UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

COLLEGE OF LAW
Legal English I

CLARITY

Clarity in writing results when the writer is able to express exactly (and
unambiguously) what he wants to be reflected in his work. The last thing a writer
would want is to confuse his readers. On one level, clear writing involves clarity of
expression and sentence structure. On another deeper level, clarity results to
clearness of one’s logic and arguments.

Clear expression happens when what one thinks is reflected on that which one has
written. To check if this has happened, the writer must re-read his work and look
at it from the point of view of the ordinary reader. The writer must check for
ambiguities, that is, if some terms may have more than one meaning. Generally,
what is unclear for the writer is likewise unclear for the reader.

I. USE FAMILIAR AND CONCRETE WORDS

Plain meaning is a by-product of the use of definite and concrete language. This
makes for vivid writing, one which can be easily grasped as it is “picturesque”.
Preference for abstract words makes one prose indefinite and vague.

Abstract: She sustained bereavement of her paternal relative.

Concrete: Her father died.

Abstract: Her counsel failed to come because of the onset of

inclement weather.
Concrete: Her counsel could not come due to the storm.

Abstract: You need agricultural implements to do the job of

planting trees.
Concrete: You need a spade to plant trees.

Abstract: He rendered a negative response on the subject of my

solicitations.
Concrete: He denied my request.

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II. AVOID WIDE GAPS BETWEEN SUBJECT, VERB, AND OBJECT

A. GAPS

A sentence normally consists of a subject and a verb, with the object (if any)
following the verb (e.g. The lawyer shouted at the witness.) If these three are
placed in order and near one another, the sentence becomes easily
understandable. Putting modifiers between the subject and verb, or between the
verb and its object makes for tedious writing.

With gap between subject and verb: The plaintiff, disgusted at how long it took for the
court to decide such simple ejectment case,
filed a motion for early resolution.

Improved: The plaintiff filed a motion for early resolution.

He was disgusted at the court’s delay in
resolving his simple ejectment case.

B. MODIFYING THE MODIFIERS

Avoid “nested modifiers’ which modify the modifiers. When this happens, take
away the “nest” of modifiers and make a separate sentence.

With Nested Modifier: Antonio Doro, who was defendant’s uncle, and among
those defrauded by him, filed before the court closed
for Christmas vacation a Motion to Intervene.

Improved: Defendant’s uncle, Antonio Doro, filed a Motion to

Intervene before the court closed for Christmas
vacation. He was among those defrauded by
defendant.

With Nested Modifier: Maria, who at the time was carrying a bundle of newly-
rinsed clothes some of which belong to plaintiff’s son,
while trying to escape through the back gate, was
caught by the plaintiff there.

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Improved: Maria was caught by the plaintiff at the back gate as
she tried to escape. She carried a bundle of newly-
rinsed clothes, some of which belonged to the plaintiff’s
son. (passive), or

The plaintiff caught Maria at the back gate as she tried

to escape. She carried a bundle of newly-rinsed
clothes, some of which belonged to plaintiff’s son.
(active)

III. AVOID MISPLACED OR DANGLING MODIFIERS

A. RULES IN REVISING DANGLING MODIFIERS

1. Place single-word modifiers near the word or phrases that they modify,
especially if the modifier tends to describe the wrong word.

Poor: He almost ate all the desserts in the party.

Better: He ate almost all the desserts in the party.

Poor: The judge could understand the Ilocano spoken by the

witnesses easily.
Better: The judge could easily understand the Ilocano spoken by the
witnesses.

2. Likewise, place the modifying phrase or clause closest to the word it modifies.
Misplacing these modifiers next to the wrong word often accidentally changes
the meaning of the sentence.

Poor: Three television sets were reported stolen by the Dalakit City
Police yesterday.
Better: The Dalakit City Police reported that three television sets were
stolen yesterday.

3. By categorically naming the doer, a dangling modifier can be eliminated.

Poor: Having finished washing the dishes, the door was closed.
Better: Having finished washing the dishes, Martha closed the door.

