Fundamentals of Wind Energy Conversion System Control V 16.0

Wind Energy Generation
3. Fundamentals of wind energy conversion

system control
Ángel Silos-Sanchez
Contents
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics
- 3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control
- 3.4 Wind turbine components
2
3.1 Introduction
Introduction
- WECs
- Transform wind kinetic energy to mechanical energy through rotor blades

- Transform mechanical energy to electrical energy through generator
- Other components in transformation
- Wind speed plays a key role (Maximum power output)
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSWm_nprfqE
4
3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics

Wind turbine aerodynamics
- Aerodynamics
- Primary application: Generate Energy using the wind

- Aerodynamics is a key important aspect
- The wind turbine aerodynamic design includes:
- Drag and Lift forces, Net force

- Performance: Betz Limit
- Mechanical loads
- Noise
6
- Blade aerodynamics
- Similar to the wings of an airplane (Bernouilli’s principle)
- Speed of moving fluid increase, the pressure within the fluid decreases
- Curved shape of the blade creates a difference between Up & Down
- The airflow above the blade is faster that one bellow

- (Vup > Vdown) -> (Pup < Pdown) -> FL (Lit force)
- The force applied at a certain distance of the WT produce Torque

- Rotational movement
7
- Angle of attack
- Lift force (FL) control

- Angle of attack: Between direction of the wind speed and chord line
- Angle = 0 -> no FL (Example: Maintenance)
8
- Lift and drag forces
- Drag force: applies a force on the body in the direction of the relative flow
- Lift force: applies a force perpendicular to the relative flow
9
10
11
- Aerodynamic coefficients: CL and CD
12
- Power Coefficient
- Power Air mass with speed Vw:
- ᵖ = density
- A = Area
- V = wind speed
- Under 15ºC, 1,2 kg/m3
- Wind power captured by the blade:
13
- Power Coefficient
- Vu = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades

- Vd = downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades
- Where Vw is the average of the velocities:
14
- Power Coefficient
- Or:
- Where:
- This expression for Cp is the fraction of upstream wind power captured by the rotor blades Cp
- Cp is called Betz limit. It is not static value.
15
- Power Coefficient
- Cp varies with the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine
- λ represents the ratio of the wind speed Vd to wind speed Vu of the turbine
16
- Power Coefficient
- Differentiate Cp with respect to λ and equate to zero to find maximum value:
- This maximum value 16/27 (Betz limit)
- The real wind turbines operate below the Betz limit with values of 0.35 – 0.45
common even in best designed wind turbines
17
- Power Coefficient
- WT turns to slowly -> wind will pass through the openings between blades with little power extraction
- WT turns too fast –> rotating blades are a wall obstructing the wind flow again reducing power
- WT design: optimal wind tip speed ratio in order to extract as much power as possible from the wind
stream.
- 10 - 30 % power of the wind is converted into usable electricity.
- Air density p is another flow input quantity at the rotor system.
18
- Power Coefficient
- Cp is the most important parameter for power regulation.

- It is a non-linear function and whose value is unique to each turbine type
- Function of wind speed that the turbine is operating in.
- The Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle Θ:
- Where C1 – C6 and x depend on turbine type, and B is defined by:
19
- Example 1
- The analytical formula of Cp has the following data:
- Where:
- λ is the tip speed ratio
- Θ is the Blade pitch angle in degrees
- C1 = 0.6; C2 = 128; C3 = 0.6; C4 = 0; C5 =8 and C6 = 20
- Determine the curve Cp versus tip speed ratio (0 to 16), and with Θ = 0, 3, 6, 10, 15 & 24º
- How could be controlled a WT?
20
- Power coefficient
- The optimal TSR is a constant for a given blade

- The speed of the turbine that produces that maximum power is related to TSR and wind speed by:
21
- Variable speed wind turbine
- Cp is optimum P < Pref
- In order to get maximum

power and conversion
efficiency, the turbine speed
must be adjustable according
to the wind speed.
22
- Fixed speed wind turbine
- Cp is only optimum at
one wind speed
23
- Cp is chosen in order to achieve

the maximum captured energy
according to the site wind speed
distribution
24
25
- Example 2. Fix speed (squirrel cage) wind turbines
- 3.2 MW WT
- Rotor D = 100 m
- Ngb = 80 based on an induction generator
- 960 V; 50 Hz (2 pair of poles)
- p= 1,225 kg/m3.
- Neglecting slip (assuming s = 0). Calculate the mechanical power generated for wind speeds of 5,
8, 11 and 14 m/s
26
- Power Characteristic of Wind Turbine
- Power Characteristic -> Power curve (Mechanical power)

- Power curve is guaranteed by manufacturer (IEC 61400 – 12)
- A typical power curve is characterized by three wind speeds:
- Cut-in wind speeds -> WT starts to operate and deliver power.

