rm CHAPTER ONE, an Africanism and the birth of Modern African Nati LL... Pan Africanism What is Pan Africanism?: + The term *‘pan’’ is a Greek word and means philosophical concept of Pan -Africanism had passed through different sr stall” in English. In its wider aspe nse of unity brotherhood of allThe first pan African conference \ held in London in 1900. This was earliest orga of politcal expression of Pan Afticanism, The conference was organized by Henry Sylvester William the Participants of the conference came mainly from America West Indies The two famous leaders of Pan Africanism durin 1g period were Dr William Du Bois and Marcus Du Bois an Afitean American schoietandi wie: el becaiie’ an organizer and preacher of Pan Africanism. He came to be Knovm as the Pather of Pan A{fticanism. Cavey was a Jamaican who moved to and lived in the USA. He was the founder and the leader of Universal “ero Association. Garvey and Du Bois had some differences on the future of black living outside Africa. Du Bois mentioned that black outside Altica should struggle for the respect of their right in the countries they lived in, But Garvey insisted that the only future for blacks in America| and CoriSiana: was) to retum to. Africa om the bases of iieie™ Garvey organized “Back to Aftiea” movement, UNIA established by Garvey in 191, was to mea promote this Back to Affiea movement although the idea of the movement alfracied alae blacks. 1.1.2.4. Historical conferences during Pan African Period 1.1.2.4.1. The Manchester Conference in 1945 The year 1945 marked the beginning of the new chapter in the history of the Pan Africanism movement in that year the 5 pan African conference was held in Manchester. This conference was very important in three ways 1. For the first time in the history of Pan Afticanism, Africans from the continent Participated in the pan Affican Conference. Many of them were student in Europe and America. They were the future leaders of Africa such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya. The conference seriously demanded the independence of Africa, Attendants of this conference expressed their determination to resort to violent means unless the demand for independence is seriously considered. In effect, the decision of this conference provided a slogan which brought Africans together in the Struggle for independence,1900. This was earliest organized form first pan African conference was held in London d by Henry Sylvester °F political expression of Pan Afticanism, The conference was organized by Henry Syt William the Participants of the conference eame mainly from America West Indies he two famous leaders of Pan Africanism during period were Dr William Du Bois and Mareus Garvey Tiean scholar and writer. He became an organizer and preacher of Pan Bois an African Ame: Africanism, He came to be Known as the Father of Pan Africanism. Garvey was a Jamaican who moved to and lived in the USA. He was the founder and the leader of Universal Negro Association, Garvey and Du Bois had some differences on the future of black living outside Aftica. Du Bois mentioned that black outside Africa should: stn/ac lente respect of theit right in the countries they lived in. But Garvey insisted that the only future for Blacks in America and Cadibiansiwas to selum to Africa on (he bees of higndey Garvey onpenized “Back fo Aitica” movement, UNIA established by Garvey in (91, was a meneame Promote this Back to Aftica movement although the idea of the movement attracted millions of blacks 1.1.2.4, Historical conferences during Pan African Period 1.1.2.4.1, The Manchester Conference in 1945 The year 1945 marked the beginning of the new chapter in the history of the Pan Africanism movement in that year the 5" pan African conference was held in Manchester. This conference was very important in three ways 1. For the first time in the history of Pan Africanism, Africans from the continent Participated in the pan African Conference. Many of them were student in Furope and America. They were the future leaders of Africa such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya 2. The conference seriously demanded the independence of Africa, Attendan's of this conference expressed their determination to resort to violent means unless the demand for independence is seriously considered. In effect, the decision of this conference provided a slogan which brought Africans together in the struggle for independence.It marked the emergence of new tendencies in Pan African movement. The idea “ontained in Pan Afticanisin was highly desired African Unity. The movement's slogan was “United A fri 143. Challenges for Pan Africani » however, there was a division in the opinion over ereating a United single Afi After 19. Remaining loyal to the original ideals of pan Asricanism, some of leaders considered the ereation of nation state as the first step towards creating a larger united Africa among this group leaders were Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana ew tendencies began to develop after independence. In many Opposite to this idea however on their own countries. According to these countries nationalists began to concentrate mostly nationalists, Pan Africanism could only be suecessful in independent A\tica, This division in Pan Africanism, beeame a source of problem, which continued to trouble the unity of Aftican state in Post independent period !.14. Pan Afrieanism For African Independence Afler the Manchester conference held, the political experience of African nationalists began developed. Whatever form of African struggle took it was a struggle for justice as well as human and democratic rights. When we talk about West Africa, Britain and Franee had colonies. the was well disposed towards granting independent to her colonies, the nationalist strugele and contliet became bitter The main reason for this was dis agreement on how soon self government should come. Britain Mentioned that “ it would take some time to train the nationalists to Tunning the business and to lead a modern state, ‘The two ablest leaders Nnamdi Azikwe of Nigeria and Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast both were educated in America, They then activated the nationalist movement of West Africa. From 1945 to Sdbitter clashes between African Nationalist and Britain was observed. As a result the rationalist pressure in west Aftiea brought independence. On March 6 1957 Gold Coast, on October 1 1960, while Serra Leone become independent on April 27,19611.1.4. The French Referendum in its west Africa Colonies After 1945, France was of the need to grant more political and civil rights 10 "8 colonies in West Alvica. ‘The French introduced reforms, yet the reforms were not