2018 Seismicwindforces

100911389
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

5th Edition
ISBN: 978-1-60983-844-7
Publications Manager: Mary Lou Luif

Project Editor: Kathy Osmus
Typesetting: Dedicated Book Services
Cover Design: Duane Acoba
COPYRIGHT © 2018
by
INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL, INC.
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First Printing: December 2018
PRINTED IN THE USA
T023374
TABLE OF CONTENTS
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1 SEISMIC DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Seismic loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Design procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Site classification characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Earthquake response spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 General procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Site-specific procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Site coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Fundamental period of vibration of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.1 General approximate method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7.2 Approximate method for moment-resisting frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.3 Rational analysis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Design spectral response acceleration parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.9 Risk categories and importance factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10 Seismic design category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.10.1 Seismic design category A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10.2 Seismic design category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10.3 Seismic design category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10.4 Seismic design category D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10.5 Seismic design category E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10.6 Seismic design category F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.11 Lateral-force-resisting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.11.1 Bearing wall systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.11.2 Building frame system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.11.3 Moment-resisting frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.11.4 Dual systems with special moment frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.11.5 Dual systems with intermediate moment frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.11.6 Shear wall-frame interactive system with ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames
and ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.11.7 Cantilever column systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.11.8 Steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic resistance, excluding cantilever
column systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.11.9 Wind effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.12 Response modification coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.12.1 Seismic-force-resisting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.12.2 Combinations of seismic-force-resisting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.13 Overstrength factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.14 Deflection amplification factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.15 Effective seismic weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.16 Seismic response coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.17 Seismic base shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.18 Simplified lateral force procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.19 Vertical distribution of seismic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.20 Simplified vertical distribution of base shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.21 Vertical seismic load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.21.1 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.21.2 Foundation design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.21.3 Optional vertical seismic load effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.22 Diaphragm loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples iii

1.23 Story drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.24 Simplified determination of drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.25 P-delta effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.26 Building separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.27 Redundancy factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.28 Load combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.28.1 Strength design loads and load factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.28.2 Special seismic load combinations for the strength design method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.28.3 Allowable stress design method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.28.4 Special seismic load combinations for the allowable stress design method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.29 Structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.29.1 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.29.2 Lateral design force on walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.29.3 Lateral design force on parapets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.30 Anchorage of structural walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.30.1 Anchorage to flexible diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.30.2 Anchorage to rigid diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.30.3 Subdiaphragms and continuous ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.31 Architectural, mechanical, and electrical components supported by structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.31.1 Design force on mechanical and electrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1.31.2 Design force on architectural components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.31.3 Wall cladding displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
1.31.4 Wall cladding seismic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.32 Rigidity and torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.32.1 Shear wall stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.32.2 Rigid diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.33 Modal analysis procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.33.1 Horizontal structural irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.33.2 Vertical structural irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.33.3 Selection of lateral force procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.33.4 Modal shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.33.5 Modal participation factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1.33.6 Modal base shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1.33.7 Scaling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
1.33.8 Vertical distribution of modal forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2 DESIGN FOR WIND LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.1 Wind effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.2 Analysis procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2.3 General requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.3.1 Exposure category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.3.2 Basic wind speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2.3.3 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients for the whole building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.3.4 Topographic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.3.5 Directionality factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.3.6 Building types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.3.7 Gust effect factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
2.3.8 Enclosure classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
2.3.9 Ground elevation factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.4 Analytical directional design method for MWFRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.4.1 Minimum design wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.4.2 Design wind load cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.4.3 Wind velocity pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.4.4 Internal pressure coefficients and internal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.4.5 External pressure coefficients and external pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
iv Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

2.5 Simplified directional design method for MWFRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.5.1 Wall pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.5.2 Roof pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
2.6 Analytical envelope design method for MWFRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2.6.1 Design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.6.2 Wind velocity pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.6.4 External pressure coefficients and external pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.6.5 Design wind load cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.7 Simplified envelope design procedure for MWFRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
2.7.1 Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
2.7.2 Adjustment of net pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2.7.3 Simplified method applied to the MWFRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2.8 Components and cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.8.1 Determination of components and cladding loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.9 Analytical envelope design method for components and cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.9.2 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.10 Simplified envelope design method for components and cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.10.3 Net wind pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
2.11 Analytical directional design method for components and cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
2.11.2 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.12 Simplified directional design method for components and cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.12.3 Net wind pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
3 SEISMIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
3.1General design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3.2Material strength and ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.3Capacity design and expected material strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3.4Demand critical welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.5Protected zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3.6Loads and load combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
3.7Concentrically braced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3.8Ordinary concentrically braced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
3.8.1 Diagonal braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
3.8.2 Beams in chevron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
3.8.3 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
3.8.4 Diagonal brace connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
3.9 Special concentrically braced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
3.9.1 Capacity design basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
3.9.2 Diagonal braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
3.9.3 Diagonal brace connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
3.9.4 Beams in chevron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
3.9.5 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
3.10 Eccentrically braced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
3.10.1 Basic requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples v

3.10.2 Link requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
3.10.3 Link shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.10.4 Link length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3.10.5 Link rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3.10.6 Link stiffeners for I-shaped cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3.10.7 Beam requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
3.10.8 Diagonal brace requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
3.10.9 Column requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
3.11 Special moment frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
3.11.1 Beam-to-column connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
3.11.2 Design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
3.11.3 Strong column-weak beam concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
3.11.4 Beam details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
3.11.5 Column details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
3.11.6 Panel zone design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
3.11.7 Continuity plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.12 Buckling-restrained braced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.12.1 Buckling-restrained brace applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3.12.2 Brace requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.12.3 Brace connection requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
3.12.4 Beam design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
3.12.5 Column design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
3.13 Steel special plate shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
3.13.1 Web requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.13.2 Strip model methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
4 SEISMIC DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.1 Special moment frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
4.1.1 Design loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
4.1.2 Beam details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
4.1.3 Beam design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
4.1.4 Column details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
4.1.5 Column design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
4.1.6 Joint design and details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
4.2 Special structural walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
4.2.1 Shear capacity of shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
4.2.2 Special boundary elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.2.3 Nonspecial boundary elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
4.3 Slender wall design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
4.3.1 General requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
4.3.2 Required strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
4.3.3 Service load deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
4.4 Anchorage in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
4.4.1 Design requirements for tensile loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
4.4.2 Design requirements for shear loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.4.3 Interaction of tensile and shear forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
5 SEISMIC DESIGN OF WOOD STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
5.1 General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.1.1 Building classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.1.2 Design methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.2 Lateral-force-resisting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
5.2.1 Lateral load path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
5.2.2 Connection details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
vi Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

5.3 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
5.3.2 Diaphragm strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
5.3.3 Diaphragm deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
5.3.4 Diaphragm flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
5.3.5 Subdiaphragm requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
5.3.6 Design of collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
5.4 Shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
5.4.2 Shear wall strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
5.4.3 Shear wall deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
5.4.4 Design using the segmented shear wall method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
5.4.5 Design using the perforated shear wall method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
5.4.6 Design using the force transfer round openings method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
5.5 Wood structural panels to resist combined shear and uplift from wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
5.5.1 Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
6 SEISMIC DESIGN OF MASONRY STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
6.1 Reinforced masonry shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
6.1.1 Reinforcement requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
6.1.2 Design loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
6.1.3 Strength reduction factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.1.4 Shear capacity of a shear wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
6.1.5 Axial load capacity of a shear wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
6.1.6 Flexural capacity of a shear wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
6.1.7 Boundary elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
6.1.8 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
6.1.9 Sliding shear and shear friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
6.2 Walls with out-of-plane loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
6.2.1 Strength reduction factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
6.2.2 Shear capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
6.2.3 Flexural demand on a slender wall with one layer of centered reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
6.2.4 Flexural capacity of a slender wall with one layer of centered reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
6.2.5 Deflection under service loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
6.3 Headed anchor bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
6.3.1 Headed anchor bolt installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
6.3.2 Seismic design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
6.3.3 Headed anchor bolts in tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
6.3.4 Headed anchor bolts in shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples vii

About the Author
Dr. Alan Williams was educated in the United Kingdom where he obtained his B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
at Leeds University. He subsequently has had extensive and diverse experience in the practice and
teaching of structural engineering.
Dr. Williams’ practical experience includes bridge design with the Division of Roads in Zimbabwe
and the design of bridges and industrial and commercial structures as a Consulting Engineer in South
Africa and the United States. He has been employed as a Senior Engineer with the State of California
Department of Transportation and as Principal for structural safety with the California Division of the
State Architect.
His academic positions include Associate Professor at the University of Science and Technology in
Ghana, Professor of Structural Analysis at Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria, External Examiner at
the University of Cape Town, and Lecturer in structural steel design and reinforced concrete design at
the University of California, Irvine.
The author’s published works include textbooks on structural engineering design, structural analysis,
seismic design, and steel and reinforced concrete design. He has authored numerous technical papers
for international journals and conferences.
Dr. Williams is a Fellow and Life Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, a Chartered Engineer
in the United Kingdom, and a registered Structural Engineer in California.
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples ix

Introduction
The purpose of this publication is to provide an understanding of the application of the 2018 Interna-
tional Building Code®1 (IBC®) to current design practice. The IBC is a design standard that is adopted
by jurisdictions throughout the world as the mandated building code.
This text is intended to facilitate the transition of designers, teachers, and students from the previous
code and aid with code compliance. In the text, sections of the code are presented, analyzed, and
explained in a logical and simple manner and are followed by an illustrative example. Each example
concentrates on a specific section of the code and provides a clear and concise interpretation of the
issue.
The text is organized into six chapters that correspond to the primary structural design sections of the
code. These are:
• earthquake loads
• wind loads
• design of steel structures
• design of concrete structures
• design of wood structures
• design of masonry structures
Chapter 16 of the IBC deals with structural design loads. These provisions are derived from ASCE
72 and the NEHRP3 provisions. In this text, seismic design loads are covered in Chapter 1 and wind
design loads are covered in Chapter 2.
Chapter 22 of the IBC deals with the seismic design of steel structures and is based on the AISC4 seis-
mic provisions. These requirements are covered in Chapter 3 of this text.
Seismic design of concrete structures is covered in Chapter 19 of the IBC and Chapter 4 of this text.
These provisions are derived from the ACI5 building code.
Seismic design of wood structures is covered in Chapter 23 of the IBC and Chapter 5 of this text.
These requirements are derived from the NDS6 code.
Seismic design of masonry structures is dealt with in Chapter 21 of the IBC. These provisions are
derived from Masonry Society code TMS 402.7 Chapter 6 of this text covers these requirements.
Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples xi

About the International Code Council
The International Code Council® (ICC®), a membership association dedicated to building safety, fire
prevention, and energy efficiency, develops the codes and standards used to construct residential and
commercial buildings, including homes and schools. The mission of the ICC is to provide the highest
quality codes, standards, products, and services for all concerned with the safety and performance of
the built environment. Most United States cities, counties, and states choose the International Codes®
(I-Codes®)—building safety codes developed by the International Code Council.
The I-Codes also serve as the basis for construction of federal properties around the world and as a
reference for many nations outside the Untied States. The Code Council is also dedicated to innova-
tion and sustainability. ICC Evaluation Service® (ICC-ES®), a subsidiary of ICC, issues Evaluation
Reports and Listings for innovative building products as well as environmental documents such as
ICC-ES VAR Environmental Reports and ICC-ES Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs).
ICC Headquarters:
500 New Jersey Avenue, NW

6th Floor
Washington, DC 20001
District Offices:
Birmingham, AL • Chicago, IL • Los Angeles, CA
Telephone: 1-888-422-7233 (ICC SAFE)
www.iccsafe.org
References
1. International Code Council. 2018 International Building Code. Washington, DC, 2018.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Build-
ings and Other Structures: ASCE 7-16. Reston, VA, 2016.
3. Building Seismic Safety Council. NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings
and Other Structures. Washington, DC, 2009.
4. American Institute of Steel Construction. Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings. Chi-
cago, IL, 2016.
5. American Concrete Institute. Building Code Requirements and Commentary for Structural Con-
crete (ACI 318-14). Farmington Hills, MI, 2014.
6. American Wood Council. National Design Specification for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC
NDS-2018). Leesburg, VA, 2018.
7. The Masonry Society. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (TMS 402-16). Long-
mont, CO, 2016.
xii Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

CHAPTER 1
Seismic Design
Nomenclature
AT tributary wall area ft2
Cd deflection amplification factor from ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 –
Cs seismic response coefficient specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.1 –
Cu coefficient for upper limit on calculated period from ASCE 7 Table 12.8-1 –
Cv vertical coefficient given in ASCE 7 Table 11.9-1 –
D effect of dead load lb or kips
E calculated seismic load on an element of a structure resulting from both lb or kips
horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced forces as given by ASCE 7
Equation (12.4-1) and Equation (12.4-2)
Eh calculated horizontal seismic load on an element of a structure as given by lb or kips
ASCE 7 Equation (12.4-3)
Ev calculated vertical seismic load on an element of a structure as given by lb or kips
ASCE 7 Equation (12.4-4a)
fi design seismic lateral force at level i lb or kips
Fa short-period site coefficient –
Fp force on diaphragm lb or kips
Fv long-period site coefficient –
Fx design seismic lateral force at level x as specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.3 lb or kips
g gravitational acceleration 32.2 ft/sec2,
386.4 in/sec2
hi height above the base to level i ft
hn height of the roof above the base, not including the height of penthouses or ft
parapets
hs story height ft
hsx story height below level x ft

2 Seismic Design
hx height above the base to level x ft

Ie seismic importance factor –
k distribution exponent given in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.3 –
k member stiffness kips/in
L effect of live load lb or kips
MCER risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake –
MP primary moment kip-ft
MS secondary moment kip-ft
N number of stories –
N notional load lb or kips
PI plasticity index –
Px total unfactored vertical design load at and above level x lb or kips
QE effect of horizontal seismic forces lb or kips
R response modification coefficient for a specific structural system from –
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1
su undrained shear strength lb/ft2
S effect of snow load lb or kips
S1 maximum considered response acceleration for a period of 1.0 second –
Sa design spectral response acceleration –
SaM spectral response acceleration at any period –
SaMv vertical spectral response acceleration at any period –
SDS design spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second –
SD1 design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second –
SMS modified spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second –
SM1 modified spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second –
SS maximum considered response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second –
T fundamental period of vibration, defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2 sec
T0 defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.4.6 as 0.2SD1/SDS –
Ta approximate fundamental period of vibration determined using ASCE 7 sec
Section 12.8.2.1
TL long-period transition period sec

Chapter 1 3
Tr fundamental period of vibration determined by the Rayleigh procedure sec

TS defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.4.6 as SD1/SDS –
Tv vertical period of vibration sec
V total seismic base shear lb or kips
Vx total shear force at level x lb or kips
Vx seismic shear force acting between levels x and (x 2 1) lb or kips
VY base shear at formation of the collapse mechanism lb or kips
wi seismic weight located at level i lb or kips
wp seismic weight tributary to diaphragm lb or kips
wx seismic weight located at level x lb or kips
ww weight of wall tributary to connection lb or kips
W wind load applied to a structural element lb or kips
W effective seismic weight defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.7.2 lb or kips
ΣFi total shear force at level i lb or kips
Σwi total seismic weight at level i and above lb or kips
Symbols
β ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story between levels x and –
x 2 1, defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.7
δi elastic horizontal deflection at level i, due to the forces fi in
δmax maximum elastic displacement at the critical location, considering torsion in
δM maximum inelastic displacement given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.12-1) in
δMT required separation between buildings given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.12-2) in
δx amplified horizontal deflection at level x, defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6 in
δxe horizontal deflection at level x, determined by an elastic analysis using in
strength seismic forces, defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6
Δ design story drift, occurring simultaneously with the story shear Vx, defined in
in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6, and calculated using the amplification factor Cd
Δa allowable story drift, defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.12-1 in
Ω0 overstrength factor tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 –
ρ redundancy factor defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4 –
θ stability coefficient defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.7 –

4 Seismic Design
1.1 Seismic loads

Earthquakes are generated by a rupture along a fault zone in the underlying rock. The resultant shaking
in the rock propagates to the earth’s surface and causes vibrations in a structure. As a result of these
vibrations, inertial forces are created in the structure. The inertial forces produced are given by New-
ton’s Second Law of Motion, which states that the inertial force, F, equals the mass, m, multiplied by
the acceleration, a. Thus,
F 5 ma
At the onset of an earthquake, the ground displacement produces a corresponding displacement of

the foundation of a structure. Because of the inertia of the structure, the roof and upper stories do
not immediately respond. When the roof begins to move in the same direction as the foundation, the
ground displacement has reversed in direction, taking the foundation with it. Thus, the roof and the
foundation are moving in opposite directions and this whiplash effect may cause severe damage unless
the structure is appropriately designed and constructed.
Seismic loads are dynamic in nature and require a complex dynamic analysis for a complete solution.
An alternative method of analysis, the equivalent lateral force (ELF) procedure, provides a simple and
direct approach where a sophisticated dynamic analysis is not warranted. The procedure consists of
applying a single static force at the base of the building, as shown in Figure 1-1. This static force, V,
is termed the seismic base shear and is intended to reproduce in the structure forces similar to those
caused by the earthquake. After the seismic base shear is determined, the forces acting on the indi-
vidual structural elements in the building may be calculated. The equivalent lateral force procedure is
applicable to regular structures, defined as structures without irregular features that have a reasonably
uniform distribution of stiffness, strength, and mass over the height of the structure. The structure mass
and the equivalent lateral forces are assumed to be concentrated at floor and roof levels as shown in
Figure 1-1.
In accordance with Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the lighter a structure is, the smaller the iner-
tial force generated. Hence, lightweight buildings such as wood-frame houses and light-frame indus-
trial buildings perform better in earthquakes than other types of buildings. The International Building
Code® (IBC®)1 Section 2308 exempts conventional light-frame buildings from seismic design require-
ments, provided that prescriptive construction limitations are complied with.
Conventional light-frame construction is defined in IBC Section 202 as:
Construction whose primary structural elements are formed by a system of repetitive wood-framing
members.
The IBC adopts by reference most of the seismic provisions of ASCE 7.2 In accordance with IBC
Section 1613.1:
Every structure, and portion thereof, including nonstructural components that are permanently
attached to structures and their supports and attachments, shall be designed and constructed to
resist the effects of earthquake motions in accordance with Chapters 11, 12, 13, 15, 17 and 18 of
ASCE 7, as applicable.

Chapter 1 5
level 4 F4 m4
level 3 F3 m3
level 2 F2 m2
level 1 F1 m1
V V
Base shear Equivalent frame
Figure 1-1 Equivalent lateral force procedure
The seismic design criteria of ASCE 7 are primarily based on FEMA P-7503, the 2009 edition of the
NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and Other Structures. FEMA P-750
Section 1.1 states that the intent of the provisions is to avoid structural collapse in a major earthquake
and provide reasonable assurance of seismic performance that will:
• avoid serious injury and loss of life
• avoid loss of function in critical facilities
• minimize structural and nonstructural repair costs where practical
The most severe earthquake ground motion considered by the IBC is the risk-targeted maximum con-
sidered earthquake (MCER). This is defined in IBC Section 202 as:
The most severe earthquake effects considered by this code, determined for the orientation that
results in the largest maximum response to horizontal ground motions and with adjustment for
targeted risk.
The design earthquake ground motion is defined in IBC Section 202 as:
The earthquake ground motion that buildings and structures are specifically proportioned to resist.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 11.2, the design earthquake ground motion is two-thirds of the
corresponding MCER ground motion. This factor of two-thirds accounts for the margin against col-
lapse inherent in structures designed in accordance with ASCE 7. This is judged to correspond to
two-thirds times the MCER.

6 Seismic Design
The consequences of damage to a structure are not the same for all types of structures. The collapse of
an essential building, such as a hospital, has a more severe effect on a community than the collapse of
an agricultural facility. IBC Table 1604.5 subdivides buildings into four risk categories and ASCE 7
Table 1.5-2 assigns a seismic importance factor, Ie , to each risk category. By this means, an essential
structure is designed for a higher seismic load than a less important structure. This results in a reduc-
tion in structural damage to an essential structure in a severe earthquake. Risk category is defined in
IBC Section 202 as:
A categorization of buildings and other structures for determination of flood, wind, snow, ice and
earthquake loads based on the risk associated with unacceptable performance.
In IBC Table 1604.5, risk categories are listed as:
• Risk category I structures are low-hazard structures such as agricultural facilities, minor stor-
age buildings, and temporary facilities. Risk category I structures are allocated an importance
factor of 1.0.
• Risk category II structures are standard occupancy structures such as residential, commercial,
and office buildings. Risk category II structures are allocated an importance factor of 1.0.
• Risk category III structures are facilities that represent a substantial hazard to human life in
the event of failure, including buildings with public assembly facilities, educational facilities,
health care facilities, jails, and power-generating stations, and facilities containing quantities of
toxic or explosive materials. Risk category III structures are allocated an importance factor of
1.25. This ensures that a risk category III structure is designed for a seismic load of 1.25 times
greater than a risk category II structure.
• Risk category IV structures are buildings designated as essential facilities, including hospitals,
fire and police stations, postearthquake-recovery centers, and buildings that house equipment
for these facilities, as well as facilities housing quantities of toxic materials that are of suffi-
cient quantity to pose a threat to public safety if released. Risk category IV structures are allo-
cated an importance factor of 1.5. This ensures that a risk category IV structure is designed for
a seismic load of 1.5 times greater than a risk category II structure.
As shown in ASCE 7 Table 1.3-2, a risk category I and a risk category II structure have a conditional
probability of failure of 10 percent. This is equivalent to an absolute failure probability of 1 percent
in 50 years. The conditional probability of failure for a risk category III structure is 5 percent and 2.5
percent for a risk category IV structure.
In accordance with IBC Section 1613.1, the following buildings are exempt from seismic design
requirements:
• detached one- and two-family dwellings, assigned to seismic design category A, B, or C, or
located where the mapped short-period spectral response acceleration, SS , is less than 0.4g
• wood-frame buildings that conform to the provisions of IBC Section 2308

Chapter 1 7
• agricultural storage structures intended only for incidental human occupancy
• structures that require special consideration of their response characteristics and environment
that are not addressed by the IBC or ASCE 7 and for which other regulations provide seismic
criteria, such as vehicular bridges, electrical transmission towers, hydraulic structures, buried
utility lines and their appurtenances, and nuclear reactors
IBC Section 2308 includes provisions for buildings of conventional light-frame construction and
buildings complying with the International Residential Code® (IRC®).4
1.2 Design procedures

To determine the seismic response of a structure, several factors must be considered, and these include:
• site classification characteristics
• risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations
• site coefficient
• adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations
• fundamental period of vibration of the structure
• design spectral response accelerations
• importance factors and risk category
• seismic design category
• lateral-force-resisting systems
• response modification coefficient
• overstrength factor
• deflection amplification factor
• effective seismic weight
• seismic response coefficient
• seismic base shear

8 Seismic Design
1.3 Site classification characteristics

The ground motion produced by an earthquake is affected by the soil profile through which the vibra-
tions travel. The amplification of long-period spectral vibrations is significantly larger on soft soil than
on hard soil or rock. To account for this potential amplification, six different soil types are identified
in ASCE 7 Table 20.3-1, ranging from hard rock to soft clay soil and to sites containing peat, highly
plastic clay, or collapsible soil. The classification may be made by determining on-site the average
shear wave velocity in the top 100 feet of material. Alternatively, for site classification types C, D, and
E, the classification may be made by measuring the standard penetration resistance or undrained shear
strength of the material. Soil classification type B is defined as rock and occurs mainly in the west-
ern states. Soil classification type A is defined as hard rock and has the effect of reducing the ground
response by 20 percent. Soil classification type A occurs mainly in the eastern states. Soil classifica-
tion type E is defined as soft soil and has the effect of increasing the long-period ground response by
up to 350 percent. Soil classification type F is defined as peat, highly plastic clay, or collapsible soil
and generally requires a site-specific evaluation to determine the risk-targeted maximum considered
earthquake response parameters. Where soil parameters are unknown, in accordance with ASCE 7
Section 11.4.3, soil classification type D may be assumed unless the building official determines that
soil classification type E or F is likely to be present at the site. The site classifications are defined in
ASCE 7 Table 20.3-1 and an abbreviated listing is provided in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Site classification definitions
Site Soil profile Shear wave velocity,

classification name ft/sec
A Hard rock . 5000

B Rock 2500 to 5000
C Soft rock 1200 to 2500
D Stiff soil 600 to 1200
E Soft clay soil , 600
F — —

Chapter 1 9
Example 1-1
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is used as an office building. The soil profile
at the site consists of a 100-foot depth of stiff soil with a shear wave velocity of 1300 feet per second.
Determine the applicable site classification.
level 2
N
h=
s = 40 ft
level 1
h=
b = 20 ft 20 ft 20 ft
Section Plan
Figure 1-2 Details for Example 1-1
Solution
From ASCE 7 Table 20.3-1, the applicable site classification for this soil profile is site classification C.
1.4 Earthquake response spectra

The ground motion parameters SS and S1 are defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.4.2 and are mapped in
ASCE 7 Figures 22-1 through 22-8. Alternatively, the ground motion parameters may be obtained
from the Applied Technology Council website https://hazards.atcouncil.org for locations with known
latitude and longitude or postal address. The two values provided, SS and S1, represent the risk-targeted
maximum considered earthquake (MCER) response accelerations at periods of 0.2 second and 1.0
second for 5-percent damping. Periods of 0.2 second and 1.0 second represent the approximate natural
period of a short and tall building, respectively. The ground motion parameters are adjusted to a refer-
ence site condition with an average shear wave velocity of 2500 ft/sec.
To achieve uniformity in structural collapse throughout the United States, the ground motion parame-
ters are risk targeted to provide a uniform risk with a 1-percent probability of building collapse in 50
years.5
For a seismically active region such as coastal California, a probabilistic approach results in much
higher accelerations than that of the characteristic earthquakes in the region. Hence, for this region,

10 Seismic Design
the values represent the deterministic event defined as the median estimate of the accelerations of the
characteristic earthquakes increased by 50 percent. The characteristic earthquake is defined as the
maximum acceleration capable of occurring in the region but not less than the largest acceleration that
has been recorded in the region.
Two procedures are available for determining the risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake and
the response spectrum. These are the general procedure and the site-specific procedure.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 20.3.1, a site response analysis is necessary for structures on site
class F sites with the following exceptions:
• a structure having a fundamental period of 0.5 second or less situated on liquefiable soil and
where the site class is assigned in accordance with ASCE 7 Table 20.3-1
• for highly plastic clays with a plasticity index exceeding 75 provided that Fa and Fv are obtained
from Table 1-2 for site class D or E multiplied by a factor that varies linearly from 1.0 at PI 5
75 to 1.3 for PI 5 125 and is equal to 1.3 for PI . 125 and, in addition, the resulting values
of SDS and SD1 do not exceed the upper bound values for seismic design category B given in
Table 1-6
• for very thick soft/medium stiff clays with a thickness exceeding 120 feet and an undrained
shear strength of less than 1000 psf provided that Fa and Fv are obtained from Table 1-2 for
site class E and, in addition, the resulting values of SDS and SD1 do not exceed the upper bound
values for seismic design category B given in Table 1-6
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 11.4.8, a ground motion hazard analysis is necessary in the fol-
lowing situations:
• seismically isolated structures and structures with damping systems at sites with S1 greater than
or equal to 0.6g
• structures on site class E sites with values of SS greater than or equal to 1.0g
• structures on site class D or E sites for values of S1 greater than or equal to 0.2g
However, with the exception of seismically isolated structures and structures with damping systems, a
ground motion hazard analysis is not required where the structure is located on:
• a site class E site with a value of SS greater than or equal to 1.0g provided that the site coeffi-
cient Fa is taken as equal to that of site class C (Fa 5 1.2)
• a site class D site with a value of S1 greater than or equal to 0.2g, provided that the value of the
seismic response coefficient Cs is conservatively calculated using ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2)
for T ≤ 1.5TS and using 1.5 times the value computed in accordance with either ASCE 7 Equa-
tion (12.8-3) for TL ≥ T . 1.5TS or ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-4) for T . TL
• a site class E site with a value of S1 greater than or equal to 0.2g provided that T is less than or
equal to TS and the ELF procedure is used for design

Chapter 1 11
1.4.1 General procedure
To apply the general procedure, reference may be made to the risk-targeted maximum considered
earthquake spectral response accelerations mapped in the ASCE 7 provisions. Two sets of maps are
provided to designate the two parameters, SS and S1. SS represents the 5-percent damped, risk-targeted
maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second for struc-
tures founded on rock with an average shear wave velocity of 2500 ft/sec and is applicable to short
period structures. S1 represents the 5-percent damped, risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake
spectral response acceleration for a period of 1.0 second for structures founded on rock with an aver-
age shear wave velocity of 2500 ft/sec. Figure 1-3 shows the effect produced on the response spectra
by different soil types.
Precise values of the two parameters, SS and S1, are difficult to determine in congested areas of the
maps. To obviate this problem, a software program that calculates the spectral parameters from the
latitude and longitude of a specific location is available on the Applied Technology Council website at
https://hazards.atcouncil.org
The latitude and longitude for a specific location may be obtained from several websites.
Alternatively, the spectral parameters may be determined by the program for a given postal address.
Site classification D
1.0
Site classification A
Acceleration, Sa g
0.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Period, T sec
Figure 1-3 Representative response spectra
1.4.2 Site-specific procedure
A site-specific study must account for the regional seismicity and geology, the magnitudes, recur-
rence rates, and locations of earthquakes on known active faults in the region, and the soil profile. The
procedure for determining the site-specific risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake response
spectrum is detailed in ASCE 7 Section 21.2. This consists of comparing the spectra resulting from
a probabilistic and a deterministic risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake with a predefined
deterministic lower limit.

