~ Mlustration 8: Co Mee resistance of 12 (2. 16 {2 and 20 12 are connected in parallel What resistance sert@s with this combination to give a total resistance of 25.0? Mus, wa Solution: The resistance R of the parallel combination is given by 1414 iW Solution: the 3.9 resistor and the 6 © resistor are Joined in parallel. Their 40 equivalent resistance is Ry = 3x6 _ Wy R=49+20=60 ‘The current through the battery is j = 12= _ Sotution Here, Ry" 80, © Fay, AeA Re Rea Ne As volume of ihe wire remains the same, therefore. Ait Ail Ay ALA o Ah LM a _ M3 As specific resistance of the wire remains the same i Gyetrical Copper rod is re-ormed fo twice its original length with no change In volume ys netween its ends initially was R. Find the now resistance © The aie: cotton: (Jona See Exercise 3:79 (@) On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend 7 ) Let the resistance of an electrical component remains constant while the potential difference scm the two ends of the component decreases to hall of its former value. What change wil ocar te current through it? UE ae oa Sortes Combination The combination of resistances where same current (same charge carriers) passes through every resistance is called series ‘combination. Combination of resistance, which are connected in series, can be ry replaced by a single resistance R, which if connected across the same potential difference draws the same current. Thus, current through each resistance connected in series is equal to the current passing through equivalent resistance R. K From first circuit diagram, (a) Va ~ Vo © IRs Vo- Ve = IRe ©Va~ Vo WR) # Ro Ry) > VERRR RY) From second circuit diagram, (b) VER ‘Therefore R= Ry + R:+ Ry Ris cated as equivalent resistance of series combination of Ri, Reand Ro Exercise 4:9 Draw 3 schemate chagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of four ceils of 2V each 28 Qresistor, 85.0 resistance and 10 0 resistor. and a plug key. all connected in series. The combination of resistances where different current (different charge camiers) pass through every resistance is called parallel combination. For e.g. in the diagram (a) shown below. Ry, Rz and Rs are connected in parallel. ‘Combination of resistances, which are connected in parallel, can be replaced by a single resistance R. If connected across the same potential difference, the total current flowing into the parallel coastalon of rcsinces 1 ecto fen robb event From first circuit diagram (a) VER ‘ ¥ (e) Solution: For the two resistors in parallel i: or R= 20, 0F feo This is in Series with 8 2, so Ras = 20+ 8A= 100. .a a = tlustration 10: For the given circuit. Find (i) the vale of resistance Ry (i) tho currant flowing across resistor R, se Solution: Potential citerence across R\ = 2 « 5 = 10 mse | a Potential ference across R: . * ] and Ry = 15-10 = 5v ——_ ‘Let the current flowing across Ry be I; and current “ flowing across R. be |, lth=2 Or b=2-1 Potential diference across Ry and R, is same. LRe= Ry = 5 = (2-4 = Ry = (2-h)4=5 = h=2-S4=90A And Ro =5 Value of resistor R, = 203.0 Value of current through Ry = 0.75 A > Mustration 11: In the diagram, cell and the ammeter both have negligible resistance The resistors are identical with the switch k open, the ammeter reads 0.6 A. What will be the ammeter reading when the switch is closed? Solution: When switch K is open, effective resistance is given by a LReR_R Lwa—y —! ReR 2 a If battery emf is assumed to be V V=06R2 R=V03 @ When the switch is closed, Effective resistance becomes, Rex Sor -8 R, ROR Let current flowing through the Ammeter be |, 1 Reg =Exercise 5:79 ao Join three resistances of 20) each, such thal the total resistance of the circuit is * serie von conect three resistors of 20, 312 and 52 respectively 10 obten | resistance ol 2.50)? Draw the diagram to show arrangement. pss ) Frc hong values 20, 30) and 8A are in paral then will the valve o 8 be leas than 20 or greater than 512 or ie between 20.and 50? o «a 8 =—r—“——F>#PhH eamrRaerC UNTER ty U, where ‘the potential difference V, wa say that Its electric potential energy U=aQv Also we know.) Qt SO mustration 16 : ‘Caicalate te waitage of an electric ‘supoty Feator which draws 6A current when connected to a 20 Vp Solution: ‘The wattage is P = Vi= (220 A) x (5A) = 1100 W > mMustration 17 : - _ Abas rated 40 W, 220 V. Find the current drawn by Hwhen ii connected f0 @ 220V supply, — Solution: Since the bulb is rated at 220 V and it connected to a 220 V supply, the power consumes 40 W. the rrent drawn by itis i= == 22". 