ME-6501Computer Aided Design (CAD) WITH QB - by Civildatas - Com 12

ME 6501 - CAD III/ V
Visit : www.Civildatas.com MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

QUESTION BANK
UNIT - I
FUNDAMEN
NTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
PART - A
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1. What is meant by Engineer
eering Design Process?
The Engineering Design Process is the formulation of a plan to help an n engineer build a
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product with a specified perfo
erformance goal.
The Engineering Desiign process is a multi-step process includin ng the research,
conceptualization, feasibilityy assessment, establishing design requiremeents, preliminary
design, detailed design, produ
oduction planning and tool design, and finally produ
oduction.
2. Shortly narrate Embodimen nt Design.
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It is a process where the structured development of the design concepts
pts takes place. It is
in this phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, sizee shape
sh and spatial
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compatibility. Embodiment nt design is concerned with three major tasks t – product
architecture, configuration deesign, and parametric design.
3. What are the steps involved d in Conceptual Design?
i. Identification
tion of customer needs
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ii. Problem definition

inition
iii. Gathering Infoormation
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iv. Conceptualizaation
v. Concept selecection
4. Describe Detailed Design.

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It is in this phase the desi

sign is brought to a state where it has the compl
omplete engineering
description of a tested and nd a producible product. Any missing inform mation about the
arrangement, form, material, l, manufacturing process, dimensions, tolerancess etc of each part
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is added and detailed engineer

eering drawing suitable for manufacturing are preepared.
5. Why Technology is applied d in the Design Process?
Design is the esseence of engineering

Starts with recognition
nition of some need
Progresses to phyysical implementation
Results may be simple or complex
Design can be of two kikind:
88 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

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o Somethingg completely new , or

o An improvved form of something already in existence
6. What are the steps involved

d in Morphology of Design?
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7. Plot the various stages of Prroduct Life Cycle (PLC).
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8. What are the stages of convventional sequential engineering design process?

ss?
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9. Clearly sketch components of concurrent engineering design process?
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10. List the application of Com
mputers to Design.
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• Modeling of the DDesign
• Engineering designgn and analysis
• Evaluation of Prottotype through Simulation and Testing
• Drafting and Desiign Documentation
11. List any four benefits of CA
• Shorter Lead Tim

AD.
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• Flexibility in Desi
sign
• Design Analysis
• Fewer Design Errror
• Standardization off Design, Drafting and Documentation
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• Drawings are morre understandable

12. Write short note on Window wing Transformation.
When it is necesssary to examine in detail a part of a picture beeing displayed, a
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window may be placed aaround the desired part and the windowed area magnified to fill
the whole screen and mulultiple views of the model may also be shown on the same screen.
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The window is a rectangular frame or boundary through whicch the user looks
onto the model. The vieewport is the area on the screen in which the
he contents of the
window are to be presenteed as an image.
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13. What is meant by clipping Transformation?

The clipping is an operation to plot part of a picture within the given
window of the plotting area and to discard the rest.
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14. How Zooming has done in CG?
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This transformation is carried out to provide enlarged or shrunk view of a
picture detail
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Translation : Dx = - xo, Dy = - yo (Centre of detail to origin)

Scaling: Sx = Sy = Lx/L
Translation : Dx = Lx/2, Dy = Ly/2,
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Clipping : (to frame dimensions)
15. List some 2 –D transformations.

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a. Translation
b. Rotation
c. Scaling
d. Mirroring
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e. Clipping

PART – B
1. Discuss in detail about M

Morphology of Design.
The consideration of the product life from its conception to retirem

ment.....
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Anatomy of Design
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Detailed examination of the engineer’s actions as he/she identifiess and solves the
problem:
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Needs Analysis
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Creation begins bby recognizing a need

o Apparent ffrom observation
o Results of a detailed study
o A specificc set of circumstances
Results in a primiitive statement

o Fact or opiinion

o Does the nneed exist and is it realistic?

o Does it exxist now or will it exist in the future?
o Is it a new
w nneed? (new material or physical principle)
Often depends
nds on circumstances
Needs analysis on
once through the Anatomy provides a good starti
ting point for the
Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study
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Designs can be futile unleess satisfying the original need is feasible
At this stage, the product appears in abstract forms, but is they feasible??
???
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Alternative solutions mustust be subjected to physical and economic analyses and be
realizable from both
The Feasibility Studyy using analysis of several alternatives establishes the design concept
as something which can be realised and accepted
Some examples.....
Heating, ventilation
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(i) A building must be coomfortable to live in:
tion and air conditioning are required. Sp pecify limits of
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temperature,, humidi
humidity, velocity and fresh air constituency.
(ii) National fossil fuel suppli

upplies are low:
Alternative formsms of energy supply are required. Specify amount
mount and where they
are needed, and anny restrictions of space, time or pollution levels.
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Preliminary Design
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Main purpose is selectionn of the best possible solution from a choice of alternatives
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Make comparisons against st given criteria & constraints
Must maintain an openn mind; use your judgement.
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Detailed design
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Aim is to produce a compl

omplete set of working drawings which are then transmitted
t to the
manufacturer
This stage of design is farr less flexible than those previous
Design should now reflec ect all of the planning both for manufacture and
a consumption
stages
Construction/testing of vararious components may be required
Prototype building ....is it what was expected?

Production
Here, the device or system m is actually constructed, and planning for this should
s have been
incorporated into the desisign
Knowledge of the capabbility of the machines is required, since it must be possible to
build and assemble the compon
omponents as specified
Special jigs, fixtures and even machines may be required
Planning is vital; including
ng quality control hold points, methods of inspection,
insp standards
for comparison etc...
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Timing of construction
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may be important eg. Climatics
Distribution
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Transportation of the mmanufactured article, complete or in subassemb mbly form must be
anticipated in the design
Packaging, availability oof vehicles, regulations for use of thoroughfares,
s, shelf/component
and humidity may needd to be addressed

Consumption tas
life, warehouse storage ffacilities, special handling, environmental contrrol of temperature
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The product is now used by the consumer
If the design is effect, it wi
will have met the need
The design may yet noot be complete; redesigns and modifications
tions may
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depending on field trials or consumer feedback
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May need to considerr maintenance of components and supply off spare parts or
subassemblies
Retirement
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The product will be discaarded as its life cycle terminates

It may have become obsol
obsolete whilst still serviceable and therefore the design may not
have been fully economicacal
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Disposal and recovery off useful materials should have been includedd in the design
Threats to safety should be guarded against
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2. Confer Sequential and Co