12 Seismic Design
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 21.2.1, the probabilistic spectral response acceleration is taken as
the spectral response acceleration in the direction of maximum horizontal ground motions represented
by a 5-percent damped acceleration response spectrum that is expected to achieve a 1-percent proba-
bility of collapse within a 50-year period.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 21.2.2, the deterministic spectral response acceleration at each
period is calculated as the largest 84th percentile 5-percent damped spectral response acceleration
in the direction of maximum horizontal response computed at that period for characteristic earth-
quakes on all known active faults within the region. The ordinates of the deterministic ground motions
response spectrum are not taken lower than the corresponding ordinates of the deterministic lower
limit on risk-targeted maximum considered response spectrum shown in ASCE 7 Figure 21.2-1. This
figure is reproduced in Figure 1-4.
For site classes A, B, or C
Fa is the site coefficient at a period of 0.2 second and is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 11.4-1, with SS
taken as 1.5g. Fv is the site coefficient at a period of 1.0 second and is obtained from ASCE 7 Table
11.4-2, with S1 taken as 0.6g.
For site class D
Fa is taken as 1.0 and Fv is taken as 2.5
For site classes E and F
Fa is taken as 1.0 and Fv is taken as 4.0
= 0.6FvTL/T 2
0.08Fv /Fa 0.4Fv /Fa TL
Figure 1-4 Deterministic lower limit on risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake response spectrum

Chapter 1 13
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 21.2.3, the site-specific MCER spectral response acceleration at
any period, SaM , shall be taken as the lesser of the spectral response accelerations from the probabilistic
ground motions of ASCE 7 Section 21.2.1 and the deterministic ground motions of ASCE 7 Section
21.2.2.
1.5 Site coefficient

Site coefficients are amplification factors applied to the maximum considered earthquake response
parameters, obtained by the general procedure at a specific site, to account for the site classification
characteristics and response parameters at the site. Fa is the short period or acceleration-based amplifi-
cation factor and is defined in ASCE 7 Table 11.4-1. Fv is the long period or velocity-based amplifica-
tion factor and is defined in ASCE 7 Table 11.4-2. In general, as the soil profile becomes progressively
softer, the value of the site coefficient increases. However, the short period site coefficient for a value
of SS ≥ 1.0 reduces for site classification type D, reflecting the tendency for the ground response to
attenuate as the seismicity increases. ASCE 7 Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2 are reproduced in Table 1-2.
Linear interpolation may be used to obtain intermediate values. The site coefficients are presented in
graphical form in Figure 1-5.
Table 1-2 Site coefficients Fa corresponding to Ss , and Fv corresponding to S1
Response acceleration, SS Response acceleration, S1

Site
classification  0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25  1.50  0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5  0.6
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
C 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 2.4 2.2c 2.0c 1.9c 1.8c 1.7c
E 2.4 1.7 1.3 a a a 4.2 b b b b b
F d d d d d d d d d d d d
Notes:
a. A ground motion hazard analysis is required unless the site coefficient Fa is taken as equal to that of site class C (Fa 5 1.2).
b. A ground motion hazard analysis is required unless T is less than or equal to TS and the ELF procedure is used for design.
c. A ground motion hazard analysis is required unless the value of the seismic response coefficient Cs is conservatively calculated
using ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) for T ≤ 1.5TS and taken as equal to 1.5 times the value computed in accordance with either
ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) for TL ≥ T . 1.5TS or ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-4) for T . TL.
d. A site response analysis is required unless any of the exceptions to ASCE 7 Section 20.3.1 are applicable.
For situations in which site investigations reveal competent rock conditions with moderate fracturing
and weathering consistent with site class B, but site-specific velocity measurements are not made, the
site coefficients Fa and Fv are taken as unity (1.0).

14 Seismic Design
Where site class D is selected as the default site class in accordance ASCE 7 Section 11.4.3, the value
of Fa must not be less than 1.2.
E
3 4
E
3
2 D
D
2
Fa
Fv
C
C
1 A
1 A
0 1.0 2.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

SS S1
Figure 1-5 Site coefficients
Example 1-2
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California. The
risk-targeted maximum response accelerations are SS 5 1.26g and S1 5 0.457g. Determine the site
coefficients for this structure.
Solution
From Example 1-1, the site classification at the location of this structure is site classification C. From
the problem statement, the maximum considered earthquake response accelerations are
SS 5 1.260g
S1 5 0.457g
From Table 1-2, the site coefficients are determined as
Fa 5 1.2
Fv 5 1.5
Example 1-3
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Miami, Florida. The risk-targeted
maximum considered response accelerations are SS 5 0.05g and S1 5 0.019g. Determine the site coef-
ficients for this structure.

Chapter 1 15
Solution
From Example 1-1, the site classification at the location of this structure is site classification C. From
the problem statement, the maximum considered earthquake response accelerations are
SS 5 0.050g
S1 5 0.019g
From Table 1-2, the site coefficients are determined as
Fa 5 1.3
Fv 5 1.5
1.6 Adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response

accelerations
The maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations, obtained by the general pro-
cedure, must be modified for the site classification effects. ASCE 7 Equations (11.4-1) and (11.4-2)
define the modified spectral response accelerations at short periods and at a period of 1.0 second as
SMS 5 FaSS
SM1 5 FvS1
No adjustment is necessary to the maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations,

SaM , derived by the site-specific procedure, as these values already reflect the site classification effects.
Example 1-4
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California. Deter-
mine the adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations for the structure.
Solution
From Example 1-2, the site coefficients are
Fa 5 1.2
Fv 5 1.5

16 Seismic Design
From ASCE 7 Equations (11.4-1) and (11.4-2) and Example 1-2, the adjusted spectral response accel-
erations at short periods and at a period of 1.0 second are
SMS 5 FaSS
5 1.2 3 1.260g
5 1.51g
SM1 5 FvS1
5 1.5 3 0.457g
5 0.69g
Example 1-5
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Miami, Florida. Determine the
adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations for the structure.
Solution
From Example 1-3, the site coefficients are
Fa 5 1.3
Fv 5 1.5
From ASCE 7 Equations (11.4-1) and (11.4-2) and Example 1-3, the adjusted spectral response accel-
erations at short periods and at a period of 1.0 second are
SMS 5 FaSS
5 1.3 3 0.050g
5 0.065g
SM1 5 FvS1
5 1.5 3 0.019g
5 0.029g
1.7 Fundamental period of vibration of the structure

Each structure has a unique natural or fundamental period of vibration that is the time required to
complete one cycle in the first mode of free vibration. The factors determining the fundamental period

Chapter 1 17
include the stiffness and height of the structure. ASCE 7 Sections 12.8.2 and 12.8.2.1 provide three
methods for determining the fundamental period of a structure. These are the general approximate
method, the approximate method for moment-resisting frames, and the rational analysis method.
1.7.1 General approximate method
The general approximate method utilizes ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7) and the approximate fundamental
period in seconds is given by
Ta 5 0.028(hn)0.8 . . . for steel moment-resisting frames

Ta 5 0.016(hn)0.9 . . . for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames
Ta 5 0.030(hn)0.75 . . . for eccentrically braced steel frames and buckling-
restrained braced frames
Ta 5 0.020(hn)0.75 . . . for all other structural systems
where: hn 5 height in feet of the roof above the base, not including the height of
penthouses or parapets
In order to use these values for moment-resisting frames, the moment-resisting frames must resist 100
percent of the required seismic force.
The calculated base shear for a structure is dependent on the magnitude of the fundamental period,
with a larger value of Ta producing a smaller value of the base shear. The approximate fundamental
period determined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7) underestimates the actual value of the fundamental
period, thus providing a conservative value for the base shear.
Example 1-6
Determine the approximate fundamental period of vibration for the two-story steel-frame building
shown in Figure 1-2.
Solution
The approximate fundamental period is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7) as
Ta 5 0.028(hn)0.8
where: hn 5 roof height
5 24 ft

18 Seismic Design
Then, the fundamental period is
Ta 5 0.028(24)0.8
5 0.36 sec
1.7.2 Approximate method for moment-resisting frames
For moment-resisting frames not exceeding 12 stories in height and with an average story height of at
least 10 feet, the approximate fundamental period may be determined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-8),
which is
Ta 5 0.1N
where: N 5 number of stories
Example 1-7
Determine the approximate fundamental period of vibration for the two-story steel frame building
Solution
The story height is
hs 5 12 ft
. 10 ft . . . satisfactory
The number of stories is
N 52
, 12 . . . satisfactory
Then, for a moment-resisting frame, ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-8) specifies a value for the building
period of
Ta 5 0.1N
5 0.1 3 2
5 0.20 sec

Chapter 1 19
1.7.3 Rational analysis method
ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2 permits the fundamental period to be determined by a “properly substantiated
analysis.” The Rayleigh procedure is an acceptable method and the fundamental period is given by
Tr 5 2π(Σwi d2i /gΣfi di )1/2

5 (0.32)(Σwi d2i /Σfi di )1/2
where: di 5 elastic horizontal deflection at level i due to the forces fi
fi 5 lateral force at level i
wi 5 seismic weight located at level i
g 5 acceleration due to gravity
The lateral forces, fi , represent any lateral force distribution increasing approximately uniformly with
height as shown in Figure 1-6. This distribution, in the form of an inverted triangle, corresponds to the
distribution of base shear that is assumed in ASCE 7 and is equivalent to the inertial forces produced
in a frame with uniform mass distribution, equal story heights, and with acceleration increasing uni-
formly with height. The mathematical model representing the structure must include all significant
elements of the lateral-force-resisting system. If the contribution of the nonstructural elements to the
stiffness of the structure is underestimated, the calculated deflections and natural periods are over
estimated, giving a value for the base shear that is too low. To reduce the effects of this error, ASCE 7
Section 12.8.2 specifies that the value of the natural period determined by this method may not exceed
the value of
T 5 CuTa . . . when Tr . CuTa

where: Ta 5 approximate fundamental period determined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7)
Cu 5 coefficient for upper limit on calculated period
level

level -1
1 1 1
level

level 2
2 2 2
level 1
1 1 1
Frame Story weights Deflections Lateral force
Figure 1-6 Rayleigh procedure

20 Seismic Design
Values of Cu are given in ASCE 7 Table 12.8-1 and are shown in Table 1-3. As indicated, the values
of Cu are dependent on SD1, the 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration at a period of
1.0 second.
Table 1-3 Coefficient for upper limit on the calculated period
SD1 ≥ 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.15  0.10
Cu 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Example 1-8
Using Rayleigh’s method, determine the fundamental period of vibration of the two-story steel-frame
building shown in Figure 1-2, which is located in an area with a value for SD1 exceeding 0.40. The
force system shown in Figure 1-7 may be utilized, and the seismic weight at each level and the total
stiffness of each story are indicated.

Solution
Applying the force system indicated, the displacements at each level are given by
δ1 5 ( f2 1 f1)/k1
5 (20 1 10)/30
5 1.00 in
δ2 5 f2 /k2 1 δ1
5 20/30 1 1.00
5 1.67 in
The fundamental period is given by the Rayleigh procedure as
Tr 5 0.32(Σwi d2i /Σfi di )1/2

Chapter 1 21
The relevant values are given in Table 1-4.
Table 1-4 Rayleigh procedure for Example 1-8
Level wi fi di wi d2i fi di
2 25.60 20 1.67 71.40 33.40

1 51.20 10 1.00 51.20 10.00
Total 76.80 – – 122.60 43.40
Then: Tr 5 0.32(122.60/43.40)1/2
5 0.538 sec
In a location with a value for the design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second of
SD1 . 0.4, the value of the coefficient for the upper limit on the calculated period is obtained from
Table 1-3 as
Cu 5 1.4
The approximate fundamental period was determined in Example 1-6 as
Ta 5 0.36 sec
Hence, the fundamental period, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2, is limited to
CuTa 5 1.4Ta
5 1.4 3 0.36
5 0.50 sec
, 0.538 sec
Therefore, use a maximum value of
T 5 0.50 sec
1.8 Design spectral response acceleration parameters

The design objective of ASCE 7 is to provide a uniform risk against collapse for structures through-
out all regions of the United States. For ground motions in excess of the design ground motions, the
intention is that there shall be a low likelihood of collapse. The ground motion parameters SS and
S1 represent the risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake ground motions. The design ground
motions SDS and SD1 represent a lower bound estimate of the margin against collapse of a structure.

22 Seismic Design
This lower bound is equivalent to a factor of 1.5 on the maximum considered earthquake ground
motions. Hence, the design ground motions are calculated as 1⁄1.5 or 2⁄3 times the maximum considered
earthquake motions. Because of the inherent seismic margin built into a structure, it is anticipated that
a structure experiencing a level of ground motion 150 percent of the design ground motion will have
a low likelihood of collapse.
The 5-percent damped, design spectral response accelerations, for a period of 0.2 second and for a
period of 1.0 second, are given by ASCE 7 Equations (11.4-3) and (11.4-4) as
SDS 5 2SMS /3
SD1 5 2SM1/3
The general procedure response spectrum is constructed as indicated in Figure 1-8. The short-period
spectral response value of 0.2 second represents the short-period range of the response spectra. The
long-period spectral response value of 1.0 second represents the long-period range of the response
spectra.
Figure 1-8 Construction of design response spectra
The relevant parameters are defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.4.5 and are given by
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration at short periods

SD1 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0
second
T 5 fundamental period of the structure

Chapter 1 23
TS 5 constant-velocity transition period 5 SD1/SDS

T0 5 constant-acceleration transition period 5 0.2SD1/SDS
TL 5 long-period transition period given on ASCE 7 Figures 22-14 through 22-17
For periods not greater than T0 , the design spectral response acceleration is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(11.4-5) as
Sa 5 SDS(0.4 1 0.6T/T0)
For periods greater than or equal to T0 and less than or equal to TS , the design spectral response accel-
eration is equal to SDS and this forms the flat-topped, constant-acceleration portion of the spectrum.
For periods greater than TS and less than or equal to TL, the curve forms the descending portion, con-
stant-velocity section of the spectrum. Over this section, the design spectral response acceleration is
given by ASCE 7 Equation (11.4-6) as
Sa 5 SD1/T
For periods greater than TL, the curve forms the constant-displacement section of the spectrum. Values
of TL range from 4 seconds to 16 seconds and are obtained from the contour maps provided in ASCE
7. Over this section, the design spectral response acceleration is given by ASCE 7 Equation (11.4-7) as
Sa 5 SD1TL/T 2
For the site-specific procedure, design spectral response accelerations are given by ASCE 7 Equation
(21.3-1) as
Sa 5 2SaM /3
where: SaM 5 maximum considered earthquake response accelerations derived by the site-
specific procedure
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 21.3, the design spectral response accelerations derived from a
site-specific maximum considered earthquake response spectrum may not be taken as less than 80
percent of the values obtained from the corresponding general procedure response spectrum. The
design spectral response accelerations derived from a site-specific maximum considered earthquake
response spectrum for a site classification type F profile may not be taken less than 80 percent of the
values obtained from the corresponding general procedure response spectrum determined for a site
classification type E profile.
Example 1-9
mine the design spectral response accelerations and draw the general procedure response spectrum.

24 Seismic Design
Solution
From Example 1-4, the modified spectral response accelerations at short periods and at a period of 1.0
second are
SMS 5 1.51g
SM1 5 0.69g
The corresponding design spectral response accelerations are
SDS 5 2SMS /3
5 1.01g
SD1 5 2SM1/3
5 0.46g
The response spectrum parameters are given by
TS 5 SD1/SDS
5 0.46 sec
T0 5 0.2SD1/SDS
5 0.092 sec
At T 5 0, the design spectral response acceleration is given by ASCE 7 Equation (11.4-5) as
Sa 5 SDS(0.4 1 0.6T/T0)
5 1.01g(0.4 1 0)
5 0.40g
For a building at this location, the long-period transition period is given on ASCE 7 Figure 22-14 as
TL 5 8 seconds
The design spectral response acceleration at a period of T 5 8 seconds is now obtained from ASCE 7
Equation (11.4-7) as
Sa 5 SD1TL/T 2
5 0.46g 3 8/82
5 0.058g
The response spectrum is shown in Figure 1-9.

Chapter 1 25
Figure 1-9 Design response spectrum for Example 1-9
Example 1-10
design spectral response accelerations.
Solution
From Example 1-5, the modified spectral response accelerations at short periods and at a period of 1.0
second are
SMS 5 0.065g
SM1 5 0.029g
The corresponding design spectral response accelerations are
SDS 5 2SMS /3
5 0.043g
SD1 5 2SM1/3
5 0.019g

26 Seismic Design
1.9 Risk categories and importance factors

Importance factor is tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 1.5-2 and defined in ASCE 7 Section 1.2.1 as:
A factor that accounts for the degree of risk to human life, health, and welfare associated with
damage to property or loss of use or functionality.
The seismic importance factor provides enhanced performance for those facilities that constitute a
substantial public hazard because of high levels of occupancy or because of the storage of toxic or
explosive substances and for those essential facilities that are required to resume operation immedi-
ately after a severe earthquake. An increase in the seismic importance factor increases the design base
shear for these buildings, with a consequent reduction in the inelastic behavior and damage caused to
the structure by the design earthquake. Four risk categories are listed in IBC Table 1604.5 and each is
assigned an importance factor in ASCE 7 Table 1.5-2. Details of the risk categories and corresponding
seismic importance factors are given in Table 1.5.
Table 1-5 Risk categories and importance factors
Seismic importance
Risk category Nature of occupancy factor, Ie
I and II Standard occupancy and 1.00

low-hazard structures
III Assembly structures 1.25
IV Essential or hazardous 1.50
structures
Example 1-11
For the two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2, determine the applicable risk category and
importance factor.
Solution
The building is used as an office building, which is a standard occupancy structure. In accordance with
ASCE 7 Tables 1.5-1 and 1.5-2, the applicable risk category designation is II and the seismic impor-
tance factor is
Ie 5 1.00

Chapter 1 27
1.10 Seismic design category

Seismic design category is defined in IBC Section 202 as:
A classification assigned to a structure based on its risk category and the severity of the design
earthquake ground motion at the site.
The seismic design category establishes the allowable height, structural system and irregularity, analy
sis procedure, and detailing requirements necessary in the structure. In accordance with ASCE 7 Sec-
tion 11.6 and ASCE 7 Tables 11.6-1 and 11.6-2, six design categories, A through F, are established
based on the design spectral response accelerations in conjunction with the risk category. The seismic
design category is determined twice: first as a function of the design spectral response acceleration at
short periods, using ASCE 7 Table 11.6-1, and then as a function of the design spectral response accel-
eration at a period of 1.0 second, using ASCE 7 Table 11.6-2. The most severe seismic design category
governs. Table 1-6 combines ASCE 7 Tables 11.6-1 and 11.6-2 and lists the six design categories.
Table 1-6 Seismic design category
Risk category
I, II
SDS SD1 or III IV
SDS , 0.167g SD1 , 0.067g A A

0.167g ≤ SDS , 0.33g 0.067g ≤ SD1 , 0.133g B C
0.33g ≤ SDS , 0.50g 0.133g ≤ SD1 , 0.20g C D
0.50g ≤ SDS 0.20g ≤ SD1 D D
MCER acceleration at 1.0 second period, E F
S1 ≥ 0.75g
MCER 5 maximum considered earthquake

28 Seismic Design
A brief summary of the design requirements necessary in each seismic design category is given in
Table 1-7.
Table 1-7 Design requirements
Seismic design category Design requirements
Minimal ground movements anticipated. A nominal amount of struc-

A
tural integrity provided in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 11.7.
Low seismicity anticipated. Equivalent lateral-force procedure
B
required.
Moderate seismicity anticipated. Some structural systems are
restricted. Some nonstructural components must be designed for
C
seismic resistance. Detached one- and two-story family dwellings
are exempt from these requirements.
High seismicity anticipated. Some structural systems are restricted.
D Irregular structures must be designed by dynamic analysis
methods.
Very high seismicity anticipated. Severe restrictions are placed on the
E or F use of some structural systems, irregular structures, and analysis
methods.
Where S1 is less than 0.75, the seismic design category is permitted to be determined from the short-
period ground motion of ASCE 7 Table 11.6-1 alone, provided that all of the following apply:
• in each of the two orthogonal directions, the approximate fundamental period of the structure
is Ta , 0.8Ts
• in each of two orthogonal directions, the fundamental period of the structure is T , Ts
• the seismic response coefficient, Cs, is determined from the expression Cs 5 SDS I/R
• the diaphragms are rigid, or for diaphragms that are flexible, the distance between vertical
elements of the seismic-force-resisting system does not exceed 40 feet
1.10.1 Seismic design category A
Seismic design category A represents structures where SDS , 0.167g and SD1 , 0.067g. No real dam-
age is anticipated in this seismic design category and anticipated ground movements are minor, even
for very long return periods. Also, where S1 is less than or equal to 0.04g and SS is less than or equal to
0.15g, the structure is assigned to seismic design category A. The design requirements for category A
structures are detailed in ASCE 7 Sections 1.4 and 11.7. The objective of the requirements is to provide
a nominal amount of structural integrity that will improve the performance of buildings in the event of

Chapter 1 29
a possible earthquake. The structure shall be provided with a complete lateral-force-resisting system
designed to resist the minimum notional lateral force, applied simultaneously at each floor level, given
by ASCE 7 Equation (1.4-1) as
Fx 5 0.01wx
where: wx 5 that portion of the total dead load of the structure that is assigned to level x
Lateral forces may be applied separately in each of two orthogonal directions and orthogonal effects
may be neglected. The application of this provision is illustrated in Figure 1-10.
ASCE 7 Section 1.4.1 requires all smaller elements of a structure to be tied to the remainder of the
structure with a connection capable of resisting a notional horizontal force of
FE 5 0.05wE
where: wE 5 weight of the smaller element
Figure 1-10 Lateral loads for seismic design category A
In addition, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 1.4.3, for each beam, girder, or truss, a connection to
a support shall be provided to resist a notional horizontal force acting parallel to the member of
FR 5 0.05wR
where: wR 5 reaction due to unfactored dead 1 live load
ASCE 7 Section 1.4.4 requires anchoring concrete and masonry walls to elements supplying lateral
support to the wall to provide a minimum out-of-plane notional strength-level resistance of
Fw 5 0.2 ww
≥ AT (5 lb/ft2)
where: ww 5 weight of wall tributary to the connection
AT 5 tributary wall area

30 Seismic Design
The notional loads, N, specified in ASCE 7 Sections 1.4.1 through 1.4.4 are combined with other loads
in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 for strength design and ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 for allowable
stress design. The effect of vertical earthquake forces is disregarded.
The strength design notional load combinations are
1.2D 1 1.0N 1 L 1 0.2S

0.9D 1 1.0N
The allowable stress design notional load combinations are
D 1 0.7N
D 1 0.75(0.7N) 1 0.75L 1 0.75S
0.6D 1 0.7N
where: D 5 dead load
L 5 live load
S 5 snow load
1.10.2 Seismic design category B
Seismic design category B includes risk category I, II, and III structures in regions of moderate seis-
micity. Structures in this design category, with the exception of detached one- and two-story family
dwellings, must be designed for the calculated seismic forces. The equivalent lateral force procedure
may be used to analyze the structure. Light, nonstructural damage is anticipated in this seismic design
category.
1.10.3 Seismic design category C
Seismic design category C includes risk category IV structures in regions of moderate seismicity as
well as risk category I, II, and III structures in regions of somewhat more severe seismicity. The use of
some structural systems is restricted in this design category and some nonstructural components must
be designed for seismic resistance. In accordance with IBC Section 1613.1, detached one- and two-
story family dwellings in seismic design category A, B or C are exempt from these requirements as are
these structures where located on a site with a spectral response acceleration SS , 0.4g. Hazardous,
nonstructural damage is anticipated in this seismic design category in a risk category II structure.

Chapter 1 31
1.10.4 Seismic design category D
Seismic design category D includes risk category I, II, III, and IV structures in regions of high seismic-
ity, but not located close to a major active fault, as well as Occupancy Category IV structures in regions
of somewhat less severe seismicity. The use of some structural systems is restricted in this design
category and irregular structures must be designed by dynamic analysis methods. Hazardous damage
to susceptible structures is anticipated in this seismic design category in a risk category II structure.
1.10.5 Seismic design category E
Seismic design category E includes risk category I, II, and III structures located close to a major active
fault that is defined as a region with a maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration
at a 1.0-second period of S1 ≥ 0.75g. Severe restrictions are placed on the use of some structural sys-
tems, irregular structures, and analysis methods. Hazardous damage to robust structures is anticipated
in this seismic design category in a risk category II structure.
1.10.6 Seismic design category F
Seismic design category F includes risk category IV structures located close to a major active fault
that is defined as a region with a maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration at a
1.0-second period of S1 ≥ 0.75g. Severe restrictions are placed on the use of some structural systems,
irregular structures, and analysis methods.
Example 1-12
mine the seismic design category.
Solution
From Example 1-9, the design spectral response acceleration at short periods is
SDS 5 1.01g
. 0.50g

32 Seismic Design
From Example 1-2, the maximum considered earthquake response acceleration is
S1 5 0.457g
, 0.75g
From Example 1-11, the risk category 5 II
From Table 1-6, the seismic design category 5 D
From Example 1-9, the design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second is
SD1 5 0.46g
. 0.20g
From Table 1-6, the seismic design category 5 D . . . governs
Example 1-13
seismic design category.
Solution
From Example 1-10, the design spectral response acceleration at short periods is
SDS 5 0.043g
, 0.167g
From Table 1-6, the seismic design category 5 A
From Example 1-10, the design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second is
SD1 5 0.019g
, 0.067g
From Table 1-6, the seismic design category 5 A . . . governs

Chapter 1 33
1.11 Lateral-force-resisting systems

From observation of the behavior of structural systems in past earthquakes, it has been noted that
some systems perform better than others. Hence, ASCE 7 groups lateral-force-resisting systems into
different categories.
ASCE 7 Section 12.2.1 and ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 detail eight major categories of building types char-
acterized by the method used to resist the lateral force. These consist of:
• bearing wall system. A structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying space
frame. Bearing walls or bracing elements provide support for vertical loads. Seismic lateral
force resistance is provided by the same shear walls or braced frames.
• building frame system. A structural system with an essentially complete space frame pro-
viding support for vertical loads. Seismic lateral force resistance is provided by shear walls or
braced frames.
• moment-resisting frame system. A structural system with an essentially complete space
frame providing support for vertical loads. Seismic lateral force resistance is provided by the
same moment frames.
• dual system with special moment frames. A structural system with an essentially complete
space frame providing support for vertical loads. Seismic lateral force resistance is provided by
the moment frame and also by shear walls or braced frames with the moment frame contribut-
ing a minimum of 25 percent of the lateral resistance.
• dual system with intermediate moment frames. A structural system with an essentially com-
plete space frame providing support for vertical loads. Seismic lateral force resistance is pro-
vided by a moment frame and also by shear walls or braced frames with the moment frame
contributing a minimum of 25 percent of the lateral resistance. Intermediate moment frames
have less stringent detailing requirements than special moment frames.
• shear wall-frame interactive system. A structural system that uses combinations of shear
walls and frames designed to resist seismic lateral forces in proportion to their rigidities, con-
sidering interaction between shear walls and frames on all levels. Support of vertical loads is
provided by the same shear walls and frames.
• cantilever column system. A structure with a large portion of its mass concentrated at the top;
therefore, having essentially one degree of freedom in horizontal translation. Seismic lateral
force resistance is provided by the columns acting as cantilevers.
• steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic resistance, excluding cantilever column
systems. A steel structure in seismic design category B or C may be designed with a response
modification coefficient of R 5 3 using the design requirements of AISC 3606 rather than AISC
3417 in conformity with IBC Section 2205.2.1.1.
Six of those categories are illustrated in Figure 1-11. These categories are further subdivided into the
types of construction material used.

34 Seismic Design
Bearing wall system Building frame system Moment-resisting frame
Dual system with Dual system with special Cantilever column

intermediate moment frames system
moment frame
Figure 1-11 Structural systems
1.11.1 Bearing wall systems
In a bearing wall system, shear walls provide support for all or most of the gravity loads and for resist-
ing all lateral loads. Shear walls are of masonry or concrete, or of wood in wood-frame construction. In
general, deformations in a masonry or concrete bearing wall system are negligible and these systems
provide an excellent method to limit damage to nonstructural components. However, the system has a
poor inelastic response capacity and lacks redundancy because the lateral support members also carry
gravity loads and their failure will result in failure of gravity load-carrying capacity. In addition, shear
walls and braced frames restrict architectural expression by limiting free access in a building. Bearing
wall buildings are typically used in residential construction, warehouses, and low-rise commercial
buildings.
The building shown in Figure 1-12(a) consists of steel joists spanning in the north-south direction sup-
ported on concrete bearing walls on the north and south faces. The roof area tributary to the bearing
walls is shown hatched and is given by
Atrib wall 5 3a 3 2a
5 6a2

Chapter 1 35
The total roof area is
Aroof 5 4a 3 2a
5 8a2
The ratio of tributary area to total area is
Atrib wall /Aroof 5 6a2/8a2

5 0.75
. 0.5
Hence, this is a bearing wall system since the bearing walls support the major portion of the gravity
load.
Bearing wall
a a a a
1.5a a a a a
a
2a
Joist
3a 3a Column
(a) Bearing wall system (b) Building frame system
Figure 1-12 Bearing wall and building frame systems
For structures assigned to seismic design categories D, E, and F, concrete and masonry shear walls
are required to be specially detailed reinforced walls. These walls are generally limited to a maximum
height of 160 feet with the exception of walls in seismic design category F, which are limited to 100
feet. Wood-frame construction with wood structural panels may be utilized in seismic design catego-
ries D, E, and F to a maximum height of 65 feet.
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls and intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls may be
used in seismic design categories A, B, and C without limitations on their height.
Bearing wall systems may comprise the types summarized in Table 1-8. These are the values given by
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1.

