BA S IC

A ERODYNAMICS
MODULE 08
P R E PA R E D B Y
ARPIT MISHRA
T E C H N I C A L I N S T RU C TO R
J E T A I RWAY S
OBJECTIVE

• What is Aerodynamics
• How it is related to our Aviation
• Why do we want to study Aerodynamics
INDEX

• Atmosphere
• Properties of Atmosphere
• Layers of Atmosphere
• ISA
AERODYNAMICS

• It is the study of dynamics of gasses

• It deals with the study of object

moving in air and forces acting on it.
• The major difference between water and air is that air is compressible and
water is incompressible.
PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERE

• Pressure, Temperature, Density, Humidity are the properties of atmosphere.

• Atmospheric pressure may be defined as
the force per unit area experienced by
an object due to the weight of air
acting upon it.
• Pressure reduces with increase in
altitude.
• The simplest explanation for this is that the
column of air that is weighed is shorter.
• Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called a barometer,
composed of mercury in a tube that records atmospheric pressure in inches of
mercury (Hg).
• Changes in altitude affect
an aircraft’s performance
in such areas as lift and
engine horsepower.
• Density is directly proportional to pressure.

• Density is inversely proportional to temperature.

• Humidity is inversely proportional to density.

• Temperature decreases as altitude increases.

NOTE

• Air at high altitudes is less dense than air at low altitudes.

• A mass of hot air is less dense than a mass of cool air.
• Changes in density affect the aerodynamic performance of aircraft with the
same horsepower.
• An aircraft can fly faster at a high altitude where the air density is low than at a
low altitude where the density is greater. This is because air offers less
resistance to the aircraft when it contains a smaller number of air particles per
unit of volume.
• On damp days, the air density is less than on dry days. For this reason, an aircraft
requires a longer runway for take-off on damp days than it does on dry days.
• Lapse rate is defined as steady rate of fall of temp with increase in altitude.
L= - dT /dh
At sea level L = .0065 K/m or 6.5 C/km
• Adiabatic lapse rate is rate of temp decrease when air is either dry or moist.
L= .00975 k/m
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE

• Troposphere is the lowest layer of atmosphere.

• It extends from earth surface to about 38000 feet

above it.
• The rate of change is somewhat constant at
about –2 °C or –3.5 °F for every 1000 feet of
increase in altitude.
• Stratosphere extend from 38000 feet to
1,60,000 feet.

• In this region temperature remains

constant i.e. –57 °C or –69 °F.

• Stratosphere contains ozone layer that

protects the earth inhabitants from
harmful ultraviolet rays.
WHY ON VERY WARM DAYS, AIRCRAFT
TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE DECREASES???
• . The
air available for combustion is less dense. Air with low density
contains less total oxygen to combine with the fuel.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
ATMOSPHERE
• These are the set of values assigned by the international agreement to the
physical properties of atmosphere corresponding to different altitude.

• It does not represent the actual condition anywhere at anytime but it is useful
for reference purpose.

• It avoid the difficulties of fluctuation of properties with time &location.

ACTIVITY

1. In which layer of the atmosphere does most civilian aviation take place?
A . troposphere

2. Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called a __________________.

A . barometer

3. An aircraft can fly __________________ at a high altitude where the air density is low than at
a low altitude where the air density is greater.
A . Faster
TOPICS

• Newton’s law of motion

• Bernoulli’s principle
• Aerofoil Terminologies
• Effect of camber and AOA on Aerofoil
• Boundary layer
• Drag
SPEED, VELOCITY &ACCELERATION

• Rate of motion w.r.t time.

• Rate of motion in particular direction w.r.t time.

• Rate of change of velocity.

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

• Newton’s First law is referred to as law of inertia.

• When an aircraft is flying at uniform speed in a straight line, inertia tends to keep the aircraft moving.
Some external force is required to change the aircraft from its flight path.
• Newton’s second law states that if a body moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external force,
the change of motion is proportional to the amount of the force, and motion takes place in the direction
in which the force acts. This law may be stated mathematically as follows:
Force = mass × acceleration(F = ma)
If an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down. If the wind is coming from either side of the
aircraft’s heading, the aircraft is pushed off course unless the pilot takes corrective action against the wind
direction.
• Newton’s Third law is the law of action and reaction.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE

• Bernoulli’s principle states that when a

fluid flowing through a tube reaches a
constriction or narrowing of the tube,
the speed of fluid flowing through that
constriction increases and its pressure
decreases.

