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Moderating effect of technostress inhibitors on the relationship between

technostress creators and organisational commitment

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DOI: 10.11113/jt.v67.1932

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 Jurnal Full paper
Teknologi
(Social Sciences)

Moderating Effect of Technostress Inhibitors on the Relationship

between Technostress Creators and Organisational Commitment
Ungku Norulkamar Ungku Ahmada, Salmiah Mohamad Aminb, Wan Khairuzzaman Wan Ismailb
a
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
bInternational Business School, UTM International Campus, Jalan Semarak, 54100 Kuala Lumpur

*Corresponding author: m-nkamar@utm.my

Article history Abstract

Received :24 Julai 2013
Received in revised form :
16 January 2014
Accepted :15 February 2014
This study aims to examine the moderating effect of technostress inhibitors on the relationship between
technostress creators and organisational commitment among academic librarians in the Malaysian public
universities. It considers how literacy facilitation, technical support, and involvement facilitation
influence the strength of the relationship between technostress creators and organisational commitment.
Multiple regression analysis and hierarchical multiple regression analysis were utilised to test the
relationship and the moderating effect among the variables. The findings revealed that collectively,
technostress creators significantly explained 13.1 percent of the variance in organisational commitment.
Techno-overload and techno-uncertainty were found to have significant positive relationship with
organisational commitment. As for the moderating effect, both literacy facilitation and involvement
facilitation did not act as moderator in the relationship between technostress creators and organisational
commitment. Nevertheless, technical support was found to moderate the relationship between techno-
overload and organisational commitment. All the technostress inhibitors were, however, found to be
significant predictors for organisational commitment. This study demonstrates that a certain amount of
stress is essential in enhancing employee’s commitment towards organisation. Moreover, it reveals that
the existence of literacy facilitation, technical support, and involvement facilitation is crucial in boosting
organisational commitment of academic librarians in the Malaysian public universities.

Keywords: Technostress creators, literacy involvement, technical support, involvement facilitation,

organisational commitment

Abstrak

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji kesan penyederhanaan penghalang teknostres ke atas hubungan
antara pencipta teknostres dan komitmen organisasi di kalangan pustakawan akademik di universiti awam
Malaysia. Ia mengambil kira bagaimana pemudahan keaksaraan, sokongan teknikal dan pemudahan
penglibatan mempengaruhi kekuatan hubungan antara pencipta teknostres dan komitmen organisasi.
Analisis regresi berganda dan analisis regresi berganda hirarki digunakan untuk menguji hubungan dan
kesan penyederhanaan dikalangan kesemua pembolehubah. Hasil kajian menunjukkan, secara
keseluruhan, pencipta teknostres menerangkan secara signifikan sebanyak 13.1 peratus varians dalam
komitmen organisasi. Keterlebihan-tekno dan ketidakpastian-tekno didapati mempunyai hubungan yang
signifikan yang positif dengan komitmen organisasi. Bagi kesan penyederhanaan, kedua-dua pemudahan
keaksaraan dan pemudahan penglibatan tidak bertindak sebagai penyederhana dalam hubungan antara
pencipta teknostres dan komitmen organisasi. Namun, sokongan teknikal didapati menyederhanakan
hubungan antara pencipta teknostres dan komitmen organisasi. Kesemua pembolehubah penghalang
teknostres, walau bagaimanapun, merupakan peramal signifikan untuk komitmen organisasi. Kajian ini
menunjukkan bahawa stres dalam kadar tertentu adalah perlu bagi menggalakkan komitmen terhadap
organisasi. Tambahan pula, ia menunjukkan bahawa kehadiran pemudahan keaksaraan, sokongan teknikal
dan pemudahan penglibatan adalah penting dalam meningkatkan komitmen organisasi pustakawan
akademik di universiti awam Malaysia.

Keywords: Pencipta teknostres, pemudahan keaksaraan, sokongan teknikal, pemudahan penglibatan,

komitmen organisasi

© 2014 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved.

67:1 (2014) 51–62 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2289-5434 |