Concurrent Engineering.
With today's marketplacce becoming more and more competitive, there th is an ever-
increasing pressure on companiees to respond quickly to market needs, be cost effective, reduce
lead-times to market and deliver superior quality products.
Traditionally, design hass been carried out as a sequential set of activiti

tivities with distinct
non-overlapping phases. In succh an approach, the life-cycle of a productt starts with the
identification of the need for thaat product. These needs are converted into produ
oduct requirements
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.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
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which are passed on to the design department. The designers design the product's form, fit, and
function to meet all the requirements, and pass on the design to the manufacturing department.
After the product is manufactured it goes through the phases of assembly, testing, and
installation. This type of approach to life-cycle development is also known as `over the wall'
approach, because the different life-cycle phases are hidden or isolated from each other. Each
phase receives the output of the preceding phase as if the output had been thrown over the wall.
In such an approach, the manufacturing department, for example, does not know what it will
actually be manufacturing until the detailed design of the product is over.
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Over the Wall Engineering (Sequential Engineering)
There are a lot of disadvantages of the sequential engineering process. The designers are
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responsible for creating a design that meets all the specified requirements. They are usually not
concerned with how the product will be manufactured or assembled. Problems and
inconsistencies in the designs are therefore, detected when the product reaches into the later
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phases of its life-cycle. At this stage, the only possible option is to send the product back for a re-
design. The whole process becomes iterative and it not until after a lot of re-designs has taken
place that the product is finally manufactured. Because of the large number of changes, and
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hence iterations, the product's introduction to market gets delayed. In addition, each re-design,
re-work, re-assembly etc. incurs cost, and therefore the resulting product is costlier than what it
was originally thought to be. The market share is lost because of the delay in product's
introduction to market, and customer faith is lost. All this is undesirable.
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Concurrent Engineering is a dramatically different approach to product development in

which various life-cycle aspects are considered simultaneously right from the early stages of
design. These life-cycle aspects include product's functionality, manufacturability, testability,
assimilability, maintainability, and everything else that could be affected by the design.
In addition, various life-cycle phases overlap each other, and there in no "wall" between
these phases. The completion of a previous life-cycle phase is not a pre-requisite for the start of
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the next life-cycle phase. In addition, there is a continuous feedback between these life-cycle
phases so that the conflicts are detected as soon as possible.
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Concurrent Engineering
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The concurrent approach results in less number of changes during the later phases of
product life-cycle, because of the fact that the life-cycle aspects are being considered all through
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the design. The benefits achieved are reduced lead times to market, reduced cost, higher quality,
greater customer satisfaction, increased market share etc. Sequential engineering is the term
used to describe the method of production in a linear format. The different steps are done one
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after another, with all attention and resources focused on that one task. After it is completed it is
left alone and everything is concentrated on the next task.
In concurrent engineering, different tasks are tackled at the same time, and not
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necessarily in the usual order. This means that info found out later in the process can be added to
earlier parts, improving them, and also saving a lot of time.
Concurrent engineering is a method by which several teams within an organization work

simultaneously to develop new products and services and allows a more stream lined
approach. The concurrent engineering is a non-linear product or project design approach during
which all phases of manufacturing operate at the same time - simultaneously. Both product and
process design run in parallel and occur in the same time frame.

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Product and process are closely coordinated to achieve optimal matching of requirements
for effective cost, quality, and delivery. Decision making involves full team participation and
involvement. The team often consists of product design engineers, manufacturing engineers,
marketing personnel, purchasing, finance, and suppliers.
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ME 6501-CAD Visit : www.Civildatas.com
IV/VII MECHANICA
CAL ENGINEERING
3. Discuss the following:
a. Role of computerrs in design
b. CAD system archi hitecture
a. Role of Computers in Dessign
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b. CAD System Architecturre
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4. Discuss the following:
a) Applications and benefits of CAD
b) Reasons for implementing CAD
a) Application Of Computers To Design

• Modeling of the Design
• Engineering design and analysis
• Evaluation of Prototype through Simulation and Testing
• Drafting and Design Documentation
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Benefits Of CAD
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1. Productivity Improvement in Design
Depends on Complexity of drawing,
Degree of repetitiveness of features in the designed parts,
Degree of symmetry in the parts,
2. Shorter Lead Times

3. Flexibility in Design
4. Design Analysis
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Extensive use of library of user defined shapes and commonly used entities
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5. Fewer Design Error
6. Standardization of Design, Drafting and Documentation
7. Drawings are more understandable
8. Improved Procedures of Engineering Changes
9. Benefits in Manufacturing :
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a. Tool and fixture design for manufacturing

b. Computer Aided process planning
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c. Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials

d. Computer aided inspection
e. Coding and classification of components
f. Production planning and control
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g. Preparation of numerical control programs for manufacturing the parts

on CNC machines
h. Assembly sequence planning
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b) REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTING CAD
• To increase the productivity of the designer

• To improve the Quality of Design
• To improve Documentation
• To create a Database for manufacturing

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5. Briefly discuss about the following 2 – D transformations:
i. Translation
ii. Scaling
iii. Reflection with mirror
iv. Rotation
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IV/VII MECHANICA
AL ENGINEERING
UNIT - II
G
GEOMETRIC MODELING
PART - A
1. What are the two types of equations for curve representation?
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(1) Parametric equation xx, y, z coordinates are related by a parametric var
ariable
(u or θ)
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(2) Nonparametric equatiion x, y, z coordinates are related by a function
Example: Circle (2-D)
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2. Name some types of currves used in geometric modelling.
• Hermite curvees
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• Bezeir curves
• B-spline curvees
• NURBS curvees
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3. What are the desirable p

properties of Bezier Curve?
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4. Write any Two Drawbaacks of Bezier Curves.
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5. List the advantages of B
B-spline curves.
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6. What are the functions of Geometric Modelling in design analysis?
Evaluation of areaa, volume, mass and inertia properties
Interference checkking in assemblies
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Analysis of toleraance build-up in assemblies
Kinematic analysiis of mechanisms and robots
Automatic mesh ggeneration for finite element analysis
7. What are the functions of Geometric Modelling in Manufacturing??
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Parts classificationn
Process planning
NC data generatioon and verification
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Robot program geeneration

Scheduling
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8. List the Properties of a G

Geometric Modeling System.
The geometric model muust stay invariant with regard to its location and orientation
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The solid must have an innterior and must not have isolated parts
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The solid must be finite aand occupy only a finite shape

The application of a transsformation or Boolean operation must produce an nother solid
The solid must have a finnite number of surfaces which can be described
The boundary of the solidd must not be ambiguous
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9. What are called 2 ½ - D Wire frame models?
Two classes of shape for which a simple wire-frame representation is often adequate
are those shapes defined by projecting a plane profile along its normal or by rotating a planar
profile about an axis. Such shapes are not two-dimensional, but neither do they require
sophisticated three-dimensional schemes for their representation. Such representation is
called 2 ½ - D.
10. Draw an example for 2 ½ - D Wire frame model.
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i. Surface Patch
ii. Coons Patch
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11. Catalog Techniques In Surface Modelling.
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iii. Bicubic Patch
iv. Be’zier Surface
v. B-Spline Surfaces
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12. What are the Solid Modeling Techniques?