36 Seismic Design
Table 1-8 Bearing wall systems
Building height limitation as determined by

seismic design category, feet
System type A or B C D E F
Special reinforced concrete shear walls NL NL 160 160 100

Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls NL NL NP NP NP
Special reinforced masonry shear walls NL NL 160 160 100
Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls NL NL NP NP NP
Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls NL 160 NP NP NP
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels NL NL 65 65 65
NL 5 not limited, NP 5 not permitted
1.11.2 Building frame system
A building frame system has separate systems to provide support for lateral forces and gravity loads.
A frame provides support for the major portion of the gravity loads with independent shear walls or
braced frames resisting all lateral forces. The gravity load supporting frame does not require special
ductile detailing, but in seismic design categories D, E, and F, it is required to satisfy the deformation
compatibility requirements of ASCE 7 Section 12.12.5, and this imposes a practical limitation on the
height of a building frame system. Failure of the lateral support members will not result in collapse of
the building because the frame continues to support gravity loads.
The building shown in Figure 1-12(b) consists of steel joists spanning in the north-south direction sup-
ported on concrete bearing walls on the north and south faces and on steel pipe columns in the interior
of the building. The roof area tributary to the pipe columns is shown hatched and is given by
Atrib col 5 3a 3 1.5a

5 4.5a2
The total roof area is
Aroof 5 4a 3 2a
5 8a2
The ratio of tributary area to total area is
Atrib col /Aroof 5 4.5a2/8a2

5 0.56
. 0.5
Chapter 1 37
Hence, this is a building frame system since the pipe columns support the major portion of the gravity
load.
For structures assigned to seismic design categories D, E, and F, specially detailed concrete and
masonry shear walls, as specified for bearing wall systems, may be utilized. These are limited to a
maximum height of 100 feet for category F structures and 160 feet for category D and E structures.
Steel braced frames in seismic design categories D, E, and F may be special concentrically braced
frames, as specified in AISC 341 Section F2, or eccentrically braced frames, as specified in AISC 341
Section F3, with a maximum height of 100 feet for category F structures and 160 feet for category D
and E structures. Ordinary concentrically braced frames, as specified in AISC 341 Section F1, may
also be utilized with a maximum height of 35 feet for category D and E structures and are not permit-
ted for category F structures. Wood-frame construction with wood structural panels may be utilized in
seismic design categories D, E, and F to a maximum height of 65 feet.
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls and intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls may be
used in seismic design categories A, B, and C without limitations on their height.
Building frame systems may comprise the types summarized in Table 1-9.
Table 1-9 Building frame systems

Steel eccentrically braced frames NL NL 160 160 100

Steel special concentrically braced frames NL NL 160 160 100
Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames NL NL 35a 35a NPa
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls NL NL NP NP NP
Steel and concrete composite special concentri- NL NL 160 160 100
cally braced frames
Special reinforced masonry shear walls NL NL 160 160 100
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels NL NL 65 65 65
a. Permitted in penthouse structures and in single-story buildings up to a height of 60 feet where the dead load of the roof does not
exceed 20 lb/ft2.

38 Seismic Design
1.11.3 Moment-resisting frames
Moment-resisting frames are specially detailed to provide good ductility and support for both lateral
and gravity loads by flexural action. In seismic design categories D, E, and F, special reinforced con-
crete and structural steel moment-resisting frames are required to be detailed to satisfy ACI8 Sections
21.5 through 21.7 or AISC 341 Section E3. No restrictions are placed on the height of these systems.
Moment-resisting frames have the advantage of affording unlimited free access in a building. In addi-
tion, a high degree of redundancy can be provided and the system has an excellent inelastic response
capacity. Large lateral displacements may be developed while the gravity load-carrying capacity
remains intact. The large displacements, however, may cause damage to nonstructural elements.
Steel intermediate and ordinary moment frames and intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames
may be used in seismic design categories A, B, and C without limitations on their height.
Moment-resisting frame systems may comprise the types summarized in Table 1-10.
Table 1-10 Moment-resisting frame systems

Steel special moment frames NL NL NL NL NL

Steel special truss moment frames NL NL 160 100 NP
Steel intermediate moment frames NL NL 35a NPa NPa
Steel ordinary moment frames NL NL NPa NPa NPa
Special reinforced concrete moment frames NL NL NL NL NL
Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames NL NL NP NP NP
a. Permitted in single-story buildings and light-frame construction complying with the requirements of ASCE 7 Sections 12.2.5.6 and
12.2.5.7.
1.11.4 Dual systems with special moment frames
A dual system provides a comparably high level of seismic safety since a secondary redundant lateral
support system is available to assist the primary nonbearing lateral support system. These systems
may be used in regions of high seismic risk. Nonbearing walls or bracing supply the primary lateral
support system with a special moment frame, providing primary support for gravity loads and acting as
a backup lateral force system. The special moment frame must be designed to independently resist at
least 25 percent of the base shear and, in addition, the two systems shall be designed to resist the total

Chapter 1 39
base shear in proportion to their relative rigidities. The primary lateral-support system may comprise
the types summarized in Table 1-11, and these may be used in all seismic design categories without
limitations on their height.
Table 1-11 Dual systems with special moment frames

Special reinforced concrete shear walls NL NL NL NL NL

Special reinforced masonry shear walls NL NL NL NL NL
Steel eccentrically braced frame NL NL NL NL NL
Steel special concentrically braced frames NL NL NL NL NL
Steel buckling-restrained braced frame NL NL NL NL NL
Steel special plate shear walls NL NL NL NL NL
NL 5 not limited
1.11.5 Dual systems with intermediate moment frames
These systems may be used in regions of moderate seismic risk and may be used in seismic design
categories A, B, and C without limitations on their height. The primary lateral support system may
comprise the types summarized in Table 1-12.
Table 1-12 Dual systems with intermediate moment frames


Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls NL 160 NP NP NP
Steel special concentrically braced frames NL NL 35 NP NP

40 Seismic Design
1.11.6 Shear wall-frame interactive system with ordinary reinforced concrete

moment frames and ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
This system may be used only in seismic design categories A and B without limitations on their height.
The primary lateral support system is an ordinary reinforced concrete shear wall with an ordinary rein-
forced concrete space frame providing primary support for gravity loads.
This system is similar to dual systems. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.2.5.8, the shear strength
of the shear walls shall be at least 75 percent of the design story shear at each story. The moment
frames shall be capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design story shear at each story.
The height limitation requirements are indicated in Table 1-13.

Table 1-13 Shear wall-frame interactive system
with ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames and shear walls

Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls and ordi-

NL NP NP NP NP
nary reinforced concrete moment frames
1.11.7 Cantilever column systems
A cantilever column structure resists lateral forces by columns cantilevering from the base, and the
columns also provide support of the building’s weight. These structures have limited redundancy and
overstrength and concentrate inelastic response at their bases, producing a side-sway collapse mecha-
nism. Hence, failure of the system due to lateral forces will also cause failure of the gravity load-car-
rying capacity. Cantilever column structures may comprise the systems indicated in Table 1-14.
Table 1-14 Cantilever column systems

Steel special cantilever column 35 35 35 35 35

Steel ordinary cantilever column 35 35 NP NP NP
Special reinforced concrete moment frames 35 35 35 35 35
NP 5 not permitted

Chapter 1 41
The required axial strength of a cantilever column, considering only the load combinations that include
seismic load effects, shall not exceed 15 percent of the available axial strength, including slenderness
effects.
Inverted pendulum-type structures are defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.2 as structures in which more
than 50 percent of the structure’s mass is concentrated at the top of a slender, cantilevered structure
and in which stability of the mass at the top of the structure relies on rotational restraint to the top of
the cantilevered element. Supporting columns of inverted pendulum-type structures shall be designed
for the bending moment calculated at the base determined using the equivalent lateral force procedure
and varying uniformly to a moment at the top of the column equal to one-half the calculated bending
moment at the base. Foundations of the cantilever columns must be designed to resist the design seis-
mic load, including the overstrength factor.
1.11.8 Steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic resistance, excluding
cantilever column systems
These systems may be used only in seismic design categories A, B and C without limitations on their
height. In accordance with IBC Section 2205.2.1.1, a steel structure in seismic design category B or
C may be designed for a response modification coefficient of R 5 3 using the design requirements of
AISC 360 rather than AISC 341. This ensures a nominally elastic response to the science loads.
Structures designed in accordance with the requirements of AISC 360 lack the ductility to provide the
inelastic deformation necessary in major seismic events. Hence, these structures are restricted to low
seismic risk areas and are designed for a response modification coefficient of R 5 3 with conventional
structural detailing. The elimination of seismic detailing generally results in a structure that is less
expensive to construct.
The height limitation requirements are indicated in Table 1-15.

Table 1-15 Steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic resistance, excluding cantilever column systems

Steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic

NL NL NP NP NP
resistance, excluding cantilever column systems

42 Seismic Design
1.11.9 Wind effects
In locations where wind effects exceed seismic effects, the building elements must still be detailed in
accordance with AISC 341 provisions. These provisions provide the design requirements for the build-
ing elements to sustain the large inelastic deformations produced by seismic loads.
1.12 Response modification coefficient

It is uneconomical to design a structure to remain entirely within its elastic range for a major earth-
quake, and advantage is taken of the nonlinear energy absorbing capacity of the system to allow
limited structural damage without impairing the vertical load-carrying capacity of the system. This
energy dissipation occurs as a result of the hysteresis effect. In ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, structural sys-
tems are assigned a response modification coefficient R corresponding to their perceived ability to
resist a major seismic event. A structure with good hysteretic behavior, sufficiently ductile to sustain
several cycles of inelastic deformation, adequate redundancy, and material overstrength will dissipate
imposed seismic forces without significant loss of strength. Hence, a structure may be designed for
a significantly smaller force than is predicted by a linear-elastic analysis without collapse, provided
that inelastic deformations are accommodated by careful detailing. In addition, as yielding occurs, the
natural period of the structure lengthens and the damping ratio increases, thus reducing the seismic
force developed in the structure. A single seismic-force-resisting system may be used throughout a
building with a single value for the response modification coefficient, or several different systems may
be combined.
1.12.1 Seismic-force-resisting system
The structure response modification coefficient, R, is defined as the ratio of the theoretical seismic
base shear, which would develop in a linear elastic system, to the prescribed design base shear and is a
measure of the ability of the system to absorb energy and sustain cyclic inelastic deformations without
collapse. As shown in Figure 1-13, the modification coefficient is given by
R 5 VE /VS
where: VE 5 theoretical base shear in an elastic structure
VS 5 design base shear

Chapter 1 43
Figure 1-13 Inelastic force deformation curve4
In addition to compensating for the energy dissipation capability, lateral-force system redundancy,
and increase in natural period and damping ratio, the response modification coefficient allows for the
provision of secondary lateral support systems and the observed performance of specific materials and
structural systems in past earthquakes. The value of R increases as the overall ductility of the struc-
ture and its energy dissipation capacity increase and as the degree of redundancy increases. Lightly
damped structures constructed of brittle materials are unable to tolerate appreciable deformation in
excess of initial yield and are assigned low values of R. Highly damped structures constructed of
ductile materials are assigned larger values of R. To justify these larger values of the response modi-
fication coefficient, it is necessary to implement the special detailing requirements specified for each
seismic-force-resisting system so as to sustain the cyclic inelastic deformations that occur. Even in
the event that wind forces govern the design, ASCE 7 Section 11.1.1 mandates that the application
of the detailing requirements prescribed for the lateral-force-resisting system are utilized. Values of
the response modification coefficient for various seismic-force-resisting systems are given in ASCE 7
Table 12.2-1 and are summarized in Table 1-16.

44 Seismic Design
Table 1-16 Design factors for seismic-force-resisting systems
Seismic-force-resisting system R 0 Cd
Special reinforced concrete shear walls 5.0 2.5 5.0

Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4.0 2.5 4.0
Bearing walls
Special reinforced masonry shear walls 5.0 2.5 3.5

Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls 3.5 2.5 2.25
Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 2.0 2.5 1.75
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels 6.5 3.0 4.0
Steel eccentrically braced frames 8.0 2.0 4.0
Steel special concentrically braced frames 6.0 2.0 5.0
Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames 3.25 2.0 3.25
Building frames

Steel and concrete composite special concentrically braced frames 5.0 2.0 4.5
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels 7.0 2.5 4.5
Steel special moment frames 8.0 3.0 5.5
Steel special truss moment frames 7.0 3.0 5.5
Moment frames
Steel intermediate moment frames 4.5 3.0 4.0

Steel ordinary moment frames 3.5 3.0 3.0
Special reinforced concrete moment frames 8.0 3.0 5.5
Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames 5.0 3.0 4.5
Dual system SMF
Steel eccentrically braced frames 8.0 2.5 4.0

Steel buckling-restrained braced frames 8.0 2.5 5.0
Steel special plate shear walls 8.0 2.5 6.5
(continued)

Chapter 1 45
Table 1-16 Design factors for seismic-force-resisting systems—continued
Seismic-force-resisting system R 0 Cd

Dual IMF

Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls and ordinary reinforced 4.5 2.5 4.0
Wall-frame
concrete moment frames
Steel special cantilever columns 2.5 1.25 2.5

Cant. col.
Steel ordinary cantilever columns 1.25 1.25 1.25

Special reinforced concrete moment frames 2.5 1.25 2.5
Steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic resistance, 3.0 3.0 3.0
R53
excluding cantilever column systems
SMF 5 special moment frame, IMF 5 intermediate moment frame
1.12.2 Combinations of seismic-force-resisting systems
Where combinations of seismic-force-resisting systems are used in a building, ASCE 7 introduces

controls to ensure that an adequate value for the response modification coefficient is adopted. For
the situation where structural components are common to systems with different R-values, ASCE 7
Section 12.2.4 requires design of the component for the higher R-value to ensure that adequate ductile
details are provided, and the component remains functional during inelastic deformations.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.2.2, where different seismic-force-resisting systems are used
along two orthogonal axes of a structure, the appropriate value of R shall be used for each system. As
illustrated in the building frame system structure shown in Figure 1-14, special reinforced concrete
shear walls provide lateral resistance in the longitudinal direction, and steel ordinary moment frames
provide lateral resistance in the transverse direction. The concrete shear walls have an R-value of 6 and
the steel ordinary moment frames an R-value of 3.5, and these values apply to each system.
In addition, it is possible that one of the systems will restrict the use of the structure in some seismic
design categories to limited heights. In this example in the transverse direction, steel ordinary moment
frames restrict the use of the structure in seismic design categories D, E and F. In accordance with
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, this system is not permitted in seismic design categories D, E and F except in
single-story buildings and light-frame construction complying with the requirements of ASCE 7 Sec-
tions 12.2.5.6 and 12.2.5.7.

46 Seismic Design
ordinary
Figure 1-14 Different systems used along two orthogonal axes
Where different structural systems are used over the height of a building, ASCE 7 Section 12.2.3.1
requires use of the more stringent seismic design parameters (R, W0, and Cd) so as to prevent mixed
systems that could concentrate inelastic behavior in the lower stories.
As shown in Figure 1-15(a), where the upper system has a response modification coefficient higher
than that of the lower system, both systems are designed using their individual seismic design param-
eters. Forces transferred from the upper system to the lower system are increased by multiplying by
the ratio of the higher response modification coefficient to the lower response modification coefficient.
As shown in Figure 1-15(b), where the upper system has a response modification coefficient lower
than that of the lower system, the seismic design parameters (R, W0, and Cd) for the upper system are
used for both systems.
Detached one- and two-family dwellings constructed of light framing, and supported structural sys-
tems with a weight not exceeding 10 percent of the total weight of the structure, are exempted from
this requirement. As shown in Figure 1-15(c), the penthouse with wood structural panel shear walls,
with an R-value of 6.5, is supported by a steel special moment frame with an R-value of 8.0. The
moment frame and the penthouse may be designed independently for response modification coeffi-
cients of 8.0 and 6.5, respectively.
A two-stage equivalent lateral force procedure, specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.2.3.2, may be used for
structures having a flexible upper portion above a rigid lower portion, provided that the design of the
structure complies with the following:
• the stiffness of the lower portion is at least 10 times the stiffness of the upper portion
• the period of the entire structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper portion
considered as a separate structure supported at the transition from the upper to the lower portion
• the upper portion shall be designed as a separate structure using the appropriate values of the
response modification coefficient, R, and redundancy factor, r
• the lower portion shall be designed as a separate structure using the appropriate values of the
response modification coefficient, R, and redundancy factor, r. The reactions from the upper
portion shall be those determined from the analysis of the upper portion amplified by the ratio
of the R/r of the upper portion over R/r of the lower portion. This ratio shall be not less than
1.0.

Chapter 1 47
• the upper portion is analyzed with the equivalent lateral force or modal response spectrum pro-
cedure, and the lower portion is analyzed with the equivalent lateral force procedure
As shown in Figure 1-16, the upper portion of the structure, consisting of moment-resisting frames, is
analyzed using the appropriate values of R and r. This gives a shear at the base of the upper portion of
VU. The shear force transferred to the lower portion is
VL 5 VURU rL/RL rU
Special moment-resisting frame 6.5

R = 8, Ω0 = 3, Cd = 5.5
R = 5.0, Ω0 = 2.5, Cd = 5
Design for:
R = 5.0, Ω0 = 2.5, Cd = 5
Special reinforced
concrete walls
R = 5, Ω0 = 2.5, Cd = 5
R = 8, Ω0 = 3, Cd = 5.5
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1-15 Different systems used over the height of a structure
Moment-resisting frames
Ru ρu
Vu VL
Shear wall
RL ρL
Figure 1-16 Two-stage analysis procedure

48 Seismic Design
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.2.3.3, where different seismic-force-resisting systems are used
in horizontal combination, the least value of R for any of the systems shall be used for that direction.
As illustrated in the building in Figure 1-17, special reinforced masonry shear walls that also support
gravity loads and steel special moment frames provide lateral resistance in the transverse direction.
The masonry shear walls have an R-value of 5.0 and the steel moment frames an R-value of 8.0. The
R-value of 5.0 governs for the transverse direction. As specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.2.3.3, resisting
elements may be designed using the least value of R for the different structural systems found on each
independent line of resistance, provided that all of the following apply:
• the building is classified as Occupancy Category I or II
• the building is two stories or less in height
• the building is constructed of light framing or with flexible diaphragms
The value of the response modification coefficient used for design of the diaphragms shall not be
greater than the least value for any of the systems utilized in that same direction.

Figure 1-17 Different systems used in the same direction
Example 1-14
The two-story steel-frame building, shown in Figure 1-2, is located in Orange County, California. Lat-
eral force resistance is provided by steel special moment-resisting frames in the transverse direction
and steel special concentrically braced frames in the longitudinal direction. Determine the applicable
design factors.

Chapter 1 49
Solution
For a steel special moment-resisting frame, the following values are obtained from Table 1-16
R 58
W0 53
Cd 5 5.5
For a steel special concentrically braced frame, the following values are obtained from Table 1-16
R 56
W0 52
Cd 55
A value of R 5 8 may be used in the transverse direction and a value of R 5 6 may be used in the
longitudinal direction.
1.13 Overstrength factor

The overstrength factor is a measure of the reserve capacity of a structure to resist the actual seismic
forces generated by the design ground motions and is given in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1. As shown in Fig-
ure 1-13, the overstrength factor is given by
W0 5 VY /VS
where: VY 5 base shear at formation of the collapse mechanism
The factors contributing to the overstrength of a structure are:
• energy dissipation capabilities
• overstrength of materials
• application of the resistance factor f to members to ensure adequacy under design loading
• selection of member sizes in excess of the minimum required by the design
• the design may be governed by drift limitations rather than strength
From ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 Note b, the tabulated value of the overstrength factor W0 may be reduced
by subtracting 1⁄2 for structures with flexible diaphragms but shall not be taken as less than 2.0 for any
structure.

50 Seismic Design
1.14 Deflection amplification factor

The deflection amplification factor is used to determine the actual displacements produced by the
design ground motions and is given in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1. The deflection amplification factor is
given by
Cd 5 dx /dxe
where: dx 5 anticipated horizontal displacement caused by the strength seismic forces
dxe 5 horizontal displacement caused by the strength seismic forces, as
determined by an elastic analysis
Taking into consideration the seismic importance factor, ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15) gives the value
of the actual displacement as
dx 5 Cd dxe /Ie
where: Ie 5 importance factor given in Table 1-5
1.15 Effective seismic weight

When a building vibrates in an earthquake, the lateral acceleration of the building mass produces
inertial forces. The summation of these inertial forces produces the seismic base shear and only that
portion of the mass that is physically attached to the building contributes to the inertial force. Hence,
live loads need not be included in the building mass when determining the seismic base shear.
The effective seismic weight, W, as specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.7.2, is the total dead load of the
structure and that part of the service load that may be expected to be attached to the building. This
consists of:
• 25 percent of the reduced floor live load for storage and warehouse occupancies. Live load in
public parking structures and storage loads adding not more than 5-percent effective seismic
weight need not be included.
• a minimum allowance of 10 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2) for movable partitions or the actual
weight, whichever is greater
• 20 percent of flat roof snow loads exceeding 30 lb/ft2, regardless of the actual roof slope
• the weight of landscaping and other materials at roof gardens and similar areas
Roof and floor live loads, except as noted in this section, are not included in the value of W as they are
considered negligible by comparison with the dead loads. For movable partitions, an overall average

Chapter 1 51
value of 10 lb/ft2 is adopted for seismic loads. For permanent walls that are constructed of heavier
materials, the actual weight of the walls shall be used. Freshly fallen snow, not exceeding 30 lb/ft2, has
little effect on the seismic load as it tends to be shaken off the roof in the initial phase of an earthquake.
However, ice and compacted snow, exceeding 30 lb/ft2, may be expected to partially adhere to the roof
and contribute to the seismic load.
Example 1-15
The two-story, steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is used as an office building and has the fol-
lowing component weights, including framing:
Roof diaphragm, wr 20 lb/ft2

Second floor diaphragm, wd 30 lb/ft2
Walls, ww 40 lb/ft2
No allowance is required for permanent equipment or snow loads. Determine the applicable effective
seismic weight for an interior bent, in the north-south direction, at the roof and second floor levels if
the roof and second floor diaphragms may be considered flexible.
Solution
The relevant dead load tributary to the roof diaphragm in the north-south direction is due to the north
and south walls and the roof dead load and is given by
Roof 5 wr 3 s 5 20 3 40 5 800 lb/ft
North wall 5 ww 3 h/2 5 40 3 12/2 5 240 lb/ft
South wall 5 ww 3 h/2 5 40 3 12/2 5 240 lb/ft
The effective seismic weight tributary to an interior bent at roof level is
w2 5 (800 1 240 1 240)b/1000

5 1.28 3 20
5 25.60 kips
The relevant dead load tributary to the second floor diaphragm in the north-south direction is due to
the north and south walls, floor dead load, and partition loads and is given by
Floor 5 wd 3 s 5 30 3 40 5 1200 lb/ft
North wall 5 ww 3 h 5 40 3 12 5 480 lb/ft
South wall 5 ww 3 h 5 40 3 12 5 480 lb/ft
Partitions 5 wp 3 s 5 10 3 40 5 400 lb/ft

52 Seismic Design
The effective seismic weight tributary to an interior bent at the second floor level is
w1 5 (1200 1 480 1 480 1 400)b/1000

5 2.56 3 20
5 51.20 kips
1.16 Seismic response coefficient

The seismic response coefficient, Cs , given in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.1.1, represents the code design
spectrum, and determination of the coefficient forms the basis of the equivalent lateral force procedure.
The maximum value of the seismic response coefficient, which is applicable for periods between
T 5 0 and T 5 TS and which defines the flat top or acceleration-related region of the spectrum, is given
by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) as
Cs 5 SDS Ie /R
where: SDS 5 design spectral response acceleration at short periods
Ie 5 importance factor from Table 1.5
R 5 response modification factor from Table 1.16
This value of Cs need not exceed the value given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3), which defines the lon-
ger period, velocity-related region of the spectrum that is valid for periods between T 5 TS and T 5 TL.
ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) is given by
Cs 5 SD1Ie /RT
where: SD1 5 design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second
T 5 fundamental period of the structure
TS 5 SD1/SDS
TL 5 long-period transition period
For periods exceeding the value T 5 TL , the value of Cs is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-4), which
defines the constant-displacement region of the spectrum. ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-4) is given by
Cs 5 SD1TLIe /RT2
To prevent too low a value being adopted for tall buildings, the minimum allowable value of Cs is given
by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-5), which is
Cs 5 0.044SDS Ie
≥ 0.01

Chapter 1 53
In addition, where the maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration at a period of
1.0 second is not less than 0.6g, the minimum permitted value is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-6) as
Cs 5 0.5S1Ie /R
where: S1 5 maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration for a period
of 1.0 second
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.1.3, for regular structures five stories or less in height with
a period (T) of 0.5 second or less, the seismic response coefficient is permitted to be calculated using
a value of SDS 5 1.0 but not less than 0.7SDS , as determined by ASCE 7 Equation (11.4-3). Provided
that ρ 5 1.0, as determined by ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.2, the structure is assigned to risk category I or
II and is not located on a site defined as site class E or F.
A graphical presentation of Cs is plotted in Figure 1-18.
Constant Constant Constant

acceleration velocity displacement
Seismic response coefficient, Cs
SDS Ie /R
SD1 Ie /RT
SD1TL Ie /RT 2
0.44SDS Ie
Ts = SD1 / SDS TL
Period, T
Figure 1-18 Seismic response coefficient
Example 1-16
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California. Lat-
eral force resistance is provided by steel special moment-resisting frames in the north-south direction
and steel special concentrically braced frames in the longitudinal direction. Determine the seismic
response coefficient in the north-south direction.

54 Seismic Design
Solution
From previous examples, the relevant parameters are given by
SD1 5 0.46g
SDS 5 1.01g
S1 5 0.457g
Ie 5 1.0
R 5 8.0
T 5 0.50 sec
TS 5 0.46 sec
Seismic design category 5 D
The seismic design coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) as
Cs 5 SD1Ie /RT
5 0.46 3 1.0/(8.0 3 0.50)
5 0.115
The maximum value of the seismic design coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) as
Cs 5 SDS Ie /R
51.01 3 1.0/8.0
5 0.126
Since T . TS , the governing value is
Cs 5 0.115
1.17 Seismic base shear

The lateral forces produced in a structure by the ground vibration may be determined by the static or
equivalent lateral force procedure. This utilizes Newton’s Second Law to estimate the horizontal shear
force at the base of the structure. The seismic base shear is prescribed by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1),
which is the code representation of Newton’s Second Law, as
V 5 CsW

Chapter 1 55
This equation is based on the assumption that the structure will undergo several cycles of inelastic
deformation and energy dissipation without collapse. Forces and displacements in the structure are
derived assuming linear elastic behavior. The actual forces and displacements produced in the struc-
ture are presumed to be greater than these values as specified for critical elements in ASCE 7 Sections
12.3.3.2, 12.3.3.3, 12.3.3.4, and 12.10.2.1.
Example 1-17
eral force resistance is provided by steel special moment-resisting frames in the north-south direction.
Determine the seismic base shear for an interior bent in the north-south direction.
Solution
The value of the total effective seismic weight was derived in Example 1-15 as
W 5 w2 1 w1
5 25.60 1 51.20
5 76.80 kips
The value of the seismic response coefficient was derived in Example 1-16 as
Cs 5 0.115
Hence, the base shear is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1) as
V 5 CsW
5 0.115 3 76.80
5 8.83 kips
1.18 Simplified lateral force procedures

For small bearing wall or building frame-type structures classified as risk category I or II and not
exceeding three stories in height, ASCE 7 Section 12.14 permits an alternative design method. The
method is restricted to buildings for which drift is not a controlling factor in design. This method gives
values for the base shear higher than those obtained by using ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) that delineates
the flat top of the response spectrum.

56 Seismic Design
The simplified design procedure may be used, provided that all of the following conditions apply:
• the soil profile at the location of the building cannot consist of site class E or F
• the building must have at least two lines of lateral resistance in each of two major axis directions
• at least one line of resistance must be provided on each side of the center of mass in each
direction
• as shown in Figure 1-19, for structures with flexible diaphragms, overhangs beyond the outside
line of shear walls or braced frames must conform to ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-2), which is
a , d/5
where: a 5 distance perpendicular to the forces being considered from the extreme
edge of the diaphragm to the line of vertical resistance closest to that edge
d 5 depth of the diaphragm parallel to the forces being considered at the line of
vertical resistance closest to the edge
$ for cast-in-place concrete diaphragms, the overhang is restricted by ASCE 7 Equation

(12.14‑1) to
a ≤ d/3
Figure 1-19 Flexible diaphragm overhang
• the distance between the center of rigidity and the center of mass in each story must not exceed
10 percent of the length of the diaphragm parallel to the eccentricity
• for buildings with a nonflexible diaphragm, forces in the vertical elements are determined as if
the diaphragm is flexible and in addition
$ for buildings with two lines of resistance in a given direction, the distance between the two
lines is at least 50 percent of the diaphragm length perpendicular to the two lines

Chapter 1 57
$ for buildings with more than two lines of resistance in a given direction, the distance
between the two most extreme lines of resistance in that direction is at least 60 percent of
the diaphragm length perpendicular to the lines
$ for buildings with two or more lines of resistance closer together than one-half the length of
the longer of the walls, as shown in Figure 1-20, the walls may be replaced by a single wall
at the centroid of the group for the initial distribution of forces, and the resultant force to
the group is then distributed to the members of the group based on their relative stiffnesses
Centroid of walls
l
Figure 1-20 Closely spaced walls
• lines of resistance of the lateral-force-resisting system must be oriented at angles of not more
than 15 degrees from alignment with the major orthogonal horizontal axes of the building
• the simplified design procedure must be used for each major orthogonal horizontal axis direc-
tion of the building
• system irregularities caused by in-plane or out-of-plane offsets of lateral-force-resisting ele-
ments are not permitted, except in two-story buildings of light-frame construction provided
that the upper wall is designed for a factor of safety of 2.5 against overturning
The simplified seismic base shear is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-12) as
V 5 (FSDS /R)W
where: SDS 5 design spectral response acceleration at short periods
5 2FaSS /3
SS 5 5-percent damped, maximum considered earthquake spectral response
acceleration, for a period of 0.2 second for structures founded on rock
≤ 1.5g
Fa 5 short-period site coefficient obtained from ASCE 7 Table 11.4-1, or may be
taken as 1.0 for rock sites or 1.4 for soil sites
F 5 modification factor for building type
5 1.0 for one-story buildings

58 Seismic Design
5 1.1 for two-story buildings

5 1.2 for three-story buildings
W 5 effective seismic weight of the structure
R 5 response modification factor from ASCE 7 Table 12.14-1 that is
summarized in Table 1-17
ASCE 7 Table 12.14-1 also indicates the limitations on the use of the various lateral-force-resisting
systems. ASCE 7 Table 12.14-1 is summarized in Table 1-17. Detailing requirements for the differ-
ent lateral-force-resisting systems are addressed in IBC Chapters 19 through 23. ASCE 7 Section
12.14.8.1 defines a rock site as one in which the height of soil between the rock surface and the bottom
of the building’s foundations does not exceed 10 feet.
Table 1-17 Design factors for seismic-force-resisting systems
Limitations
Response
Seismic design modification
category coefficient
Seismic force-resisting system B C D, E R
Special reinforced concrete shear walls P P P 5

Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls P P NP 4
Bearing wall
Special reinforced masonry shear walls P P P 5

Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls P P NP 3.5
Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls P NP NP 2
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels P P P 6.5
Steel eccentrically braced frame P P P 8
Steel special concentrically braced frames P P P 6
Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames P P P 3.25
Special reinforced concrete shear walls P P P 6
Building frame
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls P P NP 5

Steel and concrete composite eccentrically braced frames P P P 8
Special reinforced masonry shear walls P P P 5.5
Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls P P NP 4
Light-frame walls with wood structural panels P P P 7
Steel buckling-restrained braced frames P P P 8
Steel special plate shear walls P P P 7
P 5 permitted, NP 5 not permitted

Chapter 1 59
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.14.8.5, when the simplified design method is used, it is not
necessary to calculate the drift of a structure. If a drift value is required, it may be assumed to be 1
percent of building height. In addition, the redundancy factor r may be taken as 1.0 for structures
designed by the simplified method. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.14.3.2.1, the overstrength
factor is given by
W0 5 2.5
Example 1-18
The interior bent of a two-story eccentrically braced steel-frame building is shown in Figure 1-21. The
building is located in Orange County, California, on a site with a soil profile type D and a 5-percent
damped, maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration, for a period of 0.2 second of
SS 5 1.239g. The effective seismic weight of the bent is indicated in the figure. Determine the seismic
base shear for the bent using the simplified design procedure.
w2 = 25.6 kips
w1 = 51.2 kips
Solution
The relevant parameters are
Fa 5 short-period site coefficient

5 1.4 for a soil site . . . from ASCE 7 Section 12.14.8.1
SDS 5 design spectral response acceleration at short periods
5 2FaSS /3
5 2 3 1.4 3 1.239/3
5 1.156g

60 Seismic Design
R 5 8.0 . . . from Table 1-17

F 5 modification factor for building type
5 1.1 for a two-story building from . . . ASCE 7 Section 12.14.8.1
W 5 25.6 1 51.2
5 76.80 kips
Hence, the simplified base shear is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-12) as
V 5 (FSDS /R)W
5 (1.1 3 1.156/8)76.80
5 0.159 3 76.80
5 12.21 kips
1.19 Vertical distribution of seismic forces

The distribution of base shear over the height of a building results from the superposition of all modes
of vibration of the multiple-degree-of-freedom system. The magnitude of the lateral force at a par-
ticular node9, 10 depends on the mass of that node, the distribution of stiffness over the height of the
structure, and the nodal displacements in a given mode and is given by
Fx 5 Vwxfx /Swifi
where: V 5 modal base shear
wi 5 seismic weight located at level i
fi 5 mode shape component at level i for the given mode
wx 5 seismic weight located at level x
fx 5 mode shape component at level x for the given mode
For a structure with a uniform distribution of mass over its height and assuming a linear mode shape,
as shown in Figure 1-22, this reduces to the equation
Fx 5 Vwxhx /Swihi
where: hi 5 height above the base to level i
hx 5 height above the base to level x
V 5 base shear

Chapter 1 61
Figure 1-22 Vertical force distribution
This equation is valid if only a linear first mode shape is considered, and it is applicable to short-period,
regular structures with a fundamental vibration period not exceeding 0.5 second. To allow for higher
mode effects in long-period buildings, ASCE 7 Equations (12.8-11) and (12.8-12) yield the equation
Fx 5 Vwxhxk /Swihik
where: Fx 5 design lateral force at level x
hi 5 height above the base to any level i
hx 5 height above the base to a specific level x
Swihik 5 summation, over the whole structure, of the product of wi and hik
k 5 distribution exponent
To allow for higher mode effects in long-period buildings with a fundamental vibration period of 2.5
seconds or more, a parabolic mode shape is assumed and the distribution exponent, k, is given by
k 52
Where the building has a fundamental vibration period not exceeding 0.5 second, a linear mode shape
is assumed and the distribution exponent is
k 51
For intermediate values of the fundamental vibration period, a linear variation of k may be assumed or
k may be taken as 2.