52 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is every organization’s dream to have committed employees,
since they are less likely to resign or be absent, and are more
willing to share and make sacrifices for their organisations
(Greenberg, 2005). Committed employees were also found to
have higher loyalty and lower work stress (Muthuveloo and
Rose, 2005), higher performance (Boshoff and Mels, 1994), and
are more willing to accept organisational change (Vakola and
Nikolau, 2005).
Nonetheless, various factors have been found to influence
employees’ organizational commitment and one factor that has
been under considerable study is work stress. Employees with
high level of stress were found to have lower level of
organisational commitment (Taris et al., 2001; Glazer and
Beehr, 2005; Ho et al., 2009; Viljoen and Rothmann, 2009).
Presently, the current trend of technological revolution is one of
the main sources for workplace stress. The feeling of stress
caused by technology is known as technostress (Brod, 1984;
Davis-Millis, 1998; Kupersmith, 2006).
Due to technological advancement in the organisation, the
library is among the organisations that are affected with
technostress. Though technology in the library has helped
increase the effectiveness of information management, it has
also caused an enormous amount of strain on librarians
(Bichteler, 1987; Davis-Millis, 1998; Kupersmith, 2006). In
general, librarians welcome automation and show positive
attitudes towards technological change in the libraries; at the
same time, librarians do expressed concern with regards to the
negative reprecussions brought about by the technological
change (Poole and Denny, 2001; Al-Qallaf, 2006). According to
Van Fleet and Wallace (2003), the introduction of technology in
the library has caused some librarians to suffer loss of personal
identity, have resource challenge, and feel more vulnerable.
Moreover, a survey by Kupersmith (2006) revealed that a
majority of library staff felt that their level of technostress has
increased over the years. In fact, most of them regarded the
computer-related stress they experienced are causing serious
threat.
Recent research also show that technostress is still a
growing phenomenon among the librarians. According to
Mahalakshmi and Sornam (2011), one of the factors that
significantly influence technostress level experienced by the
librarians is the ergonomic factor. Though Asghar (2012) agreed
that inappropriate infrastructure do cause technostress among
academic librarians, she also outlined that fear of virus, feeling
that privacy is being invaded and delicateness of storage media
are among other sources of technostress in the libraries. Ahmad
(2012) also found that academic librarians in the Malaysian
public universities do experience technostress in their
workplace. Specifically, they were found to experience high
level of uncertainty and feeling of work overloaded due to the
usage of technology. In Nigeria, technostress was found to be
one of the determinants of job burnout among university
librarians (Olalude, 2013).
According to Majchrzak and Cotton (1988), technological
change that resulted in role ambiguity and role overload would
lead to negative attitude change. Consequently, employees’
commitment towards their organisations might be also affected.
Tu et al. (2001) discovered that role ambiguity and role conflict
have direct and negative influence on organisational
commitment among information systems managers. In addition,
Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008) also found that technostress creators
decrease job satisfaction which further caused low
organisational commitment.
Even though technostress is inevitable in this era of
technological revolution, this problem may be alleviated by
sufficient training, adequate technical support, and participatory
involvement (Poole and Denny, 2001; Tu et al., 2005, Al-
Qallaf, 2006; Sahin and Coklar, 2009). According to Ragu-
Nathan et al. (2008), factors that may help lower technostress
levels are known as technostress inhibitors. They claimed that
the negative outcomes resulted from the application of
information technology can be reduced if the organisation
provides organisational and technical support, training, and
guidance. Involving technology users in the planning and
implementation phases of the system is also another way to ease
the negative effect of technostress (Brod, 1984). Empirical
evidences have also showed that higher level of organisational
commitment is attributed to training (Benson and Dundis, 2003;
Kamarul and Raida, 2003; Barkhuizen and Rothmann, 2008),
open communication and knowledge sharing (Meyer and Allen,
1997; Zain et al., 2009), and support from organisation
(Eisenberger et al., 2001; Meyer et al., 2002; Wang and Shu,
2008; Noblet et al., 2009; Pannacio and Vandenberghe, 2009).
Since technostress inhibitors may minimise the impact of
technostress and may enhance organisational commitment, a
quasi moderating effect of technostress inhibitors on the
relationship between technotress creators and organisational
commitment is expected in this study.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Technology and Workplace Stress
Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008) believed that the characteristics of the
information communication technologies are the source of stress
for technology end-users. A study by Rosen and Weil (2000)
revealed that over a period of three years, a vast majority (80%)
of clerical workers, managers, and executives reported that
technology has brought additional stress to their lives. The trend
of work pressure in Europe in the period of 1996 to 2001 also
showed that the level of stress caused by technology kept
increasing over the years (Galie, 2005). Systems problem errors,
steep learning curve, requirement for more work, and rapid
change in technology have been cited as some of the ways how
technology has made their work more stressful.
It is also postulated that the introduction of new technology
will lead to the feeling of job insecurity which will in turn result
in higher degree of anxiety and stress (Veitez et al., 2001).
Moreover, Rafter (1998) found that, as a result of not
welcoming technology in the work place, employees not only
suffer from insomnia and losing train of thoughts, but had also
shown a decline in productivity. According to Tarafdar et al.
(2011), the existence of technostress imposed negative effects
on technology users, which in turn have an adverse effect on
productivity and job satisfaction.
Other empirical evidences also revealed that technostress is
higher among professionals who use technology in
accomplishing their tasks (Schuldt & Totten, 2008; Agbu and
Simeon, 2011; Walz, 2012). More specifically, Ayyagari et al.
(2011) found that intrusive technology characteristics, which are
presenteeism and annonymity, are the dominant predictors of
workplace stress. As a result of using technology, most of the
respondents believed they suffer from work overload and role
ambiguity, the two most dominant stressors revealed in their
study.
53 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62
2.2 Technostress Creators
The impact of technology on workplace stress has led to a new
type of stress coined as “technostress” (Brod, 1984). It is
described as a modern disease of adaptation which resulted from
a person’s inability to cope with new computer technology in a
healthy manner. Weil and Rosen (1997) looked at technostress
as a negative psychological, behavioural, and physiological
impact directly or indirectly caused by technology, while Arnetz
and Wiholm (1997) viewed technostress as the physiological
arousal and mental state observed in some people who rely
greatly on computers in their work.
Raitoharju (2005) discovered six ways how information
technology created stress in the workplace. These include the
change caused by the implementation of technology, pressure
for more effective performance, increase in the amount of
information (information overload), frequent technological
changes, increase demand on technical skills, and reduce social
support. Accordingly, Tarafdar et al. (2007) identified five
components that create technostress (technostress creators)
which include: (a) Techno-overload: A situation where
technology users are forced to work faster and longer; (b)
Techno-invasion: A situation where technology users feel they
are constantly connected with work-related affairs; (c) Techno-
complexity: A situation where technology users feel their skills
are inadequate due to the complexity of the technology; (d)
Techno-insecurity: A situation where technology users feel they
will lose their job or being replaced by the new technology or by
someone who have better technological skills; and (e) Techno-
uncertainty: A situation where technology users feel uncertain
and unsettled as technology is continuously changing.
According to Isiakpona and Adebayu (2011), slow network
is the main cause of technostress among librarians in Covenant
University, followed by the change in the library’s software and
faulty equipment. Nevertheless, physical technical problems
were only some of the causes of technostress. Al-Qallaf (2006)
revealed that among the causes of technostress include lack of
technical support, lack of professional staff, inadequate
