Chapter 8 Desalting of Crude Oil INTRODUCTION ‘As discussed in Chapters 2 and 4, mineral sats may be present in erude oil in several forms; namely, dispersed ‘emulsified drops of connatelinjection water, solid crvs- tals of water-soluble salts, water-insoluble particles of corrosion products or scale, and metal-organic com- pounds such as porphyrins or naphthenates. Aer dehydration, ar emulsion breaking, crude oil sill contains some sediment and water (S8W) of, 36 previ- curly called, bottoms sediment and water (BSS). Typ- ical clfield emulsion treating (ie, addition of demulsify- ing chemicals; heating, if necessary; and perhaps clectrostatic coalescing) can reduce the brine or S8&W con- ven of dhe Cuude «2 0.11.0 vole 96 S8eW. This 0.1-1.0% consists of numerous, very stall (<10- yin) drops dispersed throughout the crude. The salinity of cil fied brines varies from almost fresh wate to saturation (30 we % oF 300,000 ppmw}; however, it usually ranges from 20,000-150,000 ppmw (or 2to 15 we %) (Burris, 1974). For comparison, seawater contains 30,000-43,000 ppmw (3-43 we %) dissolved solids (or sat). In rare circum- stances when the S8W’ consists of saturated brine, solid sale crystals may also be dispersed in the crude, Salt content of crude oil is usually measured in pounds of chlorides, expressed as equivalent sodium chloride, per thousand bar- teli of clean (water-fee) crude or Ib salt/1000 bbl or PTB. ‘When crude oil is processed in the refinery, salt can ‘cause numerous operating problems. Sal cakes out inside ‘equipment. causes poor flow and plugging. reduces heat transfer rates in exchangers, and causes high heater tube- wall vemperatures, plugged fractionator trays, and burned-out frecubes. Brine is also very corrosive and rep- resents a source of metallic compounds that can poison expensive catalysts, copecially in cesid cracking and -~ hydiotcating. Therefore, refiners usualy desale the enter ing crude to less than 1 PTB, This corrosivity of produced brines has resulted in oilfield specifications that the crude oil salt content be lowered to 10-20 Ib/1000 bb! for treeporain in tankers andor ipl Tistng nthe Fad ers ern downerenm wile te Sade wanaponed dibs a pipdins or Tle Inadivon the deter wate an afer uae trentment, be tenjced back ino the terri Thi Se ee ae Ted cscs afl sar che sale eontee of dhecrae (PTD) idee tte othe volume oe S8eW and ue rine conceteaion (ppm Nach a follows ibn bine) (-Ba) a bbl crude / bbl brine) \ Ib brine, Using the conventional basis of 1000 bbl of clean (no S&W) crude: Ib cale-(ObL esta rem) gp) (ye sew) 0s Ss) 1350 8G, 096 Sac 7%? SGine oe Equation (8-2) may be used to calculate the salt con- tent of a crude for any level of dehydration/desalting expressed as remnant S8W volume % and saliniy. “Table 8-1 shows the vol % S8W required to meet a 10 PTB specification for any given remnanc brine salinity. These calculations show that a 10 PTB specification can be met if the remnant S&W is lowered to 0.1 vol % when the remnant brine contains 28,100 ppmw salt. However, in many cases a residual brine content of 0.1 vol % is not achieved. Furthermore, many oilfield brines contain more than 28,100 ppmuw salt. The obvious con- clusion is thar “desalring” is often required. Uneil the ‘early 1970s, the prolific Middle East fields produced dry, salt-free crude; however, this situation has changed. ‘Aging field life and injection of seawater for pressure roaintenance are blanned for the increasing water cut and the growing need for “dlesating in the field.” PTB=(1000) M5146 Deaaling of Crude Oil Table 8-1 Salt Content vs. S8W Volume and Salinity Sale Consent Dehydration Required Brine Diluion Speaicaion evel (ppmw NaCl in Go) (ool 6 $80) remnant SEW) 0 mn 28,100 10 02 14,100 10 03 9,300 In the United States and Europe desalting is usually performed in the refinery where salt levels of less than 1 PTB are afien enquired This level of desalting wsually requires adding demulsifiers (1-10 ppmw), wetting agencs for solids removal if necessary, heating +0 200 300°F and electrostatic coalescence. Desalting in the refinety is convenient and conserves energy because heat is readily available and will be added anyway wo dhe wade prior to the atmospheric fractionator. Crude desalting is very similar co dehydration because the goal of both unit operations is reducing the S&W content. Crude dehydration is discussed in Chapter 75 therefore, the present discussion of desalting docs not repeat previously covered topics. Accordingly, the con- ventional stage and the more recent countercurrent con- tact desalting processes are described first and then the iajor design considerations are reviewed. Design proce- dures and example calculations are presented next. Finally, operating problems are summarized. PROCESS DESCRIPTION The individual unit operations commonly practiced when treating crude oll in the oilfield are reviewed is Chapter 5. Desaltng, which follows the inival dehyde tion of emulsion breaking, consists of: 1. Adding dilution (or less saline) water to the crude. 7 Mixing this dilution water with the crude to dilute the S&°W droplets in the crude, and 3. Dehydration (emulsion treating) to separate the crude cil and dilused brine (S&WW) phases The net result isto dilute the original SSW droplets and so reduce the sale content (PB) for comparable lev- els of crude dehydration (remnant vol % S&W) Desaltng equipment is now described, frst conventional stage desalting and second the more recent counter curtent contact desater. Stage Desalter As shown in Figure 8-1 the conventional equipment required for stage desalting includes: 1. A fice-wates knockout (FWKO) or heater-teater for the initial brine removal or emulsion treating (not shown). 