• Static pressure + dynamic pressure =

total pressure (constant)
• Three-fourths of the total lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in
pressure over the upper surface. The impact of air on the lower surface of an
airfoil produces the other one-fourth of the total lift.
• Bernoulli’s principle is applicable to laminar flow.
• Free stream airflow is air flowing without obstruction before it engages the
aircraft structure. The velocity of the free stream flow is equal to the speed of
aircraft. The pressure of the free stream airflow is static pressure.
• The flow of air around an object caused by the movement of either the air or
the object, or both, is called the relative wind.
• Bernoulli’s equation will also not apply in regions where viscosity is
important.
• In aerodynamics, when Positive Pressure is mentioned, it refers to pressures above
atmospheric pressure. Negative Pressure or suction pressure is lower than atmospheric
pressure.

Symmetrical aerofoil
• Streamlines shows the direction of fluid flow at particular moment.
• Upwash is generated ahead of the airfoil, the forward stagnation point moves
under the leading edge, and a Downwash is evident aft of the airfoil.
• Upwash and downwash are the deflection directions of the air as it negotiates
its path around the airfoil.
AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY
EFFECT OF CAMBER AND ANGLE OF
ATTACK
• At zero AOA, in a symmetrical aerofoil, the flow above and below the aerofoil
are accelerated equally and thus no lift is generated.
• In asymmetrical or cambered aerofoil, the flow above the aerofoil is
accelerated more and thus the negative pressure generated are not equal.
Some lift is created
• At some given AOA a symmetrical aerofoil will develop lesser lift while camber
aerofoil will develop greater lift.
BOUNDARY LAYER

• In relation to an aircraft, the boundary layer is the part of the airflow closest to
the surface of the aircraft.
• In designing high-performance aircraft, considerable attention is paid to
controlling the behaviour of the boundary layer to minimize pressure drag and
skin friction drag.
• Layer of air over the surface which shows local retardation of airflow from
viscosity is the boundary layer.
• Some small laminar flow continues to exist in the very lower levels of the
turbulent boundary layer and is referred to as the "laminar sub-layer“.
 LAMINAR BL TURBULENT BL
When probe is attached, Low Hiss will be heard When probe is attached, Sharp Crackling will be
audible
Low K.E adjacent to the a/f surface High K.E adjacent to the a/f surface
Low skin friction drag near the surface High skin friction drag near the surface
Low thickness High thickness
Gradual change in velocity with distance above the Sharp change in velocity with distance above the
surface surface

Heat transfer rate is low Heat transfer rate is high

DRAG

• Profile drag
Sum of pressure or form drag and skin friction drag.
• Form drag
caused by the separation of the boundary layer from a surface and the wake created by that
separation. It is primarily dependent upon the shape of the object.
To reduce form drag, aircraft surfaces which are exposed to the airflow of the
relative wind are streamlined.
• Skin friction drag
caused by the friction of a fluid against the surface of an object that is moving
through it.
Friction Drag is created in the boundary layer due to the viscosity of the air
and the resulting friction against the surface of the aircraft.
Rough surfaces accelerate the transition of boundary layer airflow from
laminar to turbulent.
• Friction drag can be reduced by delaying the point at which laminar
flow becomes turbulent.This can be accomplished by smoothing the
exposed surfaces of the aircraft by using flush rivets on the leading
edges and through painting, cleaning, waxing, polishing or the
application of surface coatings.
• Interference drag
Caused due to interference between various component of a/c.
 If one considers two parts of the aircraft that intersect at a particular point, such as the vertical and
horizontal components of the empennage, it is obvious where the point of intersection occurs. Each
of these two components generate high velocity (potentially transonic or even supersonic) airflow
across their respective surfaces.
 At the intersection of the two surfaces, there is less physical space for the airflow to occupy
resulting in the turbulent mixing of the two airflows and the production of a localized shock wave.
Due to this shock wave, the resulting total drag from the empennage is greater than the sum of the
drag produced individually by the vertical tail and the horizontal tail surfaces.
• Interference drag can be minimized by the appropriate use of fairings and fillets to
ease the transition between components. Fairings and fillets use curved surfaces to
soften the transition at the junction of two aircraft components.This, in turn,
allows the airflow streamlines to meet gradually rather than abruptly and reduces
the amount of interference drag that is generated.

• Parasite drag
Caused due to non-lifting part of aircraft.
NOTE

• Interference drag is important at high speed as it lead to transonic

drag rise for an a/c.
• Transonic drag can be overcome by using sweptback wing and
supercritical aerofoil.
• Induced drag
when wing produces lift ,pressure on upper surface is lower and pressure on lower surface is higher
but it is being equalized at wing tip. So there is span-wise pressure gradient.
Due to pressure difference on 3D wing there is inward velocity component on upper surface
&outward velocity component on lower surface.
Consequently, as they meet trailing edge, small vortices are formed named as T.E vortices.
Vortex formed at tip is strongest, due to additional pressure effect at tip.
Within the small period all vortices gets collected at wing tip due to strong effect and forms 2 strong
vortices named as wing tip vortices.
 Cause of trailing vortices