enough. Radical terse demanded full independence, Due to this reason Freneh hold a referendum foul West Africa colonies. Choose between voting Yes and becoming autonomous republics within the French ‘Community, or voting No and becoming immediately independent outside it The economies of the French West Africa colonies were highly dependent on French Assistance, However, only Guinea voted “No” and become fully independent. Others were voted “Yes and became autonomous with in the community. Every assistance to Guinea beeame stopped. President Sekou Toure turned to Soviet. Soviet advance worried France very much. At the sa French in other colonies of west Africa began to demand full independence. France aecepte full independent. In Novemberin1960 all French West Aftica colonies achieved independence. They were Cameroon, Togo, Benin, Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Coast, Chad, Central Africa Republie, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Senegal, Mali and 1.2. The Birth of Modern African NationalismJ and economic development, as well as the and economic freedom over all so national state, revival, of that part of a group of Africans held together by — ity on the cultural Nationalism is a patriot sentiment or a right « the bonds of common language and common historical experience to impose their right to live a under a government of their own inating for the rene of their political, economic, and Aftican states to regain their independence, which they had lost for more than half a cent imposi tise of African nationalism dates back to the period of colonial conquest and the impo: colonial rule on one hand and primary African resistance against colonial rule on Aftica in the last decades of the 19! century. Indeed it commenced to cory alien ee dehumanization of Alcan due 10 loss of their freedom. He4 its dominance also to spread vasion and had mobilized not only to help defeat Ge ver much of Eastern Europe, North Africa had served as a battle ground curing oS we Africans recruited from the French and British colonies had also helped defeat the Axis powers in Europe, Asia and Aftiea and as much they were encouraged {0 expand their jainst the colonial rule at home(in Africa) in Africa. The new d States and the Soviet Union strongly opposed the colonial rule | al powers to end colonial rule all super power, the USA and the Soviet Union requested coloni Aftica. The USA attacked colonialism on the ground that it was contrary to free trade and nin and other Marxist termination. The Soviet Union opposed colonialism because 1 thinkers had defined as the ‘highest stage of capitalism’ eration struggle were created after 1945. The Favorable conditions for African national | following factors assisted the African struggle for national liberation |. The lesson from the Second World War that Africans got and the renewed and focused commitment and determination of Africans to struggle for African liberation. 2. The reorientation of the Pan African movement as a weapon for the anti colonial African struggle for independence The Creation of the United Nation Organization (UNO) in 1945 and the anti colonial The decolonization policy adopted towards some of their African colonies by most important European colonial powers. Decolonization meant the realization that the end of colonialism had come and the desire shown and actions taken by European colonial states with their interest protected and according to give independence to their African colonie: to their own time table, Creation of the socialist world of nations took a strong anti-colonial stand. Active involvement of the African masses, i.e. the peasantry and workers in the anti colonial movement formation of mass African nationalists political parties to lead the struggle for independence; nt means of struggle 10 achieve African commitment to use both peaceful and viole independence 8. The influence of political movements and leaders in India and Chine. 1.2.5, The Impaet of Cold War in Africa A rgely a reflection of the taints The political and economic landscape of modern Africa is largely a reflection and hallmark of colonialism and the Cold War. In chronological terms, the Tine between both is very thin. But the combined impact of the Cold War and colonialism is so great that Africa’s greatest development challenge revolves around undoing this harm, The point of convergence between colonialism and the Cold war was neo-coloni: involved new techniques, new faces and new promises to Africa which was presumed “independent.” Neo-colonialism created new dimensions in the exploitation of Africa, this time with the complicity of a class of Africans, remote-controlled by outside powers. When we see the differences between Colonialism and the Cold War, colonialism resembled to neo-colonialism in many ways, However, there are some significant differences. The main difference is explained by the actors involved. The colonial period was characterized by complete and undisputed European over-lordship in Africa. The Cold War however, relegated Europe to the background and left Africa in the hands of the world’s contesting superpowers the United States and Soviet Union. Another striking difference was that colonialism: was purely an economic relationship designed for the exploitation of Africa by Ei rope while the Cold War was more of an ideological conflict between the superpowers. It is also important to note that the Cold War period saw concerted efforts by African leaders to play a key role in international politics. This was impossible under colonial rule. The birth of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 was a manifestation of the political maturity of Africa during the Cold War. This organization inherited the task of freeing the rest of Africa from colonial rule and in doing this; it received the blessings and support of both the U.S. and Russia, Also, many independent African countries played a key role in the Non-Alignedsa eat reat power politics vis-a-vis Movement which was directly concerned with the Cold War and great P‘ the Third World it i colonial Africa today can be comple No discourse about great power politics in colonial or post colonial A\ : ved an important role in lib of the scramble, partition or colonization of Africa, Beijing played an impor the continent from alien rule,CHAPTER TWO THE ORGANIZTION OF AFRICAN UNION (OAU)AND THE TRANSITION ‘AN UNION (AU) TO AFRI ation of African Unity (OAU) 24, The Orgai Africanism finally gave birth to As you have learnt in the previous African history course, Pan- ity in May 1963.The idea of forming the the establishment of the Organization of African L ier one of the ideas OAU was the result of Pan African