2. A tee for injecting the dilution water 3. A mixing device to commingle the dilution water ‘with the S8&W drops entrained in the brine, and 4. A second teater (nearly always an electrostatic heater treater) to separate the crude and the dilution If commingling the crude and dilution wae producee a sable cmulsion, then all che techniques of emulsion breaking may be required; that is, demulsifier injection, heating, phase separation of any vapur ot pessune sabir lization, and electrostatic coalescence. In single-stage desalcing, the required dilution water injection rate is usually 5-79 of the crude flowrae. Ironically, field desaling is often required in regions where fresh water 1s che scarcest. Two-stage desalting (Figure 8-2) usually reduces the dilution water required to 1-296 of the crude flowrate. In qworstage desalting the water leaving the second desaltes, while certainly more concentrated than the dilu- tion water, is usually less saline than the brine drops entrained in the crude entering the first stage. Therefore, the dilution water required can be reduced further by Dealing besated Pole oH Le ounce Desir YO) Site Demylsier im ert wae eee Figure 8-1 Singlo-Stage Desalting (attr Bartley, 1982) st tage second sage Figure &-2 Two-Stage Desalting without Recycleinjecting the second-stage desalter effluent water into the crude ahead of the iret erage In auch a scheme (Fig. 8-3), the crude and dilution water streams contact the two desalters countercurrently. The level of the oil-water intefuce inside the trenter can be reiced by internally reoycling some of the water leaving the desalter as shown in Figuie 8-4. Countercurrent Contact Desalter Figure 8-5 shows NATCO’s Electrodynamic Desalter™ (Warren and Prestridge, 1988 and Warten, 1990), This ‘countercurrent contact desalter Is very similar to che hor- izontal electrostatic heater treaters described in Chapter 8. One major difierence is that the dilution water is introduced above the clectrodes using a system of laterals Orifices in the laterals produce a slight pressure drop at design flow rates and feed the dilution water into the desalter as coarse drops. These dilution water drops must be large enough to fall and flow vertically down between the high voltage (HV) grid of electrodes. Small drops cote ovate win aa 3 noe pate ‘or Sn Figure 8-3 Two-Stage Desating win Reoyele (Burs, 9) Pistsuge Dilution Figure 8-4 Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle and Internal Recycle (Burris, 1978) Desaking of Crude Oil 147 mn im [ i Figure 6-2 etecrodynamnie Desa" (Waren and Paste, 1800) Figure 8-8» Composite Electrode (NATCO, 1986) ‘would be carried up by and leave with the upwardly flow- ing crude oil ’As shown in Figure 8-6, the electrodes consist of ver- tical parallel plates connected to diodes so that alternate plates are oppositely charged. Both diodes are connected to the same end of the transformer secondary winding, thus charging the plates on alternate half-cycles of AC power. This creates a DC field between the electrodes ‘The other end of the secondary winding is connected t0 ground: therefore. the electrade-to-vessel field is AC (Warren and Prestridge, 1988). Both the vessel shell and the water phate are grounded ta minimize earensian The upward flow of crude oil and che downward flow of dilu- tion water resul in countercurrent contact. Desalking cd by varying the otrongch of the DC electric field between the electrodes. As shown in Figure 8-7, each cycle consists of four steps: drop dis persing, mixing, coalescing, and settling, ‘As previously described in Chapter 7, che attractive force. between two drops of equal size aligned In the direction of the electric field gradient is:148 —_Desaltng of Crude Oit ==nhAARLY = a | cotton | Figure 8-6 Dual Polarity™ Coalescer (Warren and Prestridge, 1986) Fade eye KEP did where Fy = electrostatic force, N aa = permit = 109/36 m (fades) of fee space «in = dielectric constant oferude il y= electric field gradient, Vim d= drop diameter, m x ~ center-to-center diance between drops, m ‘When the voltage is increased during the dispersing step, large drops experience very large electrostatic forces that tear them into smaller ones. Therefore, both the dilution-water and the S8&W drops are broken into very large numbers of small drops. 0000, 40009 Mixing Coalescing Coalescing vor ‘20000 as Sere sea Time (Seconds) Figure 8-7 Mixing/Coalescing Modulation (Warren, +980) Tn the mining sep, the high clestustati Geld sna mizes drop subdivision and causes the dioplets (1 wwwatd sand away fiom dhe elecuvdes. This horizontal migration produces numerous collisions and effective mixing of the dilution water and S&W drops. During the coalescing step the electric field is reduced, thus allowing the drops to coalesce or join together on collision. Thus, this reduced electrostatic force allows the formation of large aqueous drops. In the settling step there is no electrostatic field and the aqueous drops are free to setle by gravity. Stokes Law is conventionally used to estimate the seedling velocity: v=ed(o.