Trailing edge vortices Wing tip vortices

• Induced drag and its wing tip vortices are a direct consequence of the creation of lift by the
wing.
• Coefficient of lift is directly proportional to AOA and inversely proportional to square of
speed.
• Induced drag is directly proportional square of lift coefficient.
• Induced drag is directly proportional to weight of a/c.
• Induced drag is inversely proportional to Aspect ratio of a/c.
• Wave drag
caused by the formation of shock waves around the aircraft in supersonic flight or around some
surfaces of the aircraft while in transonic flight.
• wave drag can be reduced by incorporating one or more aerodynamic design features such as
 Wing sweep
 Ultra thin wings
 Fuselage shape
 Anti shock bodies
 Super critical airfoils.
• The point of intersection of the resultant force line with the chord line of the
airfoil is called the Center of pressure (CP).
it is the point on chord of aerofoil about which coefficient of pitching moment is
zero.
The unstable movement of the centre of pressure is a disadvantage of the ordinary
curved aerofoil.
• The point on the chord of airfoil about which pitching moment coefficient is
practically constant for all AOA is Aerodynamic Center (AC).
• The drag component has hardly any effect on the position of the centre of
pressure.
• For negative angles, the centre of pressure is a long way back.
• As the angle of attack is increased up to 16°, the centre of pressure gradually
moves forward until it is less than one-third of the chord from the leading
edge; above this angle it begins to move backwards again.
• The centre of pressure gradually moves forward as the angle is
increased over the ordinary angles of flight; and this tends towards
Instability.
• During flight, for reasons, the angle of attack is usually between 2°
and 8° and is very rarely below 0° or above 16°.
• In case of a flat plate, an increase of the angle of attack over
the same angles causes the centre of pressure to move
backwards; this tends to dip the nose of the plate back again to its
original position, and so makes the flat plate stable.
• Flat piece of paper will only glide if it is weighted so that the
centre of gravity is roughly one-third of the chord back
from the leading edge. If it is not weighted the centre of
pressure will always be in front of the centre of gravity, and this will
cause the piece of paper to revolve rapidly.
EFFECTIVE A/F DESIGN

• Centre of pressure remains practically stationary over

the angles of attack used in ordinary flight.
• under-surface is convex and a reflex curvature towards the trailing
edge or we can say convex camber on the lower surface.
• At 0° C.P is about 0.70 of the chord from the leading edge, at 4° it is 0.40
of the chord back, and at 12° C.P is 0.30 of the chord
• In other words, the centre of pressure gradually moves forward as the angle is
increased over the ordinary angles of flight; and this tends towards instability.
• It is important to remember that the pitching moment, and its
coefficient, depend not only on the lift (or more correctly on the resultant
force) and position of the centre of pressure, but also on the point about
which we are considering the moment – which we shall call the reference
point.
• The centre of gravity is always, or nearly always, behind the leading edge of the
wing, so the change of pitching moment with angle of attack is more like that
about the trailing edge – which is definitely unstable.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER

• Reynold number is the ratio of inertia to viscous force.

• It is non dimensional number.
• It decreases with altitude.
• “Critical Reynold number” is the Reynold number at which drag
coefficient suddenly decreases.
• AT low Reynold number, LBL tends to separate easily than TBL.
The separation would gives a large dead air region and high
coefficient of drag (pressure drag).

• At High Reynold number, transition point occurs upstream to

separation point and thus form TBL which has higher tendency to
remain attach with the surface resulting in delay of separation.
Hence narrow dead air region and low pressure drag.
WASHOUT & WASH-IN

• Washout is the designed feature in which incidence at tip is less

than incidence at root i.e. incidence decreases towards tip of wing.
• Wash-in is the designed feature in which incidence at tip is higher
than incidence at root i.e. incidence increases towards tip of wing.
• Taper ratio is the ratio of tip chord to root chord.
• Critical Mach number is the free stream Mach number at which sonic flow
is first obtained somewhere on aerofoil surface.
• Drag Divergence Mach number is free stream Mach number at which drag
increases suddenly.
• Dynamic viscosity decreases with an increasing altitude
of up to 11km, then stays constant to 25km and increases
from an altitude of more than 25km.
• Kinematic viscosity increases with increasing altitude.
AIRSPEED AND GROUNDSPEED
• The speed of an aeroplane relative to the air is air speed.
• Now the existence of a wind simply means that portions of the air are in
motion relative to the earth, although the wind will affect the speed of the
aeroplane relative to the earth – i.e. its ground speed – it will not affect
its speed relative to the air.
• Ground speed is important when the aeroplane is changing from one medium
to another, such as in taking-off and landing, and also in the time taken and the
course to be steered when flying cross-country.
IAS, TAS, EAS, CAS

