Modern Chemistry

Chapter 2
Istiqomah Rahmawati, S.Si., M.Si.

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Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with
anesthesia
• Vaccines and
antibiotics •Energy and the
Environment
• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
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• Nuclear energy
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid
crystals
• Room-temperature
superconductors?
• Molecular computing? • Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified
crops
• “Natural” pesticides
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• Specialized fertilizers
The Study of Chemistry
Macroscopic Microscopic

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Macroscopic Methods for Classifying Matter

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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
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 Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions;
it is conserved.

The red solid, mercury oxide, decomposes into liquid mercury

and oxygen gas, when heated. Note the drops of liquid mercury
condensing on the side of the test tube.

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16 X + 8Y 8 X2 Y

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2.1
 Law of Definite Proportions
In a given chemical compound, the proportions by mass of the
elements that compose it are fixed, independent of the
origin of the compound or its mode of preparation.

Pure sodium chloride contains 60.66% chlorine by mass,

whether we obtain it from salt mines, crystallize it from
waters of the oceans or inland salt seas, or synthesize it
from its elements, sodium and chlorine.

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 law of Multiple proportions
When two elements form a series of compounds, the masses of one element that
combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small integers
to each other.

Let’s consider another example. Arsenic (As) and sulfur (S) combine to form two
sulfides, A and B, in which the masses of sulfur per 1.000 g of arsenic are 0.428
and 0.642 g, respectively. The ratio of these masses is 0.428:0.642=2:3. We
conclude that if the formula of compound A is a multiple of AsS, then the formula
of compound B must be a multiple of As2S3.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

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2.1
 Law of Combining Volumes
The ratio of the volumes of any pair of gases in a gas phase
chemical reaction (at the same temperature and pressure)
is the ratio of simple integers.

2 volumes of hydrogen + 1 volume of oxygen  2 volumes of water vapor

1 volume of nitrogen + 1 volume of oxygen  2 volumes of nitrogen oxide
3 volumes of hydrogen + 1 volume of nitrogen  2 volumes of ammonia

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 Avogadro’s Hypothesis
Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain equal numbers of particles.

2H2 + O2  2H2O N2 + O2  2NO

The cubes shown contain equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and
pressure. The combining volumes that Gay-Lussac observed for the two reactions can be
understood if each cube contains the same number of molecules (Avogadro’shypothesis),
and if hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen exist as diatomic molecules, as shown.

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J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-
(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 14
Cathode Ray Tube

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 Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g 16
(Uranium compound)
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18
 (1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g) 19
 Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then

the nucleus is a marble on the 50-yard line.” 20
Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

α + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g 21
mass p = mass n = 1840 x mass e-
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Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 23
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

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 Do You Understand Isotopes?

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How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

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How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

Do You Understand Isoton, and Isobar? 25

 Noble Gas
Halogen
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Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Chemistry In Action
Natural abundance of elements in Earth’s crust

Natural abundance of elements in human body

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