2 9 will be 40 W. the current yitis = = D994 > Mustration 18 : A bulb is rated 40 W. 220 V. Find the current drawn by it when itis connected fo a 110 V supply. Solution: Since the bulb is rated at 220 V its resistance will be given by VAW = R and is aqud'9 220x220 /40 ohm. Therefore the current is V/R and is equal to 1/11. = Mustration 19 : Determine the potential difference between the ends of a wire of resistance 502 if 720 coulomb chee passes through it per minute. Solution: |= Qi 720 or, |= — = 1; 6078 By Ohm's law, V=IR of, V=(12A)(52)= 60 Volt.Pe] Oo 4 Sectre Charges are found to be made up, of Integral multiples of a smallest ‘This smallest amount of charge is 1.6 * 10°" coulomb ‘Thus, any charged body will have a charge Q= ne (1) Where mis the number of electrons amount of Charge tectron currents the amount of charge flowing through @ particular area in unt time. I t The Si. unt of electric current is ampere (A) One ampere isthe current if one coulomb of charge lows in one second, that 8, 1A= 105 Siecine potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the direction of ow a EWES when the two conductors are either kept in contact or they. are joined by a metalic wc ‘Row from lower potential to higher potential Potential is @ scalar quantity and its unit is ‘Volt V=IR Constant R is called resistance for he given metalic wire at @ given temperature, Resistivity or specific resistance of a material is equal to the ‘resistance of a wire of that materia Of 1 meter length and 1 m? area of across section RA | Resistivity p= 7 Unit of specific resistance is ohm meter’ (Cm). Resistivity or specific resi material, its value does not depend on shape and size of the Conductor. in series combination () Equivalent resistance R= R, +R, + Ry (®) Current passes same through each resistor. |n paratiel combination | ( Equivalent resistance 1.1, 1,1 RRR R, (W) Potential across each resistor is same. istance is the property of Electrical energy W = V1 1° Rt = ut Joule, $1. unit of energy is joule (J). Fiectical appliances such as elecric bulb, heater, geyser etc are rated with power (P) and voltage (V). From this rating, we can calculate the resistance of the filament of the appliance and also current flowing through it v ve P pv “ - As power P= Resistance R= Also current 1 = = Mi Aamiaidodos= Mustration 2: Cott th etance of & Spar wie bagi Forsep eeepc ea Pega Of length -section 2 mm*. Resistivity of copper is 1.7 « 10% Om, length 1 m and area of cross-section 2m ty Solution: R= eR (1.7«10").—1 2x(10°) 5x10°O = Illustration 3 : in an experiment to verify Ohm's law, the current through a resistor and the potential difference across il are measured. From the values given below, plot a graph of i versus V. Show that the data confirms Ohm's law, and find the resistance Of the resistor. Current (A) or 02 03 04 Potential difference (V) 12024 36 48 Solution: The graph is shown in the figure. Scales are _ chosen to cover the given maximum values. § * We see that the graph is a straight line & ? Passing through the origin. =? Thus i = V, which is Ohm's law. The 1 resistance is = Illustration 4: A copper wire of resistance Ry is stretched ti its length is increased to n times ofits original length. What will be its new resistance? Solution: Original resistance, Ro = plo/Ao New resistance, R = pt/A As the volume of wire remains constant So, foo = (A= (nfo)Aor A= Adin ny ‘ALA oe _ att “(gem = Illustration 5: A wire of resistance 502 is drawn out so that its length is increased by twice its original length. Cal ‘ts new resistance.ELECTRICITY Matter is made up with two intrinsic properties mass and charge. Due to the possession of mass, gravitational attraction takes place between two bodies (governed by Newton's law of gravitation) and we have discussed it in the previous class. It has been found that there are two types of electric charges, Positive charge and negative charge. We can notice that while combing dry hair, the comb gets charged and can pick up small pieces of paper brought near it. The charge acquired by a glass rod rubbed with silk is by convention, called a positive charge and that on ebonite rod rubbed with wool is called a negative charge. Whenever two bodies are charged by rubbing, one gets positively charged and the other gets negatively charged. The following table gives the lst of certain rubbing pairs and respective charge separation. Table~1 Glass rod 1._| Silk cloth Fur or woollen cloth 2. | Ebonite, Amber, rubber rod Woollen coat 3._| Plastic Seat Woollen carpet 4._| Rubber shoes Nylon or Acetate 5. | Cloth Dry hair 6._[ Comb) PERTIES OF CHARGE When two bodies are rubbed, the sum of charges appearing on the two bodies remains the same as that before rubbing. This property of charge is called as law of conservation of charge, Other important properties and comparison of charge with mass is given in the following table (2). The unit of charge is Coulomb (C). Table - 2. Electric charge can be positive, Mass of a body is positive quantity. negative or zero. ZT Charge carried by a body does not | 2. | Mass of a body increases with its | depend upon veloiy of he boy. velocy as m = RE whore ci —v? ie! velocity of light in vacuum, m is the mass of the body moving with velocity v and mo is rest mass of the body. 3, | Charge is quantized 3, | The quantization of mass is yet to be established. | Ereciic Charge is always conserved. | 4 | Mass is not conserved as it can be zod changed into energy and vice versa. a )Foree between charges can be | 5. | The ‘gravitational force between two ‘attractive or repulsive, according as masses is always attractive. geletertta ‘Study of charges may be divided into two parts: 1. The study_of physical phenomenon related to charges at rest is called Slatic 9) electrostatics. 