The speed indicated by the air speed indicator is called the Air Speed
Indictor Reading (ASIR).
 If instrument itself may not have been calibrated correctly, or may be suffering
from some wear. This error is called instrument error.
 The speed corrected for instrument error is called the Indicated Air Speed
(IAS).
• There will also be errors due to the positioning of the pitot and static tubes on
the aircraft. It is virtually impossible to find a position where the static pressure is
always exactly the same as the pressure in the free airstream away from the
aircraft.
• To determine the correction for such position errors, the aircraft can be flown in
formation with another aircraft with specially calibrated instruments.
• Once the position error correction has been applied, the speed is known as the
Calibrated Air Speed (CAS).
For any aircraft that can fly faster than about 200 mph, it is necessary to apply
a correction for compressibility, since Bernoulli’s equation only applies to low speed
effectively incompressible flows.
After all the corrections have been applied, the resulting speed is called the Equivalent Air
Speed (EAS).
Once the equivalent air speed has been obtained it is quite easy to estimate the True Air
Speed (TAS) which is required for navigation purposes.
• IAS
It is the airspeed with all the errors and with the assumption that density is always same as in
standard sea level condition.
• TAS
It is the airspeed indicated after the correction of density variation with altitude.
• EAS
Airspeed obtained by ignoring density variation with altitude and correcting for compressibility
error.
SUPERCRITICAL AEROFOIL

• Large L.E radius allows it to create more lift than other aerofoils at high AOA
• Comparably flat upper surface
• High positive camber in the rear section
• Rounded lower surface with a maximum thickness location at around 50%
• High Mdd
• Develop shock waves further aft than traditional aerofoils
ACTIVITY
• __________________ is the rate of motion in a particular direction in relation to time.
A- velocity
• A comparison between the wingspan and the chord of a wing is known as __________________.
A- aspect ratio
• When fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, the speed of the fluid __________________
and the pressure of the fluid __________________.
A- increase, decrease
• __________________ is defined as the angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of
the relative wind.
A- AOA
• The boundary layer is the part of the airflow that is __________________ to the surface of the
aircraft.
A- closest
• __________________ drag is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe
components such as the wing and fuselage.
A- interference drag
• The __________________ of a wing is the width of the wing from the leading edge apex to the
trailing edge.
A- chord
• What type of drag continually increases as airspeed increases?
A- Parasite drag
• Define C.P, A.C, chord, washin, washout?
• Define ISA?
• Reynold number, critical reynold number?
• How reynold’s number varies with altitude?
• Critical mach number, drag divergence mach number?
• LBL &TBL ?
RATE OF CLIMB

• R/c is directly proportional to velocity

• is directly proportional to excess thrust available (jet engine)
• is directly proportional to excess power available (propeller engine)
• is inversly proportional to weight.
ABSOLUTE AND SERVICE CEILING

• For absolute ceiling, (R/c)max = 0. since Excess power =0.

• For service ceiling, R/c =30 m/min (piston engine)
• R/c = 150 m/min (jet engine)
• Absolute and service ceiling is inversely proportional to weight.
GLIDING ( POWER OFF FLIGHT )

• tan Y= CD/CL
• Gliding angle(Y) depends only on L/D ratio.
• Range depends only on L/D ratio.
• Both range &gliding angle(Y) are independent of weight.
• Range is inversely proportional to gliding angle(Y).
• Flattest glide if L/D ratio is maximum or for minimum drag condition.
Rate of decent or sinking speed
• Rate of decent (R/d)= v Sin Y
• R/d depends on weight and altitude.
• S= v. t so, t = S / V = S / (R/d) =Endurance
• Rate of decent is inversely proportional to endurance.
• Range is defined as the horizontal distance covered by a/c during flight.
• Endurance is defined as the time for which a/c remains in air.
• Still air range is defined as the horizontal distance covered by an a/c during
cruise and is assumed to be started with full fuel tank and completely consume
during cruising.
• Gross still air range is defined as the horizontal distance covered in still air
including the takeoff distance for a given amount of fuel.
• Endurance of jet engine does not depends on altitude.
• Range of propeller does not depends on altitude and velocity.
STABILITY AND CONTROL

• An aircraft must have sufficient stability to maintain uniform flightpath and recover from various upsetting
forces.
• Also, to achieve best performance, the a/c must have proper response to the movement of the controls.
• Control is the pilot’s action of moving the flight controls, providing the aerodynamic force that induces
the a/c to follow a desired flightpath.
• When an aircraft is said to be controllable, it means that the a/c respond easily and promptly to
movement of controls.
• Moving the control surfaces on an a/c changes the airflow over the a/c surface.
• Thus, Causes changes in the balance of forces acting to keep the a/c flying straight and level.
• Stability is the characteristic of an a/c that tends to cause it to fly (hands off) in straight and
level flightpath.
• Maneuverability is the characteristic of an a/c to be directed along a desired flightpath and
to withstand the stresses imposed.
• Controllability is the quality of the response of an a/c to the pilot’s command while
maneuvering the a/c.

stability and control oppose each other.