movement. As it was express eatli To achieve this goal necessary expressed in Pan Africanism was the desire for African unit steps had to be taken by African themselves, An opportunity for that appeared in 1957. Ghana become the first black African country to gain independence an countries to an African people conference at Accra. Morocco, Libya, Liberia and In April 1958 Nkrumah invited all A. Eight independent African countries Ghana, Egypt, Sudan, Tu Ethiopia participated in the conference. ‘The main objective of the Accra conference was to set up the Organization for African Unity however the regarding the structure of the organization there was no consensus among African state. This led to the emergence of two groups with different idea. In 1961 the two groups held separate conference at Casablanca and Monroviagroup. The p includes Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Algeria. Egypt and Morocco. The Monrovia Casablanca grou hiopia and Libya, However more group consisted of Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Togo, {ferences the main point of difference among the two groups was the issue of unified than other di Africa under one government and one head of state. Nkrumah advocated the creation of a single African state, but most of African state wanted functional cooperation rather than integration. This and other points of difference continued to 10undermine the solidarity of ment was reached to African State, For the time being the a8" Postpone the final goal of forming United Stat The 1 fF Africa presentatives of ov a : tiv f over thiny African states si oe ned the organization’ following basic principles, 1. Soverei ¥; equality and territorial integrity of member states Non- interference in the intemal affairs of states Peaceful settlement of disputes territories which were still Absolute dedication to the total emancipation of the African under colonial rule 5. Non-alignment The OAU was the organization of Aftican nations ereated to promote continental peace, unity and co-operation. The organization worked to resolve conflicts between nations and to ¢ ordinate political, economic, cultural, scientific, medical and defense policies In order to accomplish its objectives, the OAU organized different organs within it, The most important organ of the OAU is the General secretariat which had its head quarters at Addis fates and functions the day-to-day activities ‘The OAU Ababa. Its secretary general is elected by member of the organization. The first secretary general of the OAU was DialoTeli, a Guinean has also various commissions set up to deal with the social, economic, educational, health and food problems in Africa. All major decisions and resolutions are formally adopted by the annual assembly of Heads of State and Government. This supreme organ of the organization consisted of representatives from each member nation, usually the head of state, There is also the Council s twice a year. Its major ‘of Ministers composed of foreign ministers of member states and it mee’ function is to prepare agenda for the annual meeting of assembly of Heads of State and Government. Indeed, the OAU proved to be a weak organization. Throughout much of its history, the OAU was troubled by disputes among its member nations. The former colonial boundaries divided single African ethnic communities among two or more countries. This led to tension and occasional border warfare that the OAU was unable to solve. Ethnic oppression and conflicts within African states have brought about civil wars. Besides, the OAU was not able to bring the kind of development expected in Africa. 1But, the OAU has also been successful ; nieve something for Attica Fo example, it contributed a lot for the liberation of the rest of Affiea particulary for the end of ¢ between Motoceo and Apartheid in South Africa, It jisputes, examp! also mediated border Algeria, between Somalia and Ethiopia and Somalia and Kenya The OAU also played a significant role in bringing an end to the Nigerian civil war of 1967-70. Due fo the S28 plishment een able to speak sith one voice ofthe OAU, on several issues at the U.N., African states have b 1994, South Africa has been The OAU received a boost when South Africa became a member 18 nent in Africa ever since 1994, when a major foree for peace, demoo maj for peace, democracy and economic develop apartheid ended in that country In 2002, the OAU formally changed its name to the Affican Union, believing hat the new name better captured the organization's goal of establishing a common economic market and political fnignisetats ive eoniihects Tihs ay, {believes ALhien can play =) move, promi lady of ylobalization. global economy and overcome some of the negative effe 2.2. The African Union (AU) Efforts to promote even greater African economic, social, and political integration led 10 the establishment in 2001 of the African Union (AU), a successor organization to the OAU, modeled on the European Union. is a federation consisting of 53 states. It was ) and the ‘The African Union was founded in 2002. The AU formed as a successor to the amalgamated African Economic Community (A Organization of African Unity (OAU), We have said that the OAU had struggled to achieve its stated goal of “a better life for the people of Afric: . Yet, it was hindered by internal conflicts and self-serving heads of states. According to some crities, the OAU protected the interests of ‘African heads of states without addressing the real problems that plagued the continent. ‘The AU was first proposed in 1999 by Libyan leader Mohammed Gadafi. The AU aims to have a single currency and a single integrated defense force, as well as other institutions of state, including a cabinet for the AU Heads of States. The purpose of the federation is to help secure Aftica’s democracy, human rights and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflicts and creating an effective common market. [t is hoped that the AU will have the authority and the ability to achieve true economic and political integration among is 12nd providing member states by promoting democratic values, defending human righ" for internal and regional conflict. Lik he Constitutive A pusaeces et. Likewise, the Constitutive Act ° pinvie/snd encoirage the fill panicipation of the Afviean Diaspora as an importa: Pat 91 8 Eentien in the Building oF the Aftiean Union.” the Aftican Union has defined the Asn Diaspora 85 “[constituting] of people of African origin living outside the continents IespeeS Of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing 1 contribute to the development of Ws continent and the building of the Afriean Union.” = May 2003 deplo The AU's first military intervention in a member