The various methods for representing the solids are:
1. Half-space method
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2. Boundary representation method (B-rep)

3. Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)
4. Sweep representation
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5. Analytical solid modeling (ASM)

6. Primitive instancing
7. Spatial partitioning representation
a. Cell decomposition
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b. Spatial occupancy enumeration

c. Octree encoding

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13. Write short note on Be’zzier Surface.
The Be’zier su
surface formulation use a characteristic polygon
Points the Bezzier surface are given by
Where,
- Vertices of the characteristic polygon
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, - Blending functions
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14. Write any topological te tas
terms used Boundary representation method (B-rep).
(
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o Vertex (V) : Itt is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space
o Edge (E) : Itt is finite, non-self intersecting, directed space cu
urve bounded by
two vvertices that are not necessarily distinct
o Face (F) : Itt is ddefined as a finite connected, non-self-intersec
ecting, region of
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a closed oriented surface bounded by one or moree loops

o Loop (L) : Itt is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges
o Genus(G) : Itt is the topological name for the number of handl dles or through
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hol
holes in an object
o Body/Shell(B) : Itt is a set of faces that bound a single connected closed
c volume. A
minimum bo body is a point
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15. What is called singular b

body in b-rep?
A minimum body is a point;int; topolo

topologically this body has one face, one vertex
x, and no edges. It
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is called a seminal or singular bo

body
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16. Sketch some open polyhedral objects used in B-rep.
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17. Write Euler’s formula for open and closed objects used in b-rep.
Euler – Poincare Law for closed objects :
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F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G)
Euler – Poincare Law for open objects :
F–E+V–L= B–G
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18. What are Advantages and Disadvantages of b-rep?
Advantages
o Appropriate to construct solid models of unusual shapes
o Relatively simple to convert a b-rep model to wireframe model
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Disadvantages of b-rep
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o Requires more storage

o Not suitable for applications like tool path generation
o Slow manipulation
19. How solids are created using CSG?
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20. Give an example for CS
SG Tree.
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PART - B
1. Briefly discuss about thee Hermite and Bezeir curves.
HERMITE CURVES
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Effect of tangent vector on tthe curve’s shape
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BEZIER CURVE
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Two Drawbacks of Bezierr C
Curves
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2. Confer about B-spline curves and NURBS curve.
B-spline curves
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NURBS curve
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Advantages of B-spline curvess aand NURBS curve
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3. DISCUSS FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC MODELLING
FUNCTIONS OF GEOMETRIC MODELLING
Geometric modeling is the starting point of the product design and manufacture process.
Functions of Geometric Modeling are:
Design Analysis
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Evaluation of area, volume, mass and inertia properties
Interference checking in assemblies
Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies
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Kinematic analysis of mechanisms and robots
Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis
Drafting
Automatic planar cross-sectioning
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Automatic hidden lines and surface removal
Automatic production of shaded images
Automatic dimensioning
Automatic creation of exploded views of assemblies
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Manufacturing
Parts classification
Process planning
NC data generation and verification
Robot program generation
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Production Engineering
Bill of materials
Material requirement
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Manufacturing resource requirement

Scheduling
Inspection and quality control
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Program generation for inspection machines

Comparison of produced parts with design
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PROPERTIES OF A GEOMETRIC MODELING SYSTEM
The geometric model must stay invariant with regard to its location and orientation
The solid must have an interior and must not have isolated parts
The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape
The application of a transformation or Boolean operation must produce another solid
The solid must have a finite number of surfaces which can be described
The boundary of the solid must not be ambiguous

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4. EXPLAIN - WIRE FRAME MODELING
It uses networks of interconnected lines (wires) to represent the edges of the
physical objects being modeled
Also called ‘Edge-vertex’ or ‘stick-figure’ models
Two types of wire frame modeling:
1. 2 ½ - D modeling
2. 3 – D modeling
3-D Wire frame models: These are
Simple and easy to create, and they require relatively little computer time and
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memory; however they do not give a complete description of the part. They contain little
information about the surface and volume of the part and cannot distinguish the inside
from the outside of part surfaces. They are visually ambiguous as the model can be
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interpreted in many different ways because in many wire frame models hidden lines
cannot be removed. Section property and mass calculations are impossible, since the
object has no faces attached to it. It has limited values a basis for manufacture and
analysis
2 ½ - D Wire frame models:

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Two classes of shape for which a simple wire-frame representation is often
adequate are those shapes defined by projecting a plane profile along its normal or by
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rotating a planar profile about an axis. Such shapes are not two-dimensional, but neither
do they require sophisticated three-dimensional schemes for their representation. Such
representation is called 2 ½ - D.
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5. ELUCIDATE TECHNIQUES IN SURFACE MODELLING
i. Surface Patch
The patch is the fundamental building block for surfaces. The two variables u and
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v vary across the patch; the patch may be termed biparametric. The parametric variables
often lie in the range 0 to 1. Fixing the value of one of the parametric variables results in
a curve on the patch in terms of the other variable (Isoperimetric curve). Figure shows a
surface with curves at intervals of u and v of 0 : 1.
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ii. Coons Patch

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The sculptured surface often involve interpolation across an intersecting mesh of

curves that in effect comprise a rectangular grid of patches, each bounded by four
boundary curves. The linearly blended coons patch is the simplest for interpolating
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between such boundary curves. This patch definition technique blends for four boundary
curves Ci(u) and Dj(v) and the corner points pij of the patch with the linear blending
functions,

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IV/VII MECHANICA
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using the expression
ssion
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iii. Bicubic Patch
tangent vector information.

given by: tas
The bi-cubic patcch is used for surface descriptions defined in ter
erms of point and
on. The general form of the expressions for a bi-cubic
b patch is
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This is a vector eequation with 16 unknown parameters kij which can be found by
Lagrange interpolation
tion th
through 4 x 4 grid.
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iv. Be’zier Surface
The Be’zier su
surface formulation use a characteristic polygon
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Points the Bezzier surface are given by