-p.VI8u, (84) v= setding velocry where B= wcelerasion due w gravy 4 = drop diameter Pw = density of aqueous drop = density of ol phase ig = absolute viscosity of ol phase ‘Stokes Law shows that the settling velocity is propor- tional to the square of the drop diameter: Therefore, the large drops formed by coalescence of small dilution- water and S8&CW droplets fall rapidly down between the electrodes.‘Therefore, asthe dilution waterfalls down beowecn the sect i has many wontace poles wid dhe S8eW in dhe sising crude oil. This contac is very similar «the Fail jar countercurrent stage (or tay) contact between the falling liquid and rising vapor in a fractionation column. Composite plate electrodes (Subletce and Presteidge, 1989) are equally as advantageous in desalting as in dehydration. In particular the decreasing voltage field caused by the top, low-conductivity area of electrode (Figure 8-5b) coalesces any very small S8&W/dilution water droplets that are carried up through the high vole- age atea by the rising crude stream, Electrostatic forces act only on polar molecules (ie. the aqueous drape and nor the ende ail) Accordingly. the ahave elecrtadynamic mixing achieves very effective commingling of the S&W and dilution-water drope without turbulent mixing of the continuous erude oil phase. This reduces emulsion formation. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Often the main concern is the amount of dilution water required. This, in turn, depends on whether conven- sioual suage oF ruiercanscit wonuacs desalcers ate being. used. Usually, che following are the major parameters 1, The number of desalting stages, 2. The dehydration levels achieved (vol% S&W remaining in crude leaving desalter(s). 3. The salinity of the brine (S8W) entrained in the crude, 4 The efficiency af miving ar cammingling the dilie ion water with the entrained S&W drops, 5. The ealinity of the dilution waces, 6. The required PTB specification. TThe field operator has very ltd, if any, control over the salinity of the S8&cW produced with the crude and the required PTB. The salinity of the make-up water for dilution can be reduced via reverse osmosis or other desalination units. Although expensive, sometimes this is necessary. Accordingly, the remaining variables are emphasized. However, ifthe required salt specification is 20-50 PTB, seawater may be used for dilution water. Number of Stages As previously ments ate 5-7 vol96 and 1-2 vel%6 of che crude produc- tion for single and ewo stage deselting respectively. These ed, the usual dilution water require Desaking of Crude O11 149 rules of thumb should be viewed only as intial approai- twavions aud should never be used in place of rigorous racerial balance calculations. Nevertheless, ewo stages of desalting are usually employed. Three-stage dealing ot “countercurrent contact” 1$ used most commonly in refineries handling very heavy (10-20°API, viscous crudes. Level of Dehydeation This is the single mos the dilution water requirement (Burris, 1978). Equation 8-2 clearly shows that the dilution of the entering brine (ppmw NaCl in remnant S8&W) required to achieve a fixed PTB specification is inversely proportional to the dehydration level achieved (remnant vol% S8W). In addition Table 8-1 reinforces the prime impartance of reducing the remnant vol% S&W for meeting a 10 PTB spec. This explains the almost universal use of electrosta- tic coalescence to reduce the remnant S&W to about 0.1-0.15 vol%. Without electric fields the remnant S8W usually varies between 0.2-1.0 volM%. In many cases, it is very difficule to achieve 0.5 vol% without use of electrostatic fields. Mixing Efficiency After dehydration the remnant S&W exists as very many small drops dispersed more or less evenly throughout the crude (Burrs, 1978). Complete wr drops with the dilution water is not achievable. ‘Therefore, itis standard practice cw assume that a frac- tion, E, of the dilucion waver mixes completely with the remnant S&W drops while the remaining portion, (1-), of the dilution water passes through the desalter unchanged. Generally “100 E” may be considered the ‘mixing efficiency. While this assumption is obviously not physically realistic, che mixing efficiency concept can be used for design. In practice the mixing efficiency varies with the volume of remnant S8-W, the volume of dilution water, and the intensity of intermingling the crude and the dilution water. (Commingling remnant S&W and dilution water becomes increasingly difficult when the vol% S&W andlor the dilution water flow rates are reduced. Fortunately, the water leaving, in a desalter can he internally recycled 0 inereace the waterloude volume ratio ae previoudly chown, in Figure 8-4 (Burrs, 1978). Such internal recycling does not change the dilution water requirement, nor does it ffece any marctial balance calculations mg ofall dieae150 Derslting of Crude Ot Of necessity, “mixing” the dilution water and crude involves shearing the dilution water into many drops and dispersing these dilute drops throughout the crude. Such agitation is very likely to create stable emulsions. Several ‘methods have been used to commingle the dilution water with the remnant S&cW without simultaneously creating tight emulsions. These methods include: 1. Pumping the injection water through a tee into the crude, 2. Injecting the dilucion water dhrough a tec and then following the tee with a partially open globe-type mixing valve operating at 15-25 psi pressure drop, 3. Pumping the dilution water through a system of spray nozzles and then following the spray injector with a differential control