62 Seismic Design
Example 1-19
Determine the vertical force distribution for an interior bent in the north-south direction.
Solution
The fundamental period of vibration was derived in Example 1-8 as
T 5 0.50 sec
The value of the distribution exponent factor is obtained from ASCE 7 Section 12.8.3 as
k 5 1.0
Hence, the expression for Fx reduces to
Fx 5 Vwxhx /Swihi
The seismic dead loads located at levels 1 and 2 are obtained from Example 1-15, and the relevant
values are given in Table 1-18.
From Example 1-17, the base shear is given by
V 5 8.83 kips
The design lateral force at level x is
Fx 5 Vwxhx /Swihi
5 8.83(wxhx)/1228.80
5 0.00719wxhx
The values of Fx are given in Table 1-18.
Table 1-18 Vertical force distribution
Level wx hx wxhx Fx
2 25.60 24 614.40 4.42

1 51.20 12 614.40 4.42
Total 76.80 – 1228.80 8.84

Chapter 1 63
Example 1-20
vertical force distribution for an interior bent in the north-south direction.
Solution
The building was determined in Example 1-13 to be in seismic design category A. Hence, the require-
ments of ASCE 7 Section 1.4.2 are applicable and the lateral force at each level is given by ASCE 7
Equation (1.4-1) as
Fx 5 0.01wx
where: wx 5 that portion of the effective seismic weight that is assigned to level x
The effective seismic weights at each level are given in Example 1-15.
The values of the lateral force at each level are given in Table 1-19.
Level wx Fx
2 25.60 0.26
1 51.20 0.51
1.20 Simplified vertical distribution of base shear

In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.14.8.2, when the simplified procedure is used to determine the
seismic base shear, the forces at each level may be determined from ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-13) as
Fx 5 wxV/W
where: wx 5 effective seismic weight located at level x
V 5 seismic base shear determined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-12)
W 5 total effective seismic weight
This method provides a rapid and simple determination of the forces at each level based on the effec-
tive seismic weight located at that level.

64 Seismic Design
Example 1-21
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-21 is located in Orange County, California.
Lateral force resistance is provided by eccentrically braced frames. Determine the vertical force distri-
bution for an interior bent using the simplified procedure.
Solution
From Example 1-18, the value of the effective seismic weight is
W 5 76.80 kips
From Example 1-18, the value of the seismic base shear, determined using the simplified lateral force
procedure, is
V 5 12.21 kips
The effective seismic weights at each level are given in Example 1-15.
The relevant values are given in Table 1-20.
The forces at each level are determined from ASCE 7 Equation (12.14-13) as
Fx 5 wxV/W
5 wx 3 12.21/76.80
5 0.159wx
The values of Fx are given in Table 1-20.
Level wx Fx
2 25.60 4.07
1 51.20 8.14
Total 76.80 12.21
1.21 Vertical seismic load effects

Vertical seismic forces are considered in the design of foundations and in the determination of the fac-
tor of safety against overturning. The vertical seismic forces may be determined using the appropriate
load combination or by using a vertical response spectrum.

Chapter 1 65
1.21.1 Overturning
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.5, buildings shall be designed to resist the overturning effects
caused by the seismic forces at each level. At any story, the increment in overturning moment is dis-
tributed to the vertical-force-resisting elements in the same proportion as the distribution of horizontal
shears to those elements. The determination of the overturning moment at level x is illustrated in Fig-
ure 1-23 and is given by
Mx 5 SFi(hi 2 hx)
where: Fi 5 design lateral force at level i
hi 5 height above the base to level i
hx 5 height above the base to level x
n 5 top level of the building

Figure 1-23 Overturning moment
The factor of safety against overturning is determined at the allowable stress design level. The effect
of vertical seismic forces, as defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.4.2.2, must be considered in the analysis.
Where the effects of gravity loads and vertical seismic loads counteract, the applicable load combina-
tion is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 combination 10, which is
0.6D 2 0.7Ev 1 0.7Eh

where: D 5 effect of dead load
Eh 5 effect of horizontal seismic load in accordance with ASCE 7 Equation
(12.4-3)
5 rQE
Ev 5 effect of vertical seismic load in accordance with ASCE 7 Equation
(12.4-4a)
5 0.2SDS D

66 Seismic Design
QE 5 effect of horizontal seismic forces

5 effect of horizontal seismic forces Fi in Figure 1-23
SDS 5 design spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second
r 5 redundancy factor defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4
ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 combination 10 may now be rewritten as
(0.6 2 0.14SDS)D 1 rQE
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.4.2.2, Exception 2a, the vertical seismic load effect, Ev , may
be taken as zero for structures assigned to seismic design category B.
The horizontal forces determined using ASCE 7 Equation 12.8-11 do not reflect the actual inertial
forces imparted on a structure at a specific time. Instead, they represent values that envelope the max-
imum values that can occur. Hence, overturning moments based on these values are conservative. In
accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.13.4, overturning moments at the soil-foundation interface are
permitted to be reduced by 25 percent for foundations of structures that satisfy both of the following
conditions:
• the structure is designed by the equivalent lateral force procedure
• the structure is not a cantilever column structure
The modal response spectrum analysis provides horizontal forces that more accurately reflect the
actual values. Hence, overturning moments at the soil-foundation interface of structures designed by
this method are permitted to be reduced by only 10 percent.
No overturning reduction is allowed in the above-grade portion of the structure.
Example 1-22
Determine the factor of safety against overturning at the base for an interior bent in the north-south
direction. The redundancy factor is 1.0.
Solution
The effective seismic weight determined in Example 1-15 includes an allowance for partitions at the
second floor level and this is used to calculate the seismic base shear. However, for other procedures,
ASCE 7 Section 4.3.2 requires partitions to be considered a live load. The dead load, not including
partitions, tributary to an interior bent at the second floor level is obtained from Example 1-15 as
w1 5 (1200 1 480 1 480)20/1000

5 43.20 kips

Chapter 1 67
The seismic weight at the roof is obtained from Example 1-15 as
w2 5 25.60 kips
The factor of safety against overturning may be determined using the allowable stress load factors
given in ASCE 7 Section 2.4.1.5 of 0.6 for dead loads and 0.7 for seismic loads. Horizontal seismic
forces acting on the structure, as determined in Example 1-19, are shown in Figure 1-24. The factored
overturning moment is given by
MO 5 0.7(4.42 3 24 1 4.42 3 12)

5 111.38 kip-ft
A reduction of 25 percent is allowed to give
M 5 0.75 3 111.38
5 83.54 kip-ft
The factored restoring moment produced by the seismic weights at level 1 and level 2 is given by
MRD 5 0.6 3 20(43.2 1 25.6)

5 825.60 kip-ft
The design spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second is obtained from Example 1.12 as
SDS 5 1.01g
The factored moment produced by the upward seismic load at levels 1 and 2 is
Mv 5 220 3 0.14SDS(w1 1 w2)

5 220 3 0.14 3 1.01(43.2 1 25.6)
5 2194.57 kip-ft
The net factored restoring moment is
MR 5 MRD 1 Mv
5 825.60 2 194.57
5 631.03 kip-ft
The factor of safety against overturning is
MR /M 5 631.03/83.54
5 7.55

68 Seismic Design
1.21.2 Foundation design
The applicable allowable stress design load combinations for foundation design, including seismic
load effects, are given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 combinations 8 and 9, which are
1.0D 1 0.7Ev 1 0.7Eh . . . (combination 8)

1.0D 1 0.525Ev 1 0.525Eh 1 0.75L 1 0.75S . . . (combination 9)
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.4.2.2, Exception 2b, the vertical seismic load effect may be
taken as zero when determining effects at the soil-foundation interface. In accordance with ASCE 7
Section 12.13.4, overturning moments at the soil-foundation interface are permitted to be reduced by
25 percent for foundations of structures that satisfy both of the following conditions:
• the structure is designed by the equivalent lateral force procedure
• the structure is not a cantilever column structure
Example 1-23
eral force resistance is provided by steel special moment-resisting frames in the north-south direc-
tion. For seismic forces acting in the north-south direction, determine the design vertical force at the
soil-foundation interface at the base of an interior bent. The redundancy factor is 1.0. The ASCE 7
Section 2.4.5 loading combination 8 governs.

Chapter 1 69
Solution
From Example 1-22, the total dead load is
W 5 w1 1 w2
5 43.2 1 25.6
5 68.8 kips
At the base of one column of the bent, the vertical force produced by the total dead load is
PD 5 W/2
5 68.8/2
534.4 kips
Allowing for the 25-percent reduction given in ASCE 7 Section 12.13.4 and the load factor of 0.7
given in ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5, the factored overturning moment produced by the horizontal seismic
forces at the base of the bent is
M 5 0.75 3 0.7S(Fi hi)

5 83.54 kip-ft . . . (from Example 1-22)
At the base of one column of the bent, the vertical force produced by the horizontal seismic forces is
PE 5 M/s
5 83.54/40
5 2.1 kips
The design vertical force at the base of one column of the bent is
P 5 PD 1 PE
5 34.4 1 2.1
5 36.5 kips
1.21.3 Optional vertical seismic load effect
For structures in seismic design categories C through F, ASCE 7 Section 11.9.1 permits the vertical
seismic load effect, Ev , to be determined using the MCER vertical response spectrum. The vertical
response spectral acceleration, SaMv , is obtained from the horizontal response spectral acceleration
at short periods, SMS , using the vertical coefficient, Cv. The coefficient, Cv , is defined in terms of the
spectral response acceleration parameter at short periods, SS , in ASCE 7 Table 11.9-1. The values of
Cv are given in Table 1-21.

70 Seismic Design
Table 1-21 Values of vertical coefficient Cv
Mapped MCER spectral

response parameter at
short periods Site classes A, B Site class C Site classes D, E, F
SS ≥ 2.0 0.9 1.3 1.5

SS 5 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.3
SS 5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.1
SS 5 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.9
SS ≤ 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.7
The vertical response spectrum consists of four segments and is constructed as shown in Figure 1-25:
• for vertical periods less than or equal to 0.025 second, the vertical response spectral accelera-
tion is given by ASCE 7 Equation (11.9-1) as
SaMv 5 0.3Cv SMS
• for vertical periods greater than 0.025 second and less than or equal to 0.05 second, the vertical
response spectral acceleration is given by ASCE 7 Equation (11.9-2) as
SaMv 5 20CvSMS(Tv 2 0.025) 1 0.3Cv SMS

• for vertical periods greater than 0.05 second and less than or equal to 0.15 second, the vertical
SaMv 5 0.8Cv SMS
• for vertical periods greater than 0.15 second and less than or equal to 2.0 seconds, the vertical
SaMv 5 0.8Cv SMS(0.15/Tv)0.75

where: SMS 5 horizontal response spectral acceleration parameter at short periods
Tv 5 the vertical period of vibration
The vertical response spectral acceleration, SaMv , derived from ASCE 7 Equations (11.9-1) through
(11.9-4) must be not less than one-half of the corresponding horizontal response spectral acceleration,
SaM .
For vertical periods greater than 2.0 seconds, the vertical response spectral acceleration must be deter-
mined from a site-specific procedure. The vertical response spectral acceleration, SaMv , derived from
the site-specific procedure, must be not less than one-half of the corresponding design horizontal
response spectral acceleration, Sa.
For vertical periods less than or equal to 2.0 seconds, the vertical response spectral acceleration is
permitted to be determined from a site-specific procedure. The vertical response spectral acceleration,

Chapter 1 71
0.8CvSMS
Vertical acceleration
0.8CvSMS (0.15/Tv)0.75
0.3CvSMS
0.5 1.0
0.025
Vertical period. Tv sec
0.05
0.15
Figure 1-25 Vertical response spectrum
SaMv , derived from this site-specific procedure, must be not less than 80 percent of the corresponding
value derived from ASCE 7 Equations (11.9-1) through (11.9-4).
The design vertical response spectral acceleration, Sav , is taken as two-thirds of the value of the vertical
response spectral acceleration, SaMv.
1.22 Diaphragm loads

Precast concrete diaphragms, including chords and collectors, in structures assigned to seismic design
categories C through F must be designed in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.10.3. All other dia-
phragms, chords, and collectors may be designed using the procedure given in ASCE 7 Sections
12.10.1 and 12.10.2. This procedure is as follows:
The load acting on a horizontal diaphragm is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1) as
Fpx 5 wpx SFi /Swi

≥ 0.2SDS Iewpx . . . ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-2)
≤ 0.4SDS Iewpx . . . ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-3)
where: Fi 5 lateral force at level i
SFi 5 total shear force at level i
wi 5 seismic dead load located at level i
Swi 5 total seismic weight at level i and above

72 Seismic Design
wpx 5 seismic weight tributary to the diaphragm at level x, including walls normal
to the direction of the seismic load
For a single-story structure, this reduces to
Fp 5 Vwpx /W
5 Cswpx
Also, in a multistory structure at the second floor level
SFi /Swi 5 V/W

5 Cs
where: V 5 seismic base shear determined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1)
W 5 effective seismic weight
Cs 5 seismic design coefficient
Example 1-24
The two-story steel-frame building, with wood structural panel diaphragms, shown in Figure 1-2 is
located in Orange County, California. Determine the diaphragm loads for the structure.
Solution
ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1) is applicable and the diaphragm loads are given by
Fpx 5 wpx SFi /Swi
The effective seismic weight tributary to the diaphragm at level 2 is obtained from Example 1-15 as
Roof 5 0.02 3 40 3 20 5 16.00 kips

Walls 5 2 3 0.04 3 20 3 12/2 5 9.60 kips
wp2 5 16.00 1 9.60
5 25.60 kips
The effective seismic weight tributary to the diaphragm at level 1 is obtained from Example 1-15 as
Second floor 5 0.03 3 40 3 20 5 24.00 kips

Walls 5 2 3 0.04 3 20 3 12 5 19.20 kips
Partitions 5 0.01 3 40 3 20 5 8.00 kips
wp1 5 24.00 1 19.20 1 8.00
5 51.20 kips
Chapter 1 73
The maximum applicable value for the diaphragm load is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-3) as
Fpx 5 0.4SDS Iewpx . . . SDS 5 1.01 from Example 1-9

5 0.4 3 1.01 3 1.0wpx
5 0.404wpx
The minimum applicable value for the diaphragm load is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-2) as
Fpx 5 0.2SDS Iewpx

5 0.2 3 1.01 3 1.0wpx
5 0.202wpx . . . governs at both levels
The values of the diaphragm loads are given in Table 1-22.
Table 1-22 Diaphragm loads
Level Swi SFi SFi /Swi max min wpx Fpx
2 25.60 4.42 0.173 0.404 0.202 25.60 5.17

1 76.80 8.84 0.115 0.404 0.202 51.20 10.34
1.23 Story drift

As shown in Figure 1-26, the application of the seismic design force to the top of a single-story bent
causes the inelastic lateral deflection, or drift, D. Excessive drift in a structure may cause damage to
cladding and finishes and to nonstructural walls and partitions. In addition, the secondary stresses, or
P-delta effects, introduced into the columns may produce instability that results in collapse.
∆ P V = CsW
hs
Figure 1-26 Story drift

74 Seismic Design
Story drift is defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6 as the difference of the inelastic deflections at the
centers of mass at the top and bottom of the story under consideration. The maximum allowable story
drift, Da, is given in ASCE 7 Table 12.12-1 and shown in Table 1-23.
Table 1-23 Maximum allowable story drift, Da
Risk category
Building type I or II III IV
One-story buildings with fittings designed to accommo- NL NL NL

date drift
Buildings, other than masonry shear wall buildings, of 0.025hsx 0.020hsx 0.015hsx
four stories or less with fittings designed to accommo-
date drift
Masonry cantilever shear wall buildings 0.010hsx 0.010hsx 0.010hsx
Other masonry shear wall buildings 0.007hsx 0.007hsx 0.007hsx
All other buildings 0.020hsx 0.015hsx 0.010hsx
hsx 5 story height below level x, NL 5 not limited
Note: For moment-resisting frames in seismic design categories D through F, these values are divided by r.
To allow for inelastic deformations, drift is determined using the deflection amplification factor, Cd ,
given in Table 1-16. Taking into account the importance factor given in Table 1-5, the amplified deflec-
tion at level x is defined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15) as
dx 5 Cd dxe /Ie
where: Cd 5 deflection amplification factor given in Table 1-16
dx 5 design displacement of the structure
5 anticipated inelastic displacement caused by the design ground motion and
defined as the product of dxe and Cd
dxe 5 horizontal displacement caused by the code-prescribed strength level
forces, as determined by an elastic analysis
Ie 5 importance factor given in Table 1-5
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.7, P-delta effects need not be included in the calculation of
drift when the stability coefficient, q, does not exceed 0.10.
The stability coefficient is defined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-16) as
q 5 Px DIe /Vx hsxCd

5 Px(dxe 2 d(x–1)e)/Vx hsx

Chapter 1 75
where: Px 5 total unfactored vertical design load at and above level x

D 5 anticipated inelastic story drift occurring simultaneously with Vx
5 Cd(dxe 2 d(x–1)e)/Ie
Vx 5 seismic shear force acting between levels x and (x 2 1)
hsx 5 story height below level x
Cd 5 deflection amplification factor defined in Table 1-16
For the calculation of drift, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6.2, the full value of Tr, the fun-
damental period determined using the Rayleigh method, may be utilized to determine the seismic base
shear. The upper bound limitation imposed by ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2 is not applicable.
Where allowable stress design methods are used, deflections must be calculated using the code-
prescribed design level forces without multiplying by the factor 0.7.
When calculating drift, the redundancy factor, r, is not used.
Example 1-25
mine the drift in the top and bottom stories of the frame. The relevant details are shown in Figure 1-27
and Table 1-24, where k1 5 stiffness of story 1, and k2 5 stiffness of story 2.
14
08

76 Seismic Design
Solution
From previous examples, the relevant parameters are
SDS 5 1.01g
SD1 5 0.46g
TS 5 0.46 sec
Ie 5 1.0
R 58
W 5 76.8 kips
risk category 5 II
From Example 1-8, the fundamental period obtained by using the Rayleigh method is
Tr 5 0.538 sec
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6.2, this value of T may be utilized to determine the seismic
base shear. The seismic response coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) as
Cs 5 SD1Ie /RT
5 0.46 3 1.0/(8.0 3 0.538)
5 0.107
The maximum value of the seismic response coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) as
Cs 5 SDS Ie /R
5 1.01 3 1.0/8.0
5 0.126
Since Tr . TS , the governing value is
Cs 5 0.107
Hence, the seismic base shear is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1) as
V 5 CsW
5 0.107 3 76.80
5 8.22 kips
The lateral forces, Fx , are calculated at each level using ASCE 7 Equations (12.8-11) and (12.8-12) to
give
Fx 5 Vwxhxk /Swihik

Chapter 1 77
The fundamental period of vibration is
T 5 0.538 sec
. 0.5 sec
The value of the distribution exponent factor, k, is obtained by linear interpolation from ASCE 7 Sec-
tion 12.8.3 as
k 5 1 1 (0.538 2 0.5)(2 2 1)/(2.5 2 0.5)

5 1.019
The effective seismic weights located at levels 1 and 2 are obtained from Example 1-15, and the rele-
vant values are given in Table 1-24.
The design lateral force at level x is
Fx 5 Vwxhxk /Swihik
5 8.22(wxhx1.019)/1296.74
5 0.00634wxhx1.019
The values of Fx are shown in Table 1-24.
Level wx hx wxhx1.019 Fx
2 25.60 24 652.64 4.14

1 51.20 12 644.10 4.08
Total 76.80 — 1296.74 8.22
For a moment-resisting frame, the amplification factor is obtained from Table 1-16 as
Cd 5 5.5
Using the lateral forces given in Table 1-24, the anticipated inelastic drift in the bottom story is
D1 5 Cd dxe /Ie
5 Cd(F2 1 F1)/k1Ie
5 (5.5)(4.14 1 4.08)/(30 3 1.00)
5 1.51 in

78 Seismic Design
In accordance with Table 1-23, the maximum allowable drift for a two-story structure in risk category
II is
Da 5 0.025hs1
5 0.025 3 12 3 12
5 3.60 in
. 1.51 in . . . satisfactory
Similarly, the drift of the top story is
D2 5 0.76 in . . . satisfactory
1.24 Simplified determination of drift

In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.14.8.5, where the simplified procedure is used to determine the
seismic base shear, the design story drift in any story shall be taken as
Dx 5 0.01hsx
where: Dx 5 drift in story x
hsx 5 height of story x
Example 1-26
The two-story building shown in Figure 1-21 is located in Orange County, California. Lateral force
resistance is provided by eccentrically braced steel frames in the north-south direction, as indicated.
Determine the drift in the bottom story of the frame in the north-south direction using the simplified
procedure.
Solution
The design story drift in the bottom story is given by
D1 5 0.01hs1
5 0.01 3 12 3 12
5 1.44 in
, Da
5 3.60 in . . . satisfactory (as determined in Example 1-25 for a structure in
risk category II)

Chapter 1 79
1.25 P-delta effects

A compression force in a column introduces secondary stresses into the column due to the additional
moment produced by the column displacements. The P-delta effects are produced by the gravity loads
acting on the sidesway of the structure. As shown in Figure 1-26, the primary moment on the frame is
MP 5 Vhs
The secondary moment on the frame is
MS 5 PD
P-delta moments represent the additional overturning moments produced by the gravity loads acting
on the deflections produced by the lateral loads. The P-delta effects may significantly increase the
displacements and reduce the stability of the structure.
The P-delta effects are calculated using the design level seismic forces and elastic displacements deter-
mined in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.1 with the exception of ASCE 7 Equation (12.8‑5).
P-delta effects in a given story are due to the secondary moments, caused by the eccentricity of the
gravity loads above that story. The secondary moment in a story is defined as the product of the total
dead load, floor live load, and snow load above the story multiplied by the elastic drift of that story.
The primary moment in a story is defined as the seismic shear in the story multiplied by the height
of the story. In determining drift for P-delta effects, the upper bound limitation imposed by ASCE 7
Section 12.8.2 on the calculated period is not applicable.
The ratio of the secondary moment to primary moment is termed the stability coefficient and is an
indication of how sensitive the structure is to P-delta effects. The stability coefficient is given by
q 5 MS /MP
where: MS 5 product of the total unfactored gravity load above a story and the elastic
drift of that story
Mp 5 total seismic shear in a story multiplied by the height of the story
The stability coefficient is also defined by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-16) as
q 5 PxDIe /VxhsxCd
5 Px(dxe 2 d(x–1)e)/Vx hsx
where: Px 5 total unfactored vertical design load at and above level x
D 5 anticipated inelastic story drift
5 dx 2 d(x–1)
5 Cd(dxe 2 d(x–1)e)/Ie
Vx 5 seismic shear force acting between levels x and (x 2 1)

80 Seismic Design
Cd 5 deflection amplification factor given in Table 1-16

If: q . qmax, the structure is unstable and must be redesigned
The stability coefficient in any story shall not exceed the value given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-17) as
qmax 5 0.5/bCd
≤ 0.25
The term b is the ratio of the shear demand to the shear capacity in a story and may conservatively be
considered equal to 1.0. If the stability coefficient (q) in any story exceeds 0.1, the effects of the sec-
ondary moments shall be included in the determination of story drifts and element forces for the whole
structure. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.7, the revised story drift, allowing for P-delta
effects, is obtained as the product of the calculated drift and the factor 1/(1 2 q).
As shown in Figure 1-28, with the designated lateral forces and story drift, and with the combined dead
load plus floor live load indicated by W1 and the combined dead load plus roof snow load indicated by
W2, the primary moment in the second story of the frame is
MP2 5 F2 hs2
The secondary moment in the second story is
MS2 5 P2D2 Ie /Cd

5 W2(d2e 2 d1e)
Figure 1-28 P-delta effects

Chapter 1 81
The stability coefficient in the second story is
q2 5 MS2 /MP2
The primary moment in the first story of the frame is
MP1 5 (F1 1 F2)hs1
The secondary moment in the first story is
MS1 5 P1D1Ie /Cd

5 (W2 1 W1)d1e
The stability coefficient in the first story is
q1 5 MS1/MP1
Example 1-27
eral force resistance is provided by special steel moment-resisting frames in the north-south direction.
The structure is used as an office building and snow load on the roof is not applicable. Determine the
stability coefficient for the bottom story of the frame.
Solution
Live load on the second floor is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 4.3-1 as 50 lb/ft2. To this must be added
a 15-lb/ft2 allowance for partitions as specified in ASCE 7 Section 4.3.2. The total live load on the
second floor is
WL 5 (0.05 1 0.015)40 3 20
5 52.00 kips
The dead load on the second floor is obtained from Example 1-24 as
WD1 5 0.03 3 40 3 20 1 2 3 0.04 3 20 3 12

5 43.20 kips
The dead load on the roof is obtained from Example 1-24 as
WD2 5 25.60 kips

82 Seismic Design
The total dead load on the structure is
WD 5 43.20 1 25.60
5 68.80 kips
The inelastic drift in the bottom story is derived in Example 1-25 as
D1 5 1.51 in
The primary moment in the bottom story is
MP1 5 (F2 1 F1)hs1

5 (4.14 1 4.08) 3 12 3 12
5 1183.68 kip-in
The secondary moment is
MS1 5 (WD 1 WL)D1Ie /Cd

5 (68.80 1 52.00)1.51 3 1.0/5.5
5 33.17 kip-in
The stability coefficient is
q1 5 MS1/MP1
5 33.17/1183.68
5 0.028
, 0.1 . . . satisfactory
1.26 Building separation

ASCE 7 Section 12.12.3 requires that all parts of a building or of adjacent buildings be separated a
sufficient distance to permit independent seismic motion without impact between adjacent parts. The
separation shall allow for the maximum inelastic response displacement (dM ). The dM is determined
at critical locations with consideration for translational and torsional displacements of the structure,
including torsional amplifications. The maximum inelastic displacement is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(12.12-1), which is
dM 5 Cddmax/Ie
where: dmax 5 maximum elastic displacement at the critical location

Chapter 1 83
Where a structure adjoins a property line not common to a public way, the structure is set back from
the property line by at least the displacement (dM) of that structure. The required separation between
adjacent buildings determined from ASCE 7 Equation (12.12-2) is
dMT 5 [(dM1)2 1 (dM2)2]
where: dM1 5 inelastic displacement of building 1
dM2 5 inelastic displacement of building 2
The displacements of both buildings are determined at the same height.
Example 1-28
Determine the separation required for the two steel moment-resisting frames shown in Figure 1-29.
The drift in each story of building 1 is 0.025hs and the drift in each story of building 2 is 0.020hs.
Solution
The maximum inelastic displacement at the roof level of building 1 is given by
dM1 5 4 3 0.025hs
5 4 3 0.025 3 12 3 12
5 14.40 in
Building 1 Building 2

84 Seismic Design
The maximum inelastic displacement at level 4 of building 2 is given by
dM2 5 4 3 0.020hs
5 4 3 0.020 3 12 3 12
5 11.52 in
The required separation is
dMT 5 [(dM1)2 1 (dM2)2]

5 [(14.40)2 1 (11.52)2]
5 18.44 in
1.27 Redundancy factor

The redundancy factor, r, is based on the extent of redundancy present in a building, and its effect
is to penalize structures with relatively few lateral-load-resisting elements. The value of the factor is
either 1.0 or 1.3 and it is applicable in seismic design categories D, E, and F. The redundancy factor is
an attempt to quantify the effects of redundancy and, in effect, reduce the response modification fac-
tor values for less redundant structures. The redundancy factor penalizes less redundant structures by
increasing the design horizontal force by 30 percent and provides an economic incentive for the design
of structures with well-distributed lateral-force-resisting systems.
By providing multiple lateral-load-resisting paths in a structure, a degree of redundancy is provided

to the system. Yield of one element in the system results in redistribution of load to the remaining ele-
ments, thus controlling displacements and the deterioration of the structure and delaying the formation
of a collapse mechanism. Thus, to improve the seismic performance of a structure, it is desirable to
provide multiple load paths so as to make the lateral-load-resisting system as redundant as possible.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.1, the value of r is permitted to equal 1.0 in the following
situations:
• structures assigned to seismic design categories B and C
• drift calculations and P-delta effects
• design of nonbuilding structures that are not similar to buildings
• design of nonstructural components
• design of collector elements, splices and their connections for which the overstrength factor is
required

Chapter 1 85
• design of members or connections for which the overstrength factor is required
• diaphragm loads determined using ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1)
• systems with passive energy damping systems
• design of structural walls for out-of-plane forces, including their anchorages
For structures assigned to seismic design category D and having an extreme torsional irregularity, r
shall equal 1.3. For other structures assigned to seismic design category D and for structures assigned
to seismic design categories E or F, r shall equal 1.3 unless one of the conditions given in ASCE 7
Section 12.3.4.2 as condition (a) or condition (b) is met, whereby r is permitted to be taken as 1.0.
As specified in condition (a), the redundancy factor may be taken as 1.0 provided that at each story
resisting more than 35 percent of the base shear, the lateral-load-resisting system satisfies the follow-
ing redundancy requirements:
• for a braced frame, removal of an individual brace, or connection thereto, does not result in
more than a 33-percent reduction in story strength, nor create an extreme torsional irregularity
• for a moment frame, loss of moment resistance at the beam-to-column connections at both
ends of a single beam does not result in more than a 33-percent reduction in story strength, nor
create an extreme torsional irregularity
• for a shear wall or wall pier system with a height-to-length ratio greater than 1.0, removal of a
wall or pier, or collector connections thereto, does not result in more than a 33-percent reduc-
tion in story strength, nor create an extreme torsional irregularity
• for a cantilever column, loss of moment resistance at the base connections of any single canti-
lever column does not result in more than a 33-percent reduction in story strength, nor create
an extreme torsional irregularity
• for all other structural systems, there are no requirements
Alternatively, as specified in condition (b), the value of the redundancy factor may be assumed equal
to 1.0, provided that the building is regular in plan at all levels with not less than two bays of lateral-
load-resisting perimeter framing on each side of the building in each orthogonal direction at each story,
resisting more than 35 percent of the base shear. The number of bays for a shear wall is defined as the
length of the shear wall divided by the story height. For light-frame construction, the number of bays
for a shear wall is defined as twice the length of the shear wall divided by the story height.
Note that, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.1, structures that are assigned to seismic design
category E or F and have an extreme torsional irregularity are prohibited.