• Stability in an aircraft affects 2 areas significantly;
1. Maneuverability is governed by a/c weight, inertia, size, and location of flight controls,
structural strength and power plant and a/c design characteristics.
2. Controllability is the capability of an a/c to respond to pilot’s control especially with
regard to flightpath and attitude. It is the quality of a/c response to the pilot’s control
application when maneuvering the a/c, regardless of its stability characteristics.
NOTE:
The moment of inertia of the various parts – will largely determine the ease or otherwise
of handling the machine during manoeuvres.
• Static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to equilibrium that the a/c displays
after being disturbed from its trimmed condition. OR Static stability refers to the a/c initial
response when disturbed from given AOA, Slip or Bank.
• Three category of static stability are
1. Positive static stability
2. Neutral static stability
3. Negative static stability
• Dynamic stability refers to the a/c response over time when disturbed from a given AOA,
slip or bank
• Three Catagories of dynamic stability are
1. Positive dynamic stability – decreased amplitude
2. Neutral dynamic stability – constant amplitude
3. Negative dynamic stability – increased amplitude
AXES OF AIRCRAFT

• Longitudinal – nose to tail – along pitch and about roll

• Lateral – wing tip to wing tip – along roll and about pitch
• Directional or vertical – top to bottom – yaw

• Roll – aileron, located at T.E of wings

• Pitch – elevators, rear portion of horizontal tail assembly
• Yaw – rudder, rear portion of vertical tail assembly
• Move the control column forward------elevator to down-------
increases lift on tail-plane-----hence pitch down or nose down
movement of a/c.
• Rotate the control wheel to left or anti-clockwise direction-------
causes the left aileron to move up--------hence roll the a/c towards
left wing.
• The rudder is controlled by foot pedals. Pushing the left pedal
forward------deflects the rudder to the left -------turns the nose of
the aircraft to the left.
NOTE

• Control surfaces are placed as far as possible

away from the C.G so as to provide sufficient
leverage to alter the position of the
aeroplane.
• On modern aircraft there may also be a secondary
set of inboard ailerons which are used in high
speed flight where the outboard surfaces could
produce excessively large rolling moments, or
unacceptable structural loading or wing twist.
Stick-fixed
 Elevators are held in their neutral position relative to the tail plane.
Stick-free
 Pilot releases the control column and allows the elevators to take up their
own positions.

Another factor affecting stability are:

 Power-off or power-on
 Thrust
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

Longitudinal stability can be improved by

• Sweepback
• Washout
• Change in wing section towards the tips
• Reflex curvature towards T.E of wing section
• Longitudinal stability of whole aircraft is dependent on 4 factors:
1. C.G position (not too far back& is most imp consideration)
2. Pitching moment on Main planes (tends towards instability)
3. Pitching moment on Fuselage (tends towards instability)
4. Tail plane (stabilising influence)
Area, angle at which it is set, its aspect ratio & its distance from C.G
LONGITUDINAL DIHEDRAL
• The angle b/w chord of tail plane and the chord of main plane is known as longitudinal
dihedral.
• The tail plain is usually set at an angle less than that of main plane.
• Longitudinal dihedral is the actual angle at which tail plane strikes the airflow. The downwash
from main planes, if tail plane is in the stream, will cause actual AOA to be less than the angle at
which tail plane is set.
For this reason, even if the tail plane is set at the same angle as the main planes,
there will in effect be a longitudinal dihedral and this may help the a/p to be
longitudinal stable.
EFFECT OF DOWNWASH
WHY TAIL PLANE SETTING MAJOR
PROBLEM FOR DESIGNER???
• Trailing vortices from main planes will cause a downwash on tail plane.

• Angle of downwash may be at least half the AOA on main planes.

• Angle of downwash will change with AOA of main planes.

PROPELLER DRIVEN A/C

• Tail plane is usually in the slipstream, rotating

mass of air & will therefore strike the 2 sides
of tail plane at different angles.
JET DRIVEN A/C

• Tail plane is often set very high, to keep it clear of hot jet.
• May cause trouble since it may be shielded by the main
planes at large AOA, resulting DEEP STALL i.e.
Instability.
• Hence, low tail position preferred.
TAIL PLANE AHEAD OF MAIN PLANE
• Stalling of front surface will prevent the nose being
raised any farther, and therefore main planes will
never reach stalling angle.
TAIL-LESS A/P
• Heavily swept back wing and wash out
acts in a same manner as ordinary tail plane.
NOTE

• Inherent unstable military combat a/c increases manoeuvrability

and reduces drag. But inherent instability is not permitted on civil
a/c as it may lead to system failure.
• Neutral stability is sometimes a very desirable feature.
• An aeroplane which flies with one wing lower than the other may
often, when disturbed from this attitude, return to it. Such an a/p is
out of its proper trim, but it is not unstable.
LATERAL STABILITY

 Lateral & directional stability first be considered separately.