equipment, insufficient involvement in the decision making
process, slow network, technological breakdown, growing user
demand and information overload. Nevertheless, too little
formal training was ranked as the number one cause of
technostress. In fact, several other studies also claimed that
insufficient training was the main reason of technology induced
stress (Brod, 1984; Bichteler, 1987; Kupersmith, 1998; Al-
Fudail and Mellar, 2007).
In addition, common organizational factors found by Clute
(1998) to be sources of technostress include lack of participatory
management styles, lack of communication, and lack of
involvement. According to Kupersmith (1992), library staff
experienced technostress when they were not consulted on
decisions for automated systems. Furthermore, Poole and Denny
(2001) found that although their respondents were generally
more positive towards learning and using high-tech automation,
they still felt left out in the decision-making process during
acquisition and incorporation of technology in their workplace.
2.3 Technostress Inhibitors
Although technostress is inevitable due to the characteristics of
technology, Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008) proposed that the
availability of training, technical support, technology users’
participation in decision making pertaining to the
implementation of the technology will help reduce the effects of
technostress. Termed as technostress inhibitors, they labelled
these variables as literacy facilitation, technical support
provision, and involvement facilitation.
Adekunle et al. (2007) found that training and knowledge
of information technology allow employees to have better
understanding regarding the technology used, and thus reduce
technostress. In fact, Tu et al. (2005) and Sahin and Coklar
(2009) both claimed that high levels of computer literacy
resulted in lower levels of technostress. Furthermore, Burke
(2008) found that nurse educators who believed that
technological training prepared them to incorporate technology
in their classrooms had lower level of technostress. Owajeme
and Pereware (2011) also argued that the problem of
technostress can be solved by providing staff with regular
training on ICT.
Al-Qallaf (2006) found that insufficient technical support
was the second cause of higher work stress, after inadequate
training. He suggested that having timely technical support and
collaboration with technical staff would help improve the
working environment. Accordingly, findings of Burke (2008)
indicated that level of technostress tended to be lower when
individuals perceived there was administrative support in their
organisation.
Most technostressed employees felt angry when forced to
use technology without being consulted (Kupersmith, 1992;
Poole and Denny, 2001). The existence of involvement
facilitation which allows users to participate during the planning
and implementation process of the technology might serve to
overcome this problem. By being involved, technology users
would be kept informed about the why, how, and the effects of
introducing and implementing the new technology in their
workplace.
2.4 Workplace Stress And Organisational Commitment
Previous studies have given considerable attention to the
relationship between job stress and organisational commitment
(Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Boshoff and Mels, 1994; Tu et al.,
2001; Lopopolo, 2002; Meyer et al., 2002; Lee and Jamil, 2003;
Vakola and Nikolaou, 2005; Dale and Fox, 2008; Omolara,
2008; Ho et al., 2009; Viljoen and Rothmann, 2009). Generally,
workplace stress was found to negatively influence
organisational commitment. For example Yaghoubi et al.’s
(2009) found higher work stress has negative effect on nursing
managers’ organisational commitment in educational hospitals
of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Furthermore, an
investigation on the role of work stress in predicting
organisational commitment in railway employees also revealed
an inverse relationship between work stress and affective,
normative, and overall commitment (Tiwari and Mishra, 2008).
Addae and Parboteeah (2008) also found that role conflict and
role ambiguity, the two main contributors to work stress, were
negatively correlated with affective and normative commitment
among public sector employees in St. Lucia.
As far as technostress is concerned, Ahmad et al. (2010)
hypothesised that there is inverse relationship between
technostress creators and organisational commitment. This is
based on the concept of socio-technical systems which argue
that there should be a joint optimisation of both technical and
social factors in the organisation, so that any technical
implementation will actually lead to improve quality of working
life. In other words, if the implementation of technology creates
stress, it will result in poor quality of working life such as
increase turnover, higher absenteeism, and lower commitment.
As a matter of fact, Tarafdar (2011) did find that among the
impact of technostress among professionals are reduced
commitment towards organisational goals and values. As a
54 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62
result, employees may not be able to function well and will
become a costly burden to their organisations.
In addition, a study conducted by Ragu-Nathan et al.
(2008) among information and communication technologies
(ICT) end users also revealed that the existence of technostress
creators resulted in a decline in job satisfaction among the end
users of ICT. Consequently, the decline in job satisfaction led to
a decrease in organisational commitment. Nonetheless, Umar et
al. (2013), who attempted to examine the relationship between
organisational commitment, stressors and technostress among
employees in Nigerian small scale entreprises, failed to find any
significant relationship between stress and technostress
constructs with organisational commitment. Small sample size
was, however, attributed to the outcome of this study.
Nevertheless, Kofoworola and Alayode (2012) looked at
this situation from a different point of view. They believed that
stress is actually a result of too much commitment in the work
such as working overtime or taking on several task
simultaneously. Thus, they suggested that employees prioritise
their work to alleviate stress.
2.5 Effect Of Training, Organisational Support, And
Involvement On Organisational Commitment
How much an employee is committed to his organisation is
influenced by several factors. Barkhuizen and Rothmann’s
(2008) study confirmed that employees’ commitment will
decline if they experienced stress due to lack of job autonomy,
had insufficient training, equipment, and resources, and if they
perceived their jobs as stressful. According to Benson and
Dundis (2003), employees become more committed to their
organisations when they feel their organisations are willing to
spend time, resources, and money to ensure that they are
equipped with the relevant skills required.
Significant positive correlations between training variables
and overall organisational commitment, affective commitment,
continuance commitment, and normative commitment were
found by Kamarul and Raida (2003). Additionally, Stup (2006)
reported that training is one of the human resource management
practices that are able to predict organisational commitment. He
found a significant positive correlation between the level of off-
the job training with affective commitment whilst adequacy of
initial and continuing training, and satisfaction with training
were all positively and significantly correlated with both
affective and normative commitment.
The claim that organisational support has a positive
influence on organisational commitment is evidenced in several
studies (Eisenberger et al., 2001; Meyer et al., 2002;
Stinglhamber and Vandenberghe, 2003; Jaramillo et al., 2005;
Wang and Shu, 2008; Noblet et al., 2009). Meyer et al. (2002)
discovered that perceived organisational support has the
strongest positive correlation with affective commitment
compared to other work experience variables while Pannacio
and Vandenberghe (2009) found that perceived organisational
support fostered affective commitment and increase well-being.
It is argued that employees felt obligated to assist their
organisations in achieving their objectives and become more
affectively committed to their organisations when they
perceived their organisations are supporting them (Rhoades and
Eisenberger, 2002).
Commitment to the organisation is also claimed to be
stronger when employees are allowed to participate in decision
making and have the power to perform their task (DeCotiis and
Summers, 1987; Meyers and Allen, 1997; Stup, 2006).
According to Mathieu and Zajac (1990), an increase in
autonomy and job involvement would foster organisational
commitment. Nevertheless, Meyer et al. (2002) and Karim and
Noor (2007) discovered that job involvement had stronger
correlation with affective commitment compared to continuance
and normative commitment. Consequently, Fornes et al. (2008)
proposed that work environment that permits employees to be
independent and have freedom to schedule their own work and
determine procedures would enjoy better individual and
organisational commitment.
2.6 Hypotheses
Based on previous studies, it is clearly shown that training,
communication, support and involvement, are not only
