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In the last four decades the incidence of dengue fever has increased 30-fold worldwide, and over half the world’s
population is now threatened with infection from one or more of four co-circulating viral serotypes (DEN-1 through
DEN-4). To determine the role of viral molecular evolution in emergent disease dynamics, we sequenced 40% of the
genome of 82 DEN-4 isolates collected from Puerto Rico over the 20 years since the onset of endemic dengue on the
island. Isolates were derived from years with varying levels of DEN-4 prevalence. Over our sampling period there were
marked evolutionary shifts in DEN-4 viral populations circulating in Puerto Rico; viral lineages were temporally
Introduction
RNA viruses comprise one of the fastest growing vector (Aedes aegypti), increasing host densities, particu-
categories of emergent diseases (Domingo and Holland larly in urban centers, and global travel have substantially
1997). Although they exhibit remarkable genetic diversity, altered dengue’s epidemiologic landscape (Gubler 1998).
attributable to intrinsically high rates of mutation and Now dengue annually infects an estimated 50 million to
replication as well as large population sizes (Domingo and 100 million people worldwide (WHO 1999), many of
Holland 1997; Drake and Holland 1999), the role of viral whom are exposed to two or more co-circulating DEN
evolution in determining disease dynamics has only been serotypes (hyperendemicity), resulting in frequent large-
described in a few cases (for example, Bush et al. 1999; scale epidemics and more frequent severe disease (Gubler
Zanotto et al. 1999; Manzin et al. 2000; Hatta et al. 2001). 1998).
We examine evolutionary change in dengue (DEN), an Determining the contributing factors to the emer-
acute mosquito-borne RNA virus (genus Flavivirus), over gence of dengue as a global pandemic, particularly the
a 20-year period that has marked the emergence of dengue increasing incidence of DHF and DSS, has proven difficult
in Puerto Rico (PR), a dense urban population whose both because there are no satisfactory models or in vitro
growth rate rivals Asian population centers. The virus, correlates with which to study disease transmissibility or
which causes dengue fever (DF), and the more severe pathogenicity directly (Rothman and Ennis 1999), and
dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock because most molecular epidemiologic studies to date have
syndrome (DSS), consists of four antigenically distinct had limited scope (Holmes 1998). Associations have been
serotypes, DEN-1 through DEN-4, that are evolutionarily demonstrated between severe manifestations of dengue
derived from at least three independent introductions into (DHF/DSS) and both host infection history and viral
humans from wild primates in Africa and Southeast Asia genotype. Most notably, secondary infections with heter-
(Wang et al. 2000). There is also abundant genetic ologous serotypes are more likely to develop into DHF/
diversity within each serotype, in the guise of phyloge- DSS than primary infections (Halstead 1988; Thein et al.
netically distinct clusters of sequences often referred to as 1997; Gubler 1998) so that increasing hyperendemicity
‘‘genotypes’’ (reviewed in Holmes and Burch 2000). could account in part for the rise of DHF/DSS. However,
The ongoing expansion of dengue throughout Asia there is also evidence that viral genotype may be
and the South Pacific is being recapitulated in the a contributing factor in determining dengue disease. For
Americas (Gubler 1998). Before the 1950s, people were example, attenuated and virulent strains of DEN-2 were
typically exposed to a single strain (hypoendemicity), and first observed simultaneously in the Tonga epidemics of
epidemics were rare and self-limiting (Gubler 1998). 1974/75 (Gubler et al. 1978), and the introduction of
However, geographic expansion of the primary mosquito
a genetically distinct Asian DEN-2 strain into the
Americas has been associated with an increase in DHF/
Key words: dengue virus, positive selection, epidemiology, phy- DSS (Rico-Hesse et al. 1997; Leitmeyer et al. 1999). More
logeny, maximum likelihood. tentatively, an analysis of selection pressures acting on
E-mail: sbennett@rrpac.upr.clu.edu. dengue virus genomes suggested that genotypes of DEN-2
Mol. Biol. Evol. 20(10):1650–1658. 2003 have selectively determined differences in transmissibility,
DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msg182
Molecular Biology and Evolution, Vol. 20, No. 10, in turn determining their ability to cause epidemics on
Ó Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution 2003; all rights reserved. a global scale (Twiddy et al. 2002).