valve operating at 515 psi pressure drop (Burris, 1978), 4, Adding, static mixers which are designed to mix via two-by-cwo division, cross-mixing, and back-mixing without requiring high fluid-shearing velocities ‘Anon, 1983). ‘Achievement of highs snisiny efficiencies without ere- ating tight emulsions requires considerable expertise. Considerable savings in pump horsepower, fuel, and emulsion breaking chemicals can be realized by reducing, the mixing pressure drop, lowering the desalter separa- tion temperature, and avoiding excessive fluid shearing. Interface-Level Meseuirement Displacement-type level transmitters can cause problems when sludge builds up at the oil-water interface and when crude gravity and temperature vary radically (Bartley, 1983). Admitcance-type probes, which sense the electrical admittance (reciprocal of impedance), are immune to gravity and temperature changes (Bartley, 1983: Mortis. 1984), Equipment Questi Table 8-2 shows a typical equipment questionnaire for dehydeation/desalting. Most of the items are self- explanatory; accordingly. comments are confined to the water and crude analyses. Such analyses can detect potential and presen problems. Chesire (1979) provides the following examples: 1. Carbonate/bicarbonate indicates a strong scaling tendency. 2. Calcium/magnesium silicate denotes reservoir fines. Table 8-2 Equipment Questionnate: Dehydrstion/Desslting 1 Toul ud o be processed 2 Oil, BPD Water, BPD 2 GOR thee) 3. Specific ravi of ol 4. Specific gravity of water 5. Anticipated maximum and minimum eetagl wate rosie ng unic susie and miniesar 7. Allowable peste drop across desing plant to take 8, Oil viscoiy a four tempercutes 9. Saliniy of pooled wae (mae analy ifavable) 10. Type of el available 11, Minimum inlet temperature of oll 12. Salinicyof wate for diluion 13. Masitnum amount of dilaton sraeravaable 14, Type of electricity avaiable: Here voltage phase, wateage 15. Reguizement for outlet ol 2 Ne RSE B Saleconten in pound per 1,000 bares of oil (PT) 16, Crude oil charters, including ur pin cud point, wax cones, 17, Ambient remperatre: 2. Summer—maximum, minimum . Winter—maximim, minim 18, Type of emulson-breaking chemical aloe used or prefered 19 Chenral fld rarition and physiat plan layout with posible plane sites lactach skech or drawing Souce NATCO, 1991 3 Tron elfide confirms aggresive corrosion by sulfate- seducing bacteria 4, Solids such a8 fines, dling muds, carrasion prod ucts often eabilize the crude emultion. Ie may he advantageous to add a surfactant to alter the weet Lily of che solids. DESIGN PROCEDURES Horizontal electrostatic desalters are generally sized using the vertical (rite) velocity of the crude oil at the center line. This rise velocity is established cither by field test ing ot by experience with similar wudes. Dilution water requirements are now established by material balances for conventional single-stage andcworstage desalting with recycle. The eureent peoceduce ic patterned after Burrie (1978) and Smith (1974) Unfortunately, the latter article contains some typo- graphical errors Single Stage Figute 8-6 shows de flowshicee for couveusivialsigle- sage desalting, This flowsheet helps us write macerial of balances by showing how the various stream are mixed and separated if mixing efficiency of Eis assumed. The “stream,” D(I-B), is not an actual stream; iis created by the mning efficiency, E. Ihe following balances can be written (see p. 156 for the nomenclature): Overall brine balance (all volumes in barrels) ArD=Biv es) Brine balance on mixing tee and valve (all volumes in barrels) AsED-L eo Salt balance on mixing tee and valve AKas ED KpeKI 7) ‘Combine equations (8-6) and (8-7): Ky=(AK+EDKpMA+ED) (8-8) Consider the crude sueain, B, leaving dhe desaler: Ib sale (bbl brine) __(b sal) Ton0 Kil emide "(7000 bbl erude) (hl brine or Ze BKy 9) Bur Ky = Kp, therefore Z=BKg~BAKa+EDKpV(A+ ED) (8-10) 5 A Tee Miser 1 [= Xp oe sealer Pe ge Ka Zz Kp Ky Figure 8-8 Flowsheet of Single-Stage Desaiting (seo . 156 for Nomenclature) Derating of Crade Oi! 151 Twn cases often aise Case 1, Calculate the effluent PIB given the dilution water: (i., caleulate Z given A, Ky, B, D, Kp and E), Equation (8-8) may be used directly. Case 2. Caleulate the dilution water reguired to pro- duce a specified PTB: ie. calculate D given A. Kx, BZ (or Kg), Kp, and E. Kearrange equation (8-10): D = AB Kg~Z)F(Z—B Kp) Notice that Z cannot be reduced below B Kp. ay ‘Two-Stage with Recycle Figure 8-9 shows atypical flowsheet for conventional ewo- stage desalting, The dilusion water is injteal berweets die ‘wo stages and the second-stage desalter water is secyeled aud injeuced inwo dhe inlet crude alvad of the frst stage. ‘The following balances can be writen’ 1. Overall volumetric brine balance on second desalcer BeD-CoR e12) 2, Salt balance on the second desalter BKy+DKp-CKc+R Ky is) 3. Brine volumetric balance on second mixing tee and valve B+E,D=M (14) 4, Sale mass balance on brine mixed in second tee and BKy + Ey D Kp =M Ky. (15) 5. Brine volumetric balance on fiset mixing tec and valve 16) 6. Sale mass halance an brine mived in fire tee and mixer A Kye E, RKq = N Ky ea) Tbe hoe: Sie i AvE)RaN Figure 8-9 Flowsheet for Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle (See p. 156 for Nomenclature)152 Delting of Crude Oi! Combine equations (8-14) and (8-15): Ky (B Kp +E, DKp\B+E,D) (8-18) Combine equations (8-16) and (8-17): Kye (AKy +E, RKgMA+E)R) (8-19) Figure 8-9 