beneficial in reducing the problem of technostress, but are also
important in promoting higher level of organisational
commitment. Therefore, these factors are posited to have
moderating effect on the relationship between technostress
creators and organisational commitment. Thus, this study
mainly hypothesised that:
H1: The relationship between technostress creators and
organisational commitment is stronger when literacy
facilitation is high compared to when literacy facilitation is
low.
H2: The relationship between technostress creators and
organisational commitment is stronger when technical
support is high compared to when technical support is low.
H3: The relationship between technostress creators and
organisational commitment is stronger when involvement
facilitation is high compared to when involvement
facilitation is low.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sampling Procedure
The respondents for this study were academic librarians from
Malaysian public higher learning institutions. Non-probability
sampling was employed based on universities. Only libraries in
public higher learning institutions that have been set up more
than 10 years were chosen. This is because these libraries are
more established, have higher involvement in library automation
and have gone through several processes of changes during the
implementation of the technology. In this study, librarian was
defined according to the librarian service scheme classified by
the Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam Malaysia. Thus, all library
personnels from Gred S41 to Gred S54 were included in the
sampling frame (Skim Perkhidmatan Pustakawan, 2006). A
sampling frame was obtained from the representative of each
particular library. Table 1 lists all the the libraries in the chosen
Malaysian public higher learning institutions and the number of
academic librarians in each library. Since the target population
was small and known, the whole target population, which was
282, became the respondents for this study.
Table 1 Number of librarians in respective libraries
Library Number
1. Perpustakaan Sultanah Zanariah, 33
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
2. Library of International Islamic 35
University Malaysia
3. Perpustakaan Hamzah Sendut, Universiti 28
Sains Malaysia
4. Perpustakaan University Malaya 29
55 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62
Library Number
5. Perpustakaan Sultanah Bahiyah, 20
Universiti Utara Malaysia
6. Perpustakaan Sultan Abdul Samad, 44
Universiti Putra Malaysia
7. Perpustakaan UKM, Universiti 35
Kebangsaan Malaysia
8. Perpustakaan Universiti Teknologi 31
MARA
9. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia 13
Sarawak
10. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah 14
Total 282
3.2 Research Instrument
This study utilised self-administered survey method. A set of
questionnaire, which was divided into two parts, was used as the
research instrument. The first part was designed to obtain the
respondent’s demographic information, which includes gender,
age, marital status, highest education completed, length of
tenure, department and subunit working in, present job title, and
reactions towards technology in general. The second part of the
questionnaire was broken down into three sections. In this part,
respondents were asked to indicate the extent of their agreement
or disagreement to each statement based on a seven-point
numerical scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 7
(“Strongly Agree”). The items in these sections were adapted
from existing questionnaires that have been tested for their
validity and reliability. To ensure the content validity of these
measurements, experts’ opinions were sought. A set of
questionnaire has been distributed to three academicians whose
backgrounds are in the field of management and organisational
behaviour and to two librarians. Based on their feedback, some
slight modifications were made to the original questionnaires
such as restructuring some sentences to make it clearer and
substituting the word “workplace” with “library”. Nevertheless,
since the original questionnaires used seven-point numerical
scale, this format was retained in this study. In addition, the
original factors of technostress creators and technostress
inhibitors were also maintained. For the purpose of this study,
the respondents were asked to refer the term technology used
throughout the questionnaire to the library automation system
applied in their day to day job.
The first section was designed to measure the respondents’
level of technostress. Technostress Creators scale developed by
Tarafdar et al. (2007) was adapted since the constructs used to
measure technostress in this instrument was found to resemble
closely to stressors used in measuring occupational stress in
general (Latack, 1986; Kahn and Byosiere, 1995; Yousef,
2002). This scale comprised of 23 items which were grouped
into five factors creating technostress, namely techno-overload,
techno-invasion, techno-uncertainty, techno-complexity, and
techno-insecurity. The Cronbach’s alpha values show that all the
technostress creators factors in this study are highly reliable,
ranging from 0.84 to 0.91, which are greater than the minimum
recommended value of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Hair et al., 1998).
The second section measured the existence of technostress
inhibitors in the workplace by adapting the scale developed by
Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008). This scale contained 14 items which
represent three types of technostress inhibitors which are
literacy facilitation, involvement facilitation, and technical
support. The Cronbach’s Alpha values for these variables in this
study ranged from 0.79 to 0.93, which are all above the
minimum recommended value of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Hair et
al., 1998).
The last section was designed to measure the respondent’s
level of organisational commitment. For the purpose of this
study, Meyer and Allen’s (1997) Organisational Commitment
scale was adapted. A study by Karim and Noor (2006) revealed
that Meyer and Allen’s (1997) organisational commitment
measure is applicable to Malaysian academic librarians. This
scale consisted of 18 items measuring affective commitment,
continuance commitment, and normative commitment. All the
three variables in this study show high reliability measurement
(Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.82 to 0.92) which
exceed the recommended value of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Hair et
al., 1998).
3.3 Data Collection Procedure
As many as 282 questionnaires had been distributed to the
whole target population. Before the questionnaires were
disseminated, the help of a contact person from each library
involved in the study was sought. In order to ease the
distribution process, a set of questionnaire accompanied by a
cover letter which contained an introduction to the researcher,
explanation of the study’s purpose and aim, and instruction on
how to return the questionnaire was put in an envelope
addressed to individual librarian in the respective libraries.
These questionnaires were then mailed to the relevant contact
person, who then helped disseminated the questionnaires to the
respective librarians.
Each respondent was required to return the completed
questionnaire to his/her library’s contact person. The contact
person was requested to return all the completed questionnaires
using the pre-paid envelope supplied by the researcher within
two weeks from the time the questionnaires were distributed. A
follow-up call was made to the contact persons two weeks after
the questionnaires were sent to them to inquire the status of the
data collection. The whole data collection process was
completed within five weeks.
4.0 RESULTS
Out of 282 sets of questionnaire distributed, 203 responses were
received, a return rate of 72.0 percent. However, three sets of
questionnaire were found to be incomplete, thus the analysis
was conducted based on 200 responses. Before testing the
moderating effect of technostress inhibitors on the relationship
between technostress creators and organisational commitment,
the relationship between technostress creators and
organisational commitment had to be measured. This was done
by employing multiple regressions analysis, a statistical
technique used to analyse the relationship between a single
dependent variable and several independent variables. By using
multiple regression analysis, it is possible to estimate how much
a particular set of independent variables explains the variance in
a dependent variable (Hair et al., 1998). In this study,
organizational commitment was used as a single dependent
variable. The sum of all the three constructs of organisational
commitment i.e affective commitment, continuance
commitment, and normative commitment was used to get the
total organisational commitment score. It was found that all the
five technostress creators jointly explained 13.1 percent
(R2=0.131) of the variance in organisational commitment.
Although the R2 value seemed to be very low, in social science
setting, R2 of 13.1 percent is considered respectable, as it
qualified as a medium effect based on Cohen guidelines (qouted
56 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62