1650
Selection in Emergent Dengue Virus 1651
Puerto Rico provides an ideal natural laboratory to island. We sample nearly 40% of the viral genome,
gather a detailed record of viral evolutionary change during including all the structural genes known to be important in
disease expansion. The island has a large urban population viral packaging and host cell entry, as well as a subset of
with high mosquito vector densities and, like many tropical nonstructural genes, from 82 viral isolates collected over
regions, has experienced nearly 20 years of dengue a 20-year period. Thus we expand current knowledge of
epidemics that are becoming increasingly severe (Gubler dengue molecular evolution to include genes never before
1998). Although dengue fever was recorded in Puerto Rico systematically surveyed on this scale (Holmes 1998). We
as early as 1915 (Dietz et al. 1996), continuous trans- assess the role of viral molecular evolution in disease
mission of all four serotypes has only occurred since the dynamics by testing for a viral adaptive basis to the
1980s (Dietz et al. 1996; Gubler 1998). The first epidemic changing patterns of DEN-4 incidence in Puerto Rico.
in Puerto Rico, consisting primarily of DEN-4, was Hence, we ascertain for the first time the role of natural
reported in 1981/82, followed by another DEN-4–domi- selection in DEN-4 evolution in the context of a well-
nated outbreak in 1986, this one marked by high characterized pattern of epidemic outbreaks.
incidences of DHF/DSS (Dietz et al. 1996; fig. 1). DHF/
DSS cases have occurred periodically since the 1980s,
Materials and Methods
reaching record levels in the latest DEN-4 epidemic in
Puerto Rico in 1998. We examined substitution patterns in 82 DEN-4
Taking advantage of Puerto Rico’s turbulent epide- isolates from Puerto Rico and surrounding regions since
miological record, we use a longitudinal phylogenetic the disease was established in 1981/82 (Dietz et al. 1996).
approach to recover the history of evolutionary change in We subsampled viral isolates from the U.S. Centers for
DEN-4 during disease emergence. In the absence of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) sample bank that
experimental models, phylogenetic analyses within a focal had been collected in Puerto Rico during the years 1982 (n¼
population provide the only method with which to correlate 14), 1986/87 (n ¼ 19), 1992 (n ¼ 15), 1994 (n ¼ 14), and
viral genetic change with epidemic behavior. Herein we 1998 (n ¼ 13) to represent both endemic and epidemic
examine viral evolution in DEN-4 isolates collected from disease conditions (fig. 1). With 13 to 19 isolates per
Puerto Rico since the onset of epidemic dengue on the year-group, we have a 75%–86% chance of sampling rare
1652 Bennett et al.
Table 1
Primers Designed to Amplify and Sequence DEN-4 Gene Regions
Labela Sequence Function Gene/Gene Fragment
90U 59ATCTCTGGAAAAATGAACCAACGAA Amplification Capsid/prMem
842L 59ATAAGCCATAAATCCTGCCAAGAGC Amplification Capsid/prMem
138U 59AATATGCTGAAACGCGAGAGAAACC Sequencing Capsid/prMem
410L 59TACGGTGGGAATCAAGCACAGCAA Sequencing Capsid/prMem
518U 59GACAACAGAGGGGATCAACAAATGC Sequencing Capsid/prMem
736L 59GCTCTTGTTTCCAATCCCATTCCTG Sequencing Capsid/prMem
616U 59CCGAACCTGAAGACATTGATTGCTG Amplification EnvA
1676L 59TTCCAGCACTGTCACATCCTGTCTC Amplification EnvA
486U 59CACGTATAAATGCCCCCTACTGGTC Amplification EnvA
1786L 59GCTGTGTTTCTGCCATCTCTTTGTC Amplification EnvA
686U 59GAGCGGAGAACGGAGACGAGAGAAG Sequencing EnvA
1142U 59AACTACGGCAACAAGATGTCCAACG Sequencing EnvA
1181L 59CTGTTGGTCCTGTTCCTCTTTCAGA Sequencing EnvA
alleles (defined as existing at a frequency of 10% in the and envelope: E), a subset of nonstructural genes (NS1,
population) at least once. In addition to 75 Puerto Rican NS2A, and NS4B), and the noncoding 39 NTR region.
isolates, we included seven isolates sampled from outside Amplifications were divided into separate reactions
Puerto Rico during the same period: three originating according to length of the target. Before sequencing, RT-
within the Caribbean basin, two from Central America, PCR products were purified using Qiagen PCR purifica-
and one from Ecuador. Caribbean basin samples included tion kits (Qiagen GmbH). We sequenced both strands of
a 1981 sample from Dominica, Lesser Antilles, believed the amplified products using forward and reverse primers
to represent the introduction of Asian DEN-4 into the (table 1) in standard dye-labeling reactions. Sequence data
Caribbean basin. were collected on an ABI 377 slab-gel automated
All samples have low passage histories, reducing the sequencer (Applied Biosystems), edited, and compiled
risk of artificial selection in vitro: only those samples with Sequencher 3.1.1 (Gene Codes) and aligned against
derived from chronic (generally low) infections were first reference sequences (GenBank number M14931; Zhao
cultured in A6/C36 mosquito cells, for one or, at most, two et al. 1986, Mackow et al. 1987) using Megalign’s clustal
passages, prior to RNA extraction. To further eliminate algorithm (version 3.1.7, Lasergene). We imported aligned
potential biases due to artificial selection, samples were not sequences into PAUP* (Swofford 2001) for phylogenetic
processed in temporal (year) order. We extracted sample analysis.