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Where,
- Vertices of the characteristic polygon
, - Blending functions
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v. B-Spline Surfaces
The B-spline surf

rface approximates a characteristics polygon as shown
s and passes
through the corneer points of the polygon, where its edges aree tangential
t to the
edges of the polygon
gon
This may not happpen when the control polygon is closed
A control point of the surface influences the surface only over a limited
limit portion of
the parametric spaace of variables u and v.
The expression for the B-spline surfaces is given by
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6. What are the Solid Mod deling Techniques? And Explain in detail abo
out B-rep.
The various methods for rerepresenting the solids are:
8. Half-space meethod
9. Boundary reprresentation method (B-rep)
10. Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)
11. Sweep represeentation
12. Analyticall solid mod
modeling (ASM)
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13. Primitive instaancing
14. Spatial partitioning
titioning representation
a. Cell dec ecomposition
b. Spatiall ooccupancy enumeration
c. Octreee encoding
Boundary representation meth

hod (B-rep)
In solid modeling and coomputer-aided design, boundary representation often

o abbreviated
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as B-rep or BREP—is a m method for representing shapes using the limits.
A solid is represented as a collection of connected surface elements,

nts, the boundary
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between solid and non-soolid.
Boundary representation models are composed of two parts:
o Topology, and
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o Geometry (surfacees, curves and points).
The main topological items

ms / pprimitives of b-rep are:
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o Vertex (V) : Itt is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space
o Edge (E) : Itt is finite, non-self intersecting, directed space cu
urve bounded by
two vvertices that are not necessarily distinct
o Face (F) : Itt is ddefined as a finite connected, non-self-intersec
ecting, region of
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a closed oriented surface bounded by one or moree loops

o Loop (L) : Itt is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges
o Genus(G) : Itt is the topological name for the number of handl dles or through
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hol
holes in an object
o Body/Shell(B) : Itt is a set of faces that bound a single connected closed c volume. A
minimum bo body is a point
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A minimum body is a ppoint; topologically this body has one face, on ne vertex, and no
edges. It is called a seminnal or singular body
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Geometry
Open polyhedral objectss
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Curved Objects
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Euler’s formula
are Law for closed objects : F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G)
Euler – Poincar
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are Law for open objects : F – E + V – L = B – G

Euler – Poincar
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Some Euler Operations
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Solid Model Generation
ion using B-rep
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Advantages of b-rep
o Appropriate to construuct solid models of unusual shapes
o Relatively simple to cconvert a b-rep model to wireframe model
Disadvantages of b-rep
o Requires more storage
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o Not suitable for applica
cations like tool path generation
o Slow manipulation
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7. Write detail note on Con
nstructive Solid Geometry (CSG and C-rep).
Constructive solid ggeometry (CSG) (formerly called computation nal binary solid
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geometry) is a technique
hnique used in solid modeling.
Constructive solid geeometry allows a modeler to create a complex surface or object
by using Boolean opeerators to combine objects.
Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually compleex, but is actually
little more than clever
tas
erly combined or de-combined objects
The simplest solid objects used for the representation are called
Typically they are the objects of simple shape:
o cuboids
ca primitives.
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o cylinders
o prisms
o pyramids
o spheres
o cones
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The set of allowable primitives is limited by each software packagee. Some software
packages allow CSGG on curved objects while other packages do not
38 A.M
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It is said that aan object is constructed from primitivess by means of

allowable operationss, which are typically Boolean operations
o on sets:
union, intersection difference, as well as geometric transformations of those sets
tion and diff
Boolean Operations
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39 A.M
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CSG Tree
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40 A.M
40
UNIT - III
VISUAL REALISM
PART - A
1. List some hidden-space algorithms.

a. Depth –Buffer Algorithm
m
b. Scan-line coherence Algorithm
c. Area-coherence algorithm (Warnock’s algorithm)
d. Priority algorithm (Newell, Newell and Sancha algorithm)
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2. Enumerate usage of Shading in Computer Graphics.
Shading is used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying

media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a
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lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross
hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to
shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the
farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears.
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3. What are the two main ingredients in shading of model?
• Properties of the model surface
• Properties of illumination falling on it
4. Differentiate Point and Spotlight lighting.
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Point lighting
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Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in all directions.
Spotlight lighting
Models a Spotlight. Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in
a cone.
w.
5. Distinguish Flat and Smooth shading.

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Flat Shading Smooth shading
Uses the same color for every pixel in a face - Smooth shading uses linear interpolation of
usually the color of the first vertex. colors between vertices
Edges appear more pronounced than they would
on a real object because of a phenomenon in the The edges disappear with this technique
eye known as lateral inhibition

41
Same color for any point of the face Each point of the face has its own color
Individual faces are visualized Visualize underlying surface
Not suitable for smooth objects Suitable for any objects
Less computationally expensive More computationally expensive
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6. Enumerate Painter's algorithm.
It sorts polygons by their bary center and draws them back to front. This produces
few artifacts when applied to scenes with polygons of similar size forming smooth
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meshes and back face culling turned on. The cost here is the sorting step and the fact that
visual artifacts can occur.
7. How Warnock algorithm works?
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It divides the screen into smaller areas and sorts triangles within these. If there is
ambiguity (i.e., polygons overlap in depth extent within these areas), then further
subdivision occurs. At the limit, subdivision may occur down to the pixel level.
lda
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Depth-Buffer Algorithm?
Advantages
Easy to implement
Hardware supported
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Polygons can be processed in arbitrary order-

Fast: ~ #polygons, #covered pixels
Disadvantages
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- Costs memory
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Ray-casting Algorithm in hidden
surface removal?
Advantages
w.
+ Relatively easy to implement

+ For some objects very suitable (for instance spheres and other quadratic
surfaces)
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+ Transparency can be dealt with easily

Disadvantages
- Objects must be known in advance
- Slow: ~ #objects*pixels, little coherenc
10. List the two types of smooth shading.
o Gouraud shading
o Phong shading

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11. Write short note on Gourau ud shading.

1. Determine the normal at each polygon vertex
2. Apply an illumination
tion mod
model to each vertex to calculate the vertex intensi
nsity
3. Interpolate the vertex inteensities using bilinear interpolation over the surf
rface polygon
12. Write Advantages of Gouraaud shading.

Polygons, more ccomplex than triangles, can also have different
nt colors specified
for each vertex. In these
se instances, the underlying logic for shading can
ca become more
m
intricate.
13. What are the Problems enccountered in Gouraud shading?
Even the smoothness introduced by Gouraud shading may not prevent nt the appearance
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of the shading differennces between adjacent polygons.
Gouraud shading is momore CPU intensive and can become a problem m when rendering
real time environments
nts with many polygons.
T-Junctions with adjoin
djoining polygons can sometimes result in visual
visu anomalies. In
general, T-Junctions
tions sh
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should be avoided.
14. List some hightlights of Phoong shading over Gouraud shading model.
Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that the Normals are
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interpolated. Thus, the spec
ecular highlights are computed much more preccisely than in the
Gouraud shading model:
a. Compute a normall N for each vertex of the polygon.
b. From bilinear interpol
polation compute a normal, Ni for each pixel. l. (This must be
renormalized eachh tim
time)
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c. From Ni compute ann int

intensity Ii for each pixel of the polygon.
d. Paint pixel to shade coorresponding to light.
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15. Catalog Hidden surfacee removal algorithms

i. Z-buffering
ing
ii. Coverage buffers (C-Buffer) and Surface buffer (S-Buffer
er)
w.
iii. Sorted Acttive Edge List

iv. Painter's aalgorithm
v. Binary spacace partitioning (BSP)
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vi. Ray tracinng

vii. The Warno nock algorithm
43 A.M
43
PART - B
1. Converse about Hidden surface removal (HSR) and its algorithms.