2. The study of physical phenomenon related to charges in motion is called as CUTER elect ' various charged particles are cstributed in space, then an external charge, q, ‘due to other charges in the space, Let a person move this charge sl cother charges are at rest. Then, let us say work done by the perso Vs. is defined as work done per unit charge in taking it from A to B, Ve -Va= Wig Ve and Vq are called as potentials at the two points. Potent Per unit charge in bringing a charge from infinity to that point. V=Wiq Potential is measured in volts, J volt = 1 Joule / 4 Coulomb Exercise 1:9 oe much energy iS Given fo each coulomb of charge passing through a GV battery? Will experie a lowly from point A to poin mie "iS W. Then potential diterence 6° Va ial, V at a point is defined as the work done ‘The unit of electric current is Ampere. 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/1 second ‘The direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of flow of negative charges. > Mlustration 1: © + 10" electrons cross through an area per minuto. What isthe electri Caren? ‘Solution: The curentis = $= £210" 1.67107 1.6 «10° A= 1.6 mA Exercise 2: (J Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge?CS #&# ET AE ATT NAT Call is & device that maintains a constant potential difference betwoon its + Yeeminals for a tong time. For @ constant flow of charge aver a long time we need 8 Coll A combination of colts is called « battery. Symbols of a coll and a battery ife are as shown in the figure eater, Materials that conduct electricity are called conductors and materials that do nat conduct electricity easily are called insulators, All metals conduct electricity and most solids that are non metals do not conduct electricity . How metals conduct In metals, each atom allows some of its outer most electrons to detach from it and move quite freely within the metal, After the detachment of electron from it, the atom becomes positively charged. Therefore, @ metal can be viewed as o collection of stationary positive charges and mobile electrons. When the potential difference is created across the metal, there is a flow of electrons and thus current develops, eC) When one or more electric elements such as cell switches or keys, wire: bulbs etc are connected to form a closed path for electrical charges to flow, we. get an electric circuit. A circuit is represented by a circuit diagram. The bulb, Lys cell, switch or key, etc are represented by their symbols, as shown below. e s 4 He aces ()Batery 0) Connecting em (v) Fixed resista Op Anroptet — to ues roman (1 Fie letace ¢ 8 Amin ® —@— —9— —@— (v) Variable resistance (vill) Ammeter (ix) Voltmeter (x) Galvanometer (or Rheostat) rf) + « J— ew A La {x lect Bulb An switch (xll) A closed switch o open pg key) (A closed plug key) Measuring Instruments in Electricity Electric current flowing in a wire is measured by sana eed eon et pal (4) — O- differences across two points ina circuit is thet tide “measured by an instrument called voltmeter, hdd qe td mmr tagThese measuring instruments have two terminals, one ‘s postive terminal and the other is negative terminal ‘These terminals are used for connecting wires. The electic elements are said to be connected in seses if the current passing one element aiso passes ‘trough the other elements. Ifthe electic elements are connected in such a way that the potential difference across them s equal then these elements are said to Lame be connected in parallel, An ammeter is always a connected in senes while a volmeter is connected in Ammetern a creut paratel a constant temperature. the potential difference applied between the ends of a wire is direcay proportional to the current passing through it, teVei OVI ‘The proportionality constant, R. is called as the resistance of the wire. This is called as ohm’s law. The nit of resistance is ohm. 1 Ohm = 1 volt 1 Ampere. ‘The resistance of a wire is the property of the wire, which opposes the flow of current. The resistance of a wire of uniform cross section is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross sectional zea ieRzt a Rapt A A ‘The proportonaiity constant p is called as resistivity of the wire. Resistivity depends only upon matenal and tt does not depend upon shape and size of the wire ‘The Si unit of resistivity iQ m. The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10° m1 10° Om. They are good conductors of electricity, Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 10" to 10” fm. Both the resistance of a wire and resistivity of @ material vary with temperature. Resstvity of metals increases with increase in temperature. Obmn's Law, as discussed above, is true for even a small branch of a circuit. We can illustrate this by the following example. BBB C2