shows that: Kye Ke (8-20) Kye (2) Use equation (8-20) to substitute for Kyy in equation (8-19). Kye (AKy +E) REQMA+E,R) (8-22) In the crude stream leaving the second desalter: Z = C Ke by definition. Use equations (8-21) and (8-18) to obtain ZC Ke= C Ky = C(B Ky + Ep D Kp )(B + Ey D)(8-23) Rearrange equation (8-23) B Kg + Ey DKp = (B+ Ey DIZIC) Again two eases commonly aise: (024) Cave 1. Cadeulate das iation snater; D, when the PTB, Z, is specified, One calculation procedure is: 1, Calealate F= ZC Kp (625) 2 -E EF (0.26) 3. H« BE) +AE,-CE, EJF 27) 4 J- ABZ~CKy) (28) 5. De» (-He JH? - 4G 2G wy ‘This procedure is derived in Appendix 1 at end of the chapter. Case 2. Calculate the resulting salt content, Z, when the dilution flowrate is specified One calculation procedune i. 1. Calculate R= B+ D=C (6-30) 2N«AsER (16) 3. M=B+EyD (14) 4, Rip eBAKA(M=O) + NDKD(M ~EO) 51) MN + BE,(C - M) (A Ky + Ey RKR)IN (6-32) 6. Z=D Kye D Ky-RKy (33) ‘This procedure is derived in Appendix 2 at end of the chapter. Example Calculations Case History (Burris, 1978). A crude oil contains 10 vol% produced water containing 70 Ib of NaCl (equivalent) per barrel of remnant water. The available dilution water contains 2.1 Ib NaCl (equivalent) per barrel A dehydration level of 0.1 val S&°W and mixing efficiencies of 80% can be achieved. ‘Use @ bat of 1,000 barrele of clean crude forall eae culations. Example 8-1, Seavateras a Dilution Wier ‘Obviously, the remnant S&W can, in the lim, be died to the int of the dilution water and no. fhe Mathematically in equation 8-11, (ZB Kp) can, in the case of infinite dilution water, approach zero but can- not be negative. Equation 8-2, there- fore, provides the absolute minimum PTB using seawater. PTB = (1000) 1550 « 1,02)4852 ‘00-035 ico) sis where SG = 1.02 for seawater (Figure 4-15) assume that seawater salinity is 35,000 ppinw or 3.5 wad. Conclusion: Seawater is not suitable «9 4 dition Example 8-2. _Single-Stage Desalting The case history supplies the following: Kq=70 1b NaCVObI A Kp = 2.1 Ih NaClibbt D Xa o Xp =.001 = .80 From the nomenclature and sewing T = 1,000 bbl clean crude: As TXa/(1 =X) = (1000)(10)/(90) = 117 bb brine B= T Xpl(1 ~ Xp) = (1000).001)/.999) = 1.001 bbl brine Case 1. Calculate the dilution water required to achieve a 10 Ib NaCl/1000 bb specification.Z.is given, therefore, equation (8-11) may be used. D =A(B K,—Z)E(Z—B Ky) 1 {G.001)¢70) - 10)/-80)(10 ~ (1.001)2.0) = 1055 bbl dilution water/1000 bb! clean crude. Case 2. Calculate the resulting PTB content if 1,055 bbl of dilution water ate used. D is given, therefore, equation (8-10) may be used. Z=BIAKy+ED KpM(A+ED) + (1.001){(111)(70) + (80)(1055)(2.1)/1111 + (.80)(1055)} = 10.0 fh NaCl/1000 bbI clean crude Example 8-3. Two-Stage Desalting Without Recycle When the second-stage desalter water is not recycled to the first desalter, the first stage of desalting merely reduces the volume of remnant water in the crude to 0.1 vol%, Fven though the remnant water has not been diluced, the firse sage has reduced the salt con- tent of the crude stream from 7770 PTB ro 70 PTB—or more than 99% removal Caleulation procedures for the sec- ond-stage desalter are identical vo those fora single stage Case. Calculate the second-stage dilution water required to achieve 2 10 PTB specification. Fquation (B11) may he sted hecatice 7. is 1D = ACh Ky ~ 2/8. —B Kp) += (.001314.0019(70) ~ 10)/¢80)110 - (.00002.91 = 9.52 bbl dilution water/1000 bbl clean crude, Calculate the resulting PTB content if 9.52 bbl of dilution water are used in the second stage. Equation (8-10) may be used because D is given. Za BIAK,+ ED KpiMA+ ED) 2 (1.001)11.001)(70) + (.80%9.52)(2.101 11.001 + (80(9.5201 = 10.0 ty NaC/1000 bbl clean crude, Example 8-4, Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle “The case history has supplied the following: Case 2. Ey= 8 Ee 8 Kg = 70 lb NeCibbl A Kp = 211 Ib NaC/bbL A T= 1000 bbl clean crude Xq=. Xs =.001 Xe= 001 Use the definitions in the nomenclature: (basis = 1,000 bbl clean crude) Desating of Crude O11 153 ‘AT Xal(1 ~Xq) ~ (1,000)(10)/(90) = 111 bbl brine BT Xp/(1 ~Xp) ~ (1,000)(.001)/(.999) = 1.001 bbI brine CTX Xp) « (1,000)(001)1.999) = 1.001 bbl brine Case 1, Calculate the dilution water required co achieve a 10 PTB specification. Follow “Design Procedures, Iwo-Stage with Recycle” (p. 150. 1 FaZ-CKy (625) = 10 (1.0N1)(9 1) = 7 89R 2 GaE, FF (626) = (BON( RO)(7 RAR) = 5 055, 3, He (BE, + AE;~CE, EF) 27 = (0,0019(.80)+(111.11)(80) ~ (1.001)(.80)(80)](7.898) = 702.162 4, [=AB(Z-CKy) (8-28) = (111.11)0.001)f10 ~ (1.001)(70)1 = 6681133 5. D =(-He yi? - 4cy2G (6-29) 702.162)+ Yt702.162)? ~(4)5.055)~G681.133) 25.055) ~ 8:94 bbl dilusion water/1000 bbl clesn crude. Case 2. Calculate the PTB achieved when 8.94 bbl of dilution water ate used, Follow “Design Procedures, Two-Stage with Recycle” (p. 151). 