In 3D computer graphics, hidden surface determination (also known as hidden surface
removal (HSR), occlusion culling (OC) or visible surface determination (VSD)) is the
process used to determine which surfaces and parts of surfaces are not visible from a certain
viewpoint. A hidden surface determination algorithm is a solution to the visibility problem,
which was one of the first major problems in the field of 3D computer graphics. The process
of hidden surface determination is sometimes called hiding, and such an algorithm is
m
sometimes called a hider. The analogue for line rendering is hidden line removal. Hidden
surface determination is necessary to render an image correctly, so that one cannot look
through walls in virtual reality.
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Hidden surface determination is a process by which surfaces which should not be
visible to the user (for example, because they lie behind opaque objects such as walls) are
prevented from being rendered. Despite advances in hardware capability there is still a need
for advanced rendering algorithms. The responsibility of a rendering engine is to allow for
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large world spaces and as the world’s size approaches infinity the engine should not slow
down but remain at constant speed. Optimising this process relies on being able to ensure the
deployment of as few resources as possible towards the rendering of surfaces that will not
end up being rendered to the user.
lda
There are many techniques for hidden surface determination. They are fundamentally
an exercise in sorting, and usually vary in the order in which the sort is performed and how
the problem is subdivided. Sorting large quantities of graphics primitives is usually done
by divide and conquer.
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44
Hidden surface removal algorithms
Considering the rendering pipeline, the projection, the clipping, and the rasterization steps
are handled differently by the following algorithms:
Z-buffering :
During rasterization the depth/Z value of each pixel (or sample in the case of anti-
aliasing, but without loss of generality the term pixel is used) is checked against an
existing depth value. If the current pixel is behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the pixel is
rejected, otherwise it is shaded and its depth value replaces the one in the Z-buffer. Z-
buffering supports dynamic scenes easily, and is currently implemented efficiently in
m
graphics hardware. This is the current standard. The cost of using Z-buffering is that it
uses up to 4 bytes per pixel, and that the rasterization algorithm needs to check each
rasterized sample against the z-buffer. The z-buffer can also suffer from artifacts due to
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precision errors (also known as z-fighting), although this is far less common now that
commodity hardware supports 24-bit and higher precision buffers.
Coverage buffers (C-Buffer) and Surface buffer (S-Buffer):
faster than z-buffers and commonly used in games in the Quake I era. Instead of
tas
storing the Z value per pixel, they store list of already displayed segments per line of the
screen. New polygons are then cut against already displayed segments that would hide
them. An S-Buffer can display unsorted polygons, while a C-Buffer requires polygons to
be displayed from the nearest to the furthest. Because the C-buffer technique does not
lda
require a pixel to be drawn more than once, the process is slightly faster. This was
commonly used with BSP trees, which would provide sorting for the polygons.
Sorted Active Edge List
It is used in Quake 1, this was storing a list of the edges of already displayed
polygons. Polygons are displayed from the nearest to the furthest. New polygons are
vi
clipped against already displayed polygons' edges, creating new polygons to display then
storing the additional edges. It's much harder to implement than S/C/Z buffers, but it will
scale much better with the increase in resolution.
Ci
Painter's algorithm
It sorts polygons by their bary center and draws them back to front. This produces
few artifacts when applied to scenes with polygons of similar size forming smooth
w.
meshes and back face culling turned on. The cost here is the sorting step and the fact that
visual artifacts can occur.
Binary space partitioning (BSP)
ww
It divides a scene along planes corresponding to polygon boundaries. The

subdivision is constructed in such a way as to provide an unambiguous depth ordering
from any point in the scene when the BSP tree is traversed. The disadvantage here is that
the BSP tree is created with an expensive pre-process. This means that it is less suitable
for scenes consisting of dynamic geometry. The advantage is that the data is pre-sorted
and error free, ready for the previously mentioned algorithms. Note that the BSP is not a
solution to HSR, only an aid.

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Ray tracing
Attempt to modell the path of light rays to a viewpoint by tracin ng rays from the
viewpoint into the scenee. Although not a hidden surface removal algo gorithm as such, it
implicitly solves the hiddden surface removal problem by finding the neareearest surface along
each view-ray. Effectiveely this is equivalent to sorting all the geometrry on a per pixel
basis.
The Warnock algorithm
It divides the screen innto smaller areas and sorts triangles within these. t If there is
ambiguity (i.e., polygons overerlap in depth extent within these areas), then fu
urther subdivision
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occurs. At the limit, subdivission may occur down to the pixel level.
2. Discuss about Depth-Buuffer Algorithm.
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• Image-space method
• Aka z-buffer algorithm
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46 A.M
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Advantages
Easy to implement
Hardware supported
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Polygons can be processed in arbitrary order-
Fast: ~ #polygons, #covered pixels
Disadvantages
- Costs memory
- Transparancy is tricky
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- Color calculation sometimes done multiple times
3. Explain in detail about Ray-casting Algorithm in hidden surface removal

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• Image-space method
• Related to depth-buffer, order is different
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Acceleration intersection calculaations: Use (hierarchical) bounding boxes
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Advantages
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+ Relatively easy to impleement

+ For some objects very su
suitable (for instance spheres and other quadraticc surfaces)
+ Transparency can be dea
ealt with easily
w.
Disadvantages
- Objects must be knownn in advance
- Slow: ~ #objects*pixels,
s, little coherence
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48 A.M
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4. Elucidate Painter’s Algorithm.
- Assumption: Later projected polygons overwrite earlier projected polygons
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5. Write brief note on Lighting and Smooth shading.
LIGHTING
Shading is also dependent on the lighting used. Usually, upon rendering a scene a
number of different lighting techniques will be used to make the rendering look more
realistic. Different types of light sources are used to give different effects.
Ambient lighting
An ambient light source repesents a fixed-intensity and fixed-color light source
that affects all objects in the scene equally. Upon rendering, all objects in the scene are
brightened with the specified intensity and color. This type of light source is mainly used
m
to provide the scene with a basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest
type of lighting to implement and models how light can be scattered or reflected many
times producing a uniform effect.
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Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how
exposed each point of the scene is, affecting the amount of ambient light it can reflect.
This produces diffuse, non-directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear
shadows, but with enclosed and sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually visually
similar to an overcast day.
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Directional lighting
A directional light source illuminates all objects equally from a given direction,
w.
like an area light of infinite size and infinite distance from the scene; there is shading, but
cannot be any distance falloff.
Point lighting
Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in all directions.
ww
Spotlight lighting
Models a Spotlight. Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in a cone.
Area lighting
Light originates from a small area on a single plane. A more accurate model than a point
light source.
Volumetric lighting
Light originating from a small volume, an enclosed space lighting objects within that
space.