from Rosenthal and Rosnow, 2008). In addition, the F value regression model for this study is statistically significant (refer
(5.826) with a significant value of 0.000 suggested that the Table 2).

Table 2 Relationship between technostress creators and organisational commitment (model summary)

R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of the F df1 df2 Sig.

Estimate
0.361 0.131 0.108 0.769 5.826 5 194 0.000*
* Significant at p<0.05

Nevertheless, from Table 3, it is clear that only techno- uncertainty (B=0.295) made the strongest unique contribution in
overload and techno-uncertainty were making a statistically explaining the variance in organisational commitment. The beta
significant unique contribution to the equation (p<0.05). Based value for techno-overload was slightly lower (0.173), indicating
on the beta coefficient value, it was discovered that techno- a lesser contribution.

Table 3 Relationship between technostress creators and organisational commitment (coefficients)

Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised

Coeffiecients

Model B Std. Error B t Sig.

1 (Constant) 3.623 0.351 10.335 0.000*

Techno-overload 0.115 0.051 0.173 2.261 0.025*
Techno-invasion -0.087 0.049 -0.153 -1.801 0.073
Techno-uncertainty 0.258 0.061 0.295 4.248 0.000*
Techno-complexity -0.027 0.054 -0.041 -0.495 0.621
Techno-insecurity 0.034 0.059 0.049 0.584 0.560
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05

To examine the moderating effect of technostress
inhibitors on the relationship between technostress creators and
organisational commitment, hierarchical multiple regression
analysis was applied. This analysis tests three different models
with the aim of determining the presence of moderating effect to
the studied relationship. A moderating effect is said to occur
when a second independent variable (the moderator variable)
changes the form of relationship (strength and direction)
between the first independent variable and the dependent
variable (Hair et al., 1998). There are three equations to be
compared in order to identify the presence of moderating effect
to the relationship of independent and dependent variables, as
represented below:

Equation 1 (Original Model) : Y = i1+b1X+e1

Equation 2 (Limited Model) : Y = i2+b2X+c2Z+e2
Equation 3 (Full Model) : Y = i3+b3X+c3Z+d1XZ+e3

Where: Y = dependent variable

X = independent variable
Z = moderator
XZ = the multiplier of independent variable with moderator
i = constant value for independent variable
b, c, d = coefficients for independent variable and moderator
e = regression residual

According to Hair et al. (1998), if the changes in R2 are
statistically significant for all three equations, then a significant
moderation effect is presence. However, if they are not
significant or only one or two equations are significant, the
moderator will only act as a predictor to a dependent variable.
Based on the result of multiple regression analysis, only techno-
overload and techno-uncertainty was found to have significant
unique contribution to the variance in organisational
commitment (equation 1). Therefore, the moderating effect of
technostress inhibitors in this study was examined only on the
relationship between techno-overload and organisational
commitment and on the relationship between techno-uncertainty
and organisational commitment. Thus, this study specifically
hypothesised the following:
H1a: The relationship between techno-overload and
organisational commitment is stronger when literacy
facilitation is high compared to when literacy facilitation
is low.
H1b: The relationship between techno-uncertainty and
organisational commitment is stronger when literacy
facilitation is high compared to when literacy facilitation
is low.
57 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62

H2a: The relationship between techno-overload and involvement facilitation is high compared to when
organisational commitment is stronger when technical involvement facilitation is low.
support is high compared to when technical support is H3b: The relationship between techno-uncertainty and
low. organisational commitment is stronger when
H2b: The relationship between techno-uncertainty and involvement facilitation is high compared to when
organisational commitment is stronger when technical involvement facilitation is low.
support is high compared to when technical support is
low. The hierarchical multiple regression analysis models for
H3a: The relationship between techno-overload and this study are as shown in Table 4.
organisational commitment is stronger when

Table 4 Hierarchical multiple regression analysis models

a) Moderating effect of literacy facilitation on the relationship Equation 1: OC = a + b1TO + e

between techno-overload and organisational commitment Equation 2: OC = a + b1TO + b2LF + e
Equation 3: OC = a + b1TO + b2LF + b3TOLF + e

b) Moderating effect of literacy facilitation on the relationship Equation 1: OC = a + b1TU + e

between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment Equation 2: OC = a + b1TU + b2LF + e
Equation 3: OC = a + b1TU + b2LF + b3TULF + e

c) Moderating effect of technical support on the relationship Equation 1: OC = a + b1TO + e

between techno-overload and organisational commitment Equation 2: OC = a + b1TO + b2TS + e
Equation 3: OC = a + b1TO + b2TS + b3TOTS + e

d) Moderating effect of technical support on the relationship Equation 1: OC = a + b1TU + e

between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment Equation 2: OC = a + b1TU + b2TS + e
Equation 3: OC = a + b1TU + b2TS + b3TUTS + e

e) Moderating effect of involvement facilitation on the Equation 1: OC = a + b1TO + e

relationship between techno-overload and organisational Equation 2: OC = a + b1TO + b2IF + e
commitment Equation 3: OC = a + b1TO + b2IF + b3TOIF + e

f) Moderating effect of involvement facilitation on the Equation 1: OC = a + b1TU + e

relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational Equation 2: OC = a + b1TU + b2IF + e
commitment Equation 3: OC = a + b1TU + b2IF + b3TUIF + e

Where:
OC = Organizational commitment; TO = Techno-overload; TU = Techno-uncertainty;
LF = Literacy facilitation; TS = Technical support; IF = Involvement facilitation;
TOLF = Techno-overload x Literacy facilitation; TULF = Techno-uncertainty x Literacy facilitation
TOTS = Techno-overload x Technical support; TUTS = Techno-uncertainty x Technical support
TOIF = Techno-overload x Involvement facilitation;
TUIF = Techno-uncertainty x Involvement facilitation

Table 5 revealed that techno-overload contributed 3.6
percent of the variance in organisational commitment, and was a
significant predictor (R2=0.036, p<0.05). With techno-overload
still in the equation, literacy facilitation was a significant
predictor and significantly explained an additional 17.5 percent
of the variance in organisational commitment (R2=0.211,
p<0.05). Nonetheless, with both techno-overload and literacy
facilitation in the equation, the interaction effect of techno-
overload and literacy facilitation did not show any additional
contribution to the variance in organisational commitment
(R2=0.211, p=0.730). Thus, hypothesis H1a is rejected. This
indicates that literacy facilitation did not significantly moderate
the relationship between techno-overload and organisational
commitment.

Table 5 Moderating effect of literacy facilitation on the relationship between techno-overload and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-overload (TO) 0.036 0.036 7.291 0.008*
Literacy Facilitation (LF) 0.211 0.175 43.776 0.000*
Interaction effect of TO and 0.211 0.000 0.120 0.730
LF (TOLF)
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05
58 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62

From Table 6, it can be seen that techno-uncertainty was a
significant predictor of organisational commitment (p<0.05). In
addition, the contribution of techno-uncertainty to the variance
in organisational commitment was 9.5 percent (R2=0.095).
With techno-uncertainty still in the equation, literacy facilitation
contributed an additional 13.6 percent of the variance in
organisational commitment, and was a significant predictor
(R2=0.231, p<0.05). Nevertheless, when the interaction effect of
techno-uncertainty and literacy facilitation was introduced to the
equation, with techno-uncertainty and literacy facilitation still in
the equation, only 0.1 percent increase was detected in the
variance of organisational commitment (p>0.05). Thus,
hypothesis H1b is not accepted. Although literacy facilitation
significantly predicted organisational commitment, it did not act
as a moderator in the relationship between techno-uncertainty
and organisational commitment.