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IV. AVOID THE AMBIGUOUS PRONOUN REFERENCE

A. CONCEPT

Careless use of pronouns can result in ambiguity problems. This occurs when the
writer allows multiple antecedents as possible references to a single pronoun.
Pronouns, when not placed properly, can point to the wrong noun changing the
meaning of the sentence.

B. HOW TO AVOID AMBIGUOUS PRONOUN REFERENCE

1. To avoid confusion, one must rephrase the sentence to clearly identify the
antecedent.

Poor: Robert’s father will use his car for the picnic.
(not clearly stated whose car will be used)
Better: Robert’s father will use Robert’s car for the picnic.
(if referring to Robert, or)
Robert’s father will use the latter’s car for the picnic.
(referring to the father)

2. Demonstrative pronouns such as this, that, these, those, them should only be
used when the antecedent is definitely established.

Poor: Your skills will surely benefit your friends. Be sure to use them.
Better: Your skills will surely benefit your friends. Be sure to use these skills.

V. PUNCTUATIONS MUST AVOID, NOT CAUSE AMBIGUITY

Punctuations are marks in written communication used to help the reader better
understand the material. One such use is to avoid ambiguity. Reckless use of
punctuations can have absurd results.

The serial comma, which is used before the conjunction “and” or “or” in a list of
three or more items, is a case in point, example:

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 “The writer gratefully acknowledges the invaluable help of his co-teachers
in the State University, the Honorable Governor and the President of the
Republic of the Philippines.”

Without the serial comma, the Governor and the President become co-
teachers of the author in the statement above.

On the other hand, reckless use of the serial comma also results in ambiguity,
example:

“The writer gratefully acknowledges the invaluable help of his mother, the
Honorable Provincial Governor Vilma Santos, and the President of the
Philippines.”

Here the author unwittingly made it appear that the lady Governor is his
mother when such is not the case.

The sentence has to be rephrased to avoid listing the items in an ambiguous

manner. For example, after “mother”, put the conjunction “as well as”.

VI. RULES IN CLEAR WRITING

1. Be clear on your point.

Good legal writing, as in all good communication for that matter, requires that the
author must have a point and is clear about it. Writers who are not sure what they
want to say cannot be understood. Their work appears to ramble, with the reader
not knowing where the writer is headed.

There are 3 ways to know when one is unsure of his point: a) by over-describing
the background to what one wants to say; b) by being unsure whether one is for
or against a certain topic; and, c) having too many points within one work.

2. Make sure your point is communicated at once.

As important as having a point is to go direct to the point in one’s paper. There is

no use having a long introduction and then stating one’s point near the end. By

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this time, the reader is either tired or puzzled not knowing where the material is
headed.

3. Have a structure. This is where you put your data, analysis and argument.

The introduction, for example, must already contain a summary or abstract of your
work. The background must only be short overview of the problem or legal
concepts to be discussed. Extending an explanation of the background will tire the
reader, and will give an impression that the background is already the main
concept discussed by the paper. The facts of a particular case under study must
only cite relevant details. Putting in more will make the reading tedious. The
analysis will discuss the writer’s arguments. Here, the writer will cite facts and
evidence supporting his position. He may also cite counterevidence against his
position, and discuss how these points will fall short of the writer’s arguments. If
the analysis covers many areas that may be broken into sub-parts, and each part
is discussed separately, the paper must end with a short conclusion which is a
summary of the main analysis presented.

4. Observe grammatical rules.

This cannot be overemphasized. Non-observance on the rules on grammar

subjects the writer to many accusations: from being sloppy to lazy to being
uneducated, and worse, someone who writes non-sensically.

5. Be precise.

Know the exact meaning of the term. If the term is scientific or legal, and has a
technical meaning, know both its technical and ordinary meaning. Never use a
term because it “sounds” right, particularly when you are not sure of its definition.
To be sure, consult the dictionary. #

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