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Shading is interpolated bbased on how the angle of these light sources reach the objects
within a scene. Of course, theese light sources can be and often are combin
ombined in a scene.
The renderer then interpolates how these lights must be combined, and produceces a 2d image to
be displayed on the screen accordi
dingly.
SMOOTH SHADING
In contrast to flatt shading with smooth shading the color chang ges from pixel to
pixel. It assumes that the surfaces are curved and uses interpolation tion techniques
t to
calculate the values of pixxels between the vertices of the polygons.
Types of smooth shading includee:
m
Gouraud shading
Phong shading
Gouraud shading
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1. Determine the normall at each polygon vertex
2. Apply an illumination
tion mod
model to each vertex to calculate the vertex intensi
nsity
3. Interpolate the vertex inteensities using bilinear interpolation over the surf
rface polygon
Data structures
Sometimes vertex norm
mesh)
• More generally, need data strructure for mesh
• Key: which polygons meet att each vertex
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normals can be computed directly (e.g. height fieldfi with uniform
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Advantages
Polygons, more ccomplex than triangles, can also have different nt colors specified
for each vertex. In thesese instances, the underlying logic for shading can ca become more
intricate.
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Problems
Even the smoothness introduced by Gouraud shading may not prevent nt the appearance
of the shading differennces between adjacent polygons.
Ci
Gouraud shading is mo more CPU intensive and can become a problem m when rendering
real time environmentsnts with many polygons.
T-Junctions with adjoin
djoining polygons can sometimes result in visual
visu anomalies. In
w.
general, T-Junctions
tions sh
should be avoided.
Phong shading
Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that the Normals are
interpolated. Thus, the spec ecular highlights are computed much more preccisely than in the
ww
Gouraud shading model:

a. Compute a normaal N for each vertex of the polygon.
b. From bilinear inter erpolation compute a normal, Ni for each pixeel. (This must be
renormalized eachh tim
time)
c. From Ni compute
ompute an intensity Ii for each pixel of the polygon.
d. Paint pixel to shadede corresponding to light.
52 A.M
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UNIT - IV
ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
PART - A
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1. Define Assembly modeling.
Assembly modeling is defined as a technology and method used by computer-aided
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design and product visualization computer software systems to handle multiple files that
represent components within a product. The components within an assembly are represented
as solid or surface models.
2. Write short note on Exploded view.

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An exploded view consists of series of steps. One can create steps by selecting and
dragging parts in graphical area.
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Example – Exploded view of Assembly of Pulley block
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3. List Features of Bottom-up assembly approach.
• Allows the designer to use part drawings that already exist (off the shelf)
• Provides the designer with more control over individual parts
• Multiple copies (instances) of parts can be inserted into the assembly

53
4. List Features of Top-down assembly approach.
• The approach is ideal for large assemblies consisting of thousands of parts.

• The approach is used to deal with large designs including multiple design teams.
• It lends itself well to the conceptual design phase
• E.g. :
▫ Piping and fittings
▫ Welds
▫ Lock pins
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5. List advanced Mating conditions in assembling modeling.
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6. Applications of Assembly Models Interference checking Visualization
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• Rendered
• Exploded
• Animation
• Mechanism analysis
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7. Assembly sequence affects

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• difficulty of assembly steps

• need for fixture
• potential for parts damage during assembly and part mating
• ability to do in-process testing
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• occurrence of the need for reworking

• time of assembly
• assembly skill level
• unit cost of assembly
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8. Interference fit
• Fits is clearance fit
• tight fits is interference fit
• Coplanar: two normal vectors are parallel
• ‘Coplanar’ complements ‘against’

54
9. Sketch the Precedence Diagram.
• Designed to show all the possible assembly sequences of a product.

• Each individual assembly operation is assigned a number.
• Diagram is usually organized into columns
10. What are the three terms used in limit system?
1. Tolerance: Deviation from a basic value is defined as Tolerance. It can be obtained by
m
taking the difference between the maximum and minimum permissible limits.
2. Limits: Two extreme permissible sizes between which the actual size is contained are
defined as limits.
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3. Deviation: The algebraic difference between a size and its corresponding basic size.
There are two types of deviations: 1) Upper deviation 2) Lower deviation
11. Write short note on Tolerances.
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Due to human errors, machine settings, etc., it is nearly impossible to manufacture
an absolute dimension as specified by the designer. Deviation in dimensions from the
basic value always arises. This deviation of dimensions from the basic value is known as
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Tolerance.
12. Define Clearance fit.
Clearance fit is defined as a clearance between mating parts. In clearance fit, there
is always a positive clearance between the hole and shaft.
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13. Why Transition fit occurs?

Transition fit may result in either an interference or clearance, depending upon the
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actual values of the tolerance of individual parts.

14. When Interference fit is obtained?
w.
Interference fit is obtained if the difference between the hole and shaft sizes is
negative before assembly. Interference fit generally ranges from minimum to maximum
interference. The two extreme cases of interference are as follows:
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15. What is called Minimum interference?

The magnitude of the difference (negative) between the maximum size of the hole
and the minimum size of the shaft in an interference fit before assembly.

55
PART - B
1. Enumerate Assembly modeling of parts.
Assembly modeling is a technology and method used by computer-aided design and product
visualization computer software systems to handle multiple files that represent components
within a product. The components within an assembly are represented as solid or surface models.
• Assembly modeling is a combination of two or more components using parametric
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relationships.
• Typically a designer would start with a base part
• Add other components to the base part using merge commands.
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Assembly Tree
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Exploded view
An exploded view consists of series of steps. One can create steps by selecting and
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dragging parts in graphical area.

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Example - Assembly of Pulley bl
block
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Bottom-up assembly approach -:
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• Allows the designer too use part drawings that already exist (off the sheelf)
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• Provides the designer w with more control over individual parts
• Multiple copies (instannces) of parts can be inserted into the assembly
Top-down assembly approach --:
• The approach is ideaal for large assemblies consisting of thousands of parts.
• The approach is usedd to deal with large designs including multiple deesign teams.
vi
• It lends itself well too the conceptual design phase

• E.g. :
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▫ Piping and fittittings

▫ Welds
▫ Lock pins
Degrees of freedom -:
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57 A.M
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• Translation – movement along X, Y, and Z axis
• Rotation – rotate about X, Y, and Z axis
Mating conditions -:
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Assembly Constraints
• Constraints can be used to create permanent relationships between parts
• THEY use the same commands as 2D constraints
• Typical constraints:
– two faces meet
– axes coincident
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– two faces parallel at fixed distance
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Assembly sequence affects
• difficulty of assembly steps