state was th peacekeeping foree of soldiers from South Attica, Ethiopia and Mozambique w Burund 0 The AU troops are also deployed in oversee the implementation of the various agreements. Sudan for peace keeping in the Darfur conflict. n Union met for the inaugural The heads of State and Government of the Assembly of the African on July 10, 2002. There, they on the occasion of adopted the session of the African Union in Durban, South Affi the Durban Declaration in tribute to the Organization of African Unity who composed the OAU are now launching of the African Union. The 53 African sta members of the new inter-governmental organization, the AU. It is headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. governed by the AU Assembly of Heads of State and the Pan-African Parliament, The AU which are both assisted by the Commission which constitutes both the Secretariat and the Executive Body of the Union. The AU covers the entire continent except Morocco, which opposes the membership of Western Sahara as the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic However, Morocco had a special status within the AU and benefits from the services available to all AU states from the institutions of the AU, such as the African Development Bank. Moroccan. delegates also participate at important AU functions and negotiations. The African Union has a number of official bodies such as: + The Assembly of the African Union, composed of heads of state and government of AU states, is currently the supreme governing body of the African Union. It is gradually devolving some of its decision-making powers to the Pan-African Parliament. It meets once a year and makes decisions by consensus or by two-thirds majority 13African Parliament is to The interim seat of the PAP j become the highest legisla ee at Midrand, South Asica. The Pe So etcaee nis ven nina $3. ethics, and Intended 10 prov part pation in the proces of democratic governance * The African Commission is headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethi commissioners (i soners (including a chair and deputy chair) and staff. As the Union, it is responsible ee * FSSponsible for administrative issues and co-ordination of | and meetings, ‘ings. This institution is similar to the European Commission. * The African Court of Justice, composed of ministers designated b ofmember states is accountable to the Assembly, and prepares material discuss and approve. It decides on matiers such as foreign trade, food, agriculture and communications + The Permanent Representatives’ Commitiee, _ composed Permanent representatives of member states, prepares the work for the exec institution is similar to the Permanent Representatives” Committee Union, Council of the United States. * The Economic, Social and Cultural, an advisory organ composed of profes: civic representatives. This institution is similar to the European Economic an¢ Council. Financial institutions include: - African Central Bank - African Investment Bankoblem ced numerous prov However, like its predecessor, the Aftiean Union has also faced "0 instance, as of 2006, there were/are conflicts and problems in Algerian civil war Chadian-Sudanese conflict Second Congo war Somali civil war, including Somaliland’s claim for independence North-South conflict in Sudan Conflict in northern Uganda Ivorian civil warCHAPTER THREE 2. Apartheid in South Africa South Affica stands apart fiom the rest of Affica as the most economically developed nation in the continent. But until 1994, it was ruled by a white minority. The rulers of South Africa maintained political power by means of racist policy known as apartheid. Apartheid means apartness; racial segregation. The law forbade the most elementary contact between, four racial grouping in South Aftica: the blacks known us Bantus; the whites mostly English and Dutch descent; the colourds of mixed black-white parentage: and Asians largely Indians. literally the -onsider South Africa as their native The Dutch, having settled on the Cape Colony since 165: land. They call themselves Afrikaner or Boers meaning farmers (for the fact that after they settled in South Africa, they were engaged mainly in agriculture). They developed their langu called Afrikaans. Their claim to the land rests on discovery. conquest, economic development, and ultimately on the will of God. In 1795, the British conquered the South African Cape. Thereafter. a struggle for political and religious supremacy between the Dutch settlers and the new arrivals started, In 1835, the Boers set out the Great Trek north ward. into the high plains of Natal and Transvaal. On December 16, 1838, the Boers defeated Zulu warriors at the battle of the Blood River when the Zulus attempted to block their march, Despite their retreat, the British followed them and encroached on the Boer teitory, When the Boers resisted, the British emerged victorious in the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902, In 1948, the Boers led by D.F. Malan, leader of the Nationalist Party seized power in South Africa. South African segregation laws came into being. The Afrikaners insisted that the race ‘must be kept apart by law and that no one had the right to cross the colour line. By the laws of 16BHAI 1953, the mariage or cohabitation of irerem colours ard eneracal 2% MN Heteens Scho0} Jobs, and pay sales were all determined by te searezaion Ive: Pale Organizations and strikes by non-whites were outlawed. All public facHe social, religi from hospitals to benches became segregated. Every aspect of sexual. ous and economic among the races was regulated Toots of Apartheid were as old as European settlement in the reBion but the policy F was implemented following the nationalist party’s victory ip the 1948 elections and ‘with the Afrikaner party in 1951, The nationalist party government reinforced the FRIRES)stomt developed over the previous fifty years. I inwtoduced 2 series of laws slish anet ish a more clear cut racist system designated to guarantee permanent: white ation in South Africa. It was called Apartheid, meaning Jiterally ‘separateness’. The d as developed in the 1950s was to m: Aftica which was officially designated ‘white’. unless they were in the direct ake blacks ‘foreigners’ in the Blacks were to be ty stricken and overcrowded reserves , and nation had a unique destiny laid down by God, Each race d allowed to develop separately along its own natural inborn fies inst God’s will and would lead to racial degeneration. Each race elop in its own territory. is }), and *Bantu’ (about@ of the population). Under the principle ce : ete. The Group vided in to various ethnie groups: Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Venda and Sotho ete: 7 Areal Act determined different residential areas for different races kaner leaders. Some of the A wide range of Apartheid laws were enacted by successive Afr principal Apartheid laws were 1. Prohibition of Mixed Marriage Act (1949) Immorality Act (1950) 3. Suppression of Communist Act (1950) 4. Bantu Authorities Act (1951) 5. Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act(1951) 6. Bantu Education Act (1953) 7. Extension of Education University Education Act (1959) 8. Bantu (Black) Homeland Citizenship Act (1970) Discuss in group these laws that prohibit and /or segregate people? The Struggle of South Africans In the Apartheid system ‘non whites’ were not only segregated in transport and civil facilities they were also excluded from living and working in white areas unless they had a pass. Thus blacks were obliged to carry pass books. Black areas rarely had electricity. Higher education was provided in separate universities and Colleges after 1959. Trains, Buses Public beaches, libraries’ and other services were racially segregated, with the best ones reserved for whites. Blacks were given the lowest paid jobs as manual laborers. White workers whether skilled or un- skilled received a higher wage simply because of skin color. In general Apartheid called for a complete segregation of the races almost in every aspect of life (in housing, education, religion, government and so on) In reaction to the introduction of the introduction of new racist laws, black nationalists initiated a series of strikes and demonstrations. In 1952, the African National, Congress (ANC) led by young educated Africans Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu staged a ‘Defiance Campaign’. In this campaign the ANC deliberately defying the racist laws of 18apartheid and refusis government responded by : 1953, the white gove to carry pass books. By aresting thousands of ANC members without tral. Inspired by repressive legislations of tion. In June 1955, ata ean opposition. Im Jun a government, many white radicals decided to side the A’ indians, Colored and meeting held at Kliptown, near Johannesburg, the ANC joined with the | ; ‘Freedom Charter White groups in forming the ‘Congress Alliance’ which adopted th rad n the name of suppressing To this move the gover he government by implementing repressive measures 1 ANC faced split and those who opposition declaring it to be ‘Communist’. In the mean time, the / broke away from ANC formed the Pan — Africanist Congress (AN©)- In spite of the arrest of nationalist leaders, mass demonstrations continued. In 1960 leaders of resistance to the pass laws. ANC and PAC were determined to continue a campaign of passive ' wnt forces opened fire on This lead to the most tragic event on 21 march1960, when governme! peaceful and unarmed demonstrators at Sharpeville, killing 69 and injured 186. Most of she Victims were blacks, and most of them had been shot in their back. The Sharpeville massacre ‘was a turning point in the history of South Africa 1. The South African government fearing organized protests promptly banned the ANC and PAC. 2. The leadership of the ANC and PAC ended five decades of non violent protests by forming a military wing. The harshness and racism of white rule in South Aftica increasingly beeame an international issue in the 1960s, However, repeated votes by the USA and Great Britain in the Security Council prevented sanctions from being leveled against South Africa, Activities 1, Can you explain why the ANC resorted to violent means of struggle” 2. What was the Soweto Massacre? 3, Discuss the responses from the intemational organizations to the killing of hundreds of Soweto school children by the Apartheid regime and to the racial policies of the white government of South Africa? The Apartheid regime was widely condemned by the international organizations following the Soweto uprising, the UNO Security Council made armed embargo against South Africa. South 19jtions and internal nal oppositions an acing internatio? : ‘et Sy be abolished”, As @ result, Africa became increasingly isolated internationally. is the opponents of changes. resistances the government introduced a few cosmetic ie ; Id on Apartheid pointed out “Apartheid could not be reformed; it COM protest and resistance continued in the 1980s. South Aftiea achieved a majority ie an leaders who spent years in jail for Finally,After many years of struggle, sacrifices and sufferin st president of independent South tule in 1994. Nelson Mandela, who was one of many Afric: freedom, majority rule and independence, became the fi Africa. aCHAPTER FOUR THE LAGACY OF COLONALISM IN AFRICA as to exploit the colonies in objectives of imperialism and colonialism was 10 6%? for the One of the m ntry and her mother ¢o and their inhabitants to generate economic wealth avery or the system nto sl corporations. As a result, large numbers of people were forced i” \d converted to of agreement laborers, and vast areas of natural habitats were cleared an monoculture plantations. s uncritically embraced After the colonies gained independence, the newly independent citizen most of the negative values and have vigorously continued the practices of their early colonial masters. Debate about the perceived positive and negative aspects of colonialism has occurred es to the present day. for centuries between both colonizer and colonized, even continu ical Impact 5.1. Pol Artificial Boundaries In Africa a century ago consisted of a large number of independent states. Some of these states were Jarge and powerful; others were smaller and weaker. When the Europeans finished drawing their lines of partition, these states had been condensed into about 50 pieces of territory all of which came under European colonial rule, The systematic, indiscriminate partition (scramble) drawn without any well defined, regional criteria in full cognizance of the ethno- cultural, geographical and ecological realities of Africa brought different ethnic groups (tribes) having different historical traditions, cultures and speaking different languages under one or more al development of these social groups colonial power. This situation disrupted the politi furthermore, ethnic groups were cleaved into fragments, These lines of partition also run-across pre-existing nations, ethnicities, states, kingdoms and empires. The Ewes for instance are divided 21by the boundary between Ghana and ‘Togo while A Ghana. The Senufo now live in Mali, the Ivory Coast and in Burki 5 T border disputes between Burkina Faso and Mali, Also in east Africa. the Somalis ive 19 SOMA 8 Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Kenya, These lines also brought about the uneven SIZES A d_ unequal distribution of natural