1 ReBsD-c (3-28) = 1.001 + 8.94 ~ 1.001 « 8.94 bb] 2 NeAsEsR 14) = 1111 + (.80)(8.94) » 118.26 bot 3. M=B+E,D 12) (001 + (.80)(8.94) = 8.15 bbl BAKa(M ~ C) + NDKp(M - E:C) MN=BE,(C NM) ie70) (4.001)011.19(70)8.13-1.000) +(118,26)(6.94)¢2.116.15~(.60)(.000)] ~ (118.26)08.15)+(.001),-80)0.001-8.153) = 75.13 RK 5. Kp (AKy+ E) RK QIN (6-30) = (11.1170) + (80)(75.1991118.26) = 66.28 6. Z=BKy+DKp-RKp (31) = (1.001)(66.28) + (8.94)(2.1) ~ 75.13 = 9.99 Ib sale/1000 bbl clean crude.154 Deualeing of Crude Oil ‘Countercurrent Contact Desalter Table 8-9 aud Figuie 6-10 compare the performance of « conventional single-stage desalrer with a mixing valve anda countercurrent desalter (NATCO, 1994). Table 8-3 indicates that when compared at the same dilu- tion water rte (as vol% of dry oil), the countercurrent contact desalter pro- vides much higher salt removals. This higher efficiency is obtained withouc the required pressure drop of the mix- ing valve. The greater efficiency of the ccounterrnerent desalter sla allows for reductions inthe dilution water requirements, Dilution water rates as low a2 1 1.5%6 of the dey oil volumet rie rate with increased salt removal ate claimed (NATCO, 1994). This is a very importance beneficin arid climates where fresh water is scarce and abo in the Unlted States where there isa major concern about the quantity and quality of desalter effluent in refineries. Conventional desalters can be retrofit= ted to use the electrostatic mixing and coalescence of the countercurrent desalte. An estimated cost for rett0- ficcing a 12x60 fe desalter is $300,000 (NATCO, 1994). Example 8-5. Table 8-3. Compation of Mixing Vale and Electroctstic Mixing PiesaierPerivmance (Ceade Oils 43.8°API a Ore roe al Pressure drop (psd 5 none Inlet Cut (01%) 05 05 Tues Drie worms pm) 200,000" 200,000 Dilion Water Rate 86 dry oi 1.00 10 Oil Viscosity (65 ax 60°F) 83 83 (Ourlet Ct vas water oi o1 Sale I 1000 bb ot) 400 00 Salt Gut (/1000 B64 oid 0 03 Sake Baron (6) sn ase Relive Fewer Consumption 10 0.28 OPERATION ‘Contaminant removal efficiencies, installation, and trou- bleshooring are discussed separately. Contaminant Removal Desalters remove more than chloride salts; they also remove water-soluble salts, acids, and bases, water- insoluble sats, sediments, and ilterable solids, and some heavy metals. Bartley (1982) reports the following typical contami- nant removals fora single-stage unit Example: ‘Expected improvementin Operations Conution 20 PTB salt inlet 0.19 water in oll 40° API oil gravity Conventional Desalter @ 1.35 PTS ELECTRO-DYNAMIC Desaiter @.135 PTB. Resuits: ‘90% improvement in salt removal Figure 8-10 Theoretical Desalter Performance (NATCO, 1994)salt 90% ash (dry ppm) 75% Fe 75% v 30% Zn 75% Mg 60% Ca 90% Na 90% Countercurrent contact units can achieve higher removal levels because the numerous “contact cycles” etween the dilution waver aud S8CW axe unre efficient than one stage of mixing. ‘Naeger and Peruginl (1991) claim that injecting from 0.1-100 PTB of an organic amine improves desalting in petroleum refineries. The patent claims a wash solution Consisting of 20 vol% ethylene diamine, 1.8 vol% KOH, and 78.2 vol% water. Installation Observe the following guidelines: + Vessels must be level for proper opera + Follow manufacturer’ recommendations, especially ‘when handling/installing the high-voltage cable. + Be sure transformer and vessel are grounded before connecting line power. + Padlock circuit breaker in the off position until instal- lation and all checks have been complered These same precautions also apply co electrostatic ‘TROUBLESHOOTING Desalting, like dehydrating, uses four components (chemicals. time, heat. and electricity) to achieve gnad treatment. [fone component is changed, or lost, the ath- sre mut he changed to compensate, If all componente are maintained properly and treatment still slips, then cone logical conclusion is chat che emulsion has changed. ‘The following troubleshooting guide is recommended (NATCO, 1991): . + Low Operating Temperature —Thermostat set too low —Low-level shutdown lot burner out or main burner has failed to ignite + Loss of Chemical Injection Rate —Chemical pump malfunction + Excessive Sludge Build-up on Oil/Water Interface Inadequate heat or chemical —May require change in demulsifer IF necessary remove excesive sludge Desaling of Crude Oi! 155 + High Interface Level in Coalescing Section —lnterface control malfunction Defective water dump valve —Water valve sanded off or plugged —Loss of instrument ait + Recycling Problem Emulsions, Tank Bottoms, et. May require additional chemical (reeyele pump suction is good injection poins) — Recycle rate too high Increased Flow Through Treater —Excessive reeycling -Ficld surging —New wells brought on seam + Electrical Malfunctions —Follow manufacturers guidelines Observe ALL SAFETY regulations Review Questions 1. Mineral sales exier in ersde oil in several formes. Lice at leet three forms: Which form is most common? ‘Which form contributes the most salinity? How saline is connate water or produced brine? 3. Salt in crude oil ean cause operating, problems. Lise some ypinal vefivery au vilfild problems. 4. Whac assumptions are needed co derive equation 8-1? 5. Can seawater be used asa dilution water? IFnot, why 6. Why are rwo sages of desating usually used instead of one stage? 1. Define internal recycling of desalter water. ‘Why is internal recycling practiced? How does internal recycling influence dilution water requirements? 8. List the advantages of the countercurrent contact desalter described in Figure 8-5. 9. Define “composite electrodes.” Why are they used sometimes? 10. In designing a crude-oil desalting system. a. What are the major concerns? bi. List the major parameters ©. Which parameters can design engineers control? 4. Which parameters have the target influence on the level of desalting realized (PTB) and the dilu tion water required? 11. What methods can be used to mix dilution water and renucant SSW?156 Dealing of Crude Oil ‘What problems, if any, can occur? 12, How is “mixing efficiency” defined? Is your definition physically realistic? 