• need for fixture
• potential for parts damage during assembly and part mating
• ability to do in-process testing
• occurrence of the need for reworking
• time of assembly
• assembly skill level
• unit cost of assembly
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2. Enumerate the following: Mating condition, Mating feature and interference fit with
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example.
Mating condition
• Part coordinates MCS (modeling coord.)
• Base part: Datum
• Global CS
• Local CS
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• Explicit position and direction vs. Mating conditions
• 4 x 4 homogeneous transformation matrix
Mating feature
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Types: against, fits, contact, coplanar
fits: center lines are concentric
• Mating condition = mating type + two faces
• Normal vector + one point on the face
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• against: two normal vectors are in against directions
• fits: between two cylinders: center lines are concentric

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• Against and fits allows rotation and translation between parts

Interference fit
• Fits is clearance fit
• tight fits is interference fit
w.
• Coplanar: two normal vectors are parallel

• ‘Coplanar’ complements ‘against’
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60
Example Pin and block
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3. Discuss about Assembly from instances.
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Exploded view of universal joint
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Assembly view of universal joint
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4. Draw the layout of Intellig
ligent Assembly Modeling and Simulation
AMS is to avoid this expensive and time-consumi

The goal of IAMS onsuming process by
facilitating semblability cchecking in a virtual, simulated environment.
In addition to par art-part interference checking, the IAMS tool will check for tool
accessibility, stability, annd ergonomics.
Intelligent Assembly Moddeling and Simulation
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63 A.M
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5. Sketch the Precedence Diagram.
• Designed to show all the possible assembly sequences of a product.

• Each individual assembly operation is assigned a number.
• Diagram is usually organized into columns
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6. Discuss in detail about Production drawing limits, fits and tolerance.

w.
Limit system
There are three terms used in the limit system:

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4. Tolerance: Deviation from a basic value is defined as Tolerance. It can be obtained by

taking the difference between the maximum and minimum permissible limits.
5. Limits: Two extreme permissible sizes between which the actual size is contained are
defined as limits.
6. Deviation: The algebraic difference between a size and its corresponding basic size.
There are two types of deviations: 1) Upper deviation 2) Lower deviation

64
The fundamental deviation is either the upper or lower deviation, depending on which is closer to
the basic size.
Tolerances
Due to human errors, machine settings, etc., it is nearly impossible to manufacture
an absolute dimension as specified by the designer. Deviation in dim ensions from the
basic value always arises. This deviation of dimensions from the basic value is known as
Tolerance.
The figure shows mechanical tolerances which occur during operations.
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Fits
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The relation between two matin g parts is called fit. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole
or shaft sizes, fits may be classified as clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit.
w.
Clearance fit
Clearance fit is defined as a clearance between mating parts. In clearance fit, there is always a
positive clearance between the hole and shaft.
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Transition fit
Transition fit may result in either an interference or clearance, depending upon the actual values
of the tolerance of individual parts.

65
Interference fit
Interference fit is obtained if the difference between the hole and shaft sizes is
negative before assembly. Interference fit generally ranges from minimum to maximum
interference. The two extreme cases of interference are as follows:
Minimum interference
The magnitude of the difference (negative) between the maximum size of the hole
and the minimum size of the shaft in an interference fit before assembly.
m
Maximum interference
The magnitude of the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
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maximum size of the shaft in an interference or a transition fit before assembly.
Hole Basis and shaft basis system:
In identifying limit dimensions for the three classes of fit, two systems are in use:
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1. Hole basis system: The size of the shaft is obtained by subtracting the allowance from the
basic size of the hole. Tolerances are then applied to each part separately. In this system,
the lower deviation of the hole is zero. The letter symbol indication for this is 'H'.
2. Shaft basis system: The upper deviation of the shaft is zero, and the size of the hole is
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obtained by adding the allowance to the basic size of the shaft. The letter symbol
indication is 'h'.
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UNIT - V
CAD STANDARDS
PART - A
1. List some Standards useed in computer graphics.
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2. What are the Types of S
Standards used in CAD?
• Graphics Standaards
• Data Exchange St
Standards
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• Communication Standards
3. Write Aim of Graphics S

Standardization.
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• To provide versaatility in the combination of Software and Har

ardware items of
turnkey systems
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• To allow the creeation of portable application software packagee, applicable for

wide range of hardw
dware makes enumand configurations
4. Enumerate GKS 3D.

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67 A.M
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IV/VII MECHANICA
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5. Write short note on PHIIGS.
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6. Write short note on NAP
PLPS.
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7. List the features of NAP
NAPLPS.
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8. Sketch the layer modell of GKS.

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68 A.M
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IV/VII MECHANICA
CAL ENGINEERING
9. Write features of Continu
nuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (CA
ALS).
•Developed by US S Department of Defense

•Prescribes formaats for storage and exchange of technical data
•Technical publicaations an important focus
10. Sketch STEP Architectu

ure.
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11. List the Classes of STEP
P Parts.
•Introductory
•Description methhods
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•Implementation m methods
•Conformance tessting methodology and framework
•Integrated resourrces
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•Application protoocols
•Abstract test suittes
12. What are Important CA

CALS Standards?
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• Standard Generaalized Markup Language (SGML)

• Computer Graphhics Metafile (CGM)
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13. Note on Computer Graphi

phics Metafile (CGM).
Developoped in 1986
vector file format for illustrations and drawings
All graaphical elements can be specified in a textual souurce file that can
be commpiled into a binary file or one of two text repressentations
69 A.M
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14.
What is meant by OpenGL (Open Graphics Library)?
OpenGL is a cross-language, multi-platform application programming

interface (API) forrendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. The API is typically used to interact
with a graphics processing unit (GPU), to achieve hardware-accelerated rendering.
15. List Graphics primitives in GKS with sketch.
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1. GRAPHICAL KERNEL SYSTEM (GKS)
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PART - B
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IV/VII MECHANICA
CAL ENGINEERING
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2. Discuss about IGES stand
ndard.
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3. Detail STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model Data)

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• Standard for Exchange of Product Model Data

• Uses a formal model for data exchange
• Information is modeled using the EXPRESS language
• EXPRESS has elements of Pascal, C, and other languages
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• It contains constructs for defining data types and structures, but not for processing
data
• EXPRESS describes geometry and other information in a standard, unambiguous way
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Classes of STEP Parts
•Introductory
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•Description methhods
•Implementation m methods
•Conformance tessting methodology and framework
•Integrated resourrces
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•Application protoocols
•Abstract test suittes
•Application interrpreted constructs
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Status of STEP
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•STEP has been uunder development for many years, and will contitinue for many
more
•Over a dozen ST
TEP parts have been approved as international staandards
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•Many others are under development
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4. Explain about Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (CALS)
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•Developed by US Department of Defense
•Prescribes formats for storage and exchange of technical data
•Technical publications an important focus
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Important CALS Standards
• Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)

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-developed in 1960s IBM

ii. document description language
iii. separates content from structure (formatting)
iv. uses “tags” to define headings, sections, chapters, etc.
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v. HTML is based on SGML
• Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM)