Table 6 Moderating effect of literacy facilitation on the relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-uncertainty (TU) 0.095 0.095 20.808 0.000*
Literacy Facilitation (LF) 0.231 0.136 34.845 0.000*
Interaction effect of TU and 0.232 0.001 0.282 0.596
LF (TULF)
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05

The results presented in Table 7 show that techno-overload
significantly explained 3.6 percent of the variance in
organisational commitment (p=0.008). With techno-overload in
the equation, technical support significantly contributed an
additional 26.6 percent of the variance in organisational
commitment (R2=0.302, p=0.000). When the interaction effect
of techno-overload and technical support was introduced into
the equation, with both techno-overload and technical support
still in the equation, the whole model significantly explained
32.2 percent of the variance in organisational commitment
(p=0.018). Hence, hypothesis H2a is accepted. This illustrates
that technical support was not only a significant predictor for
organisational commitment but also a significant moderator in
the relationship between techno-overload and organisational
commitment.

Table 7 Moderating effect of technical support on the relationship between techno-overload and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-overload (TO) 0.036 0.036 7.291 0.008*
Technical Support (TS) 0.302 0.266 75.162 0.000*
Interaction effect of TO and 0.322 0.020 5.705 0.018*
TS (TOTS)
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05

Descriptive statistic recommended by Jose (2008) was to when there is low technical support. Hence, it can be
adopted to describe graphically how technical support interacts concluded that the relationship between techno-overload and
with techno-overload and organisational commitment. Techno- organisational commitment is stronger when there is high
overload and organisational commitment were categorised into technical support compared to when there is low technical
three groups that are low, medium and high according to the support.
mean score of technical support. The high group is set to 1
standard deviation above the mean and low group is set to 1
standard deviation below the mean. Table 8 displays the mean
score of techno-overload on organisational commitment
according to the different levels of technical support.

Table 8 Mean score of techno-overload on organisational commitment

according to different level of technical support

Techno-overload
Low Medium High
Organisational High 5.8 5.79 5.78
Commitment Medium 5.71 5.71 5.71
Low 5.62 5.63 5.63

Figure 1 further depicts the moderating effect of technical

support on the relationship between techno-overload and
organisational commitment. The figure demonstrates that when
there is high technical support, in situation where techno- Figure 1 Graph on the moderating effect of technical support on the
overload is high, organisational commitment is higher compared relationship between techno-overload and organisational commitment
59 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62

As seen from Table 9, techno-uncertainty contributed as much
as 9.5 percent of the variance in organisational commitment
(R2=0.95) and significantly predict organisational commitment
(p<0.05). With techno-uncertainty in the equation, the additional
factor of technical support significantly increased the variance
in the organisational commitment by 30.0 percent (R2=0.300,
p=0.000). However, with both techno-uncertainty and technical
support in the equation, the interaction effect of techno-
uncertainty and technical support explained an additional of just
0.3 percent of the variance in affective commitment. Therefore,
hypothesis H2b is not supported. This means that, although
technical support was a significant predictor for organisational
commitment, it was not a significant moderator in the
relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational
commitment.

Table 9 Moderating effect of technical support on the relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-uncertainty (TU) 0.095 0.095 20.808 0.000*
Technical Support (TS) 0.300 0.205 57.770 0.000*
Interaction effect of TU and 0.303 0.003 0.666 0.415
TS (TUTS)
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05

The results displayed in Table 10 show that techno-
overload was a significant predictor for organisational
commitment (p<0.05) and contributed 3.6 percent of the
variance in organisational commitment. With techno-overload in
the equation, the additional factor of involvement facilitation
significantly contributed an additional 17.5 percent of the
variance in organisational commitment (R2=0.211, p=0.000).
When the interaction effect of techno-overload and involvement
facilitation was added into the equation, however, no additional
contribution was made to the variance in organisational
commitment (R2=0.211, p=0.709). Hence, hypothesis H3a is
rejected. It is concluded that involvement facilitation was not a
significant moderator in the relationship between techno-
overload and organisational commitment.

Table 10 Moderating effect of involvement facilitation on the relationship between techno-overload and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-overload (TO) 0.036 0.036 7.291 0.008*
Involvement Facilitation (IF) 0.211 0.175 43.783 0.000*
Interaction effect of TO and IF
(TOIF) 0.211 0.000 0.140 0.709

a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment

* Significant at p<0.05

Results of the study reveal that techno-uncertainty
contributed 9.5 percent of the variance in organisational
commitment and was a significant predictor (p<0.05) (see Table
11). When involvement facilitation was added into the equation,
the variable significantly contributed an additional 22.2 percent
of the variance in organisational commitment (p=0.000). A very
small increase in the R2 value (0.2%), however, was detected
when the interaction effect of techno-uncertainty and
involvement facilitation was introduced into the equation. Thus,
hypothesis H3b is not accepted. It is concluded that, although
involvement facilitation significantly predict organisational
commitment, it was not a significant moderator in the
relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational
commitment.