86 Seismic Design
Example 1-29
Determine the value of the redundancy factor for the building shown in Figure 1-30. Lateral resistance
is provided in the north-south direction by steel special moment frames, all with the same stiffness.
In the east-west direction, lateral resistance is provided by eccentrically braced frames with identical
stiffness. The building is assigned to seismic design category D.
Solution
The structure is regular in plan and has two bays of special moment-resisting perimeter framing on
each side of the building in the north-south direction. Two bays of eccentrically braced frames are
provided on the perimeter of each side of the building in the east-west direction. Hence, the building
complies with condition (b) of ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.2 and the redundancy factor is
r 5 1.0
Example 1-30
In the east-west direction, lateral resistance is provided by eccentrically braced frames with identical
stiffness. The roof diaphragm may be considered flexible. The building is assigned to seismic design
category D.

Chapter 1 87
Solution
The building does not comply with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.2 condition (b) since in the east-west direc-
tion, only one eccentrically braced frame is provided on the perimeter of each side of the building.
Removing brace 12 on the north side of the building results in a reduction of the lateral resistance in
the east-west direction of
Vr 5 100(2 2 1)/2
5 50 percent
. 33 percent . . . unsatisfactory
Hence, the redundancy factor is
r 5 1.3
Example 1-31
In the east-west direction, lateral resistance is provided by eccentrically braced frames with identi-
cal stiffness. The stiffness of the braced frames is 10 times the stiffness of the moment frames. The
roof diaphragm is rigid and the center of mass is located at the center of the building. The building is
assigned to seismic design category D.

88 Seismic Design
Solution
The building does not comply with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.2 condition (b) as it is not regular in plan.
For north-south seismic forces, the loss of moment resistance at both ends of beam 12 results in a
reduction of the lateral resistance in the north-south direction of
Vr 5 100(4 2 3)/4
5 25 percent
, 33 percent . . . satisfactory
It is now necessary to determine if an extreme torsional irregularity exists.
The lateral-force-resisting arrangement is now as indicated in Figure 1-33. The stiffness of a braced
frame is
kB 5 10kM . . . from problem statement

where: kM 5 stiffness of a moment frame
The center of rigidity is located a distance from the west wall given by
rw 5 SxkM /SkM
5 (90 3 kM)/3kM
5 30 feet

Chapter 1 89
Brace
V
Moment
connection
N
B1 B2
M3 40 ft
CM
CR
M2 M1 40 ft
rs = 32 ft
B5 B4 B3
30 ft 30 ft 30 ft
L = 90 ft
Figure 1-33 North-south seismic load
The center of rigidity is located a distance from the south wall given by
rs 5 SykB /SkB
5 (80 3 2kB)/5kB
5 32 feet
The distances of the braced frames and the moment frames from the center of rigidity are
rB1 5 rB2
5 48 feet
rB3 5 rB4 5 rB5
5 32 ft
rM1 5 60 feet
rM2 5 rM3
5 30 feet
The polar moment of inertia of the walls is
J 5 Skr2
5 kM(1 3 602 1 2 3 302 1 2 3 10 3 482 1 3 3 10 3 322)
5 82,200kM
5 8220kB

90 Seismic Design
For a north-south seismic load, the eccentricity is
e 5 x 2 rw
5 45 2 30
5 15 feet
Accidental eccentricity, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.2 is
ea 5 60.05 3 L
5 60.05 3 90
5 64.5 feet
An accidental displacement of the center of mass to the east results in the maximum eccentricity of
emax 5 e 1 ea
5 15 1 4.5
5 19.5 feet
The maximum torsional moment acting about the center of rigidity is
T 5 Vemax
5 19.5V
The total shear force produced in a wall is the algebraic sum of the in-plane shear force and the tor-
sional shear force. The in-plane shear force in the west wall is
Fs 5 Vkww /Sk
5 V 3 2kM /3kM
5 0.667V
The torsional shear force in the west wall is
Ft 5 2Trwwkww /J
5 219.5V 3 30 3 2kM /82,200kM
5 20.014V
The total shear force in the west wall is
Fww 5 Fs 1 Ft
5 0.667V 2 0.014V
5 0.653V

Chapter 1 91
The drift of the west wall is
Dww 5 Fww /kww

5 0.653V/2kM
5 0.327V/kM
The in-plane shear force in the east wall is
Fs 5 Vkew /Sk
5 V 3 kM /3kM
5 0.333V
The torsional shear force in the east wall is
Ft 5 Trewkew /J
5 19.5V 3 60 3 kM /82,200kM
5 0.014V
The total shear force in the east wall is
Few 5 Fs 1 Ft
5 0.333V 1 0.014V
5 0.347V
The drift of the east wall is
Dew 5 Few /kew

5 0.347V/kM
The average of the drifts of the east and west walls is
Dav 5 (Dew 1 Dww)/2

5 (0.347 1 0.327)V/2kM
5 0.337V/kM
The ratio of maximum story drift to average story drift is
Dew /Dav 5 0.347/0.337

5 1.03
, 1.4 . . . satisfactory, in accordance with ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1, extreme
torsional irregularity is not produced

92 Seismic Design
For east-west seismic forces, the removal of brace 34 from the central bay of the north wall (see Figure
1-32) results in a reduction of the lateral resistance in the east-west direction of
Vr 5 100(5 2 4)/5
5 20 percent
, 33 percent . . . satisfactory
It is now necessary to determine if an extreme torsional irregularity exists.
Brace
Moment B1
connection
M4 M1 40 ft
CM
V L = 80 ft
CR
M3 M2 40 ft
rs = 20 ft
B4 B3 B2
30 ft 30 ft 30 ft
Figure 1-34 East-west seismic load
The lateral-force-resisting arrangement is now as indicated in Figure 1-34. The stiffness of a braced
frame is
kB 5 10kM . . . from the problem statement

where: kM 5 stiffness of a moment frame
From symmetry, the center of rigidity is located a distance from the west wall given by
rw 5 45 ft
The center of rigidity is located a distance from the south wall given by
rs 5 SykB /SkB
5 (80 3 kB)/4kB
5 20 ft
The distances of the braced frames and the moment frames from the center of rigidity are
rB1 5 60 ft

Chapter 1 93
rB2 5 rB3 5 rB4

5 20 ft
rM1 5 rM2 5 rM3 5 rM4
5 45 ft
J 5 Skr2
5 kM(4 3 452 1 10 3 602 1 3 3 10 3 202)
5 56,100kM
5 5610kB
For an east-west seismic load, the eccentricity is
e 5 y 2 rs
5 40 2 20
5 20 feet
Accidental eccentricity, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.2 is
ea 5 60.05 3 L
5 60.05 3 80
5 64 feet
An accidental displacement of the center of mass to the north results in the maximum eccentricity of
emax 5 e 1 ea
5 20 1 4
5 24 feet
T 5 Vemax
5 24V
The total shear force produced in a wall is the algebraic sum of the in-plane shear force and the tor-
sional shear force. The in-plane shear force in the south wall is
Fs 5 Vksw /Sk
5 V 3 3kB /4kB
5 0.75V

94 Seismic Design
The torsional shear force in the south wall is
Ft 5 2Trswksw /J
5 224V 3 20 3 3kB /5610kB
5 20.257V
The total shear force in the south wall is
Fsw 5 Fs 1 Ft
5 0.75V 2 0.257V
5 0.493V
The drift of the south wall is
Dsw 5 Fsw /ksw

5 0.493V/3kB
5 0.164V/kB
The in-plane shear force in the north wall is
Fs 5 Vknw /Sk
5 V 3 kB /4kB
5 0.25V
The torsional shear force in the north wall is
Ft 5 Trnwknw /J
5 24V 3 60 3 kB /5610kB
5 0.257V
The total shear force in the north wall is
Fnw 5 Fs 1 Ft
5 0.25V 1 0.257V
5 0.507V
The drift of the north wall is
Dnw 5 Fnw /knw

5 0.507V/kB

Chapter 1 95
The average of the drifts of the north and south walls is
Dav 5 (Dnw 1 Dsw)/2

5 (0.507 1 0.164)V/2kB
5 0.336V/kB
The ratio of maximum story drift to average story drift is
Dnw /Dav 5 0.507/0.336

5 1.51
. 1.4 . . . unsatisfactory; in accordance with ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1, extreme
torsional irregularity is produced
Hence, the redundancy factor is
r 5 1.3
1.28 Load combinations

Design is permitted in the IBC by either the allowable stress method or the strength design method.
Either method requires the application of prescribed load combinations to determine the most critical
effect on any particular element in a structure.
1.28.1 Strength design loads and load factors
When strength design principles are utilized, the basic requirement is to ensure that the design strength
of a member is not less than the required ultimate strength. The required strength consists of the
service level loads multiplied by appropriate load factors, as defined in ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6. The
ASCE 7 load combinations that include seismic forces are
U 5 1.2D 1 Ev 1 Eh 1 f1L 1 0.2S . . . combination 6

and U 5 0.9D 2 Ev 1 Eh . . . combination 7
L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load

96 Seismic Design

(12.4-3)
5 rQE
(12.4-4a)
5 0.2SDS D
5 effect of horizontal seismic forces Fi in Figure 1-22
f1 5 1.0 for floors in garages and places of public assembly and for floor loads
in excess of 100 lb/ft2
5 0.5 for other live loads
Imposed live load is omitted where this results in a more critical effect in a member subjected to seis-
mic loads. Since seismic load is determined at the strength design level, it has a load factor of 1.0.
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads are additive, ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 6 may
be written as
U 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S . . . combination 6
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 7 may
be written as
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE . . . combination 7
Example 1-32
Determine the maximum and minimum strength design axial loads acting on the column footings for
the applied loads shown in Figure 1-35. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0. The 5-percent damped,
design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.840g.

Chapter 1 97
Solution
The force in one column due to the effects of dead load is

D 5 (SwDx)/2
where: wDx 5 dead load at level x
and D 5 (43.2 1 25.6)/2
5 34.4 kips
The force in one column due to the effects of superimposed floor load is
L 5 (SwLx)/2
where: wLx 5 floor live load at level x
and L 5 56.0/2
5 28.0 kips
The force in one column due to the effects of superimposed roof load is
Lr 5 wr /2
where: wr 5 roof live load
and Lr 5 16/2
5 8 kips
The force in one column due to the effects of horizontal seismic forces is
rQE 5 6r(SFx hx)/s
where: s 5 width of frame 5 40 feet
Fx 5 design lateral force at level x
hx 5 height above base to level x

98 Seismic Design
and rQE 5 61.0(4.06 3 24 1 4.06 3 12)/40

5 63.65 kips
The force in one column due to the effects of vertical seismic forces is
QV 5 60.2SDSD
5 60.2 3 0.840 3 34.4
5 65.78 kips
Applying load combination 6 in ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 gives the strength design load as
FC(max) 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S
5 1.2 3 34.4 1 5.78 1 3.65 1 0.5 3 28.0 1 0
5 64.71 kips . . . compression
Applying load combination 2 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.1 gives the strength design load as
FC(max) 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5Lr
5 1.2 3 34.4 1 1.6 3 28.0 1 0.5 3 8
5 90.08 kips . . . compression, governs
FC(min) 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
5 0.9 3 34.4 2 5.78 2 3.65
5 21.53 kips . . . compression, no uplift
1.28.2 Special seismic load combinations for the strength design method
The special load combinations incorporate the overstrength factor, W0, of ASCE 7 Section 12.4.3
to protect critical elements in a building. These critical elements must be designed with sufficient
strength to protect against their failure and a subsequent building collapse. Seismic loads multiplied by
the overstrength factor are an approximation of the maximum load an element will experience. These
situations where W0 is included in the design force are covered in the following code sections:
• ASCE 7 Section 12.10.2.1: In seismic design categories C through F, for collector elements
and their connections, including connections to vertical elements where the seismic force is
determined by ASCE 7 Section 12.8, Section 12.9, or ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1). The over-
strength factor is not applied where the seismic force is determined using the minimum value of
Fpx from ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-2). An exception is permitted to the use of the overstrength
factor for structures braced entirely with light-frame shear walls. An example of collectors is

Chapter 1 99
• ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.3: For elements supporting discontinuous walls or frames of structures
having in-plane or out-of-plane discontinuities type 4 of ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1 or type 4 of
ASCE 7 Table 12.3-2. An example of in-plane discontinuity is shown in Figure 1-37.
• ASCE 7 Section 12.13.8.4: For batter piles and their connections as shown in Figure 1-38.
• ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.2: For buildings in seismic design categories B and C exceeding two
stories or 30 feet in height and having an extreme weak story type 5b in ASCE 7 Table 12.3-2,
the weak story shall be designed using the overstrength factor. In accordance with ASCE 7 Sec-
tion 12.3.3.1, buildings with extreme weak stories are prohibited in seismic design categories
D through F. An example of an extreme weak story is shown in Figure 1-39.
Figure 1-36 Collector elements
Shear wall
Offset
Columns designed Shear wall

for Ω0
Figure 1-37 In-plane discontinuity

100 Seismic Design
Batter piles
Figure 1-38 Batter piles
Shear wall
Columns designed
for 0
Figure 1-39 Extreme weak story

Chapter 1 101
Where the seismic load effect including overstrength is combined with the effects of other loads,
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 requires the use of combinations 6 and 7, which are
U 5 1.2D 1 Ev 1 Emh 1 f1L 1 0.2S . . . combination 6

and U 5 0.9D 2 Ev 1 Emh . . . combination 7
L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load
Emh 5 maximum effect of horizontal earthquake forces that can be developed in an
element, as defined in ASCE 7 Equation (12.4-7)
5 W0QE
(12.4-4a)
W0 5 structure overstrength factor given in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 and tabulated
for an abbreviated number of structures in Table 1-16
5 amplification factor to account for the overstrength of the structure in the
inelastic range
QE 5 effect of horizontal seismic forces Fi in Figure 1-22
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads are additive, ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 6 is
defined by
U 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE 1 f1L 1 0.2S . . . combination 6
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 7 is
defined by
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE . . . combination 7

102 Seismic Design
Example 1-33
The special reinforced masonry shear wall, supported on columns as shown in Figure 1-39, forms part
of a bearing wall lateral-force-resisting system. The building is assigned to seismic design category
C, and the bottom story is classified as an extreme weak story. The 5-percent damped, design spectral
response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.40g. The applied axial loads on each col-
umn are dead load (D 5 80 kips), floor live load (L 5 20 kips), and the effect of horizontal seismic
force (QE 5 630 kips). Determine the maximum and minimum strength design axial loads acting on
the column footings. The building is an office structure.
Solution
Because the building exceeds two stories in height and the bottom story is classified as an extreme
weak story, the special seismic load combinations are applicable, and the structure overstrength factor
for special reinforced masonry shear walls, given in Table 1-16, is
W0 5 2.5
FC(max) 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.40)80 1 2.5 3 30 1 0.5 3 20 1 0
5 187 kips . . . compression
FC(min) 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE

5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 0.40)80 2 2.5 3 30
5 29.40 kips . . . tension
1.28.3 Allowable stress design method
When allowable stress design principles are utilized, the basic requirement is to ensure that, under the
action of service level loads, the stress in an element does not exceed permissible limits. The design
level load combinations that include seismic forces are defined by combinations 8, 9, and 10 of ASCE
7 Section 2.4.5 and, after substituting the values of Eh and Ev from ASCE 7 Equations (12.4-3) and
(12.4-4a), are given by
(1.0 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7rQE . . . combination 8

(1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525rQE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S . . . combination 9

Chapter 1 103

L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load
E 5 seismic load
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration, for a period of 0.2
second
r 5 redundancy factor
No increase in allowable stress is permitted with these load combinations, with the exception of the
duration of load increase specified for wood members in NDS Section 2.3.2.11
Example 1-34
The 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.840g
and the redundancy coefficient is r 5 1.0. Determine the maximum and minimum loads acting on the
column footings using the allowable stress design method.
Solution
The loads acting on the structure are shown in Figure 1-35, and the forces acting on the columns are
determined in Example 1-32.
The force in one column due to the effects of dead load is
D 5 34.4 kips
The force in one column due to the effects of superimposed floor load is
L 5 28.0 kips
The strength level force in one column due to the effects of horizontal seismic forces is
rQE 5 63.65 kips
The strength level force in one column due to the effects of vertical seismic forces is
QV 5 60.2SDSD
5 65.78 kips

104 Seismic Design
Applying load combination 2 of ASCE 7 Section 2.4.1 gives the allowable stress design load as
FC(max) 5 D 1 L
5 34.4 1 28.0
Load combination 4 of ASCE 7 Section 2.4.1 is less critical than load combination 2.
FC(max) 5 (1.0 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7rQE

5 1.0 3 34.4 1 0.7 3 5.78 1 0.7 3 3.65
FC(max) 5 (1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525rQE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S

5 1.0 3 34.4 1 0.525 3 5.78 1 0.525 3 3.65 1 0.75 3 28 1 0
5 60.35 kips . . . compression, governs
FC(min) 5 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7rQE

5 0.6 3 34.4 2 0.7 3 5.78 2 0.7 3 3.65
5 14.04 kips . . . compression, no uplift
1.28.4 Special seismic load combinations for the allowable stress design method
The maximum force that can be delivered to the system, when the effects of gravity and seismic loads
are additive, is determined by load combinations 8 and 9 given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5, which are
FC(max) 5 (1.0 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7W0QE

FC(max) 5 (1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525W0QE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S
L 5 floor live load
QE 5 strength level effect of horizontal seismic forces

Chapter 1 105
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration, for a period of 0.2
second
for an abbreviated number of structures in Table 1.16
inelastic range
The maximum force that can be delivered to the system, when the effects of gravity and seismic loads
counteract, is determined by load combination 10 given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5, which is
FC(min) 5 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7W0QE

In applying these load combinations, the allowable stress in a member may be increased by a factor
of 1.2. No additional stress increases are permitted with the exception of the duration of load increase
specified for wood members in NDS Section 2.3.2.
1.29 Structural elements

Structural elements and their attachments are designed to resist the design seismic forces detailed in
ASCE 7 Section 12.1. These requirements are applicable to structures in seismic design category B
and higher to ensure the structural integrity of a building in the event of an earthquake. All elements in
a building must be connected so as to act together as a single unit.
1.29.1 Connections
ASCE 7 Section 12.1.3 requires all smaller elements of a structure to be tied to the remainder of the
structure with a connection capable of resisting a horizontal force given by
Fp 5 0.133SDSwp
with a minimum value given by
Fp 5 0.05wp
where: wp 5 weight of the smaller element
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2
second

106 Seismic Design
In addition, as specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.1.4, for each beam, girder, or truss, a connection shall
be provided to resist a horizontal force given by
FR 5 0.05wR
where: wR 5 reaction due to dead 1 live loads
Example 1-35
The two-span glued-laminated girder shown in Figure 1-40 supports a dead load, including its own
weight, of 450 pounds per foot and a live load of 500 pounds per foot. Sliding bearings are provided at
supports 3 and 4 with a hinge at support 1. The 5-percent damped, design spectral response accelera-
tion for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. Determine the required tie force at the hinge connector
and the horizontal force at support 1.
Solution
The tie force required at the hinge connector is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.1.3
Fp 5 0.05wp
where: wp 5 dead load of beam 12
5 0.45 3 40
5 18 kips
then Fp 5 0.05 3 18
5 0.90 kip
Alternatively the tie force required at the hinge connector is given by
Fp 5 0.133SDSwp
5 0.133 3 0.826 3 18
5 1.98 kips . . . governs

Chapter 1 107
At support 1, the required horizontal force is given by
FR 5 0.05wR
where: wR 5 reaction due to dead 1 live loads
5 (0.45 1 0.5)40/2
5 19 kips
then FR 5 0.05 3 19
5 0.95 kip
1.29.2 Lateral design force on walls
The out-of-plane seismic force on structural walls is specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.11.1 and is given
by
Fp 5 0.40IeSDSWc
≥ 0.1Wc
where: Ie 5 occupancy importance factor given in Table 1-5
second
Wc 5 weight of the wall
Example 1-36
The 7-inch concrete wall shown in Figure 1-41 forms part of a building assigned to seismic design
category B with an importance factor of 1.0. The factored roof load is 300 pounds per foot and it acts at
an eccentricity of 7 inches with respect to the center of the wall. The 5-percent damped, design spectral
response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.30g. Assuming that seismic loads govern
the design, determine the strength level design moment in the wall.
Solution
Weight of the wall is
Wc 5 150 3 7/12
5 87.50 lb/ft2

108 Seismic Design
128 lb-ft
The seismic lateral force on the wall is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.11.1 as
Fp 5 0.40IeSDSWc
5 0.40 3 1.0 3 0.30 3 87.50
5 10.50 lb/ft2
The horizontal force per linear foot of wall at roof level is obtained by taking moments about the
hinged base
HA 5 (10.5 3 232/2 2 300 3 7/12)/20

5 130.11 lb/ft
The horizontal force per linear foot of wall at the base of the wall is
HB 5 (10.5 3 23 3 8.5 1 300 3 7/12)/20

5 111.39 lb/ft
The maximum moment in the wall occurs at a height y above the base given by
M 5 yHB 2 Fp y2/2
5 111.39y 2 10.5y2/2
Differentiating with respect to y and equating dM/dy to zero gives
y 5 10.61 ft

Chapter 1 109
The maximum moment is given by
Mw 5 111.39 3 10.61 2 5.25 3 (10.61)2

5 591 lb-ft/ft
1.29.3 Lateral design force on parapets
To compensate for the poor seismic performance and lack of redundancy of parapets, which may
create a safety hazard to the public, parapets are designed for a higher design load than walls. For
the design of parapets, ASCE 7 Section 13.5.2 requires the application of ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1).
However, in determining the design moment in a wall with a parapet or the design force in an anchor-
age, ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1) is not applied to the parapet and ASCE 7 Section 12.11.1 is applied
to the entire wall, including the parapet.12 ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1) is applied to parapets in seismic
design category B and above and is given by
Fp 5 (0.4apSDS Ip /Rp)(1 1 2z/h)Wp

where: Ip 5 component importance factor given in ASCE 7 Section 13.1.3
second
Wp 5 weight of parapet
ap 5 component amplification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1
5 2.5 . . . for unbraced parapets
h 5 height of roof above the base
z 5 height of parapet at point of attachment
5h
Rp 5 component response modification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1
5 2.5 . . . for unbraced parapets
In accordance with ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-2), Fp need not be taken greater than
Fp 5 1.6SDS IpWp
In accordance with ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-3), Fp shall not be taken less than
Fp 5 0.3SDS IpWp

110 Seismic Design
Example 1-37
The 7-inch concrete parapet shown in Figure 1-41 forms part of a building with a component impor-
tance factor of 1.0. The 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2
second is SDS 5 0.30g. Determine the strength level seismic design moment in the parapet.
Solution
Weight of the parapet per linear foot is
Wp 5 150 3 3 3 7/12
5 262.50 lb/ft
The seismic lateral force acting on the parapet is given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1) as

where: Ip 5 component importance factor
5 1.0
second
5 0.30g
Wp 5 weight of parapet
5 262.50 lb/ft
ap 5 component amplification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1
5 2.5
5 20 ft
z 5 height of parapet at point of attachment
5 20 ft
Rp 5 component response modification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1
5 2.5
and Fp 5 (0.4 3 2.5 3 0.30 3 1.0/2.5)(1 1 2 3 20/20)Wp
5 0.36Wp
5 94.5 lb/ft

Chapter 1 111
Neither ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-2) nor (13.3-3) govern, and the bending moment at the base of the
parapet is
Mp 5 1.5Fp
5 142 lb-ft/ft
1.30 Anchorage of structural walls

During past earthquakes, a major cause of failure has been the separation of flexible diaphragms from
concrete and masonry supporting walls. This is due to diaphragm flexibility amplifying out-of-plane
accelerations. To prevent separation occurring, anchorage ties must be provided as shown in Figure
1-41 to tie the diaphragms and walls together. These forces apply only to the design of the ties and not
to the overall wall design. Where the wall anchor spacing exceeds 4 feet, in accordance with ASCE
7 Section 12.11.2.1, the wall must be designed to span between anchors. In accordance with ASCE 7
Section 12.11.2.2.2, steel elements in the anchorage system are required to resist 1.4 times the calcu-
lated force in structures assigned to seismic design categories C through F. This provides a factor of
safety of approximately two against tensile rupture.
For buildings in seismic design categories B through F, ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1 requires anchors to
be designed for the force.
Fp 5 0.4SDS kaIeWp
≥ 0.2kaIeWp
where: Ie 5 importance factor
SDS 5 design response acceleration, for a period of 0.2 second
Wp 5 weight of the wall tributary to the anchor
ka 5 amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility
5 1.0 1 Lf /100
≤2
≤ 1 . . . for a diaphragm that is not flexible
Lf 5 span in feet of a flexible diaphragm measured between vertical elements
that provide lateral support to the diaphragm in the direction considered
5 0 . . . for rigid diaphragms

112 Seismic Design
1.30.1 Anchorage to flexible diaphragms
A diaphragm is considered flexible, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.3, where the maximum
displacement of the diaphragm under lateral load exceeds twice the average displacement of the end
supports.
This is shown in Figure 1-42 and the diaphragm is flexible if:

dM . 2dA
where: dM 5 maximum displacement of the diaphragm
dA 5 average story drift
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.1, the following types of diaphragms may be considered
flexible:
• untopped steel decking or wood structural panels supported by vertical elements of steel or
composite braced frames, or concrete, masonry, steel, or composite shear walls
• untopped steel decking or wood structural panels in one- and two-family residential buildings
In addition, diaphragms of untopped steel decking or wood structural panels are considered flexible
provided all of the following conditions are met:
• in structures of light-frame construction, toppings of concrete or similar materials are not
placed over wood structural panel diaphragms except for nonstructural toppings not greater
than 1.5 inches thick
• each line of the lateral-force-resisting system complies with the allowable story drift of ASCE
7 Table 12.12-1
The inertial forces developed in a building by an earthquake must be transferred by a suitable seis-
mic-force-resisting system to the foundation. This system consists of two parts: horizontal diaphragms
that transfer the seismic forces at each floor to the vertical seismic-force-resisting elements and the
vertical elements that transfer the lateral forces to the foundation. A flexible diaphragm is assumed to
act as a simply supported beam between vertical seismic-force-resisting elements. Hence, lateral force
is distributed to the vertical elements based on tributary mass, without producing any torsional effects.
The anchorage of structural walls to supporting construction must be capable of resisting the lateral
seismic force given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.11-1) as
Fp 5 0.4SDS kaIeWp
≥ 0.2kaIeWp
where: Wp 5 weight of the wall tributary to the anchor
ka 5 amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility
5 1.0 1 Lf /100

Chapter 1 113
Lf 5 span in feet of the flexible diaphragm

5 0 for rigid diaphragms
Figure 1-42 Diaphragm flexibility
Example 1-38
The 7-inch concrete wall shown in Figure 1-41 forms part of a building assigned to seismic design cat-
egory C with an importance factor of 1.0. The 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration
for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.40g. If the roof diaphragm may be considered flexible and has a
span of 30 feet, determine the strength level seismic design force in each anchor.
Solution
w 5 150 3 7/12
5 87.50 lb/ft2
The equivalent area of wall tributary to each anchor is obtained by taking moments about the hinged
base
Aw 5 4 3 232/(2 3 20)
5 52.90 ft2
The weight of the wall tributary to each anchor is
Wp 5 wAw
5 87.50 3 52.90/1000
5 4.63 kips

114 Seismic Design
The span in feet of the flexible diaphragm is
Lf 5 30 feet
The amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility is
ka 5 1.0 1 Lf /100
5 1.0 1 30/100
5 1.3
For seismic design category C, the seismic lateral force on an anchor is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(12.11-1) as
Fp 5 0.4SDS ka IeWp
5 0.4 3 0.4 3 1.3 3 1.0 3 4.63
5 0.96 kip
The minimum permissible force on one anchor is
Fp 5 0.2ka IeWp
5 0.2 3 1.3 3 1.0 3 4.63
The required seismic design force for the anchors is
Fp 5 1.2 kips
1.30.2 Anchorage to rigid diaphragms
A diaphragm is considered rigid in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.2 where it consists of con-
crete slabs or concrete-filled metal decks with span-to-depth ratios of three or less in structures that
have no horizontal irregularities. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1, the anchorages for a
rigid diaphragm, with the exception of roof diaphragms, shall resist the horizontal forces determined
from
Fp 5 (0.4SDS Ie)(1 1 2z/h)Wp /3

where: Fp 5 seismic design force on the anchor
Ie 5 importance factor
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of
0.2 second
Wp 5 weight of the wall tributary to the anchor

Chapter 1 115

z 5 height of anchor above the base
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1, Fp shall not be taken less than
Fp 5 0.2IeWp
Anchorage forces for rigid roof diaphragms are determined using ASCE 7 Equation (12.11.1) with
ka 5 1.0, which gives
Fp 5 0.4SDS IeWp
≥ 0.2IeWp
Example 1-39
The 7-inch concrete wall shown in Figure 1-43 forms part of a building assigned to seismic design cat-
egory C with an importance factor of 1.0. The 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration
for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.40g. If the roof diaphragm and the second-floor diaphragm may
be considered rigid, determine the anchorage force in the roof diaphragm.
7-in concrete wall 10 ft
10 ft
Solution
w 5 150 3 7/12
5 87.50 lb/ft2

116 Seismic Design
The area of the wall tributary to the roof diaphragm is
Aw 5 1 3 10/2
5 5 ft2/ft
The weight of the wall tributary to the roof diaphragm is
Wp 5 wAw
5 87.50 3 5
5 438 lb/ft
For a rigid roof diaphragm, ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1 stipulates that
Lf 50
ka 5 1.0
and ASCE 7 Equation (12.11-1) reduces to
Fp 5 0.4SDS IeWp
5 0.4 3 0.4 3 1.0 3 438
5 70 lb/ft
The minimum permissible anchor force is
Fp 5 0.2IeWp
5 0.2 3 1.0 3 438
5 88 lb/ft . . . governs
The required anchor force is
Fp 5 88 lb/ft
Example 1-40
The 7-inch concrete wall shown in Figure 1-43 forms part of a building assigned to seismic design
category C. The 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is
SDS 5 0.4g. If the roof diaphragm and the second-floor diaphragm may be considered rigid, determine
the anchorage force in the second-floor diaphragm.