resources and economic potentialities of these states. Some O° hes emerged from the partition as giants e.g, Nigeria with an approximated area of 357,000 square = area of 4000 square proximated rder whiles others ck the problems of security : s had many whiles others came out as midgets c. 2. Gambia with one boa! t to che miles, miles. Some states have few boarders boarders e.g. Mali with seven boarders. This makes it diffic and smuggling he appearance of Even though the partition has negative impacts, it also contributed t0 th independent Airican states of today. The partition of Africa by imperial colonial powers boundaries, in place of the innumerable lineage and clan groups, city-states, kingdoms and empires without any fixed boundaries. It is significant that the boundaries of these states have been maintained ever since independence. Colonialism caused the loss of sovereignty which is the loss of the right of a state to control its own destiny, to play in its own development, to conduct its own diplomacy and internal relations, to decide which outside nations to associate with or to emulate and above all to manage or even mismanage its own affairs, derive pride and pleasure from its success and derive lessons, frustration and experience from its failures. Many African nationalists and critics of colonialism. see the independence gained from the withdrawing colonial powers as only partial liberation. Some call it ‘false independence’, Full or real freedom, they believe, will come with economic independence. African nations are said to be currently in a phase of neo-colonialism - a new form of imperial rule stage managed by the colonial powers to give the colonized the illusion of freedom. At the 1961 All-Aftican People’s Conference held in Cairo, neo-colonialism was defined as "the survival of the colonial system in spite of the formal recognition of political independence in emerging countries which become the victims of an indirect and subtle form of domination by political, economic, social, military or technical means." The implication is that Western powers still control African nations whose rulers are either willing puppets or involuntary subordinate of these powers. 22re other type subjugation that ¢ d Afr whie extension of colonialism was settlerist. | siked by a number of HISIODANE, ane political theorists that white settlers in Attica, or in other areas for that matter, 108 land for themselves, and in the sus inhabitants. Settler themsel din the process exacted political contro aver its indigenous I notion of Africans tc African education, prom to express political ideas communities ignored and opposed all requests for responsible jobs, or the exereise of political rights such as the freedom or form political organizations x1 political systems that worked for crisis. In disrupting pre-colonia ts critics Colonialism variety politic: ind imposing alien models, colonialism laid the seeds of political crisis, say i her without consideration for Africans By redrawing of the map of Africa, throwing diverse people toget! 2 the continent. The new established borders, ethnic conflicts were created that are destabilizin ss than a third of the nation-states were artificial and many were too small 10 be viable. L major exception to countries in Africa have populations of more than 10 million. Nigeria, the Western multi-party democracy this, was imbued with ingredients for its self destruction. hhe introduction of party politics imposed by colonial powers polarizes African societies. "It was ! wrote one by colonial administration that set off the fire of ethnic conflicts in Niger in newspaper in 1986. TtodoOjobo in the New Niger ‘on Aitica is the introduction of new One of the most important social impact colonialism had bureaucracy of civil servants and a new judiciary system. These institutions especially the judicial system have not undergone any fundamental changes in any of the independent states 5.2. Socio - Cultural Impact Not only did pre-existing towns expand, but completely new urban centers Urbanization: emerged following the establishment of the colonial system e.g. Abidjan in Ivory Coast, ‘Takoradi in Ghana, Port Harcourt and Enugu in Nigeria, All these new urban centers were created either as ports or harbors, mining centers, administration center etc. The population of ‘Acera jumped from 17,892 in 1901 to 135,926 in 1948. There is no doubt the quality of life for Atica's population was improved through the provision of piped water, hospitality, better housing and sanitary facilities. 23period Christianity he colonial pe Christian and Islam and expansion of ; unds especially i 1 lot of g gained far more conver erts and penetrated further. Islam also gained ction of the Christian West Attica. The spread Africa. The spread of westem education was mainly due 10 t missionaries. By 1930s there were very few areas in West Africa wh | the colonies except in ities also became common in almost al wasn't common, By 1940 unive hankful to its colonial colonies. Every modern West African state ist the Portuguese and Belgium ts in northern Nigeria would master for introducing weste ng Wester education, Only reactionary aristoc It is clear to most today thank the British for keeping out western education in thei region: nal gap between northemers that they were placed at a disadvantage to the south by the edu the two regions, __ Almost all the colonies adopted a colonial language Provision of lingua-franca for each col for communication which broke the ethnic language barrier between tribes Colonialism have, in many respects, distorted and abrogated the essence of African cultural norms and institutions. The systematic approach that the European invaders utilized to usurp land and dysfunction of indigenous Africans; coups in Africa has contributed greatly to the disunit take place in Africa not because Africans cannot govern themselves, but because African leaders ‘African against African, or brother against have inherited a colonial legacy that tends to brother. This schism can be traced directly to the different types of colonial masters that held influence on the continent. Each colonial power pursued a cultural policy that it believed would give it effective results, and a policy that was in harmony with its philosophy of colonial administration 5.3. Economie Impact ‘The prime legacy of colonialism was the integration of colonies into the intemational capitalist economy. It enables African elites to consume products of western civilization without having to go through the difficult and long-term process of building the productive base of their societies. tis far easier to shop in the global market than try to build industries yourself. One