto, which
had raised ridges and flattened rivets, or they might
not include the sheet of dyed leather. The suits also
incorporated components from tosei gusoku armor,
such as a visor, a full face mask, a hanbõ (a mask
covering only the throat and chin), a hõ-ate (a mask
covering only the throat, chin, and cheeks), a throat
guard, armored gloves, thigh guards, and greaves
(shin protectors).
The Makata Shrine's Purple Dõmaru Armor
(Murasaki susogo dõmaru)
This purple-dyed dõmaru armor (fig. 6), a revival of an
ancient style, belonged to Hotta Masachika (1799-
1825), the powerful daimyo of Sakura during the late
Edo period; now in the Makata shrine, it has been
designated a Tangible Cultural Property by Chiba
prefecture.18 On the inside of the lid of the box that
accompanied the suit is a certificate of authenticity
by armorer Myõchin Mune-ie, dating to 1817. The
certificate also lists each member of the Myõchin
school credited with having produced a piece of
Masachika's armor, beginning with an armorer named
Masaie in the Muromachi period and continuing
through the Edo period. However, the styles of
the different parts of the armor do not correspond
with the ages of the armorers recorded by Mune-ie,
indicating that the suit is clearly an archaic-revival
piece from the late Edo period.19 The names of a
clan's armorers from earlier eras were appropriated
for late Edo-period works, and this list is important
because it gives us specific details about the Sakura
daimyos' armor from different eras.
This suit has components characteristic of
õ-yoroi armor, such as the dragon's head and large
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kuwagata on the helmet, the right and left chest
plates, and large shoulder protectors. However,
it also includes elements that are patterned after
tosei gusoku armor, such as a mask, armored gloves,
a throat guard; thigh guards, and greaves (shin
protectors). A vertical mokkõ crest, the Hotta clan's
herald, can be seen on one of the circular gold fittings
( suso kanamono ) on the hem of the six-panel kusazuri,
indicating that this suit belonged to a daimyo clan.
It is thought that daimyo clan members had archaic-
revival suits made for prestige and status.
The Sakura domain in eastern Japan was
loyal to the Tokugawa, and its support was crucial to
maintaining power in the east of the country. In the
early 1800s, when this armor was made, the Sakura
domain was experiencing economic difficulties,
perhaps the result of an order from the shogunate to
prepare to defend the coast. From the late eighteenth
century to the early to mid-nineteenth century,
foreign ships made frequent visits to Japan. The
shogunate, in a show of military strength, ordered
various domains to put their coastal defense forces on
alert and perform military exercises. From the early
Edo period onward, the Sakura domain continued
to carry out the shogunate's orders, and its warriors
wore full armor and military gear.20 Presumably,
they wore the less elaborate and more practical
tõsei gusoku armor (fig. 7), such as the example in
the DIA collection, which was the main type used
during battle at this time. Judging from its condition,
this armor was probably not often, if ever, used.
The winglike projections on the helmet are face
protectors, which are a bit smaller than those on
other helmets.
Although it has been argued that traditional
õ-yoroi suits were also practical for late Edo-period
warfare,21 it is difficult to see how this old-style
armor, which was intended for use by medieval
archers on horseback, would have been effective at a
time when Western armaments were being steadily
adopted. Nonetheless, it is important to note that
some õ-yoroi suits were still being used in battle.
Although no longer considered viable military
gear for actual warfare, the formal, ornate, and highly
decorative o-yoroi suits readily conveyed a clan's
prestige and status. Archaic-revival armor, therefore,
could have been fabricated to faithfully reproduce
this old-style õ-yoroi armor down to its smallest
historical details, as Tokugawa Yoshimune did with
his reproduction tatsugashira no kabuto (dragon's head
helmets). However, most archaic-revival suits were
41
made during the late Edo period and, rather than
being exact replicas, they included elements from
tösei gusoku armor, which were still used in battle.
The reasons for the popularity of archaic-revival
armor, therefore, go beyond that of individual daimyo
clans wanting to honor ancestors by re-creating
historically accurate battle gear. To the Tokugawa
shogunate, these archaic-revival suits, by combining
elements from the past and present, bolstered its
faith in its military preparedness at a time when the
use of military force became an issue.
Conclusion
The paintings discussed in this essay were created
during the early Edo period, when the shogunate
was no longer at constant war and had solidified
its political power and authority. At the end of the
Edo period, when archaic-revival armor became
popular, the foundations of the shogunate were
shaken. A new period of war had begun, and Japan's
relationship with the outside world called into
question the use of military force as well as the