 At small AOA, there is a resistance to roll because AOA & lift will
increase on down-going wing and decrease on up-going wing.
 At high AOA i.e. near stalling angle, AOA & lift will decrease on
down-going wing & increase on up-going wing.
Thus new forces will tend to roll the a/p still further, this being the
cause of auto-rotation.
ENHANCE LATERAL STABILITY

• Dihedral angle
• High wing and low C.G
• Sweepback
• Fin area
DIHEDRAL ANGLE

 Dihedral angle - lateral stability

 Dihedral angle is the angle between each plane and the horizontal.
 If the planes are inclined upwards towards the wing tips, the dihedral is
positive.
 if downwards, it is negative and called Anhedral
 Anhedral - dynamic stability
REASON THE LOWER PLANE WILL
RECEIVE MORE LIFT ?????
• Sideslip(The aeroplane may travel to right or left along the lateral axis; such motion
is called sideslipping or skidding.) causes a flow of air in the opposite direction to the slip. This
has the effect of increasing the angle of attack of the lower plane and increasing that of the upper
plane. The lower plane will therefore produce more lift and a restoring moment will result.
• wing tip of the lower plane ---- leading edge so far as the slip is concerned ---- Centre
of pressure ---- nearer to leading edge
• After a slight slip sideways the aeroplane will roll back into its proper position.
An aeroplane has a sufficient degree of lateral stability without any
dihedral angle, because of
1. The leading edge effect on the lower wing, and
2. The shielding of the upper wing by the fuselage

These other methods of achieving lateral stability may be described

as having a dihedral effect
NOTE

• Many aircraft with high-mounted swept wings

are given a significant amount of Anhedral. This is
primarily used to counteract the Dutch roll
tendency, a form of dynamic instability involving
coupled roll and yaw motions.
HIGH WING AND LOW C.G
• Aircraft sideslips -----
• the increment in lift on the lower wing ---------
• small sideways drag force is introduced-----
• the resultant force on the wing will be in the general direction-----
• Force does not now pass through the C.G ------
• Small moment which will tend to roll the aircraft back to a level condition.
High-wing aircraft requires less dihedral than a low-wing type because

the moment arm is greater.

SWEEPBACK AND LATERAL STABILITY
FIN AREA AND LATERAL STABILITY

• Position of the various side surfaces, such as the fuselage, fin and rudder, and wheels influence
on lateral stability.
• if the side surfaces are low the pressure on them will tend to roll the aircraft over still more
and so cause lateral instability.
• whatever the method of obtaining lateral stability, correction only takes place after a sideslip
towards the low wing.
• It is the sideslip that effects the directional stability
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

• The relative height of side surface does not matters.

• Side surface or fin area is in front of or behind the center of
gravity matters.
• Imagine a/c to be deflected from its course, owing to its momentum it will for a short time tend to
continue moving in its old direction, therefore the longitudinal axis will be inclined to the airflow,
and a pressure will be created on all the side surfaces on one side of the aeroplane.
• If the turning effect of the pressures behind the C.G is Greater than the turning effect
in front of the C.G, the aeroplane will tend to its original course. Vice-versa will turn still
farther off its course.
• Notice that it is the turning effect or the moment that matters, and not the
actual pressure; therefore it is not merely a question of how much side surface,
but also of the distance from the C.G of each side surface.
• A small fin at the end of a long fuselage or large fin at the end of a
short fuselage may be effective in producing directional stability.
• Also, there may sometimes be more side surface in the front than in the rear,
but the rear surfaces will be at a greater distance.
• All the side surfaces of an aeroplane, including that presented by
wings with dihedral, affect the directional stability, but to the fin is
allotted the particular task of finally adjusting matters and its area is
settled accordingly.
2 essential differences between an aeroplane and a weathercock –
• First, that an aeroplane is not only free to yaw, but also to move bodily sideways;
• Secondly, that the ‘wind’, in the case of an aeroplane, is not the wind we speak of when
on the ground, but the wind caused by the original motion of the aeroplane through the air.
CONNECTION -LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

• The sideslip essential to lateral stability will cause an air pressure on the side surfaces which
have been provided for directional stability.
• The greater the directional stability the greater will be the tendency to turn off course in a
sideslip.
• Turn cause raised wing to travel faster than lower or inner wing hence more lift on raised
wing and so bank the aeroplane still further.
TURNING TECHNIQUE OF A/P