Chapter 1 117
Solution
From Figure 1-43

5 20 ft
z 5 height of the second-floor diaphragm above the base
5 10 ft
The weight of the wall is
w 5 150 3 7/12
5 87.50 lb/ft2
The area of the wall tributary to the second-floor diaphragm is
Aw 5 1 3 hs
5 1 3 10
5 10 ft2/ft
The weight of the wall tributary to the second-floor diaphragm is
Wp 5 wAw
5 87.50 3 10
5 875 lb/ft
For seismic design category C, the anchor force on a rigid diaphragm is given by ASCE 7 Section
12.11.2.1 as
Fp 5 (0.4SDS Ie)(1 1 2z/h)Wp /3

5 (0.4 3 0.4 3 1.0)(1 1 2 3 10/20)875/3
5 93 lb
The minimum permissible force on the diaphragm is
Fp 5 0.2IeWp
5 0.2 3 1.0 3 875
5 175 lb . . . governs
The required seismic design force for the diaphragm is
Fp 5 175 lb

118 Seismic Design
1.30.3 Subdiaphragms and continuous ties
In seismic design categories C through F, to transfer anchorage forces across the complete depth of
the diaphragm and to prevent the walls and diaphragm from separating, ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.2.1
requires the provision of continuous ties across the complete depth of the diaphragm. To reduce the
number of full depth ties required, subdiaphragms and added chords are used to transmit the anchorage
forces to the main continuous crossties. The maximum permitted length-to-width ratio of the subdia-
phragm is 2.5 to 1.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Sections 12.11.2.2.3 and 12.11.2.2.4, neither plywood sheathing nor metal
deck may be considered effective as providing the ties. In addition, anchorage may not be accom-
plished by use of toenails or nails subject to withdrawal, nor may wood ledgers be used in cross-gain
bending. Connections must extend into the diaphragm a sufficient distance to develop the force trans-
ferred into the diaphragm.
Example 1-41
For the north-south direction, determine a suitable subdiaphragm arrangement for the plywood roof
diaphragm of the building shown in Figure 1-44. The plywood diaphragm may be considered flexible
with joists spaced at 40-foot centers and purlins spaced at 8-foot centers. The pull-out force on the
north and south walls in the north-south direction is p 5 300 lb/ft.
40 ft 40 ft 40 ft
N
24 ft
beams at 24 ft o.c.
joists at 40 ft o.c.
24 ft
24 ft
24 ft purlins at 8 ft o.c.
typical
p = 300 lb/ft

Chapter 1 119
Solution
Provide three subdiaphragms, with dimensions b 5 40 feet and d 5 24 feet along the north and south
walls with crossties at 40-foot centers, as shown in Figure 1-45.
40 ft x 24 ft subdiaphragm
typical
continuous crosstie
d = 24 ft
b = 40 ft
Figure 1-45 Details of subdiaphragms
The aspect ratio of each subdiaphragm is
b/d 5 40/24
5 1.67 . . . complies with ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.2.1
, 2.5
The purlins at 8-foot centers provide the subdiaphragm ties and the force in each is
Fp 5 300 3 8
5 2400 lb
The unit shear stress along the ends of the subdiaphragm is
q 5 pb/2d
5 300 3 40/(2 3 24)
5 250 lb/ft

120 Seismic Design
The subdiaphragm chord force is
Pc 5 pb2/8d
5 300 3 402/(8 3 24)
5 2500 lb
The force in the crossties is
Pt 5 pb
5 300 3 40
5 12,000 lb
1.31 Architectural, mechanical, and electrical components supported

by structures
Nonstructural architectural components include nonbearing walls, wall elements, cantilevered parapet
walls, signs, ornamentation, chimneys, and penthouses. Mechanical and electrical components include
boilers, tanks, machinery, and nonbuilding structures supported by other structures. Design levels are
specified for components and their anchorage to ensure that life safety is not endangered and, in the
case of safety-related equipment, to ensure the continued function of essential facilities. The design
force for components must account for the dynamic response of the component to the motion of the
structure, the amplified response of equipment relative to the fundamental period of the structure, the
lack of redundancy and ductility in the component itself, and the weight of the component. These
effects are covered in ASCE 7 Chapter 13, and this section of the code is primarily concerned with the
design of attachments and supports that connect components to the structure.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 13.1.2, components are considered to have the same seismic
design category as the building in which they are located and based on ASCE 7 Section 13.1.3, are
allocated a component importance factor, Ip , as indicated in Table 1-25.
Table 1-25 Component importance factor
Component type Ip
Life safety, required to function after an earthquake 1.5

Contains hazardous material 1.5
Required for continued operation of an Occupancy Category IV facility 1.5
All other 1.0

Chapter 1 121
Several exemptions are made from the requirements of ASCE 7 Chapter 13, Section 13.1.4, and these
are listed in Table 1-26.
Table 1-26 Exemptions to requirements
Seismic
design Height
Component category Ip Weight above floor
All A Any Any Any

Architectural (other than parapets) B 1.0 Any Any
Mechanical and electrical B Any Any Any
Mechanical and electrical C 1.0 Any Any
Mechanical and electrical* D, E, F 1.0 ≤ 400 lb ≤ 4 ft
Mechanical and electrical* D, E, F 1.0 ≤ 20 lb Any
* Flexible connections are provided between the components and associated ductwork, piping, and conduit and the
component is positively attached to the structure.
The design seismic force is given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1), which is

Fp 5 (0.4ap SDS Ip /Rp)(1 1 2z/h)Wp
where: Fp 5 seismic design force centered at the component’s center of gravity and
distributed relative to the component’s mass distribution
Ip 5 component importance factor given in ASCE 7 Section 13.1.3 and Table 1-25
0.2 second
Wp 5 component operating weight
ap 5 component amplification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1 or 13.6-1
z 5 height of component at point of attachment
Rp 5 component response modification factor from ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1 or 13.6-1
In accordance with ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-2), Fp need not be taken greater than
Fp 5 1.6SDS IpWp
In accordance with ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-3), Fp shall not be taken less than
Fp 5 0.3SDS IpWp
As specified in ASCE 7 Section 13.3.1.2, the component shall be designed for a concurrent vertical
force of
Fpv 5 0.2SDSWp

122 Seismic Design
The component amplification factor represents the dynamic amplification of the component relative to
the fundamental period of the structure. The values assigned in ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1 or 13.6-1 to the
component amplification factor are dependant on the relative rigidity of the component.
The values assigned in ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1 or 13.6-1 to the component response modification factor
reflect the method of attachment of the component to the structure and its energy absorption capacity.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 15.4.9.2, anchors in masonry are designed in accordance with
TMS 402.13 As specified in ASCE 7 Section 15.4.9.1, anchors in concrete are designed in accordance
with ACI 318 Chapter 17.
Post-installed anchors in concrete are prequalified for seismic applications in accordance with ACI
355.214 or other approved qualification procedures. Post-installed anchors in masonry are prequalified
for seismic applications in accordance with approved qualification procedures.
In determining the design seismic force on a component, the value of the reliability factor, r, shall be
taken as unity, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 13.3.1, and the overstrength factor of ASCE 7 Table
12.2-1 does not apply.
1.31.1 Design force on mechanical and electrical components
The design factors for mechanical and electrical components are tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 13.6-1,
and an abbreviated listing is given in Table 1-27.
Example 1-42
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California and
has a 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second of SDS 5
0.840g. The building is assigned to seismic design category D. An electrical transformer weighing 2
kips is mounted on the concrete roof of the building. A component importance factor of Ip 5 1.0 may
be assumed. Determine the design seismic force on the equipment.
Solution

5 1.0
0.2 second

Chapter 1 123
5 0.840g
5 2 kips
ap 5 component amplification factor from Table 1-27
5 1.0
5 24 ft
5 24 ft
Rp 5 component response modification factor from Table 1-27
5 2.5
and Fp 5 (0.4 3 1.0 3 0.840 3 1.0/2.5)(1 1 2 3 24/24)Wp
5 0.40Wp
5 0.80 kip
Neither ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-2) nor (13.3-3) governs.
Table 1-27 Coefficients for mechanical and electrical components
Component ap Rp
Generators, motors, transformers 1.0 2.5

Communication equipment 1.0 2.5
Motor control centers, panel boards, switch gear 2.5 6.0
Air-conditioning units, fans, cabinet heaters 2.5 6.0
Boilers and furnaces 1.0 2.5
Skirt-supported pressure vessels 2.5 2.5
Elevator and escalator components 1.0 2.5
Roof-mounted stacks, etc., braced below the center of mass 2.5 3.0
Roof-mounted stacks, etc., braced above the center of mass 1.0 2.5
Electrical conduit and cable trays 2.5 6.0
Lighting fixtures 1.0 1.5

124 Seismic Design
1.31.2 Design force on architectural components
The design factors for architectural components are tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1, and an abbre-
viated listing is given in Table 1-28.
Table 1-28 Coefficients for architectural components
Component ap Rp
Nonstructural interior unreinforced masonry walls 1.0 1.5

Other nonstructural interior walls and partitions 1.0 2.5
Unbraced parapets 2.5 2.5
Nonstructural exterior wall element 1.0 2.5
Body of wall panel connecting system 1.0 2.5
Fasteners of the wall panel connecting system 1.25 1.0
Chimneys braced below center of mass 2.5 2.5
Chimneys braced above center of mass 1.0 2.5
Penthouses except where framed by the building frame 2.5 3.5
Signs and billboards 2.5 3.0
Flexible high deformability elements and attachments 2.5 3.5
Flexible limited deformability elements and attachments 2.5 2.5
Flexible low deformability elements and attachments 2.5 1.5
Rigid high deformability elements and attachments 1.0 3.5
Rigid limited deformability elements and attachments 1.0 2.5
Rigid low deformability elements and attachments 1.0 1.5
Ceilings 1.0 2.5
Example 1-43
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California and has
a 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second of SDS 5 0.840g.
The building is assigned to seismic design category D. A penthouse weighing 10 kips is located on
the roof of the building. A component importance factor of Ip 5 1.0 may be assumed. Determine the
design seismic force on the penthouse.

Chapter 1 125
Solution

5 1.0
0.2 second
5 0.840g
5 10 kips
5 2.50
5 24 ft
5 24 ft
5 3.5
and Fp 5 (0.4 3 2.5 3 0.840 3 1.0/3.5)(1 1 2 3 24/24)Wp
5 0.72Wp
5 7.20 kips
Neither ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-2) nor (13.3-3) govern.
1.31.3 Wall cladding displacements
External wall cladding panels and their connections must be designed, in accordance with ASCE 7
Section 13.5.3, to accommodate the maximum inelastic seismic relative displacement, Dp , specified
in ASCE 7 Section 13.3.2, with a minimum value of 0.5 inch. As shown in Figure 1-46, the relative
seismic displacement is determined from ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-7) as
Dp 5 dxA 2 dyA
≤ (hx 2 hy)DaA /hsx . . . ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-8)

126 Seismic Design
where: dxA 5 inelastic seismic displacement of the structure at level x, as determined

by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15)
dyA 5 inelastic seismic displacement of the structure at level y, as determined
by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15)
DaA 5 allowable story drift for the structure, as defined in Table 1-23
hx 5 height of the upper support attachment at level x, as measured from the base
hy 5 height of the lower support attachment at level y, as measured from the base
Figure 1-46 Seismic relative displacement, Dp
Example 1-44
Wall panels weighing 40 lb/ft2 are externally mounted on the two-story steel-frame building shown in
Figure 1-2 that is located in Orange County, California. The building has a 5-percent damped, design
spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second of SDS 5 0.840g and is assigned to seismic
design category D. The panels project 3 feet above the roof and 3 feet below the second floor, as shown
in Figure 1-47. Determine the allowance required to accommodate seismic movements.
Solution
The relative displacement need not exceed the value given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-8), which is
Dp 5 (hx 2 hy)DaA /hsx

Chapter 1 127
where: hx 5 height of the upper support attachment at level x, as measured from the base
5 24 ft
hy 5 height of the lower support attachment at level y, as measured from the base
5 12 ft
DaA 5 allowable story drift for the structure, as determined in Example 1-25
5 3.6 in
5 12 ft
and Dp ≤ (hx 2 hy)DaA /hsx
5 (24 2 12)3.6/12
5 3.6 in
The value for the relative displacement given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-7) is
Dp 5 dxA 2 dyA
≤ (hx 2 hy)DaA /hsx
where: dxA 5 inelastic seismic displacement of the structure at level x as determined in
Example 1-25
5 1.51 1 0.76
5 2.27 in
dyA 5 inelastic seismic displacement of the structure at level y as determined in
Example 1-25
5 1.51 in
and Dp 5 2.27 2 1.51
5 0.76 in . . . governs
1.31.4 Wall cladding seismic forces
Wall panels, the connecting system, and fasteners in the connecting system must be designed for the
force, Fp , determined by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1), applied at the center of mass of the panel. The
panel and the body of the connecting system are designed for the force, Fp , determined by ASCE
7 Equation (13.3-1), using values of Rp 5 2.5 and ap 5 1.0. Fasteners in the connecting system are
designed for the force, Fp , determined by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1), using values of Rp 5 1.0 and
ap 5 1.25.

128 Seismic Design
Figure 1-47 Details for Examples 1-44 and 1-45

Chapter 1 129
Example 1-45
Wall panels weighing 40 lb/ft2 are externally mounted on the two-story steel-frame building shown in
Figure 1-2 that is located in Orange County, California. The building has a 5-percent damped, design
spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second of SDS 5 0.840g and is assigned to seismic
design category D. The panels project 3 feet above the roof and 3 feet below the second floor, as shown
in Figure 1-47. Determine the out-of-plane design seismic force on (a) the wall panel, (b) the connect-
ing system, and (c) the fasteners.
Solution
(a) The basic design seismic force on the wall panel is determined as the average of the forces calcu-
lated for the top and bottom connectors, as given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-1). The force at the
level of the top connectors is
5 1.0
0.2 second
5 0.840g
Wp 5 weight of panel
5 40 3 18 5 720 lb/ft
5 1.0
5 24 ft
z 5 height of the top connectors
5 24 ft
5 2.5
and Fp 5 (0.4 3 1.0 3 0.840 3 1.0/2.5)(1 1 2 3 24/24)Wp
5 0.403Wp
5 290 lb/ft

130 Seismic Design
At the level of the bottom connectors, z 5 12 feet and the force at the level of the bottom connectors is
Fp 5 (0.4 3 1.0 3 0.840 3 1.0/2.5)(1 1 2 3 12/24)Wp

5 0.269Wp
5 194 lb/ft
The minimum permissible force is given by ASCE 7 Equation (13.3-3) as
Fp 5 0.3SDS IpWp
5 0.3 3 0.840 3 1.0Wp
5 0.252Wp . . . does not govern
, 0.269Wp
Hence, the out-of-plane design seismic force acting at the centroid of the wall panel is
Fp 5 (290 1 194)/2
5 242 lb/ft
(b) For the connecting system, the values of the component amplification factor and component
response modification factor are the same as for the wall panel. Hence, the out-of-plane design
seismic force on both the top and bottom connecting systems is
Fp 5 242/2
5 121 lb/ft
(c) For the fasteners, the component amplification factor is ap 5 1.25 and the component response
modification factor is Rp 5 1.0. Hence, the out-of-plane design seismic force on both the top and
bottom fasteners is
Fp 5 121 3 2.5 3 1.25

5 378 lb/ft
1.32 Rigidity and torsion

In ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.2, a rigid diaphragm is defined as a concrete slab or a concrete-filled metal
deck with a span-to-depth ratio of three or less in structures that have no horizontal irregularities. In
a building with rigid diaphragms, lateral force is distributed to the shear walls based on the relative
stiffness of the walls and the torsional displacements produced by the rigid-body rotation of the dia-
phragm and walls.

Chapter 1 131
1.32.1 Shear wall stiffness
The rigidity, or stiffness, of a concrete or masonry shear wall is the force required to produce unit dis-
placement at the top of the wall. This is most readily obtained as the reciprocal of the deflection of the
wall due to unit load applied at the top. The deflection of a wall due to unit load, as shown in Figure
1-48, is the sum of the flexural and shear deflections and is given by
d 5 dF 1 dS
where dF 5 deflection due to flexure
5 4(H/L)3/Et for a cantilever wall
5 (H/L)3/Et for a wall fixed at top and bottom
H 5 height of wall
L 5 length of wall
E 5 modulus of elasticity of wall
t 5 thickness of wall
dS 5 deflection due to shear
5 1.2H/GA
5 3(H/L)/Et
G 5 rigidity modulus of wall
5 0.4E
A 5 cross-sectional area of wall
5 tL
δ
1.0
Figure 1-48 Shear wall stiffness

132 Seismic Design
The stiffness of the wall is given by
s 5 1/d
An opening in a wall reduces its stiffness and the stiffness may be determined by the following tech-
nique. The deflection of the wall is first obtained as though it is a solid wall. From this is subtracted
the deflection of that portion of the wall that contains the opening. The deflection of each wall, formed
by the openings, is now added back.
Example 1-46
Determine the stiffness of the concrete wall shown in Figure 1-49. The wall is 8 inches thick, with a
modulus of elasticity of Ec 5 3000 kips/in2, and is fixed at the top and bottom.
3 3 ft
1 4 2 8 ft
4 ft 3 ft 4 ft

Chapter 1 133
Solution
The relevant details are shown in Table 1-29.
Table 1-29 Wall stiffness
(H/L)3 3H/L Et(dF 1 ds )

Wall H L Type 5 EtdF 5 Etds 5 Etd s/Et
S Wall 11 11 Fixed 1 3 4.000 —

11214 8 11 Fixed 20.385 22.182 22.566 —
1 8 4 Fixed 8 6 — 0.071
2 8 4 Fixed 8 6 — 0.071
112 — — — — — 7.042 ← 0.142
Total — — — — — 8.476 → 0.118
The actual stiffness of the wall is

s 5 0.118Et
5 0.118 3 3000 3 8
5 2832 kips/in
1.32.2 Rigid diaphragm
Figure 1-50 shows a single-story building with a rigid roof diaphragm supported on four shear walls.
The center of mass of the building is shown as point CM, and this is the point through which the seis-
mic base shear, V, acts. The center of mass is obtained by taking statical moments of the wall and roof
weights about a convenient origin. From Figure 1-50, the center of mass is located a distance from
wall 1 given by
x 5 SWx/SW
5 (WR 3 B/2 1 W1 3 0 1 W2 3 B/2 1 W3 3 B 1 W4 3 B/2)/(WR 1 W1 1
W2 1 W3 1 W4)
where: WR 5 weight of roof
Wi 5 weight of wall i
In this instance, from the symmetry of the walls and the roof, the center of mass lies midway between
walls 1 and 3 and
x 5 B/2

134 Seismic Design
Similarly, the center of mass is located a distance from wall 4, given by
y 5 SWy/SW
5 (WR 3 L/2 1 W1 3 L/2 1 W2 3 L 1 W3 3 L/2 1 W4 3 0)/(WR 1 W1 1
W2 1 W3 1 W4)
r3 r1 B
FS2 FT2
2
r2
V FT3 FT1 L
3 + CM 1 = + + +
+ CR V + + T
r4
4
FS4 FT4
(a) Layout (b) Translation (c) Rotation

Figure 1-50 Torsional effects
The center of rigidity is shown as point CR, and this is the point about which the structure rotates
when subjected to a torsional moment. The location of the center of rigidity is obtained by taking
statical moments of the wall rigidities about a convenient origin. For seismic loads in the north-south
direction, walls 2 and 4, which have no stiffness in this direction, are omitted, and only walls 1 and 3
are considered. From Figure 1-50, by taking moments of the wall stiffness about wall 1, the center of
rigidity is located a distance from wall 1 given by
r1 5 Ssyx/Ssy
5 (s3 3 B 1 s1 3 0)/(s1 1 s3)
5 s3B/(s1 1 s3)
Similarly, the center of rigidity is located a distance from wall 4 given by
r4 5 Ssxy/Ssx
5 (s2 3 L 1 s4 3 0)/(s2 1 s4)
5 s2L/(s2 1 s4)

Chapter 1 135
The polar moment of inertia of the walls is given by
J 5 Sr2i si
5 r12s1 1 r22s2 1 r32s3 1 r42s4
where: si 5 stiffness of wall i
sx 5 stiffness of a wall in the x-direction (east-west)
sy 5 stiffness of a wall in the y-direction (north-south)
ri 5 distance of the centroid of wall i from the center of rigidity
The torsional moment acting on the building is
T 5 Ve
where: e 5 eccentricity of the center of mass with respect to the center of rigidity
For east-west seismic force
The displacement of the building consists of an east-west translation and a clockwise rotation about
the center of rigidity. As shown in Figure 1-50(b), the translation produces in-plane forces in shear
walls 2 and 4 proportional to their relative translational stiffness. These forces are given by
FSi 5 Vsi /Ssy

and FS2 5 Vs2 /(s2 1 s4)
FS4 5 Vs4 /(s2 1 s4)
No forces are produced in shear walls 1 and 3 by this translation.
The clockwise rotation produces forces in all four walls, proportional to their torsional stiffness and
distance from the center of rigidity, as shown in Figure 1-50(c). These forces are given by
FTi 5 Tri si /J
and FT1 5 Tr1s1/J
FT2 5 Tr2s2 /J
FT3 5 Tr3s3 /J
FT4 5 Tr4s4 /J
The total force in a wall is
F 5 FS 1 FT
For the direction of V shown in Figure 1-50, FS and FT are additive in wall 2 and are of opposite sense
in wall 4.

136 Seismic Design
In a perfectly symmetrical building, the centers of mass and rigidity coincide and torsion is not pro-
duced. However, the exact locations of the centers of mass and rigidity are uncertain. The calculated
location of the center of mass may not be exact due to the distribution of structure weight being
imprecisely known. Similarly, inaccuracies in calculating the rigidity of shear walls and the neglect
of nonstructural components, such as partitions and stairs, lead to the inexact location of the center
of rigidity. Hence, accidental eccentricity may in fact exist even in a nominally symmetric structure.
Torsion resulting from this accidental eccentricity is referred to as accidental torsion. To account for
accidental torsion, ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.2 specifies that the center of mass is assumed displaced
each way from its actual location by a distance equal to 5 percent of the building dimension perpen-
dicular to the direction of the applied force.
When a building assigned to seismic design categories C through F has a torsional irregularity, as
defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1 (horizontal structural irregularity type 1a or 1b), the accidental torsion
is amplified as specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.3. This is to account for the possibility of unsym-
metrical yielding of the perimeter vertical seismic-force-resisting elements resulting in a large increase
in torsional effects. The amplification factor is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.3 as
Ax 5 (dmax /1.2davg)2
≤ 3.0
≥ 1.0
where: dmax 5 maximum displacement at level x computed assuming Ax 5 1
davg 5 average of displacements at extreme points of the structure at level x
computed assuming Ax 5 1
Accidental torsion is applied to all structures to determine if a horizontal structural irregularity exists,
as defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1. For a structure assigned to seismic design category C through F
with type 1a horizontal structural irregularity or a structure assigned to seismic design category B
through D with type 1b horizontal structural irregularity, accidental torsion is included in the deter-
mination of seismic forces and story drift. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.1, structures
assigned to seismic design category E or F that have horizontal structural irregularity type 1b are not
permitted.
Example 1-47
Determine the force acting on shear wall 2 of the building shown in Figure 1-50 for a base shear of
V 5 40 kips. The building dimensions and the relative shear wall stiffness are
L 5 42 ft
B 5 20 ft
s4 52
s1 5 s2 5 s3 5 1

Chapter 1 137
The diaphragm is rigid and the building mass is symmetrically disposed about the centerlines of the
building. The building is assigned to seismic design category D.
Solution
From the symmetry of the structure, for an east-west seismic load, the center of mass is located mid-
way between walls 2 and 4 and its distance from wall 4 is
y 5 42/2 5 21 ft
In locating the center of rigidity for an east-west seismic load, walls 1 and 3, which have no stiffness in
the east-west direction, are omitted. Taking moments about wall 4, the distance of the center of rigidity
from wall 4 is given by
r4 5 Ssxy/Ssx
5 (1 3 42 1 2 3 0)/(1 1 2)
5 14 ft
The distance of the center of rigidity from wall 2 is
r2 5 42 2 14
5 28 ft
In locating the center of rigidity for a north-south seismic load, walls 2 and 4, which have no stiffness
in the north-south direction, are omitted. Due to the symmetry of walls 1 and 3, the center of rigidity
is located midway between walls 1 and 3 and
r1 5 r3 5 10 ft
J 5 Sr2i si
5 r12 3 s1 1 r22 3 s2 1 r32 3 s3 1 r42 3 s4
5 102 3 1 1 282 3 1 1 102 3 1 1 142 3 2
5 1376 ft2
For a seismic load in the east-west direction, the eccentricity is
ey 5 y 2 r4
5 21 2 14
5 7 ft

138 Seismic Design
Accidental eccentricity, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.2, is

ea 5 0.05 3 L
5 0.05 3 42
5 2.1 ft
An accidental displacement of the center of mass to the north gives the maximum eccentricity of
e 5 ey 1 ea
5 7 1 2.1
5 9.1 ft
The maximum eccentricity governs for the force in wall 2 since the torsional force and the in-plane
force are of the same sense and are additive.
T 5 Ve
5 40 3 9.1
5 364 kip-ft
The force produced in a wall by the base shear acting in the east-west direction is the algebraic sum of
the in-plane shear force and the torsional shear force.
The sum of the wall rigidities for a seismic load in the east-west direction is
Ssx 5 s2 1 s4
5112
53
The in-plane shear force is
FSi 5 Vsx /Ssx
5 40sx /3
5 13.33sx
The maximum torsional shear force is
FTi 5 Tri si /J
5 364ri si /1376
5 0.265ri si
The total force in a wall is
F 5 FS 1 FT
with a negative value for FT indicating that the torsional force is opposite in sense to the in-plane force.

Chapter 1 139
The total forces produced in walls 2 and 4 by the maximum torsional moment are
F2 5 13.33 3 s2 1 0.265 3 r2 3 s2
5 13.33 3 1 1 0.265 3 28 3 1
5 20.75 kips
F4 5 13.33 3 s4 2 0.265 3 r4 3 s4
5 13.33 3 2 2 0.265 3 14 3 2
5 19.24 kips
Check for torsional irregularity
To determine if amplification of the torsional moment is necessary, the displacements of walls 1 and
4 must be determined.
The relative displacement of a wall is given by
d 5 F/s
The relative displacements of walls 2 and 4 are
d2 5 20.75/1
5 20.75
d4 5 19.24/2
5 9.62
The ratio of the maximum displacement of wall 2 to the average displacement of walls 2 and 4 is
m 5 2d2 /(d2 1 d4)
5 2 3 20.75/30.37
5 1.37
, 1.40
. 1.20
This constitutes a torsional irregularity type 1a, as defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.3-1, and for a structure
assigned to seismic design category D, the accidental eccentricity must be amplified, as specified in
ASCE 7 Section 12.8.4.3, by the factor
Ax 5 (m/1.2)2
5 (1.37/1.2)2
5 1.30

140 Seismic Design
The revised accidental eccentricity is
e9 5 6Ax ea
5 61.30 3 2.1
5 62.73 ft
The revised maximum eccentricity for a displacement of the center of mass to the north is
e0 5 ey 1 e9
5 7 1 2.73
5 9.73 ft
The amplified torsional moment is
T9 5 Ve0
5 40 3 9.73
5 389 kip-ft
The revised total force produced in wall 2 by the maximum amplified torsional moment is
F2A 5 FS 1 FTA
5 Vs2 /Ssx 1 T9r2s2 /J
5 40 3 1/3 1 389 3 28 3 1/1376
5 21.25 kips
1.33 Modal analysis procedure

The equivalent lateral force procedure is applicable to structures that are of essentially regular con-
struction, possess a uniform distribution of mass and stiffness, and are without irregular features.
When these conditions are satisfied, the equivalent lateral force procedure provides a reasonable enve-
lope of the forces and deformations due to the actual dynamic response. Structures that posses plan
or vertical irregularities may require a modal analysis or dynamic analysis procedure to determine an
accurate distribution of seismic forces. ASCE 7 Tables 12.3-1 and 12.3-2 define six possible horizontal
and seven possible vertical structural irregularities.