RNA using QIAamp Viral RNA Mini kits (Qiagen Recombination, reported in all DEN serotypes
GmbH). For each isolate we amplified, using reverse- (Worobey, Rambaut, and Holmes 1999; Tolou et al.
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), gene 2001; Uzcategui et al. 2001; Twiddy and Holmes 2003),
regions amounting to 40% of the viral genome (4,016 bp can lead to conflicts in phylogenetic trees. We searched for
of an 11 kbp genome) and including both 59 and 39 ends potential recombinants across the entire phylogeny by
(see table 1 for primer sequences). Amplified regions testing for topological incongruity among Neighbor-
included all the structural genes (capsid: C; membrane: M; Joining (NJ) trees generated using a 500-base sliding
Selection in Emergent Dengue Virus 1653
window. The statistical support for recombination in these time (g). h was estimated from given sampling years (1994
sequences, as well as the locations of the breakpoints, was and 1998) using a coalescent method (program Fluctuate;
determined using a maximum likelihood method (program Kuhner, Yamato, and Felsenstein [1998]); the generation
LARD; Holmes, Worobey, and Rambaut 1999), and then time of dengue virus was taken as 14 days comprising
maximum likelihood (ML) trees were constructed on intrinsic (within human) and extrinsic (within mosquito)
either side of the breakpoints identified. replication times of 7 days duration each (Holmes, Bartley,
The evolutionary relationships among DEN-4 isolates and Garnett 1998). Although direct estimates of l are not
were inferred using a ML method (PAUP* package, available for dengue virus, a synonymous rate of 6.89 3
Swofford [2001]). In all cases trees were estimated using 104 substitutions/site/year was recently estimated for
the best fitting model of nucleotide substitution identified DEN-4 (Twiddy, Holmes, and Rambaut 2003). Given
by Modeltest 3.06 (Posada and Crandall 1998). The model a generation time of 14 days, this is equivalent to a l of
of DNA substitution that best described DEN-4 evolution 2.64 3 105 mutations per site, per generation. Putatively
in Puerto Rico (including the outgroup and six other positively selected amino acid changes were identified as
foreign samples) was the general time-reversible model those that fall on the internal branches of the tree that
2003). Since the initial epidemic in 1982, DEN-4 was sites were identified (posterior probability P . 0.99) in the
virtually absent from Puerto Rico until the 1986 epidemic E, NS1, NS4B, and most notably the NS2A genes, where
(fig. 1; Dietz et al. 1996). All viruses sampled in Puerto a small class of codons (0.9%) had a mean dN/dS ratio of
Rico during and after this re-emergence (1986 onward) fell ;4.6, in no case could a model of codon evolution
into a single lineage defined by four silent nucleotide allowing positive selection conclusively reject all compet-
substitutions and one amino acid substitution in the ing neutral models (table 2; the results for all model
envelope (E) gene (methionine to threonine, aa position comparisons are available from the authors on request).
163; fig. 2). With the exception of a single 1994 isolate, However, the evolution of the nonstructural gene NS2A
two additional silent and two conservative amino acid was striking in that the branch leading to the 1998 cluster
substitutions (isoleucine to valine, envelope aa position of sequences was distinguished exclusively by three
351; lysine to arginine, NS1 aa position 51) occurred in the nonconservative amino acid replacements in NS2A (14Ileu
formation of the re-emergent PR lineage. Within this re- to Thr, 54Val to Thr, 101Pro to Ser; fig. 2), in the absence of
emergent lineage, sublineages were largely temporally any synonymous nucleotide changes. This results in an
ordered. For example, most of the 1987 isolates fell into infinitely large dN/dS ratio along this branch, suggestive of
!
FIG. 2.—Maximum likelihood tree based on 3,543 bp sequences (coding regions) from 75 isolates of DEN-4 from Puerto Rico and one from
Dominica (the outgroup sequence). Six other foreign isolates have been omitted from the figure for simplicity. The same topology was obtained when
phylogenies were constructed including non-coding sequence data (4,016 bp per isolate). Branches are color-coded by year of sample isolation.
Bootstrap support values, shown at nodes, were generated by using 1,000 replicate Neighbor-Joining trees reconstructed under the best-fit model of
nucleotide evolution. Three amino acid changes, in envelope (E) and NS1 (N1) genes, that define the post-introduction Puerto Rican lineage, and three
amino acid changes in the positively selected NS2A (2A) gene that define the 1998 clade, are marked with black bars and the amino acid position within
their respective genes.
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Selection in Emergent Dengue Virus 1655
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