important economic benefit was the provision of infrastructure of roads, railways, harbors and ports, the telegraph and telephone. The basic infrastructure of every modem African state 24was completed durin; g its colonial peri i its colonial period. Some states have not improved POP ie oa infrastructures even after independence. Development of the p: eet0) ppened during the colCtiaang Es rimary sc fi my happet '¥ Sector of Africa's economy hi fag ie colonel ea was during this period that i the mineral potential of many African states were discovered and productions of modern scientific min n 8 introduced, Above all, it was during this period that the e the main feature of the political such cash crops ps like cotton, peanuts, palm, cocoa etc, becam sation infrastructure that was provided was, however 3 +r, not only inadequate but was also very. unevenly distributed in nearly all economy of many yy of many African states. The transportation and commun the colonies.CHAPTER FIVE 5-1,Problems and Challenges of Development in Africa 5.2. Neo colonialism and Africa Neocolonialism came to be seen more generally as involving a coordinated effort by former colonial powers and other developed countries to block growth in developing. countries and retain them as sources of cheap raw materials and cheap labor. More broadly, neocolonial governance is seen as operating through indirect forms of control and, in particular, by means of the economic, financial, and trade policies of transnational corporations and global and multilateral institutions. Critics argue that neocolonialism operates through the investments of multinational corporations that, while enriching a few in underdeveloped countries, keep those countries as a whole in a situation ofdependency; such investments also serve to cultivate underdeveloped countries as reservoirs of cheap labour and raw materials. International financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank also are often accused of participating in neocolonialism, by making loans (as well as other forms of economic aid) that are conditional on the recipient countries taking steps favourable to those represented by these institutions but detrimental to their own economies. 263Neo colonialism and Afri 5 Political instability 5.3.1 Military Coups ment A Né ceaineia: . coup d'état (pronounced /kude'ta/), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a go through unconstitutional means by a part of the state establishment that mostly replaces just the top power figures. It may or may not be violent in nature, It is different from a revolution, which is staged by a larger group and radically changes the political system. Tactically, a coup usually involves control of some active portion of the military while neutralizing the remainder of a country’s armed services. Coups typically use the power of the existing government for its own takeover. A coup consists of the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder. Africa, within a short time of independence, witnessed a rash of military coups d’état, In country after country, the civil African rulers were removed and power transferred to the military juntas. The period between 1960 and 1970 has generally been called the decade of coups’ in Attica, Once coups started in Africa they became like a wild African bushfire. They swept through the entire continent at an alarmingly high speed. The first coup d'état happened in Egypt in 1952 when a group of Egyptian officers removed the monarchy. Six year later, in November 1958 in the Sudan another coup d’état occurred. Officers led by General Ibrahim Abboud seized control. On 19 June 1965 a military junta seized power in Algeria, and then followed, in quick succession, similar events in Zaire(25 November 1965), Dahomey (22 December 1965),Central African Republie(1 January 1966), Upper Volta (Glanuary 1966) Nigeria SJanuary1966),Ghana(24February1966),Nigeriaagain(29July 1966), Burundi(28N ovember1966)Togo(13 January 1967). Sierra Leone(22 March 1967),Sierra Leone again(April 1968),Congo- Brazzaville((4 August 1968), Mali(19 November 1968).Sudan(25 May 1969). After Sudan, for over a year there was no coup d'état and it seemed that the wave of coups might have ended, But in January 1971 another coup d'état occurred in Uganda and in January 1972 yet another in Ghana. 27Afler 1970, numerous other » Soneral Amity went tbco dh one ok he ra auic experiences in recent African history. The feudal monarchy of Emperor Heile Selassie, in Ethiopia, was deposed by the military in peoember 1974 By [See enpttiaaly half of the continent's states were led by military or tory attacks by their military civil-military governmer ivit-military governments. Other states also had records of pres forces. In those days the days the coup d'état and the military regime had become the most prevalent political phenome; és P al phenomena in Africa, The following can be the reasons for the frequent coups in Africa, fot sociale o7olomarditha zreits proplem|in many Atteantcourtes eae tack of political instability, Tresponsible and undemocratic governance, one party rule, corruption, Poverty and injustice characterized a large number of African states. Those larging shortcoming brought about political opposition, coupd’etats and counter coup. lapsed one after the other in quick succession governments in many countries coll: For instance, 1963 to 1969 five violent changes of government occurred in Dahomey (later Benin). Tn many countries coup and leaders’ assassinations were attempted. In December 1962 Habib Borgiba, President of Tunisia, escaped from Assassination. August 1963, president FulbertYoulou of Congo Brazzaville was overthrown In June 1965 a military coup in Algeria overthrew president Ben Bella In February 1966 Kwame Nkrumah was overthrown from power. September 1969, an army took power in Libya, removing king Idris In February 1971, an army officer Idi Amin took power in Uganda after ° overthrowing Milton Obote. Why these political shake- ups took place? One argument was that, Ex-colonial powers quickly withdrew before Africans got enough experience in self- government. 