Chapter 1 141
1.33.1 Horizontal structural irregularities
The six types of horizontal structural irregularities illustrated in Figure 1-51 are:
1a. torsional irregularity, which exists when the maximum story drift at one end of a rigid dia-
phragm, including accidental torsion with Ax 5 1.0, exceeds 1.2 times the average story drift
1b. extreme torsional irregularity, which exists when the maximum story drift at one end of a
rigid diaphragm, including accidental torsion with Ax 5 1.0, exceeds 1.4 times the average
story drift
2. re-entrant corners, where both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner exceed
15 percent of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction
3. diaphragm discontinuity, where the area of an opening exceeds 50 percent of the area of the
diaphragm or where the diaphragm stiffness from one story to the next changes by more than
50 percent
4. out-of-plane offsets, where there is a discontinuity in the lateral-force-resistance path such as
an out-of-plane offset of at least one of the vertical elements
5. nonparallel systems, where the vertical lateral-force-resisting elements are not parallel to the
major orthogonal axes of the lateral-force-resisting system
Additional design requirements are imposed on structures with horizontal irregularities, depending on
their seismic design category, and these are given in Table 1-30.
Extreme torsional Re-entrant corners
Diaphragm discontinuity Out-of-plane offset Nonparallel systems
Figure 1-51 Horizontal structural irregularities

142 Seismic Design
Table 1-30 Additional design requirements for horizontal irregularities
Seismic
design
Irregularity category Additional design requirements
1a. Torsional (Applies only B, C, D, E, F Design required using a three-dimensional repre-

to structures with rigid or sentation (12.7.3) (16.3.4).
semirigid diaphragms)
C, D, E, F Amplification of torsion required (12.8.4.3).
Story drift is determined from the largest dif-
ference in deflection along the top and bottom
edges of the story (12.8.6).
D, E, F Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
(12.6).
D, E, F An increase of 25% is required in the calculated
design forces for connections of diaphragms to
collectors and vertical elements, and for connec-
tions of collectors to vertical elements (12.3.3.4).
1b. Extreme torsional B, C, D Design required using a three-dimensional repre-
(Applies only to structures sentation (12.7.3) (16.3.4).
with rigid or semirigid
C, D Amplification of torsion required (12.8.4.3).
diaphragms)
C, D, E, F Story drift is determined from the largest dif-
ference in deflection along the top and bottom
edges of a story (12.8.6).
D Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
(12.6) and redundancy factor 5 1.3 (12.3.5.2).
E, F Not permitted (12.3.3.1).
2. Re-entrant corners D, E, F An increase of 25% is required in the calculated
Equivalent lateral force method not permitted
(12.6).
(continued)

Chapter 1 143
Table 1-30 Additional design requirements for horizontal irregularities—continued
Seismic
design
3. Diaphragm discontinuity D, E, F An increase of 25% is required in the calculated

Equivalent lateral force method not permitted
(12.6).
4. Out-of-plane offsets B, C, D, E, F Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting
discontinuous walls or frames shall be designed
for the special seismic load combinations of
ASCE 7 Section 12.4.3 (12.3.3.3).
B, C, D, E, F Design required using a three-dimensional rep-
resentation (12.7.3) (16.3.4) except for structures
with flexible diaphragms.
5. Nonparallel system B, C, D, E, F Design required using a three-dimensional repre-
sentation (12.7.3) (16.3.4).
C, D, E, F Design required for 100% of forces for one
direction plus 30% of the forces for the perpen-
dicular direction (12.5.3).
Example 1-48
A three-story office building with special moment-resisting frames in the north-south direction and
eccentrically braced frames in the east-west direction is located in Orange County, California, and
is assigned to seismic design category D. At each level, the dead load (W), stiffness (k), and shear
strength (v) in each frame in the north-south direction are indicated in Figure 1-52. The fundamental
period of the building is T , 3.5TS. Identify the horizontal irregularities for the building and indicate
additional code requirements and procedures required for each.

144 Seismic Design
Solution
The lateral-force-resisting system in the east-west direction above the first story consists of braced
frames located on the tower section walls. In the first story, under the tower, no bracing is provided and
this out-of-plane offset of the vertical elements constitutes a horizontal irregularity type 4. ASCE
7 Section 12.3.3.4 specifies that, for this irregularity, connection of diaphragm and collectors to the
vertical elements shall be designed for an increase of 25 percent in the calculated design forces. In
addition, ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.3 requires that the first-story columns under the tower section, which
support the discontinuous braced frames in story two and above, shall be especially designed and
detailed for the load combinations given in ASCE 7 Sections 2.3.6 and 12.4.3, which are
U 5 1.2D 1 f1L 1 1.0Em 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE 1 f1L 1 0.2S
and U 5 0.9D 1 1.0Em
5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE

Chapter 1 145

L 5 floor live load
Em 5 maximum effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake forces that can be
developed in an element as defined in ASCE 7 Equations (12.4-5) and
(12.4-7)
5 W0QE 6 0.2SDS D
for an abbreviated number of structures in Table 1-16
inelastic range
second
At the third floor of the tower, the gross area of the diaphragm is
Ag 5 25 3 25
5 625 ft2
The area of the opening in the third floor diaphragm is
Ao 5 18 3 18
5 324 ft2
. 0.5 3 Ag
This constitutes a horizontal irregularity type 3 and ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.4 requires an increase
of 25 percent in the calculated design forces for connections of diaphragms to collectors and vertical
elements, and for connections of collectors to vertical elements.
In the east-west direction, the projection of the structure beyond the re-entrant corner is 50 percent of
the plan dimension of the structure in the east-west direction. In the north-south direction, the projec-
tion of the structure beyond the re-entrant corner is 50 percent of the plan dimension of the structure
in the east-west direction. Since both of these values exceed 15 percent, this constitutes a horizontal
irregularity type 2. ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.4 specifies that this irregularity requires an increase of 25
percent in the calculated design forces for connections of diaphragms to collectors and vertical ele-
ments, and for connections of collectors to vertical elements.

146 Seismic Design
1.33.2 Vertical structural irregularities
The seven types of vertical structural irregularities illustrated in Figure 1-53 are:
1a. stiffness—soft story, which exists when the stiffness of one story is less than 70 percent of the
stiffness of the story above or less than 80 percent of the average stiffness of the three stories
above
1b. stiffness—extreme soft story, which exists when the stiffness of one story is less than 60
percent of the stiffness of the story above or less than 70 percent of the average stiffness of the
three stories above
2. weight (mass) irregularity, which exists when the mass of any story is more than 150 per-
cent of the mass of an adjacent story. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be
considered
3. vertical geometric irregularity, where the horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting
system is more than 130 percent of that in an adjacent story
4. in-plane discontinuity, where an in-plane offset of the lateral-force-resisting elements is
greater than the length of those elements
5a. discontinuity in lateral strength—weak story, where the lateral strength of a story is less
than 80 percent of that in the story above
5b. discontinuity in lateral strength—extreme weak story, where the lateral stength of a story
is less than 65 percent of that in the story above
ASCE 7 Section 12.3.2.2 exempts one-story buildings in any seismic design classification and two-
story buildings in seismic design categories A through D from the consideration of vertical irregularity
types 1a, 1b, and 2. These irregularities may also be ignored when no story drift ratio is greater than
130 percent of the story drift ratio of the next story above.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.2, buildings in seismic design category B or C with vertical
irregularity type 5b shall not be over two stories or 30 feet in height. However, where the weak story
can resist a seismic force not less than W0 times the calculated design force, the height limitation does
not apply. Buildings in seismic design category D, E, or F with vertical irregularity type 5b are not
permitted.
Additional design requirements are imposed on structures with vertical irregularities, depending on
their seismic design category, and these are given in Table 1-31.

Chapter 1 147
Stiffness—soft story Stiffness—extreme soft story Weight (mass) irregularity
Vertical geometric irregularity In-plane discontinuity
Discontinuity in lateral strength—weak story Discontinuity in lateral strength—extreme weak story
Figure 1-53 Vertical structural irregularities

148 Seismic Design
Table 1-31 Additional design requirements for vertical irregularities
Seismic
design
1a. Soft story D, E, F Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted

(12.6).
1b. Extreme-soft story D Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
(12.6).
2. Mass D, E, F Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
(12.6).
3. Geometric D, E, F Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
(12.6).
4. Discontinuity B, C, D, E, F Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting
discontinuous walls or frames shall be designed
for the special seismic load combinations of
ASCE 7 Section 12.4.3.2 (12.3.3.3).
Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
for structures with T ≥ 3.5TS (12.6).
5a. Weak story D Equivalent lateral force procedure not permitted
for structures with T ≥ 3.5TS (12.6).
5b. Extreme weak story D, E, F Not permitted (12.3.3.1).
B, C Maximum height two stories unless designed for
W0 forces (12.3.3.2).
Example 1-49
A three-story office building with special moment-resisting frames in the north-south direction and
eccentrically braced frames in the east-west direction is located in Orange County, California, and is
assigned to seismic design category D. At each level, the dead load (W), the stiffness (k), and the shear
strength (v) in each frame in the north-south direction are indicated in Figure 1-52. The fundamental
period of the building is T , 3.5TS. Identify the vertical irregularities for the building and indicate
additional code requirements and procedures required for each.

Chapter 1 149
Solution
The total stiffness of the second story in the north-south direction is
k2 5 2 3 200
5 400 kips/in
The total stiffness of the first story in the north-south direction is
k1 5 60 1 2 3 100
5 260 kips/in
5 65% 3 k2
, 70% 3 k2
. 60% 3 k2
Hence, the first story constitutes a stiffness–soft story and is considered a vertical irregularity type
1a in ASCE 7 Table 12.3-2. ASCE 7 Section 12.6 requires the structure to be designed using the modal
analysis procedure.
The effective mass of the second story is
W2 5 300 kips
The effective mass of the first story is
W1 5 600 kips
. 150% 3 W2
Hence, this constitutes a vertical irregularity type 2 and the additional code requirements are identi-
cal to those given for the vertical irregularity type 1a.
In the east-west direction, the horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting system in the second
story is
L2 5 25 feet
The horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting system in the first story is
L1 5 50 feet
. 130% 3 L2
Hence, this constitutes a vertical irregularity type 3 and the additional code requirements are identi-
cal to those given for the vertical irregularity type 1a.

150 Seismic Design
The total shear strength of the second story in the north-south direction is
v2 5 2 3 400
5 800 kips
The total shear strength of the first story in the north-south direction is
v1 5 150 1 2 3 200
5 550 kips
5 69% 3 v2
, 80% 3 v2
. 65% 3 v2
Hence, the first story constitutes a discontinuity in lateral strength–weak story and is considered a
vertical irregularity type 5a.
1.33.3 Selection of lateral force procedure
Structural irregularities produce seismic loads that may differ significantly from the loads that are pre-
dicted by the elastic lateral force procedure. Inelastic demand can concentrate in the area of the irregu-
larity, resulting in the failure of structural elements in these regions. The elastic lateral force procedure
is unable to predict the stress concentrations produced in an irregular structure.
The modal analysis procedure is suitable for calculating the response of complex multiple-
degrees-of-freedom structures to earthquake motion. The structural response is modeled as the maxi-
mum response of a number of single-degree-of-freedom oscillators, each representing a specific mode
of vibration of the actual structure. Combining the responses of the individual modes produces the equiv-
alent external forces and base and story shears, which may then be used in the same manner as in the
equivalent lateral force procedure. The modal analysis procedure has the advantage of determining the
actual distribution of lateral forces, from the actual mass and stiffness distribution over the height of an
irregular structure, which may differ appreciably from the simplified linear distribution assumed in the
equivalent lateral force method. In addition, it accounts for the effects of the higher modes of response
of a structure, some of which may contribute significantly to the overall response of the structure.
As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.6-1, the equivalent lateral force method may be used in the design of
a structure under the following conditions:
• the building is assigned to seismic design category B or C
• the building is assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F and is of light-frame construction
• the building is assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F with a risk category of I or II and
is of any construction not exceeding two stories in height

Chapter 1 151
• the building is assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F with a height not exceeding 160
feet and is a regular building
• the building is assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F with a height not exceeding 160
feet and has neither horizontal irregularities 1a (torsional) or 1b (extreme torsional) nor vertical
irregularities 1a (soft story), 1b (extreme-soft story), 2 (mass), or 3 (geometric)
• the building is assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F with a height exceeding 160 feet,
a fundamental period T , 3.5TS , and with no structural irregularities
As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.6-1, a modal analysis is necessary for all other structures assigned to
seismic design categories D, E, and F.
The determination of the necessary lateral force analysis procedure is illustrated in Figure 1-54.
A Select seismic B, C Use equivalent

Exempt design lateral force
category procedure
D, E, F
Seismic design
Structures of light-frame category
Yes construction or risk No E or F with horizontal Yes
category I or II buildings Not permitted
irregularity 1b or
of 2 stories or less vertical irregularity 1b, 5
No
Seismic design Yes

category D with
vertical irregularity 5b
No
No Horizontal irregularity No
1, vertical irregularity Height > 160 ft
1, 2, 3
Yes Yes
Use modal No
Regular building
analysis procedure T < 3.5Ts
Yes
Use equivalent
lateral force
procedure
Figure 1-54 Selection of analysis procedure

152 Seismic Design
1.33.4 Modal shapes
The multistory structure shown in Figure 1-55 may be idealized as a multistory shear building by
assuming that the mass is lumped at the floor and roof diaphragms, the diaphragms are infinitely rigid,
and the columns are axially inextensible but laterally flexible. The dynamic response of the system is
represented by the lateral displacements of the lumped masses with the number of degrees of dynamic
freedom, or modes of vibration, n, being equal to the number of masses. The resultant response of the
system is given by the superposition of the responses of each lumped mass. Each individual mode of
vibration has its own frequency and may be represented by a single-degree-of-freedom system of the
same period, and each mode shape, or eigenvector, remains of constant relative shape, regardless of
the amplitude of the displacement. The actual amplitudes must be obtained from the initial conditions.
Figure 1-55 shows the four modes of the four-story building. The mode of vibration with the longest
period (lowest frequency) is termed the first fundamental mode. Modes with shorter periods (higher
frequencies) are termed higher modes or harmonics.
Figure 1-55 Modal shapes
A modal analysis procedure may be utilized to determine the dynamic response of a multiple-
degrees-of-freedom structure.9 Since each degree of dynamic freedom provides one equation of
dynamic equilibrium, the resultant vibration of the system consists of n such equations and may be
expressed in matrix form, for undamped free vibrations, as
{0} 5 [M]{ẍ} 1 [K]{x}
For simple harmonic motion, this reduces to
{0} 5 ([K] 2 w2[M]){x}
This expression is a representation of the eigenvalue equation with
[K] 5 stiffness matrix of the system

[M] 5 mass matrix, the diagonal matrix of lumped masses
{x} 5 eigenvector or mode shape associated with the eigenvalue w

Chapter 1 153
The eigenvalue equation has a nontrivial solution only if the determinant of the coefficient matrix is
zero. Thus, the frequency determinant is
[K] 2 w2[M] 5 0
Expansion of this determinant yields the characteristic polynomial of degree n in (w2), the roots
of which provide the eigenvalues, and from the eigenvalues, the corresponding natural periods are
obtained. Back substituting the eigenvalues in the eigenvalue equation yields the eigenvectors for each
mode.
Example 1-50
mine the natural periods of vibration and the eigenvectors for each of the two modes of vibration. The
relevant details are shown in Figure 1-56.
Solution
Unit shear displacement is imposed on each node in turn, and the coefficient kij of the stiffness matrix
is obtained as the force produced at node i by a unit displacement at node j. The stiffness matrix is then
 k11 k12 
[K] 5  
 k21 k22 
 
 (30 + 30) −30 
5  
 −30 30 
 60 −30 
5  
 −30 30 

154 Seismic Design
The mass at each node is given by
m1 5 w1/g
5 51.2/386.4
5 0.133 kip-sec2/in
m2 5 w2 /g
5 25.6/386.4
5 0.066 kip-sec2/in
The diagonal mass matrix is

 m 0.0 
5 
1
[M]
 0.0 m2 
 
 0.133 0.0 
5 
 0.0 0.066 
The eigenvalue equation is
{0} 5 ([K] 2 w2[M]){f}
  60 −30   0.133 0.0    x1 

  
2
5  −ω 
  −30 30   0.0 0.066    x 2 

The frequency determinant is
(60 − 0.133ω 2 ) −30

T 5
−30 (30 − 0.066ω 2 )
5 0.0088w4 2 7.95w2 1 900
Equating this polynomial in w to zero provides the circular natural frequencies for the two modes of
vibration and these are
w1 5 11.52 radians/sec
w2 5 27.76 radians/sec
The corresponding natural periods are
T1 5 2p/w1
5 0.545 sec
T2 5 2p/w2
5 0.226 sec

Chapter 1 155
Substituting the value for w1 in the eigenvalue equation gives
 42.35 −30   φ11 

0 5  
 −30 21.24   φ21 

and f11 5 0.708f21
Substituting the value for w2 in the eigenvalue equation gives
 −42.79 −30   φ12 

0 5  
 −30 21.01   φ22 

and f12 5 20.701f22
The eigenvectors or matrix of relative modal shapes is

 φ φ22 
5 
21
[Φ]
 φ11 φ12 
 
 1.00 1.00 
5 
 0.708 −0.701 
1.33.5 Modal participation factor
Numerical methods15 may be used to facilitate the modal analysis procedure. For a given mode of
vibration, the participation factor is defined by
Pm 5 Swi fim /Swi f2im

where: Pm 5 participation factor associated with the specific mode m
wi 5 seismic dead load at floor level i
fim 5 mode shape component for node point i for the given mode m and the
summation extends over all the nodes in the structure
For a specific system, the participation factors have the property

SPmf1m 5 1.0
where: f1m 5 mode shape component, for the first node of the system, of the eigenvector
associated with the specific mode
The effective modal gravity load, associated with the specific mode m, is defined by
Wm 5 (Swi fim)2/Swi f2im

5 PmSwi fim

156 Seismic Design
The higher modes do not contribute significantly to the total response of the structure and only the sig-
nificant modes need be included to obtain an acceptable degree of accuracy in the modal analysis. As
specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1, this may be achieved by including a sufficient number of modes
to ensure that 90 percent of the participating mass of the structure, in each orthogonal horizontal direc-
tion, is included in the calculation.
The total structure weight is given by
W 5 Swi
The relationship between effective modal gravity load and total structure weight is given by9, 10, 15
SWm 5W
where: SWm 5 sum of the effective modal gravity load for all modes
This provides a method of satisfying the requirement that sufficient modes are included in the analysis
to ensure that 90 percent of the structural mass participates in the derivation of the response parame-
ters. Thus, sufficient modes may be defined to ensure that the sum of their effective weights is
SWm ≥ 0.9W
By this means, a minimum of 90 percent of the structural mass participates in the determination of the
response parameters.
Example 1-51
The two-story steel-frame building shown in Figure 1-2 is located in Orange County, California.
For the north-south direction, determine the number of modes of vibration that must be included in
the analysis to satisfy the requirements of ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1. The relevant details are shown in
Figure 1-56.
Solution
The relevant values for the first mode are shown in Table 1-32.
Table 1-32 Details for the first mode
Level wi fi1 wi fi1 wi f2i1
Roof 25.60 1.000 25.60 25.60

2nd Floor 51.20 0.708 36.25 25.67
Total 76.80 – 61.85 51.27

Chapter 1 157
From Table 1-32, the participation factor for the first mode is given by
P1 5 Swi fi1/Swif2i1
5 61.85/51.27
5 1.21
The effective modal gravity load for the first mode is given by
W1 5 P1Swi fi1
5 1.21 3 61.85
5 74.84 kips
As a percentage of the structural weight, the effective modal gravity load for the first mode is
100W1/W 5 100 3 74.84/76.80

5 97.45%
. 90%
Hence, consideration of the first mode is adequate to satisfy ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.
The relevant values for the second mode are shown in Table 1-33.
Table 1-33 Details for the second mode
Level wi fi2 wi fi2 wi f2i2
Roof 25.60 1.000 25.60 25.60

2nd Floor 51.20 20.701 235.89 25.16
Total 76.80 – 210.29 50.76
From Table 1-33, the participation factor for the second mode is given by
P2 5 Swi fi2 /Swif2i2

5 210.29/50.76
5 20.203
The effective modal gravity load for the second mode is given by
W2 5 P2Swifi2
5 20.203 3 210.29
5 2.09 kips

158 Seismic Design
As a percentage of the structural weight, the effective modal gravity load for the second mode is
100W2 /W 5 100 3 2.09/76.80

5 2.72%
Summing the effective modal gravity loads for both modes gives
SWm 5 W1 1 W2
5 74.84 1 2.09
5 76.93 kips
 W . . . satisfactory
Also: SPmf1m 5 P1f11 1 P2f12
5 1.21 3 0.708 1 (20.203) 3 (20.701)
5 0.999
 1.0 . . . satisfactory
1.33.6 Modal base shear
The stages necessary in the modal analysis procedure consist of selecting the appropriate ground
motion response spectrum, applying a dynamic analysis technique to a mathematical model of the
structure, combining the response of a sufficient number of modes to ensure a 90-percent participation
of the mass of the structure, and scaling the results to ensure consistency with the static lateral force
procedure.
Three methods of dynamic analysis are referred to in ASCE 7 Table 12.6-1. The modal response spec-
trum analysis technique uses an appropriate response spectrum to calculate the peak modal response
of all significant modes. Alternatively, two seismic response history techniques may be utilized, using
either linear or nonlinear analysis. Seismic response history analysis determines the structural response
through numerical integration over short time increments for a site-specific, time-dependent, seismic
input motion that is representative of actual earthquake motions.
The design response spectra presented in ASCE 7 Section 11.4 and shown in Figure 1-8 may be used
after applying the appropriate scaling factors to provide the requisite response spectrum. Alternatively,
site-specific design spectra, as specified in ASCE 7 Section 11.4.8, may be utilized to obtain the input
spectrum.

Chapter 1 159
The modal seismic response coefficient, Csm, is determined for each mode of vibration of the structure
using its associated period of vibration and, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.3, is given by
Csm 5 SamIe /R
where: Sam 5 modal design spectral response acceleration at a period, Tm, as determined
from either the general response spectrum or a site-specific response
spectrum
Ie 5 occupancy importance factor from Table 1-5
R 5 response modification factor from Table 1-16
Tm 5 modal period of vibration (in seconds) of mode, m, of the structure
That portion of the base shear contributed by mode, m, is given by
Vm 5 CsmWm
Because the modal maximums do not all occur simultaneously or act in the same direction, a statistical
combination of these values is necessary. As indicated in ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.3, the square-root-
of-the-sum-of-the-squares method10, 15 is acceptable unless the periods of adjacent modes are closely
spaced. In this case, the complete-quadratic-combination (CQC) technique shall be used.
Example 1-52
Determine the modal base shears for the two-story building analyzed in Example 1-51.
SDS 5 0.840g
SD1 5 0.469g
TS 5 0.558 second
T0 5 0.112 second
R 58
Ie 5 1.0
T1 5 0.545 second
T2 5 0.226 second
W1 5 74.84 kips
W2 5 2.09 kips
site classification 5D

160 Seismic Design
Solution
For the first mode of vibration, the natural period is
T1 5 0.545 sec
, TS
and . T0
hence Sa1 5 SDS
5 0.840g
5 Sa2
The modal seismic response coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.2 as
Cs1 5 Sa1Ie /R
5 0.840 3 1.0/8
5 0.105g
The portion of the base shear contributed by the first mode is given by
V1 5 Cs1W1
5 0.105 3 74.84
5 7.86 kips
For the second mode of vibration, the natural period is
T2 5 0.226 sec
The modal seismic response coefficient is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.2 as
Cs2 5 Sa2 I/R

5 0.840 3 1.0/8
5 0.105g
The portion of the base shear contributed by the second mode is given by
V2 5 Cs2W2
5 0.105 3 2.09
5 0.22 kip

Chapter 1 161
The ratio of the period of the second mode of vibration to the fundamental mode is
T2 /T1 5 0.226/0.545
5 0.42
, 0.75
Hence, the square-root-of-the-sum-of-the-squares method is an acceptable method10, 15 of combining

the modal values of the base shears, and the design value of the modal base shear is
Vt 5 [(V1)2 1 (V2)2]0.5
5 [(7.86)2 1 (0.22)2]0.5
5 7.86 kips
1.33.7 Scaling factors
To ensure consistency with the basic design principles adopted in the equivalent lateral force procedure,
a minimum value is stipulated in ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.4 for the base shear derived by a dynamic
analysis. Some reduction is allowed, in comparison with the base shear derived from an equivalent
lateral force analysis, with a limit imposed to account for the underestimation of the stiffness of the
mathematical model assumed. The limit is imposed by comparison with an equivalent lateral force
analysis with a maximum value for the fundamental period T 5 CuTa.
In determining the base shear by the equivalent lateral force procedure, the fundamental period assumed
is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2 as
T 5 CuTa
where: Cu 5 coefficient for upper limit on the calculated period given in Table 1-3
Ta 5 approximate fundamental period of vibration as determined by ASCE 7
Equation (12.8-7)
The comparative base shear is then obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1) as
V 5 CsW
where: W 5 seismic dead load
Cs 5 seismic response coefficient
5 SD1I/RT . . . from ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) when T . TS ≤ TL
or 5 SDS I/R . . . from ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) when T , TS
SD1 5 design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second

162 Seismic Design

0.2 second
Ie 5 occupancy importance factor from Table 1-5
R 5 response modification factor from Table 1-16
Where the modal base shear, Vt , is less than 100 percent of the base shear, V, determined by the equiv-
alent lateral force procedure, all modal response forces must be multiplied by the scaling factor given
by ASCE 7 Section 12.9.1.4 as
Cm 5 V/Vt
Example 1-53
mine the modified modal base shear for the two-story building analyzed in Example 1-52.
SDS 5 0.840g
SD1 5 0.469g
Ta 5 0.36 second
TS 5 0.558 second
T0 5 0.112 second
R 58
Ie 5 1.0
T1 5 0.545 second
Vt 5 7.86 kips
W 5 76.8 kips
site classification 5D
Solution
In a location with a value for the design spectral response acceleration at a period of 1.0 second of
SD1 . 0.4g, the value of the coefficient for the upper limit on the calculated period is obtained from
Table 1-3 as
Cu 5 1.4

Chapter 1 163
Hence, the natural period, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.2, is limited to
T 5 CuTa
5 1.4 3 0.36
5 0.50 sec
, T1
Hence, use a maximum value of
T 5 0.50 sec
, Ts . . . ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) is applicable
Hence, the seismic response coefficient is given by
Cs 5 SDS I/R
5 0.840 3 1.0/8
5 0.105
The comparative base shear is then obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1) as
V 5 CsW
5 0.105 3 76.8
5 8.06 kips
. Vt
Hence, the scaling factor is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.9.4 as
Cm 5 V/Vt
5 8.06/7.86
5 1.025
and the scaled modal base shear is
V 5 Cm 3 Vt
5 1.025 3 7.86
5 8.06 kips

164 Seismic Design
1.33.8 Vertical distribution of modal forces
The modal forces at each node may be determined by using the seismic dead load at each node, the
mode shape, and the modal base shear. The vertical distribution factor is given by
Cvxm 5 wxfxm /Swi fim

where: Cvxm 5 vertical distribution factor for the given mode, m
wx 5 seismic dead load at a specific floor level x
wi 5 seismic dead load at floor level i
fxm 5 mode shape component for a specific node point, x, for the given mode, m
fim 5 mode shape component for node point i for the given mode, m, and the
summation extends over all the nodes in the structure
The modal force at each node for mode, m, is given by
Fxm 5 CvxmVm
where: Vm 5 that portion of the base shear contributed by mode, m
Example 1-54
Determine the distribution of modal forces for each mode of the two-story building analyzed in Exam-
ple 1-53. The relevant details are shown in Figure 1-57.
3.253 0.538 3.297 3.379
4.607 0.754 4.668 4.785

Chapter 1 165
Solution
The relevant values for the first mode are shown in Table 1-34.
Table 1-34 Details for the first mode
Level wi fi1 wi fi1 Fi1
Roof 25.60 1.000 25.60 3.253

2nd Floor 51.20 0.708 36.25 4.607
Total 76.80 – 61.85 7.860
From Table 1-34, the modal force at each node for the first mode is given by
Fi1 5 Cvi1V1
5 V1(wi fi1/Swi fi1)
where: V1 5 that portion of the base shear contributed by the first mode
5 7.86 kips . . . from Example 1-52
and Fi1 5 7.86(wi fi1)/61.85
5 0.127(wi fi1)
The modal force at each node is shown in Table 1-34 and Figure 1-57.
The relevant values for the second mode are shown in Table 1-35.
Table 1-35 Details for the second mode
Level wi fi2 wi fi2 Fi2
Roof 25.60 1.000 25.60 20.538

2nd Floor 51.20 20.701 235.89 0.754
Total 76.80 – 210.29 0.216
From Table 1-35, the modal force at each node for the second mode is given by
Fi2 5 Cvi2V2
5 V2(wi fi2 /Swi fi2)
where: V2 5 that portion of the base shear contributed by the second mode
5 0.22 kip . . . from Example 1-52
and Fi2 5 0.22(wi fi2)/(210.29)
5 20.021(wi fi2)

166 Seismic Design
The modal force at each node is shown in Table 1-35 and Figure 1-57.
The square-root-of-the-sum-of-the-squares method may be used to combine the modal values of the
forces at each node, and the design values of the modal forces are
Fit 5 [(Fi1)2 1 (Fi2)2]0.5
The scaled values of the modal forces are
Fi 5 CmFit
5 1.025 3 Fit
Values of Fit and Fi are given in Table 1-36 and Figure 1-57.
Table 1-36 Combined vertical force distribution
Level Fi1 Fi2 Fit Fi
Roof 3.253 20.538 3.297 3.379

2nd Floor 4.607 0.754 4.668 4.785
References
3. Federal Emergency Management Agency. NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New
Buildings and Other Structures. FEMA P-1050. Washington, DC, 2015.
4. International Code Council. 2018 International Residential Code. Washington, DC, 2018.
5. Luco, N. et al. “Risk-Targeted versus Current Seismic Design Maps for the Conterminous United
States.” Proceedings of the 2007 SEAOC Annual Convention. SEAOC. Sacramento, CA, 2007.
6. American Institute of Steel Construction. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. AISC 360.
Chicago, IL, 2016.
7. American Institute of Steel Construction. Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings. AISC
341-16. Chicago, IL, 2016.
8. American Concrete Institute. Building Code Requirements and Commentary for Structural Con-
crete (ACI 318-14). Farmington Hills, MI, 2014.
9. Paz, M. Structural Dynamics. Kluwer Academic Publishers. New York, NY, 2003.
10. Chopra, A. K. Dynamics of Structures. Prentice Hall. New York, NY, 2000.
11. American Wood Council. National Design Specification for Wood Construction, (ANSI/AWS
NDS-2018). Washington, DC, 2018.