13, What is the minimum PTB (or Z) that can be achieved, even with very large amounts of dilution 14, Whar accumprions are required to derive equations 8-10, 8-11, and 8-74? 15. What levele of dehydration (Final val SAW) can be achieved in desalting? What type of dehy equipment is usually used? Why? 16, The wuntercurrent deselter is claimed to offer major benefits over woventional mixing valve units. List and discuss these benefis. 17. Can desalters remove contaminants other than vale? If so, list the contaminants and estimate typical removal percentages. 18, What precautions should be taken when installing a desalter? Emphasize electrical components 19, List at least five problems that can occur during operation of a desalter? How can these problems be resolved? Problems 1. a, Ha brine contains 3.0 we% salt estimate the max imum permissible S8&W content (vol%) if the dehydraced crude must meet 4 10 Ib sale pes 1000 bbl (10 PTB) specification. b. If the erude ean be dehydrated 10 0.2 vol% S8eW, calculate the maximum allowable SéeW salt con- tent (in ppmw equivalent NaCl) if the 10 PTB salt specification must be met. 2. A crude oil contains 15 vol% produced water con- taining 75 Ib of sale (NaCl equivalent) per barrel of remnant water. a If the only dilution water available is seawater (35,000 ppmw salt) estimate the minimum PTB that can be achieved. State your assumptions. b, Calculate the dilution water required to achieve a 10 PTR specification. Assume: 1. Dilution water contains 4th salbbl 2.Dehydration level achievable is 0.15 vol% saw 3. Mixing efficiency = 80%. Use the following desalting proceses: 1. Single-sage desalting (Figures 8-1 and 8-8) 2. Two-stage desalting without recycle: dilution water is added to second stage (Figure 8-2) 3, Two-stage desalting with reeycle (Figures 8-3 and 8-9) 4, Two-stage desalting with recycle and internal recycle (Figure 8-4). 5.A countercurrent contact desalter. 3. A countercurrent contact desalter has the following operating parameters: Height of vertical electrode 15 in + Crude rice rate 100 bb day-f2 + Time for one cose settling extraction cyele Estimate the number of extraction cycles beween the saline crude and dhe dilution wate. ond 21 sec. Nomenclature Desalting Caleulations ‘As TX/(1 Xj) = bbl brine in T bb of clean crude B= T Xp/(1 —X;) = bbl brine in T bbl of clean crude leaving first sage C= TXaM(I —X5) = bbl brine in T bbl of clean crude leaving second stage d= drop diameter D = dilution water flowrate (bbl per T bbl of clean, crude produced) Ey = mixing efficiency of R with A in first-stage desalter Eq = mixing efficiency of D with B in second-stage desalter y= electric field gradient, Vim B-Z—C Kp (ore eqiation 8-28) Fy = electrostatic force, N ~ acceleration due to gravity G = Ey Ep F (sce equation 8-26) H = (BE; + AEp~ Cy Ep)F (see equation 8-27) J = ABIZ~C Ky) (see equation 8-28) sale content of water phase (Ib salt/bb brine) rine mixed in single-stage desalter (bbl) A+ED (equation 8-6, Figure 8-8) rine mixed in second-stage desalter (bbl) +E; D (equation 8-14, Figure 8-9)N = brine mixed in first-stage desalter (bbl) =A E,R (equation 8 16, Figure 8 9) PTB ~ of sale (equivalent NaCl) per thousand bbl of clean (water-frce) coude = recycle stream flowrate (bbl) S8W = sediments and water Jean (waterfree) crude volume = 1000 bbl ctling velocity ine eaving first-stage desalter (bbl) (igure 8-3 or 8-9) centerto-center distance between drops, m X.- volume Sretion of beine in erude stream Z.~ sale content of inal crude stream (Ib NuCl/1000 bbI clea exude vil) ielectic constant of erude oil = permittivity of free space Suubsripts A,B, C,D, M,N, R denote streams A, B, C, D, M,N, R respectively References ‘Anon (1983), “Static Mixer Improves Desalting Efi- ciency.” Oil & Gas lournal, Vol. 81, No. 42, pp. 128-29 (Oct. 17). Bartley. Don (1982). “Heavy Crudes, Stocks Pose Desalring Problems.” Oil 8 Gas Journal, Vol. 80, No. 5. pp. 117-124 (Feb. 1) Burr, Don (1974), “Field Detain: A Growin Producer Problem Worldwide,” Per. Engineer, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 38, 39, 41, 44 une). Burris, Don (1978), “How To Design an Efficient Cede Desalting System,” World Oil, Vol. 186, No. 7, pp. 150-156 (Jan) Chesire, D. A. (1979), "NPRA Q & A-8. Ticaing and Desalting,” Oi & Gas Journal, Vol. 77, No. 29, p. 72 Uuly 16) Mortis, David R. (1984), “NPRA Q & A-3. Heavy Feeds Stress Desalting, Other Operations,” Oil & Gas Journal, Nol-82, No. 21, pp. 149-50 (May 21) Nacger, Dennis Pand Joseph J. Perugini, (1991), “Crude Oil Desalting Process,” ULS. Patent 4,992,210 (Feb. 12). Desahing of Cade Oil 157 NATCO (1991), Tulsa, OK. Personal Communica- NATCO (1994), Tulsa, OK. Personal Communica- Sunith, Robest (1974), “How To Calculate Rapidly for Two-Stage Desalting,” Oil 8 Gus Journal, Vol. 72, No. 39, pp. 79-80 (Sept. 30) Sublette, Kerry L. and Floyd L. Prestridge (1989) “Resolution of Emulsions with Multiple Electric Fields, US. Patent 4,804,453 (Feb. 14). Assigned to National Tank Co., Tulsa, OK. Warren, K. W., and F.L. Prestridge (1988), “Crude Oil Desalting by Counterflow Electrostatic Mixing,” Annual National Petroleum Refiners Association, Meeting, Paper No. AM-88-78 (March 20-22). ‘Warren, Kenneth W.. (1990), “Desalting Heavy Crude Oil hy Counter-Plaw Flectrastatie Mixing.” § PF. Tain America Petraleum Engineering Conference, Paper No. SPE-21176 (October 14-19), APPENDIX 8.1 jon Water Requirement for Two-Stage