Table 11 Moderating effect of involvement facilitation on the relationship between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment

R2 R2 Change F Change Sig. F Change

Techno-uncertainty (TU) 0.095 0.095 20.808 0.000*
Involvement Facilitation (IF) 0.222 0.127 32.100 0.000*
Interaction effect of TU and IF 0.224 0.002 0.627 0.429
(TIF)
a. Dependent variable: Organisational Commitment
* Significant at p<0.05

5.0 DISCUSSION
Contrary to popular beliefs that stress is negatively associated
with organisational commitment (Taris et al., 2001; Glazer and
Beehr, 2005; Ho et al., 2009; Viljoen and Rothmann, 2009),
none of the technostress creators was found to be inversely
correlated with overall organisational commitment. In fact, the
positive beta signs for techno-uncertainty (B=0.295) and techno-
overload (B=0.173) from the multiple regression analysis
clearly signify that an increase in techno-uncertainty and
techno-overload will lead to an increase in organisational
commitment. Therefore, this study proves that stress created by
the usage of technology may not necessarily lower the level of
commitment shown to the organisation. In fact, a certain amount
60 Ungku Norulkamar, Salmiah & Wan Khairuzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Social Sciences) 67:1 (2014), 51–62
of technostress is essential in enhancing the level of
commitment towards organisation. It is believed that some
employees regard heavy workload and tight deadlines as
positive challenges that help enhanced their quality of work and
job satisfaction (Robbins and Judge, 2007). Consequently, these
findings confirmed the theory that stress is not always negative
(McVicar, 2003).
This study also shows that the existence of literacy
facilitation and involvement facilitation did not significantly
change the strength or direction of the association between the
techno-overload and techno-uncertainty level and the level of
organisational commitment. The results of the study are partly
in line with the findings of Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008) who
found that technical support, literacy facilitation and
involvement facilitation did not have moderating effect on the
relationship between technostress creators and job satisfaction
among IT end users. Nevertheless, even though the relationship
between techno-uncertainty and organisational commitment was
not moderated by technical support, it was found that the
relationship between techno-overload and organisational
commitment was moderated by technical support. This
demonstrates that the relationship between techno-overload and
organisational commitment was stronger when technical support
was high compared to when technical support was low.
Additionally, it was found that all the technotress inhibitors
were significant predictors for organisational commitment.
According to Kamarul and Raida (2003), in order to enhance
organisational commitment, organisations should stress training.
This is because they found that training has significant positive
correlation with organisational commitment among the white
collar workers in Malaysia. Benson and Dundis (2003) posited
that in today’s world where technology is an essential element
in the workplace, providing training will result in employee
feeling secured, needed, and appreciated, which in turn lead to
higher level of commitment. In addition, a study by Zain et al.
(2009) found that corporate culture which consisted of
teamwork, communication, rewards and recognition, and
training was significant determinant in influencing
organisational commitment. Furthermore, a study done by Al-
Hussani (2009) revealed a strong positive correlation between
perceived organisational support and nurses’ commitment to
their organisation which confirmed the result of Noblet et al.’s
(2009) study that organisational commitment is positively
influenced by social support. In addition, several studies in the
past have also shown that participation in decision making
positively influence organisational commitment (Boshoff and
Mels, 1994; DeCotiis and Summers, 1987). Putti et al. (1990)
argued that commitment can only be expected when people are
given a chance to participate since it is only natural that
individuals would be more committed if they are given the
chance to be involved in issues relating to their well-being.
6.0 CONCLUSION
This study provides some insight regarding technostress and
organisational commitment in Malaysia, particularly in the
Malaysian public higher learning institutions’ libraries. As
Malaysia is moving towards becoming a more technology
oriented nation, it is important that the academic librarians
recognise both the positive and negative outcomes of using
technology so that the benefits of technology application would
not be overwhelmed by its drawbacks. As some technostress
creators have been found to positively influence organisational
commitment, this shows that a certain amount of technostress is
essential in boosting the academic librarians’ sense of
commitment to their organisations. Thus, it is important to those
managing these libraries not to try to eliminate stress but to
encourage eustress (good stress) and at the same time try to
hinder eustress from turning into distress (bad stress).
This study also demonstrates that in order to ensure that the
technology is used as effectively and efficiently as possible, the
Malaysian academic libraries should enhance situational
mechanisms that will ease the usage of technology. It is
recommended that academic librarians are provided with a lot of
information regarding the technology to be used, allowed to
participate in the decision making and implementation process,
and also given adequate technical support so that their work
flow would be less disrupted if any technical problem crop up.
As a matter of fact, this study has uncovered that the
relationship between techno-overload and organisational
commitment is positive and stronger when there is high level of
technical support. This evidence denotes that technical support
is important in strengthening the association between
technostress creators and organisational commitment.
As with any other research, this study is not without any
limitation. Firstly, this study only focused on librarians in the
Malaysian public higher learning institutions’ libraries.
Secondly, this study is a correlational study. The application of
correlations as evidence of the association between the
dimensions of technostress and organisational commitment
should not be confused with cause-effect relationship. Lastly,
this study is a cross-sectional study. As such, it does not give
indication of the sequence of events which make it impossible to
infer causality.
Despite these limitations, this study contributes to
widening the literature by concentrating on the relationship
between technostress and organisational commitment. The
findings of this study will not only provide important
comprehension, but also will be beneficial in helping
organisations manage work place stress, especially the stress
created by the usage of technology. Nonetheless, in order to
increase the generalisability of the findings, future researchers
should replicate the present study by making comparative
studies between industries and regions. In addition, it is also
recommended that in the future, longitudinal study is employed
to allow researchers to track changes and trends in the
technostress level, organisational commitment level and the
impact of the situational variables on the relationship between
technostress and organisational commitment that may occur
over time.
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