28+ The political g Political system and Organs of government left behind by ex- colonial power was really unworl unworkable and unsuitable in Africa. Economic syste vom in Post colonial period of Aftica was another problem. Throughout the colonial period Afi P Hicans were encouraged only to raw materials for export. After Afticans finally “won the fight for their liberation from the alien dictatorship of colonialism, many nationalists were later upset to find that the economic, political and cultural exploitation of the continent actually ecntinued in what became known as neo-colonialism, Nkwame Nkrumah, a leading author and opponent of neo-colonialism was amongst one of the frst Afficans to decry the control of the colonizers in the newly independent states. Observed that even though these states were independent, their economic system and Eventually their political policy was indirectly formulated by the colonizers. Africa: control over government in Neo-colonialism operated in varying ways in post-coloi the neo-colonial state through foreign financial support for this state and upholding foreign financial interest. Whichever way one analyzes it; neo colonialism resulted in the exploitation of the African states such that the foreign capital entering the state to foster development instead “promoted” underdevelopment After achieving independence, the new African nations faced similar problems that existed is a continent where a number of economic, social and during the colonial rule. Today, Afri political bottlenecks are deep-rooted. The continent is, by any standard, the least developed of the other areas of the world. In this section, we are not going to look at the problems of each African country. Rather, we will examine the problems that are common to all the states of Africa. One major obstacle newly independent African states faced is tribal differences. In fact, tribalism is still the problem of post independent Africa. Very few African countries are free from tribalism. Africa is a continent of thousands of tribes. Example, Gabon, a small country with a small number of populations, has 40 tribes; Ethiopia over 80; Tanzania over 120; Nigeria over 250; Zambia about 73; Togo 14; Liberia about 20; etc... As soon as or even before the political withdrawal of the whites, ethnic loyalties and pre-colonial inter-tribal bitterness began to re- appear. So, tribal warfare became a kind of political football in vatious parts of post-colonial 29Miriea, taking the lives of millions, displacing tens of thousands and destroying the socio- economie siructur of African nations, z omic al ‘ica. ie colonial Ineconomie affairs, the colonial legacy had negative effects in post-colonial Aftica. Th i sesame continously drained Attica of the wealth produced by African labor, land and natural resources. The colonial systems helped the colonizing powers to become richer. But, this draining of resources, this wealth transfer did not stop with independence. It continued with a Variety of means. The most obvious of these means consisted in terms of trade. Terms-of-trade is the relationship between a country's export prices and import prices. The trend is bad for a country when its export prices fall in value and its import prices rise in value. The difference berveen money paid for imports and money received from the sell of exports shows the measure of loss or gain. In this regard, Africa's loss has been large and continuous This again is related with another economic legacy of colonialism. The ceonomy of African states lacks diversity. Throughout the colonial period, Africans were encouraged only to produce Faw materials for export. The colonial regimes made litle effort to establish factories that would eon produce manufactured goods. Africans were expected to provide mineral ores and special single cash crop produets. The prices of such single products have not been stable and fixed at international markets by the developed world to satisfy their interests. Thus, Africa inherited a shattered economy from the colonial governments and make African countries to be underdeveloped economically. Because of this, Africa is still leading a debt - related economy. Aids and debts have become the only means of getting money for economic development. But, these debts and aids are proving worse especially when there are no accountable and transparent governments. The other bottleneck for the new African nations to face is political. African politicians lacked experience of how to work the system of parliamentary democracy left behind by the Europeans. Faced with difficult problems, they ofien failed to Cope and governments became corrupt. This led to the creation of one party rule as the only way to achieve progress. In many states such as Kenya and Tanzania, this worked well providing stable and effective government. On the other 30hand, sinee it was impos once was (Hae Possible 10 oppose such governments by legal means, violence was the on answer, Military coups mon metho IRE SOU Sissel ldaslary.uesefore, vecarns/oote thods 4 to be dictators The one time liberators like Nkrumah tur remove governments from power n their respective nations ater they assumed the leadership position 80 to the extent of stating that Independence only replaced white Europeans with “black Penns! MMENrefetsing (o\(base\A tean|lekic's wie ignored their peoples’ cry for economic development and the formation of tesponsible and accountable governments. Socially, African states have Poor infrastructures no enough roads, electricity, telecommunication service, pure water supply. Schools are not abundant and hence the majorities and live in backward ways. Health problems are also one of the of Africans are still illiterate are vulnerable for malaria infection. Ties ey Tein the. world Many rarls ot uonical Ar HIV/AIDS is claiming the lives of millions especially in sub-Saharan Africa-thus leaving only dren and old-aed people who are not active in development endeavors helpless cl Lack of capital and technology are also other chronic problems in most parts of the continent Even though the continent is naturally endowed with different resources, there is still the shortage of skilled and Knowledgeable people 10 exploit these resources to the interest of the African poor This in tum is because of two reasons One is the fact that access to education is very limited. So the majority of Africans are illiterate. The other reason is those Africans who are relatively educated abandon their countries for different reasons to the western world, Besides, natural calamities such as drought, flooding and the like also cause irreversible devastations. Sadly, there is also the unprecedented growth of population. The economies of most African states cannot support their population because population growth and economic development are not balanced: while the population number is growing geometrically, the economic growth is ina crocodile’ pace. At times even, theit economies show decline, Thus, many Afticans are not even able to provide their people with basic necessities let alone other things in which the rest of the world is accessible to. To sum up, the following are the major problems of contemporary Africa. 1. the question of national integrity 2. dependence on primary products 31