Fig. 6

Purple-dyed dõmaru set of armor

(Murasaki sosogo odoshi dõmaru)
(Japan), Edo period, dated 1817.
Iron, silk, gold, leather, and
lacquer; helmet height: 6 in.
(15.1 cm). Makata Shrine,
Sakūra City

Fig. 7

Full Suit of Armor and Helmet

(Kanabo) (Japan), early Edo
period, 1615-1868. Metal,
lacquer, wood, gold, silk, cotton,
and horsehair; helmet to thigh
guards: 52 in. (132. 1 cm), chin
to thigh guards: 42 in. (106.7
cm), arm to arm at chest: 20 in.
(50.8 cm). Gift of William C.
Morrison (72.278)

42 Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts

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 Notes
military power of the shogunate, the Tokugawa
shogun clans, and the daimyo clans.22 Japan and the i. Suzuki Keizõ, "Sengoku jidai no
sõshingu, bugu, buki nitsuite,"
shogunate, in an attempt to stress military superiority, in Kuwata Tadachika, Okamoto
Ryõichi, and Takeda Tsuneo,
viewed, depicted, and re-created õ-yoroi armor as
eds., Sengoku büke fūzokuzu,
symbolic of military authority. Sengoku kassen-e byõbu shüsei bekkan
(Chúõkõronsha, 1981).
2. Fujimoto Masayuki, "Sengoku
kassenzu byõbu: Busõ to jõkaku
ni tsuite," Sengoku kassen zu byõbu
no sekai (Wakayama, 1997).
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3. The scroll is now in the Nikkõ
Töshögü shrine.
4. The Shimabara uprising, also
called Amakusa rebellion after
its leader Amakusa Shirö (died
1638), took place from 1637
through 1638 and was the last
major fight between the shogunate
and Roman Catholics. As a
result, restrictions were put on
the Catholic faith in Japan and
the "closed-door" policy was
established. The "closed-door"
policy restricted political relations
and trade and did not allow the
Japanese to leave the country.
Only the protestant Dutch were
allowed to trade with Japan from
Dejima (a hal^peninsula in the bay
of Nagasaki), and limited trade
was allowed with Ryukyu and
Southeast Asia.
5. For a detailed analysis, see Takaaki
Suga, "Edo shoki 'Sengoku
kassenzu byõbu' no busõ byõsha
ni kansuru ichikõsatso," Bijustushi
168 (Bijutsushi Gakkai 2010);
and Takaaki Suga, "Töshögü engi
emaki ni egakareta kassen ni
nozomu Ieyasu to kassen bamen,"
Gunki to katarimono 48 (Gunki
Katarimono Kenkyùkai, 2012).
6. For details, see Takaaki Suga,
"Chishakuinzõ 'le hino tani
kassenzu byõbu' o megutte,"
Gunki to katarimono 46 (Gunki
Katarimono Kenkyükai, 2010).
7. The battle scenes in an illustrated
woodblock print edition of Heike
monogatari are very similar to
those found on folding screens.
8. From book 11, Heike monogatari
(Kakuichi version).
9. Ibid.
10. Masahiko Moriya, Kinsei büke
shõzõga no kenkyü," Bensei
Shuppan (Tokyo, 2002).
ii. A style of helmet called ichinotani
was also associated with
Nagamasa.
12. See the painting exhibited at
Fukuoka City Museum in Kuroda
nijüyon-ki ten 3, http://museum.
city.fukuoka.jp/je/html/311-
32o/3i3/3i3_oi.htm (in Japanese).
13. The Fukuoka-shi Hakubutsukan
(Fukuoka City Museum) is home
to another painting of twenty-four
warriors by the late Edo-period
painter Ogata Tankö. Tankö's
painting, which closely resembles
this work, was probably based
on it.
14. The Tokugawa jikki (Tokugawa
records) mention the gusoku iwai
on the fifteenth day of the first
month in 1652. Such festivities
took place at the beginning of
each year or whenever there was
a change of shogun or feudal lord.
15. Hikone Castle Museum, Edo jidai
no yoroi: Fukkochõ (Hikone-shi,
2001).
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Sakura-shi shiryõ , series 1
(Sakura-shi, 1957).
19. Munekata Sadao, "Sakura-shi
Makata jinja shozö tetsukuro
urushinuri moriage honkozane
murasaki susogo dõmaru chõsho,"
2001.
20. Sakura-shi hensan iinkai,
Sakaishishi, 2 vols., 1973.
21. Edo jidai no katchüv. fukkochõ.
22. Yamamoto Hirofumi, Sakkoku
to kaikin no jidai (Tokyo, 1995).
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