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i. Developed in 1986
ii. vector file format for illustrations and drawings
iii. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source file that can be
compiled into a binary file or one of two text representations

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5. Elaborate OpenGL (Op
pen Graphics Library)
OpenGL is a cross-language, multi-platform application programming

interface (API) forrendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. The API is typicallyy used to interact
with a graphics processing unnit (GPU), to achieve hardware-accelerated ren dering.
The OpenGL speciffication describes an abstract API for drawiing 2D and 3D

graphics. Although it is posssible for the API to be implemented entirely
y in software, it is
designed to be implemented m mostly or entirely in hardware.
The API is defined as a number of functions which may be calleed by the client
m
program, alongside a nu mber of named integer constants (for examplle, the constant
GL_TEXTURE_2D, which ccorresponds to the decimal number 3553). Althou ough the function
definitions are superficiallyy similar to those of the C programming la nguage, they are
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language-independent. As suuch, OpenGL has many language bindings, so ome of the most
noteworthy being the JavaS Scriptbinding WebGL (API, based on OpenGL ES 2.0, for 3D
rendering from within awebb browser); the C bindings WGL, GLX and C GL; the C binding
provided by iOS; and the Javva and C bindings provided by Android.
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In addition to being language-independent, OpenGL is also platfo orm-independent.
The specification says nothhing on the subject of obtaining, and managiing, an OpenGL
context, leaving this as a deetail of the underlying windowing system. For the
t same reason,
OpenGL is purely concernedd with rendering, providing no APIs related t o input, audio, or
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windowing.
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OpenGL Command Syntax
As you might have observed from the simple program in the previous section,
OpenGL commands use the prefix gl and initial capital letters for each word making up
the command name (recall glClearColor(), for example). Similarly, OpenGL defined
constants begin with GL_, use all capital letters, and use underscores to separate words
(like GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT).
You might also have noticed some seemingly extraneous letters appended to some
command names (for example, the 3f in glColor3f() and glVertex3f()). It's true that
the Color part of the command name glColor3f() is enough to define the command as
m
one that sets the current color. However, more than one such command has been defined
so that you can use different types of arguments. In particular, the 3 part of the suffix
indicates that three arguments are given; another version of the Color command takes
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four arguments. The f part of the suffix indicates that the arguments are floating-point
numbers. Having different formats allows OpenGL to accept the user's data in his or her
own data format.
Some OpenGL commands accept as many as 8 different data types for their
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arguments. The letters used as suffixes to specify these data types for ISO C
implementations of OpenGL are shown in Table 1-1, along with the corresponding
OpenGL type definitions. The particular implementation of OpenGL that you're using
might not follow this scheme exactly; an implementation in C++ or Ada, for example,
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wouldn't need to.
Table: Command Suffixes and Argument Data Types

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OpenGL-Related Libraries
OpenGL provides a powerful but primitive set of rendering commands, and all
higher-level drawing must be done in terms of these commands. Also, OpenGL programs
have to use the underlying mechanisms of the windowing system. A number of libraries exist
to allow you to simplify your programming tasks, including the following:

77
• The OpenGL Utility Library (GLU) contains several routines that use lower-level
OpenGL commands to perform such tasks as setting up matrices for specific viewing
orientations and projections, performing polygon tessellation, and rendering surfaces.
This library is provided as part of every OpenGL implementation. Portions of the GLU
are described in the OpenGL Reference Manual. The more useful GLU routines are
described in this guide, where they're relevant to the topic being discussed, such as in all
of Chapter 11 and in the section "The GLU NURBS Interface". GLU routines use the
prefix glu.
• For every window system, there is a library that extends the functionality of that window
system to support OpenGL rendering. For machines that use the X Window System, the
OpenGL Extension to the X Window System (GLX) is provided as an adjunct to
m
OpenGL. GLX routines use the prefix glX. For Microsoft Windows, the WGL routines
provide the Windows to OpenGL interface. All WGL routines use the prefix wgl. For
IBM OS/2, the PGL is the Presentation Manager to OpenGL interface, and its routines
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use the prefix pgl.
• The OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) is a window system-independent toolkit, written by

Mark Kilgard, to hide the complexities of differing window system APIs. GLUT is the
subject of the next section, and it's described in more detail in Mark Kilgard's
•
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book OpenGL Programming for the X Window System (ISBN 0-201-48359-9). GLUT
routines use the prefix glut. "How to Obtain the Sample Code" in the Preface describes
how to obtain the source code for GLUT, using ftp.
Open Inventor is an object-oriented toolkit based on OpenGL which provides objects and
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methods for creating interactive three-dimensional graphics applications. Open Inventor,
which is written in C++, provides prebuilt objects and a built-in event model for user
interaction, high-level application components for creating and editing three-dimensional
scenes, and the ability to print objects and exchange data in other graphics formats. Open
Inventor is separate from OpenGL.
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80 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECHANICAL 2015-

2016
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ME-6501Computer Aided Design (CAD) WITH QB - by Civildatas - Com 12

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ME 6501 - CAD III/ V

Visit : www.Civildatas.com MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ii. Problem definition

4. Describe Detailed Design.

It is in this phase the desi

is added and detailed engineer

Design is the esseence of engineering

88 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

o Somethingg completely new , or

6. What are the steps involved

8. What are the stages of convventional sequential engineering design process?

89 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

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9. Clearly sketch components of concurrent engineering design process?

11. List any four benefits of CA

• Shorter Lead Tim

• Drawings are morre understandable

90 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

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13. What is meant by clipping Transformation?

Translation : Dx = - xo, Dy = - yo (Centre of detail to origin)

Clipping : (to frame dimensions)

15. List some 2 –D transformations.

91 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

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1. Discuss in detail about M

The consideration of the product life from its conception to retirem

Creation begins bby recognizing a need

Results in a primiitive statement

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o Does the nneed exist and is it realistic?

(ii) National fossil fuel suppli

Aim is to produce a compl

93 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECH 2015-16

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and humidity may needd to be addressed

The product will be discaarded as its life cycle terminates

2. Confer Sequential and Co

Traditionally, design hass been carried out as a sequential set of activiti

Concurrent Engineering is a dramatically different approach to product development in

11 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Concurrent engineering is a method by which several teams within an organization work

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13 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

a. Role of Computers in Dessign

a) Application Of Computers To Design

2. Shorter Lead Times

a. Tool and fixture design for manufacturing

c. Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials

g. Preparation of numerical control programs for manufacturing the parts

b) REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTING CAD

• To increase the productivity of the designer

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19 A.MAHENDRAN - AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

1. What are the two types of equations for curve representation?

Example: Circle (2-D)

3. What are the desirable p

Robot program geeneration

8. List the Properties of a G

The solid must be finite aand occupy only a finite shape