- Rated wind speed -> WT produces rated power.
- Cut-out wind speed -> highest wind speed at which WT is allowed to operate before it is shut down.
For wind speed above cut-out wind speed, WT must be stopped, preventing damage from
excessive wind.
27
- Aerodynamic power control
- Power captured by the blades is a

cubic function of wind speed
- To deliver power to the grid.

Generator should be properly
controlled with variable speed
operation
- As the wind speed increase beyond

the rated speed, aerodynamics power
control of blades is required to keep
the power at rated value
28
- The aerodynamic power control is

performed by three main techniques:
- Passive stall
- Active stall
- Pitch control
29
- Passive-stall
- Used in the early fixed-speed wind
turbines
- Active-stall
- The evolution of passive-stall
- Pitch control
- The pitch control reacts faster than the
active-stall control and provides better
controllability. Pitch control is widely
adopted in today’s large wind energy
systems
30
- Passive-stall
- Blade is fixed onto the rotor hub at an optimal

(rated) angle of attack.
- When the wind speed is bellow or at rated value

the maximum power from the wind is captured
- With the wind speed exceeding the rated value ->

turbulences.
- Stall Phenomenon: LF will be reduced and

disappeared when the wind speed increase
31
- Passive-stall
- Blade profile is aerodynamically designed to

ensure that stall occurs only when wind speed
exceeded rate value
- To ensure blade stall -> couple degrees deviation

along the longitudinal axis
- Complex aerodynamic design
32
- Active-stall
- Adjustable blades with a pitch control mechanism.
- When the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the

blades are controlled to turn more into the wind,
leading to the reduction of captured power
33
- Active-stall
34
- Pitch control
- Similar active-stall control
- Wind speed exceeds rated value, pitch control

reduce attack angle turning the blades (pitching)
gradually our of the wind. (Reduction difference
pressure)
- Lift Force disappeared
- When wind is below or at rated speed hold at

optimal value.
35
- Pitch control
- Active-stall and pitch control are based on rotating

actions on the blade
- Pitch control turns the blade out of the wind

leading to a reduction in LF
- Active stall control turns the blade into the wind

causing turbulence reducing LF
36
- Pitch control
37
- Pitch control
- Production
38
- Pitch control
- Start up
39
- Pitch control
- Stop
40
- Pitch control
- Idling
41
- Mechanical loads
- Power capture depends on aerodynamic
- Design WT defines limits in order to keep the

forces on the mechanical components (blade,
structural frames, gearbox, tower shaft,…)
- Safety margins
42
- Mechanical loads
- Aeroelasticity
- Interaction between aerodynamics and structure
43
- Mechanical loads
- Flexibility
44
- Mechanical loads
- Wave
- Wind waves
- Variable external conditions (offshore)
- Gravitational wawes
- Tides (very low frequency)
- Wind
- Turbulence
- Current
- Aerodynamic imbalance
- Tides (very low frequency)
- Rotational sampling
- Turbulence
- Gravity
- Wind shear
- Rotating blades
- Tower shadow
- Imbalance in rotor
- Yaw misalignment
45
- Mechanical loads. Full analysis according to standards
- Standards & guidelines

- DNV-OS-J101 (October 2007)
- GL (2005)
- IEC 61400-1 (onshore)
- IEC 61400-3 (offshore)
- Turbine certified for class of wind conditions (Confirm that loads at site remain within class specs)
- Support structure certified site specific
- Several hundred load cases required for certification

46
- Mechanical loads. Full analysis according to standards
- Standards & guidelines

- DNV-OS-J101 (October 2007)
- GL (2005)
- IEC 61400-1 (onshore)
- IEC 61400-3 (offshore)
- Turbine certified for class of wind conditions (Confirm that loads at site remain within class specs)
- Support structure certified site specific
- Several hundred load cases required for certification

47
- Mechanical loads. Design steps
- Make first preliminary design based on static loads
- Loop (check & adjust)

- Check for resonance
- Check extreme loads (limited number of load cases)
- Check fatigue damage (limited number of load cases)
- Check all extreme and fatigue load cases (certification)
48
- Mechanical loads. Resonance
- Excitation frequency ≈ natural frequency

- Large oscillations
- Fatigue damage (due to severe cyclic loading)
- Generally not destructive (anticipated in design)
- Natural frequencies of wind turbine (-components)
are close to several excitation frequencies
49
- Mechanical loads. Extrem load analysis
50
- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-1 Design Load cases
- Turbine operation - Load type