• Suppose, when we want to turn to the left, instead of applying any rudder we simply bank the
aeroplane to the left, so it will slip inwards and turn to the left.
• it is unnecessary to use the rudder at all for turning purposes.
• The rudder and fin are brought into effect by the inward sideslip, instead of by application of
rudder which tends to cause an outward skid.
• Just as a slight roll results in a sideslip and then a yawing motion, so
if an aircraft moves in a yawed position, that is if it moves crabwise
(which is really the same thing as slipping or skidding) lateral
stability will come into play and cause the aircraft to roll away from
the leading wing.
• Thus a roll causes a yaw, and a yaw causes a roll, and the study of
the two cannot be separated.
TOO MUCH DIRECTIONAL BUT NO
LATERAL STABLE
• If the stability characteristics of an aeroplane are such that it is
very stable Directionally and not very stable Laterally, e.g. if
it has large fin and rudder and little or no dihedral angle, or other
‘dihedral effect’, it will have a marked tendency to turn into a
sideslip, and to bank at steeper and steeper angles, that it may get
into an uncontrollable spiral – this is sometimes called spiral
instability, but note that it is caused by too much stability
(directional).
TOO MUCH LATERAL BUT NO
DIRECTIONAL STABLE
• If the aeroplane is very stable laterally and not
very stable directionally, it will sideslip without
any marked tendency to turn into the sideslip.
• Such an aircraft is easily controllable by the rudder,
and if the rudder only is used for a turn, the aircraft
will bank and make quite a nice turn.
• The forces which the pilot has to exert in order to move the
controls are small, the continuous movement required in bumpy
weather becomes tiring during long flights, especially when the
control surfaces are large and the speeds fairly high. For this
reason controls are often balanced, or, more correctly,
partially balanced.
NOTE

• In order to allow for the extra loads likely to be encountered

during aerobatics, every part of an aeroplane is given a load
factor, which varies according to conditions, being usually between
4 and 8.
• This means that the various parts are made from 4 to 8 times
stronger than they need be for straight and level flight.
• Turn radius is inversly proportional to bank angle.
• speed has more effect on the bank angle than does the radius of turn.
LOADS DURING A TURN

• The lift on the wings during the turn is greater than during
straight flight.
• Lift increases considerably with the angle of bank.
• This means that structural components, such as the wing spars, will have to carry loads
considerably greater than those of straight flight.
• steep turns can only be accomplished if the engine is powerful enough to keep the
aeroplane travelling at high speed and at large angles of attack, perhaps even at the
stalling angle.
CORRECT AND INCORRECT ANGLES
OF BANK
• A good indicator is the wind itself, or a vane, like a weather cock, mounted in some
exposed position.
• In normal flight and in a correct bank the wind will come from straight ahead (neglecting any
local effects from the slipstream); if the bank is too much, the aeroplane will sideslip
inwards and the aeroplane, and pilot if he is in an open cockpit, will feel the wind
coming from the inside of the turn,
• whereas if the bank is too small, the wind will come from the outside of the turn, due
to an outward skid on the part of the aeroplane.
OTHER PROBLEMS OF TURNING

• In order to get into a turn the pilot puts on bank by means of

the ailerons, but once the turn has commenced the outer wing
will be travelling faster than the inner wing and will
therefore obtain more lift, so he may find that not only is it
necessary to take off the aileron control but actually to apply
opposite aileron by moving the control column against the
direction of bank – this is called holding off bank.
• On a Gliding turn the whole aircraft will move the same distance downwards during one
complete turn, but the inner wing, because it is turning on a smaller radius, will have descended on a
steeper spiral than the outer wing; therefore the air will have come up to meet it at a steeper angle,
in other words the inner wing will have a larger angle of attack and so
obtain more lift than the outer wing.
• The extra lift obtained in this way may compensate, or more than compensate, the lift obtained by
the outer wing due to increase in velocity.
• Thus in a gliding turn there may be little or no need to hold
off bank.
• In a Climbing turn, the inner wing still describes a steeper spiral, but this
time it is an upward spiral, so the air comes down to meet the inner wing
more than the outer wing, thus reducing the angle of attack on the inner
wing.
• So, in this case, the outer wing has more lift both because of
velocity and because of increased angle, and
• there is even more necessity for holding off bank than
during a normal turn.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES

LIFT AUGMENTATION
• Secondary flight controls are fitted to most aircraft to increase lift when
needed during takeoff, landing and low-level slow flight.
FLAPS
• Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed,
because they may be extended when needed, and retracted into the wing’s
structure when not needed.
PLAIN FLAP

• It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the

coefficient of lift (Cl) at a given AOA. At the same time, it greatly increases drag
and moves the center of pressure (CP) aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-
down pitching moment.
SPLIT FLAP

• The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil and produces a
slightly greater increase in lift than the plain flap.
• More drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern produced behind the
airfoil.
• When fully extended, both plain and split flaps produce high drag with little
additional lift.
SLOTTED FLAP

• The most popular flap on aircraft today is the slotted flap.

• Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient significantly more than plain or split flaps.
• When the slotted flap is lowered, high energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the flap’s
upper surface. The high energy air from the slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and
delays airflow separation, providing a higher Cl.
• Thus, the slotted flap produces much greater increases in maximum coefficient of lift (Cl-max) than
the plain or split flap.
• Large aircraft often have double and even triple-slotted flaps. These allow the maximum increase in
drag without the airflow over the flaps separating and destroying the lift they produce.
FOWLER FLAP

• Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap.

• This flap design not only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the
wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides backwards on tracks.
• In the first portion of its extension, it increases the drag very little, but increases
the lift a great deal as it increases both the area and camber.
• As the extension continues, the flap deflects downward. During the last portion of
its travel, the flap increases the drag with little additional increase in lift.
FIXED SLOTS

• Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface and

delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack.
• The slot does not increase the wing camber, but allows a
higher maximum CL because the stall is delayed until the
wing reaches a greater AOA.
MOVABLE SLATS

• Opening a slat allows the air below the wing to flow over the
wing’s upper surface, delaying airflow separation.
LEADING EDGE FLAPS

• This type of leading edge device is frequently used in conjunction

with trailing edge flaps and can reduce the nose-down pitching
movement produced by the trailing edge flap.
• With trailing edge flaps, a small increment of leading edge flaps
increases lift to a much greater extent than drag. As greater
amounts of flaps are extended, drag increases at a greater rate than
lift.
LEADING EDGE CUFFS

• Leading edge cuffs are fixed aerodynamic devices.

• The fixed nature of leading edge cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum
cruise airspeed, but recent advances in design and technology have reduced
this penalty.
• Leading edge cuffs, like leading edge flaps and trailing edge flaps are used to
increase both Cl-max and the camber of the wings.
• Leading edge cuffs extend the leading edge down and forward. This causes the
airflow to attach better to the upper surface of the wing at higher angles of
attack, thus lowering an aircraft’s stall speed.
GLIDE RATIO

• With a tailwind, the airplane will glide farther because of the higher
groundspeed. Conversely, with a headwind the airplane will not glide as far
because of the slower groundspeed.
• Lift Over Drag (L/D) ratio determines the distance the airplane can glide,
weight will not affect the distance.
• The only effect weight has is to vary the time the airplane will glide. The
heavier the airplane the higher the airspeed must be to obtain the same glide
ratio.
• When the landing gear or the flaps are extended, drag increases and the
airspeed will decrease unless the pitch attitude is lowered.
• As the pitch is lowered, the glide-path steepens and reduces the distance
traveled.
• With the power off, a wind-milling propeller also creates considerable drag,
thereby retarding the airplane’s forward movement.
• power is not used during a glide or power-off approach, the pitch attitude must
be adjusted as necessary to maintain a constant airspeed.
• The best speed for the glide is one at which the airplane will travel
the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude in still air.
• This best glide speed corresponds to an
angle of attack resulting in the least
drag on the airplane and giving the
best Lift-to-Drag ratio (L/Dmax).
• When descending at a speed below the best glide speed, induced drag
increases.
• When descending at a speed above best glide speed, parasite drag increases.
• In either case, the rate of descent will increase.
• The pilot must never attempt to "stretch" a glide by applying back-
elevator pressure and reducing the airspeed below the airplane’s
recommended best glide speed.
• Attempts to stretch a glide will invariably result in an increase in
the rate and angle of descent and may precipitate an inadvertent
stall.
• Two of the key measures of a glider’s performance are
 Minimum sink rate and
 Best glide ratio, also known as the best glide angle.

The best glide ratio is shallower than the glide ratio for minimum
sink.
• when the aircraft banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward.
• Centripetal force i.e. horizontal component of lift is the force that pulls the aircraft from a
straight flightpath to make it turn.
• Centrifugal force is the "equal and opposite reaction" of the aircraft to the change in direction
and acts equal and opposite to the horizontal component of lift.
This explains why, in a correctly executed turn, the force that turns the aircraft is not
supplied by the rudder.
o The rudder is used to correct any deviation between the straight track of the nose and tail of
the aircraft.
o A good turn is one in which the nose and tail of the aircraft track along the same path.
o If no rudder is used in a turn, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the outside of the turn.
o The rudder is used to bring the nose back in line with the relative wind.
• In order for an aircraft to turn, it must be banked .
• If it is not banked, there is no force available to cause it to deviate from a straight flightpath.
• Conversely, when an aircraft is banked, it turns, provided it is not slipping to the inside of the
turn.
• Merely banking the aircraft into a turn produces no change in the total amount of lift
developed. Since the lift during the bank is divided into vertical and horizontal components, the
amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the aircraft’s weight is reduced. Consequently,
the aircraft loses altitude unless additional lift is created. This is done by increasing the AOA
until the vertical component of lift is again equal to the weight. Since the vertical component of
lift decreases as the bank angle increases, the AOA must be progressively increased to produce
sufficient vertical lift to support the aircraft’s weight.
• Vertical Lift < W . So loss in altitude
THANK YOU