Deralting with Recycle Calculate the dilution water, D, required given A, Ka, B, ©, Kp, Ey, Ep. and Z. ‘The starting equations are: B.LD-GIR (12) BKg+DKp=Z+RKq (13) Kgs (A Kye Fy RKQMALE,R) (8-22) BKg+E,DKp=(B+E,D)(Z/C) (8-24) One procedure to solve for the four unknown variables; R, Kp, Kp, and D is: 1, Use equation (8-13) ws substitute for RK it equa sion (8-22) Ky =AKg+ E\(B p+ D Kp~Z)/(A +E, R) (8-34) 2. Use equation (8-12) to substitute for R in equation (0-34) Ky = (A Kg + Ey(B Ky + D Kp ~Z)(A + E(B + DO) (635) 3. Solve equation (8-35) for Ky Kp «(A Ky + Ei(D Kp~Z))"A + E(D-C) (6-36)158 Deasking of Crude Oil 4. Use equation (8-36) to substitute for Kp in equa- sion (8-24) AK, +E (DKp-Z) $8; DKp= (+E; ‘AE, (D-C) (8-37) 5. Rearrange equation (0-37) By Ex(C Kn Z)D? + [B E(C KZ) + (AE O(C Kn = Z)E)ID + ABC Ky -BCZE,-BZ(A-E, Q)=0 (6-38) 6. Le F=Z-CKp (8-25) Gee mF 26) H=(BE,+AE,)-CE, EDF 27) J~ ABCK,. BZA B,C), BCZE, = ABZ-CK,) (28) ‘Then G D24HD«J=0 (8-37) 7. Find the positive root of quadratic equation (8-37) to obtain equation (8-29). APPENDIX 8-2 Resulting PTB for Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle Caleulate resulting PTB (Z) given A, Ky, B, C, D, Kpy Ej, and E> ‘The starting equations are: BsD=C+R 1) Bg +DKp=Z+RKR wo Kyo (AKa+E:RKMA+ELR) (8-22) BKg+E,DRp=@+E, DIC) 6-24) ‘One procedure to solve for the four unknown vari- ables: R. Kn. Kp. and Z is: 1, Eliminate Z in equation (8-13) using equation 6-24) B Kg + DKp = (B Ky + Ey D KpIC/M + RK, (8-40) where M = B+ E,D. (6-14) 2, Rearrange equation (8-40) RKq=BKy(M-OVM+DKp-CE,DKp/M (8-41) 3. Eliminate Ky in equation (8-41) and in equation (0-22) AKa +E, RKp (M-C) N RK 42) sb kp- SDE D Ko where N= A+E, R 4. Solve equation (842) for R Kg w yield: 6-16, RKye BAKAIM-O4N D Kp (M-Ey O) - MN+BE,(C-M) (8-31) 5. The procedure recommended in the section “Design Procedures, Two-Stage with Recycle” may now be followed.Chapter 9 Stabilization and Sweetening of Crude Oil INTRODUCTION Dissolved yas in the wellhead crude oil must be removed +o meet pipeline, storage, or tanker Reid vapor pressure (RVP) specifications. When the oll is essentially free of| dissolved natural gas, or “dead,” then it can be stored in a vented tank at atmospheric pressure subject, of course, to emission regulations. As discussed in Chapter 3, the presence of the most volatile hydrocarbons (Cl, C2, C3, te) increases the RVP dramatically. Removal of these dissolved natural-gas components is called crude oil stabilization ‘The Reid vapor pressure is usually set in the range of 10-12 psia, which generally yields a true vapor pressure (TVP)—or, more properly, a bubblepoint pressure at 100°F—of slighty higher value, 13-15 psia. As noted in Chapter 2, other important specifications that must he met are BS&W and H,S content. Reduction of RSW discussed in Chapter 7. Hydrogen sulfide specifications are ueually in the range of 10-60 ppm (Moins, 1980b). ‘Often « considerable amount of gas is dissolved in cerude oil. Hydrocarbons are usually worth more as liq- uid (e, in the erude oil phase than in the vapor or nat- tural yas pluse), even when die wsuciaved gas i used for LNG or wheu dhe gas is sold and condénsate is extracted, The comparison for NGL separated from condensate was discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 14. Recall that if natural gas can be sold for US $2.00, the equivalent liq- urd price 1s about US $0.20/gal, which is less than the usual selling price of NGL in the United States. Similarly, NGL are spited into the crude oil to increase the erude volume, then the value at US $12.00/bb1 is US $0.286/US gallon A second possible benefit of spiking, crude oil with light hydrocarbons is the potential for increased price due to increased ADI gravity: This increase is usually sinall, however—less ian one degree API—and dhe price increase is also modest: about 10 cents/bbl per °API increase ‘As previously discussed in Chapter 2, sour erudes do contain sulfur compounds in general and hydrogen sul- fide in particular. Stabilization must also remove the volatile sulfur compounds to meet sales or transport specifications The economic goal of stabilization is to maximize stock-tank oil recovery while meeting vapor pressure and HS content specifications, as well as BS&W. Butanes increase the vapor pressure of crude oil considerably, since the true vapor pressures of i-C4 and n-C4 are 72.6 and 52.1 psia, respectively. Control of the butane con- tent controls the RVP and TVP The technical gral of stabiliatian is #n remove C1 €2, and C3 as completely as possible while leaving the maximum amounts of C4 (and C5 and heavier) in the crude oil Crude oil can be stabilized by passing it through « cries of flash drums or vaporliquid separator vessels at successively lower pressures. Tray towers with reboilers, altesnacively or in conjunction with separators, ate also used, though less ofien. More complex processing is also used on occasion, as detailed later Stabilization can also sweeten the crude because the chief sulfur-containing oF sour contaminant, HS, has a boiling point of ~/6.5°F, intermediate to that of ethane and propane. Incidentally, dissolved radon gas will also be removed with the light hydrocarbons; its boiling point is 79.2", Radon radioactivity must be considered very carefully. Multistage separation is described first, with emphasis ‘on the optimum number of stages. The potential problems of excessive compression ratio, condensate formation, 159