- Normal power production - Fatigue loads
- Start up and shut down - Ultimate load
- Control failure or network failure
- Parked or idling state
- Yaw error
- Wind conditions
- Extreme wind
- Wind distribution
- Turbulence
- Wind shear
51
- Dynamic events
52
53
54
55
- Mechanical loads
- Fatigue analysis
56
3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

control
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control
- Control in wind turbine
- Variable-speed WT below rated wind speed

- Under generator control
- Goal: To maximize the wind power capture

- Optimal TSR (Tip speed ratio) is maintained
58
- Control in wind turbine
- The trajectory of MPPs represents a power curve
- The mechanical power captured by the turbine can also be expressed in terms of torque:
- These relationship are used to dermine control set for generator in order ot achieve MPP.
59
- MPPT with Turbine Power Profile
- Method where power curve defines the maximum power produced by the turbine at different speeds
60
- MPPT with Optimal Tip Speed Ratio
- Method where MPPT is achieved by keeping the TSP to its optimal value
61
- MPPT with Optimal Torque Control
- Maximum power operation can also be achieved with optimal torque control
- TM (Wm2) Quadratic function
62
- MPPT with Optimal Torque Control
- Searching continuously peak power of the wind turbine

- Tracking algorithm
- Optimal point according to location of operation dot and relation between changes in power and speed.
63
- Example
64
3.4 Wind turbine components

Wind turbine components
- Composition
- WTs are composed by several parts to achieve

kinetic-to-electric energy conversion
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khkyUgX7QGE
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NG1uGt6qUfM
66
- Turbine blade
- Most distinctive and visible component. Convert wind kinetic

energy into rotational mechanical energy
- Material: Aluminum, fiberglass or carbon-fiber composites.

Selected materials to provide strength-to-weight ratio, fatigue
life and stiffness
- Configurations
- Single and two blades WT (experimental applications)
- Three blades WT (standard and large WT)
- Four blades WT (expensive and require gear ratio)
67
- Turbine blade
- Blades are mainly made of composite materials

- Polyester resin, vinyl resin and epoxy thermosetting matrix resin
- E-glass fibers, S-glass fibers and carbon fiber reinforced materials
- Injection molding
- Glass fiber is still dominant (1/10 carbon fiber)
- Improve performance WT increasing rotor diameters
- Long blade requires strength and stiffness

- Carbon fiber is between 4 and 6 times stiffer than glass fiber
68
- Turbine blade
- Manufacturing:
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDyTxGvuAjk
69
- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism
- Pitch mechanism in large wind turbines enables the rotation of the blades on their longitudinal axis
- Change attack angle of the blades with respect to the wind
- Control degree to protect wind turbine
70
- Action: When the wind speed exceeds the rated value
- Limit power output
71
72
- Pitch mechanism can be either electric or hydraulic
- Electric pitch are more common
- Traditional: All blades on the rotor hub are pitched

simultaneously
- Modern: Independent pitch systems.
73
- Main function of the yaw drive is to maximize the captured wind

energy
- Consists in:
- Motor drives
- Yaw gear
- Gear rim
- Breaking
- All motors are commanded by the same signals and lock after
turning the wind turbine into desired position
74
- Gearbox
- Rotor of WT
- Speed range 6-20 rpm
- 4 or 6 pole wind generator (1500 or 1000 rpm for 50Hz, 1800 or 1200 rpm for 60 Hz)
- Gearbox can adapt low speed of WT to high speed of Generator

- Gearbox conversion ratio:
75
- Gearbox
- Multiples stages to achieve the high conversion ratio.
- Type of gear stages: Planetary, helical, parallel shaft, spur

and worm types
- Two or more gear types may be combined in multiple stages
- The gearboxes are generally made of superior quality

aluminum alloys, stainless steel and cast iron.
- Efficiency: 95 – 98%. High investment and maintenance

76
- Gearbox
77
- Gearbox
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wK1qmRv_l8
78
- Generator and power converter
79
- Generator and Power Converter
- Generators:
- Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
- Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
- Synchronous generator (SG) (wound rotor and permanent magnet)
80
- SCIG
- Simple and rugged
- Minimum maintenance
- Traditional direct grid-connected WTs system
- Low power range turbine are using SCIG (Fixed speed)
81
- DFIG
- Onshore wind energy industry
- Stator of the generator is connected directly
- DFIG operates about 30% above and below synchronous speed

- Sufficient for most wind speed conditions
- Reduced-capacity converter is les expensive and requires less space
82
- Synchronous generator
- Direct-drive wind turbines
- Wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG)
- Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG)
- PMSG have higher efficiency > WRSG
- SG are direct driven
- Some manufacturers have developed SG turbines with gearbox driven

train
83
- Example 3
- Generator dimensions
84
- Example 3
- Geared (GFC) or Gearless (DD) Wind turbines

- P = 6000 kW
- n = 11,5 rpm
85
- Generator & Power converter:
- Converter
- DFIG and SG interfaced with the grid through power converters

- DFIG uses a reduced-capacity converter
- SG uses a full power converter
- Priority on power converters: Reliability, minimum maintenance, limited physical

size/weight and low power losses
- AC/AC conversion is indirect
- DC link: Connects two converters performing AC/DC and DC/AC conversions

86
- Generator & Power converter:
- Converter
- Wind power converters have usually a back to back structures
- 2-level is the most common
- 3-level is used in large wind turbines
87
- Tower
- Support the nacelle and turbine rotor

- Material steel and concrete. Combination of both for the base
- The height is equal to the turbine rotor diameter (medium and large)
88
- Tower
- Structural dynamics to avoid vibration caused by

mechanical resonance mode
- The top head mass (THM) of the nacelle and the

turbine rotor has a significant bearing on the
dynamics of the tower and foundation
- Low THM is a measure of design for reduction cost
89
- Foundation: onshore
- Major component in a wind energy system
- Types:
- Slab
- Multiple
- Monopile
90
- Foundation: offshore
- Foundations offshore have a particular design due to location are in water depth and different soil types
91
- Pile Foundations: Considerations

- Flexibility / Adaptability:
- Soil conditions
- Water depth
- Scour
- Diameter and wall thickness
- Tension & compression
- Penetration and number
- Track record/experience
- Different installation methods
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7b3Ev2Emyc 92
- Pile driving
93
- Multiple piles
94
- Floating
95
- Wind sensors
- Wind turbine control requires wind speed and direction measurements
- Wind speed –> angle attack, generator speed (variable speed WT)
- Wind direction -> yaw control
- Wind speed sensor: Three-cup vertical-axis microturbine an

optoelectronic angle transducer
- Ultrasonic anemometers are also used in practical wind turbines. They

measure the wind speed by emitting and receiving acoustic signals
96
97

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Wind Energy Generation

3. Fundamentals of wind energy conversion

- 3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics

- 3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- 3.4 Wind turbine components

- Transform wind kinetic energy to mechanical energy through rotor blades

- Wind speed plays a key role (Maximum power output)

3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Primary application: Generate Energy using the wind

- The wind turbine aerodynamic design includes:

- Drag and Lift forces, Net force

- Similar to the wings of an airplane (Bernouilli’s principle)

- Curved shape of the blade creates a difference between Up & Down

- The airflow above the blade is faster that one bellow

- The force applied at a certain distance of the WT produce Torque

- Lift force (FL) control

- Lift and drag forces

- Lift and drag forces

- Lift and drag forces

- Aerodynamic coefficients: CL and CD

- Power Air mass with speed Vw:

- Wind power captured by the blade:

- Vu = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades

- Where Vw is the average of the velocities:

- Cp varies with the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine

- Differentiate Cp with respect to λ and equate to zero to find maximum value:

- This maximum value 16/27 (Betz limit)

- 10 - 30 % power of the wind is converted into usable electricity.

- Air density p is another flow input quantity at the rotor system.

- Cp is the most important parameter for power regulation.

- Where C1 – C6 and x depend on turbine type, and B is defined by:

- The analytical formula of Cp has the following data:

- The optimal TSR is a constant for a given blade

- Variable speed wind turbine

- Cp is optimum P < Pref

- In order to get maximum

- Fixed speed wind turbine

- Fixed speed wind turbine

- Cp is chosen in order to achieve

- Fixed speed wind turbine

- Example 2. Fix speed (squirrel cage) wind turbines

- Power Characteristic of Wind Turbine

- Power Characteristic -> Power curve (Mechanical power)

- A typical power curve is characterized by three wind speeds:

- Cut-in wind speeds -> WT starts to operate and deliver power.

- Aerodynamic power control

- Power captured by the blades is a

- To deliver power to the grid.

- As the wind speed increase beyond

- Aerodynamic power control

- The aerodynamic power control is

- Aerodynamic power control

- Blade is fixed onto the rotor hub at an optimal

- When the wind speed is bellow or at rated value

- With the wind speed exceeding the rated value ->

- Stall Phenomenon: LF will be reduced and

- Blade profile is aerodynamically designed to

- To ensure blade stall -> couple degrees deviation

- Complex aerodynamic design

- Adjustable blades with a pitch control mechanism.

- When the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the

- Similar active-stall control