Chapter 1 167
12. Sheedy, P. “Anchorage of Concrete and Masonry Walls.” Building Standards. October 1983 and
April 1984. International Conference of Building Officials.
13. The Masonry Society. Building Code for Masonry Structures (TMS 402-16). Longmont, CO,
2016.
14. American Concrete Institute. Qualification of Post-Installed Mechanical Anchors in Concrete
(ACI 355.2-07). Farmington Hills, MI, 2007.
15. Structural Engineering Association of California. Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and
Commentary. Sacramento, CA, 1999.

CHAPTER 2
Design for Wind Loads
Nomenclature
a width of pressure coefficient zone ft
A effective wind area ft2
Ag gross area of wall in which Ao is identified ft2
Agi sum of gross surface areas of building envelope (walls and roof), excluding Ag ft2
Ao total area of openings in a wall receiving positive external pressure ft2
Aoi sum of areas of all openings in building envelope (walls and roof), excluding Ao ft2
be effective joist spacing ft
B horizontal dimension of building measured normal to wind direction ft
Cp external pressure coefficient –
Cpi internal pressure coefficient –
G gust effect factor –
(GCp) product of gust effect factor and external pressure coefficient –
(GCpf) product of gust effect factor and equivalent external pressure coefficient for –
determining wind loads in MWFRS of low-rise buildings
(GCpi) product of internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor –
h mean roof or eave height ft
h eave height for roof angle, θ, less than or equal to 10° ft
K1, K2, K3 multipliers from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1 used to obtain Kzt –
Kd wind directionality factor given in ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1 –
Ke ground elevation factor given in ASCE 7 Table 26.9-1 –
Kh velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z 5 h –
Kz velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at height z –
Kzt topographic factor as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.8.1 –

170 Design for Wind Loads
l span of joist ft
L horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to wind direction ft
MWFRS main windforce-resisting system –
p design pressure for determining wind loads lb/ft2
pe external wind pressure given by ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) lb/ft2
pi internal wind pressure given by ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) lb/ft2
q velocity pressure given by ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1) lb/ft2
qh velocity pressure evaluated at height z 5 h lb/ft2
qs wind stagnation pressure lb/ft2
qz velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground lb/ft2
s joist spacing ft
V basic wind speed mph
w distributed load lb/ft
z height above ground ft
zg gradient height ft
Symbols
γ exposure adjustment factor –
θ angle of plane of roof from horizontal degree
λ adjustment factor for building height and exposure –
2.1 Wind effects

On striking an enclosed building, wind flows around the sides and over the roof and produces either
a pressure or a suction on the external surfaces of the building. As shown in Figure 2-1, the windward
wall that is perpendicular to the wind direction experiences an inward, positive pressure. As wind
flows around the corners of the windward wall, the turbulence produced separates the airflow from
the walls and causes an outward, negative pressure or suction on the sidewalls and the leeward wall.
As wind flows over a high-sloping gable roof, a positive pressure is produced on the windward side of
the ridge and a suction on the leeward side of the ridge. However, for gable roofs with shallow slopes,
suction also develops on the windward side of the ridge and for flat roofs, suction develops over the
whole roof.

Chapter 2 171
Suction
Pressure
Suction
Suction
Pressure Suction
Plan Eleva ion
Figure 2-1 Wind pressure effects
Procedures are available for determining pressures on the main windforce-resisting system (MWFRS)
and on components and cladding. The main windforce-resisting system is defined in the Interna-
tional Building Code® (IBC®)1 Section 202 as the structural elements assigned to provide support and
stability for the overall structure. Components and cladding are defined in ASCE 72 Section 26.2 as
elements of the building envelope that do not qualify as part of the main windforce-resisting system.
The cladding of a building receives wind loading directly. Examples of cladding include wall and
roof sheathing, windows, and doors. Components receive wind loading from the cladding and transfer
the load to the main windforce-resisting system. Components include purlins, studs, girts, fasteners,
and roof trusses. Some elements, such as roof trusses and sheathing, may also form part of the main
windforce-resisting system and must be designed for both conditions. Because of local turbulence,
which may occur over small areas at ridges and corners of buildings, components and cladding are
designed for higher wind pressures than the main windforce-resisting system.
The design procedures consist of two basic approaches:

• the directional procedure determines the wind loads on buildings for specific wind directions,
in which the external pressure coefficients are based on wind tunnel testing of prototypical
building models for the corresponding direction of wind
• the envelope procedure determines the wind load cases on buildings, in which pseudo exter-
nal pressure coefficients are derived from wind tunnel testing of prototypical building models
successively rotated through 360 degrees, such that the pseudo pressure cases produce key
structural actions (uplift, horizontal shear, bending moments, and so on) that envelope their
maximum values among all possible wind directions

2.2 Analysis procedures

Several analysis procedures are permitted by IBC Section 1609.1.1 for determining the wind loads
on buildings. For determining wind loads on the main windforce-resisting system of buildings, the
permitted procedures are:
• the analytical directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 27 Part 1 Section 27.3. This is
applicable to enclosed, partially enclosed, and open buildings of all heights and roof geometry.
Wind pressure is calculated using specific wind pressure equations applicable to each building
surface. The method uses the directional procedure to separate applied wind loads onto the
windward walls, leeward walls, and sidewalls of the building to correctly assess the forces in
the members.
• the simplified directional method of ASCE 7 Chapter 27 Part 2 Section 27.5. This is based on
the analytical method of ASCE 7 Chapter 27 Part 1, and wind pressures are obtained directly
from a table. The method is applicable to enclosed, simple diaphragm buildings of any roof
geometry complying with the requirements of either Class 1 or Class 2 buildings. For a Class 1
building, the dimensions must be such that
h ≤ 60 ft
0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0
where: h 5 mean roof height
L 5 horizontal dimension of building parallel to the wind direction
B 5 horizontal dimension of building normal to the wind direction
For a Class 2 building, the dimensions must be such that
60 ft , h ≤ 160 ft
0.5 ≤ L/B ≤ 2.0
In addition, the fundamental natural frequency of the building shall be not less than 75/h where
h is in feet.
• the analytical envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 1 Section 28.3. This is
applicable to enclosed, partially enclosed, and open low-rise buildings that have a flat, gable,
or hip roof with a height not exceeding 60 feet and not exceeding the least horizontal dimen-
sion. Wind pressure is calculated using specific wind pressure equations applicable to each
building surface. The method uses the envelope procedure to separate applied wind loads onto
the windward walls, leeward walls, and sidewalls of the building to correctly assess the forces
in the members.
• the simplified envelope method of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 2 Section 28.5. This is based on
the envelope procedure of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 1 and is applicable to enclosed, simple
diaphragm low-rise buildings that have a flat, gable, or hip roof with a height not exceeding 60
feet. Wind pressures are obtained directly from a table and applied to vertical and horizontal
projected surfaces of the building.

Chapter 2 173
• the wind tunnel procedure of ASCE 7 Chapter 31, which may be used for any structure. This
is a procedure for determining wind loads, using a model of the building or other structure and
its surroundings, in which pressures, forces, and moments may be determined for each wind
direction considered. The wind tunnel procedure must be used when the limiting conditions of
the previous methods are not satisfied. This method is considered to produce the most accurate
wind pressure values.
• the prescriptive provisions of ICC 600: Standard for Residential Construction in High-Wind
Regions3 is permitted for applicable Group R-2 and R-3 buildings, subject to the limitations of
IBC Section 1609.1.1.1.
• the prescriptive provisions of AWC Wood Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Family
Dwellings4, subject to the limitations of IBC Section 1609.1.1.1.
• the prescriptive provisions of AISI S230 Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing—
Prescriptive Method for One- and Two-Family Dwellings5, subject to the limitations of IBC
Section 1609.1.1.1.
2.3 General requirements

To calculate the wind loads on a building, it is necessary to determine a number of prerequisites,
including:
• the exposure category of the site
• wind speed at the location of the structure
• the velocity pressure exposure coefficient
• the topography at the location of the building
• the probable direction of the wind
• the building type
2.3.1 Exposure category
Exposure category accounts for the effect of terrain roughness on wind speed and is defined in ASCE
7 Section C26.7. The height and density of topographic features and buildings for a selected upwind
fetch distance are considered. Three surface roughness categories are specified and listed in Table 2-1
and are illustrated in Figure 2-2.

Surface roughness category B
Surface roughness category C Surface roughness category D
Figure 2-2 Surface roughness categories
The three exposure categories are listed in Table 2-1, and exposure categories B and D are illustrated
in Figure 2-3.
Wind direction
Surface roughness B
h Exposure category B
< d3 or d4
h Exposure category D
Surface roughness D
< d1
Surface roughness B or C
h Exposure category D
Surface roughness D
< d1 ≤ d2
Figure 2-3 Exposure categories (See Table 2-1 for notation)

Chapter 2 175
Table 2.1 Surface roughness and exposure categories
Exposure category Applicable ground surface roughness
Applicable to urban, suburban and mixed wooded areas with numerous

B closely spaced obstructions the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
The minimum specified upwind fetch distance is the greater of d3 or d4.
Applicable to open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
generally less than 30 feet. This category includes flat open country,
C grasslands, and direct coastal exposure in hurricane-prone regions.
Exposure C shall apply for all cases where exposure B or D does not
apply.
Applicable to flat, unobstructed areas and to wind flowing over open
water for a minimum distance of 5000 feet or 20h. Exposure D also
D
applies where surface roughness categories B or C extend upwind for a
distance d2 followed by surface roughness category D for a distance d1.
Note: h 5 building height, d1 5 greater of 5000 feet or 20h, d2 5 greater of 600 feet or 20h,
d3 5 greater of 2600 feet or 20h . . . h . 30 feet, or d4 5 1500 feet . . . h ≤ 30 feet
2.3.2 Basic wind speed
Wind speed, V, is determined from the wind speed maps ASCE 7 Figures 26.5-1 and 26.5-2. The val-
ues given are based on the 3-second gust wind speed, in miles per hour, adjusted to a reference height
of 33 feet and for exposure category C. As shown in Figure 2-4, drag effects retard wind flow close
to the ground, and wind speed increases with height above ground level until the gradient height is
reached and the speed becomes constant. The gradient heights, zg, for different exposure conditions are
given in ASCE 7 Table 26.11-1 together with the 3-second gust speed power law exponent, α. These
are reproduced in Table 2-2. The wind speed at height, z, is obtained from the power law as
Vz 5 V33(z/33)1/α
where: V33 5 wind speed at height 33 feet above ground
z 5 height above ground
The wind speed is given at the strength level or ultimate design value. This is similar to the approach
used for seismic design and gives a load factor of 1.0 for wind loads in the strength design load
combinations.

76 90 98 127
Figure 2-4 Gradient height
Table 2-2 Gradient heights and power law exponents
Exposure B C D
zg ft 1200 900 700

α 7.0 9.5 11.5
In the ASCE 7 standard, an importance factor is not used to provide enhanced performance for those
facilities assigned to a high-risk category. ASCE 7-16 achieves the same objective by using a proba-
bilistic approach with four wind speed maps provided for buildings with different risk categories. An
increased return period provides enhanced performance for those facilities that constitute a substantial
public hazard because of high levels of occupancy or because of the essential nature of their func-
tion. The design wind speed return period for each map is based on the risk category assigned to the
building and the importance factor is eliminated. This ensures that high-risk facilities are designed for
higher loads so as to reduce possible structural damage. Four risk categories are listed in IBC Table
1604.5, as follows:
• risk category IV buildings are essential facilities such as hospitals with emergency treatment
facilities, fire and police stations, emergency centers, hurricane or other emergency shelters,
and buildings housing equipment required to maintain the functionality of these installations.
Also included in risk category IV are structures housing toxic materials that will endanger the
safety of the public if released.

Chapter 2 177
• risk category III buildings are facilities with a high occupant load, such as buildings where
more than 300 people congregate, schools with a capacity exceeding 250, colleges with a
capacity exceeding 500, health care facilities with a capacity of 50 or more or those that do not
have emergency treatment facilities, jails, and power stations.
• risk category II buildings are standard occupancy structures that consist of all other types of
facilities.
• risk category I buildings are low-hazard structures such as agricultural facilities, minor storage
facilities, and temporary facilities.
The four wind speed maps provided for the contiguous United States, Alaska, and Puerto Rico are:
• ASCE 7 Figure 26.5-1A, which gives basic wind speeds for risk category I buildings and pro-
vides a return period of 300 years.
• ASCE 7 Figure 26.5-1B, which gives basic wind speeds for risk category II buildings and pro-
vides a return period of 700 years.
• ASCE 7 Figure 26.5-1C, which gives basic wind speeds for risk category III buildings and
provides a return period of 1700 years.
• ASCE 7 Figure 26.5-1D, which gives basic wind speeds for risk category IV buildings and
provides a return period of 3000 years.
Details of the different occupancy categories and corresponding risk categories and return periods are
given in Table 2.3.
Similarly, ASCE 7 Figures 26.5-2A through 26.5-2D give basic wind speeds for risk category I through
IV buildings for Hawaii.
Precise values of the basic wind speeds are difficult to determine in congested areas of the maps. To
obviate this problem, the basic wind speed at a specific location with a known latitude and longitude
or mailing address may be obtained from the website
https://hazards.atcouncil.org
Table 2.3 Risk category and return period
Risk category Nature of occupancy Return period Wind speed map
I Low-hazard structures 300 26.5-1A

II Standard occupancy structures 700 26.5-1B
III Assembly structures 1700 26.5-1C
IV Essential or hazardous structures 3000 26.5-1D

2.3.3 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients for the whole building
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz , reflects the change in wind speed with height and
exposure category. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient is defined by ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1 as
Kz 5 2.01(z/zg)2/α . . . for 15 ft ≤ z ≤ zg
5 2.01(15/zg)2/α . . . for z , 15 ft
where: z 5 height above ground level
zg 5 gradient height
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz , for different exposure conditions are given in
ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1. These are tabulated in Table 2-4, for a limited number of heights, for main
windforce-resisting systems for the purpose of determining overall wind loads on the building. The
main windforce-resisting system is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as an assemblage of structural ele-
ments assigned to provide support and stability for the overall structure. The system generally receives
wind loading from more than one surface.
Table 2-4 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients
for main windforce-resisting systems
Height above ground level, ft
Exposure 0–15 20 25 30 40 50
Ba 0.57 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.76 0.81

Bb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.76 0.81
C 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.98 1.04 1.09
D 1.03 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.22 1.27
Note: a 5 directional procedure, b 5 envelope procedure
2.3.4 Topographic effects
The topographic factor, Kzt , accounts for the higher wind speeds experienced by buildings sited on or
adjacent to an abrupt change in topography such as an isolated hill, ridge, or escarpment. To adjust for
this effect, the velocity pressure exposure coefficient is multiplied by the topographic factor. As shown
in Figure 2-5, the wind velocity near the ground surface is most affected and the topographic factor is
Kzt 5 (1 1 K1K2K3)2

Chapter 2 179
where: K1 5 factor that accounts for the gradient of the slope

K2 5 factor that accounts for the distance of the building from the crest
K3 5 factor that accounts for the height above toe of slope
Figure 2-5 Wind speed-up at topographic feature
These three factors are determined from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1 using the notation shown in Figure 2-6.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.8-1, the topographic factor is applicable, provided that all of
the following conditions apply:
• the hill, ridge, or escarpment is unobstructed upwind by similar features for a distance given by
the lesser of 100 times the height of the topographic feature or 2 miles
• the topographic feature protrudes above the height of the upwind terrain, within a radius of
2 miles, by a factor of not less than 2
• the building is located on the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment
• H/Lh ≥ 0.2
• the height of the topographic feature, H, is not less than 15 feet for exposures C and D and 60
feet for exposure B
Where no topographic effect is to be considered, the topographic factor is given by
Kzt 5 1.0

Figure 2-6 Topographic factor parameters
2.3.5 Directionality factor
The directionality factor, Kd , is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1 and for buildings is given as 0.85.
The directionality factor accounts for the reduced probability of:
• extreme winds occurring in any specific direction
• the peak pressure coefficient occurring for a specific wind direction
2.3.6 Building types
Several types of building construction are defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2, including:
Low-rise building: an enclosed or partially enclosed building that satisfies both of the following
conditions:
• mean roof height, h, is less than or equal to 60 feet
• mean roof height, h, does not exceed least horizontal dimension
Applying the analytical method to low-rise buildings requires the use of specific velocity pressure
exposure coefficients.
Regular building: a building having no unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.
Diaphragm: Roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing system acting to transfer lateral forces to the
vertical main windforce-resisting system. Diaphragms constructed of wood structural panels are con-
sidered flexible diaphragms. Diaphragms constructed of untopped metal decks, concrete-filled metal
decks, and concrete slabs, each having a span-to-depth ratio of two or less, are considered rigid.

Chapter 2 181
Simple diaphragm building: a building in which both windward and leeward wind loads are trans-
mitted by roof and vertically spanning wall elements through continuous roof and floor diaphragms
to the main windforce-resisting system. As shown in Figure 2-7, the wind loads consist of pressure on
the vertically spanning walls normal to the wind direction. These loads are collected by the diaphragm
and transferred to the shear walls parallel to the wind direction. Diaphragms must be continuous and
without expansion joints.
Diaphragm
She
ar W
all
Wind direction
Figure 2-7 Simple diaphragm building
Building envelope: cladding, roofing, exterior walls, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies,
skylight assemblies, and other components enclosing the building.
Rigid building: a building with a fundamental natural frequency of n1 ≥ 1 Hz. A general guidance,
given in ASCE 7 Section C26.2, is that most buildings with a height-to-minimum-width ratio less than
4 may be considered rigid. Where necessary, the fundamental frequency may be determined using the
procedures given in ASCE 7 Section 26.11.3. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.11.2, a low-rise
building is permitted to be considered rigid. A structure with a fundamental frequency less than 1 Hz
is considered flexible. A flexible structure exhibits a significant dynamic resonant response to wind
gusts.

Class 1 building: defined in ASCE 7 Section 27.4.2 as an enclosed, simple diaphragm building with
the following dimensions:
h ≤ 60 ft
0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0
where: h 5 mean roof height
L 5 horizontal dimension of building parallel to the wind direction
B 5 horizontal dimension of building normal to the wind direction
Class 2 building: defined in ASCE 7 Section 27.4.2 as an enclosed, simple diaphragm building with
the following dimensions:
60 ft , h ≤ 160 ft
0.5 ≤ L/B ≤ 2.0
2.3.7 Gust effect factor
The gust effect factor, G, accounts for along-wind loading effects caused by dynamic amplification in
flexible structures and for wind turbulence-structure interaction. For a rigid structure, in accordance
with ASCE 7 Section 26.11.1, the gust effect factor may be taken as 0.85. Alternatively, the gust effect
factor for a rigid structure may be calculated using the procedures given in ASCE 7 Section 26.11.4.
For a flexible or dynamically sensitive structure, the gust effect factor is determined using the proce-
dures given in ASCE 7 Section 26.11.5.
2.3.8 Enclosure classifications
The internal pressure produced in a structure by wind depends on the size and location of openings in the
external walls of the structure. As shown in Figure 2-8, an opening in the windward wall of a structure
produces an internal pressure. An opening in the leeward wall of a structure produces an internal suction.
Figure 2-8 Effect of openings on internal pressure

Chapter 2 183
Glazing that is breached by missiles must be treated as openings, as this may result in the development
of high internal pressures. In accordance with ASCE 7 Sec. 26.12.3.1, in a wind-borne debris region,
glazing in the lower 60 feet of structures shall be assumed to be openings unless such glazing is impact
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering. The same requirement applies to glazing that
is less than 30 feet above aggregate-surfaced roofs, including roofs with gravel or stone ballast, located
within 1500 feet of the structure. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.12.3.1, glazed openings in
risk categories II, III, and IV buildings shall be protected in the following locations:
• within 1 mile of the coastal mean high water line where the basic wind speed is equal to or
greater than 130 miles per hour
• within a region where the basic wind speed is not less than 140 miles per hour
An open building is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as a building having each wall at least 80 percent
open. This is given for each wall by the expression
Ao ≥ 0.8Ag
where: Ao 5 total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
Ag 5 the gross area of the wall in which Ao is identified
A partially enclosed building is defined as satisfying both of the following requirements:
• the total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum of
the areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10
percent
• the total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the smaller
of 4 ft2 or 1 percent of the area of the wall, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the
building envelope does not exceed 20 percent
These requirements are given by the following expressions

Ao . 1.10Aoi
Aoi/Agi ≤ 0.20
and the smaller of Ao . 0.01Ag
or . 4 ft2
where: Aoi 5 sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ao
Agi 5 sum of the gross surface area of the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ag

An enclosed building is defined as a building having the total area of openings in a wall that receives
positive external pressure less than or equal to 4 ft2 or 1 percent of the area of the wall, whichever is
smaller. These requirements are given by the following expressions:
Ao , 0.01Ag
but not more than Ao 5 4 ft2
A partially open building is defined as a building that does not comply with the requirements for
open, partially enclosed, or enclosed buildings.
2.3.9 Ground elevation factor
Air density and air pressure decrease with increasing altitude. The ground elevation factor, Ke, accounts
for this and is determined from ASCE 7 Table 26.9-1. It is permitted to take Ke 5 1.0 for all elevations.
2.4 Analytical directional design method for MWFRS

This method, detailed in ASCE 7 Section 27.3, is applicable to enclosed, partially enclosed, and open
buildings of all heights and roof geometry. Wind pressure is calculated using specific wind pressure
equations applicable to each building surface. The method uses the directional procedure to separate
applied wind loads onto the windward walls, leeward walls, sidewalls, and roof of the building so as
to correctly assess the forces in the members. The procedure consists of the determination of the fol-
lowing items:
• risk category I, II, III, or IV . . . (ASCE 7 Table 1.5-1)
• basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category . . . (ASCE 7 Figures 26.5-1 and 26.5-2)
• exposure category B, C, or D . . . (ASCE 7 Section 26.7)
• velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz , for the applicable exposure category . . . (Table 2-4)
• topographic factor, Kzt . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1)
• ground elevation factor, Ke . . . (ASCE 7 Table 26.9-1)
• directionality factor, Kd . . . (ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1)
• gust effect factor, G . . . (ASCE 7 Section 26.11)

Chapter 2 185
• enclosure classification . . . (ASCE 7 Section 26.12)
• internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi) . . . (ASCE 7 Table 26.13-1)
• wind velocity pressure, q . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1)]
• external pressure coefficient, Cp or CN . . . (ASCE 7 Figures 27.3-1 through 27.3-7)
• internal wind pressure, pi . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1)]
• external wind pressure, pe . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1)]
• combined internal and external wind pressures, p . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1)]
• check minimum design wind loads . . . (ASCE 7 Section 27.1.5)
• apply design wind load cases . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-8)
2.4.1 Minimum design wind loads
The minimum design wind loads for an enclosed or partially enclosed building are given in ASCE 7
Section 27.1.5. As shown in Figure 2-9, these consist of an external pressure of 16 lb/ft2 on wall areas
and 8 lb/ft2 on roof areas projected onto a vertical plane normal to the wind direction. The minimum
loads are to be applied as a separate load case in addition to the normal load cases specified.
2
b/ft
8l
t2
l b/f
16
16
lb/f
t2
Figure 2-9 Minimum design wind load

2.4.2 Design wind load cases
Torsional effects are caused by nonuniform pressure on the different faces of the building, interference
effects of nearby buildings and terrain, and by dynamic effects on flexible structures. Hence, buildings
must be designed for the four load cases given in ASCE 7 Section 27.3.5 and ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-8
and shown in Figure 2-10. Design load cases 2 and 4 are the torsion load cases.
0.75PWY
0.75PWX 0.75PLX
PWX PLX 0.75PLY
Case 1 Case 3
BY
0.563PWY
BX
+
+ MT
MT
0.563PWX 0.563PLX
0.563PLY
0.75PWX 0.75PLX
eX = ± 0.15BX eX = ± 0.15BX eY = ± 0.15BY
Case 2 Case 4
Figure 2-10 Design wind load cases
The four load cases consist of:
Load case 1: full design wind pressure acting along each principal axis of the structure, considered
separately along each principal axis
Load case 2: 75 percent of full design wind pressure acting along each principal axis of the structure
in conjunction with a torsional moment, considered separately along each principal axis with
MT 5 0.75(PWX 1 PLX)BX eX . . . wind acting in the x direction

MT 5 0.75(PWY 1 PLY)BY eY . . . wind acting in the y direction
eX 5 0.15BX . . . wind acting in the x direction
eY 5 0.15BY . . . wind acting in the y direction

Chapter 2 187
Load case 3: 75 percent of full design wind pressure acting simultaneously along both principal axes
of the structure
Load case 4: 56.3 percent of full design wind pressure acting simultaneously along both principal
axes of the structure in conjunction with a torsional moment of
MT 5 0.563(PWX 1 PLX)BX eX 1 0.563(PWY 1 PLY)BY eY

where: PWX 5 windward face design pressure acting in the x direction
PWY 5 windward face design pressure acting in the y direction
PLX 5 leeward face design pressure acting in the x direction
PLY 5 leeward face design pressure acting in the y direction
eX 5 eccentricity for wind acting in the x direction measured from the geometric
center of the building face perpendicular to the direction of the wind
eY 5 eccentricity for wind acting in the y direction measured from the geometric
center of the building face perpendicular to the direction of the wind
MT 5 torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the building
In accordance with ASCE 7 Appendix D, the following buildings need not be designed for torsion load
cases 2 and 4 and need only be designed for no torsion load cases 1 and 3:
• one-story buildings with h ≤ 30 ft
• one- or two-story buildings of light-frame construction
• one- or two-story buildings with flexible diaphragms
• buildings meeting the spatial distribution and stiffness requirements of ASCE 7 Appendix D
Sections D.3 through D.6
As indicated in Appendix CD, the design objective is to minimize the inherent torsion from wind on
the building. This is achieved by placing and proportioning the vertical elements of the main wind-
force-resisting system in each direction so that the center of pressure from wind forces is located near
the center of rigidity of the main windforce-resisting system. A torsional eccentricity exceeding 5
percent of the building width may produce large shear forces and torsional story drift, causing damage
to cladding and interior partitions.

2.4.3 Wind velocity pressure
Taking the ground elevation factor as Ke 5 1, as permitted by ASCE 7 Section 26.9, the velocity pres-
sure q at any height above the ground is given by ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1) as
q 5 0.00256Kz Kzt KdV2
Example 2-1
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms shown in Figure 2-11 is located in
a flat suburban area of Wyoming. The basic wind speed is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 26.5-1B as
110 miles per hour. Determine the wind velocity pressure at roof height for the main windforce-resist-
ing system. Use the analytical directional design method of ASCE 7 Section 27.3.
B
L
Solution
For a suburban area, the exposure is category B. The relevant parameters are obtained as
Kz 5 velocity pressure exposure coefficient

5 0.65 . . . from Table 2-4 for a height of 24 ft for the main windforce-
resisting system and exposure category B, using the analytical directional
design method
Kzt 5 topographic factor
5 1.0 . . . from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
Chapter 2 189
Kd 5 wind directionality factor

5 0.85 . . . from ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1 for a building
The velocity pressure, q, at a height of 24 feet above the ground is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(26.10-1) as

5 0.00256 3 0.65 3 1.0 3 0.85 3 1102
5 17.11 lb/ft2
Example 2-2
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms shown in Figure 2-11 is located
adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. The basic wind speed is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure
26.5-1B as 170 miles per hour. Determine the wind velocity pressure at roof height, and at a height
of 15 feet, for the main windforce-resisting system. Use the analytical directional design method of
ASCE 7 Section 27.3.
Solution
For a location on the shoreline, the exposure is category D. The relevant parameters are obtained as

resisting system and exposure category D, using the analytical directional
design method
resisting system and exposure category D
5 1.0 . . . from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
5 0.85 . . . from ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1 for a building
The velocity pressure, qh , at a roof height of 24 feet above the ground is given by AISC Equation
(26.10‑1) as
qh 5 0.00256Kz Kzt KdV2

5 0.00256 3 1.11 3 1.0 3 0.85 3 1702
5 69.80 lb/ft2 . . . at roof height

The velocity pressure, q15, at a height of 15 feet above the ground is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(26.10-1) as
q15 5 0.00256Kz Kzt KdV2

5 0.00256 3 1.03 3 1.0 3 0.85 3 1702
5 64.77 lb/ft2 . . . at a height of 15 ft
Example 2-3
The two-story steel-frame office building shown in Figure 2-12 is located adjacent to the shoreline in
Miami, Florida, at the top of an escarpment. The basic wind speed is 170 miles per hour. Determine
the wind velocity pressure at roof height for the main windforce-resisting system. Use the analytical
directional design method of ASCE 7 Section 27.3.
Solution
For a location on the shoreline, the exposure is category D. The relevant parameters are obtained as

resisting system and exposure category D
H 5 20 ft
. 15 ft . . . satisfies ASCE 7 Section 26.8.1 for exposure D
H/Lh 5 20/50
5 0.4
. 0.2 . . . satisfies ASCE 7 Section 26.8.1

Chapter 2 191
For exposure D
K1 5 0.95H/Lh . . . ASCE 7 Figure 26.8.1

5 0.95 3 0.4
5 0.38
x/Lh 5 25/50
5 0.5
m 5 4 . . . downwind of crest
K2 5 1 2 x/mLh . . . from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
5 1 2 0.5/4
5 0.875
z 5 24 ft . . . roof height
z/Lh 5 24/50
5 0.48
γ 5 2.5 . . . for an escarpment
K3 5 e2γz /Lh . . . ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
5 e22.5 3 0.48
5 0.301
Kzt 5 topographic factor given by ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
5 (1 1 K1K2K3)2
5 (1 1 0.38 3 0.875 3 0.301)2
5 1.21
5 0.85 . . . from ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1
The velocity pressure, q, at a roof height of 24 feet above the ground is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(26.10‑1) as

5 0.00256 3 1.11 3 1.21 3 0.85 3 1702

2.4.4 Internal pressure coefficients and internal pressure
Internal pressure coefficients are used in conjunction with velocity pressure values to determine inter-
nal pressure in buildings. The product of the gust effect factor and the internal pressure coefficient is
denoted in ASCE 7 Section 26.13 as (GCpi). Values of (GCpi) are tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 26.13-1
for the four different building enclosure classifications. Pressures act normal to wall and roof surfaces
and are positive when acting toward the surface and negative when acting away from the surface. The
conditions that produce internal suction and internal pressure are shown in Figure 2-8. Both cases must
be considered for any building and added algebraically to external pressures to determine the most
critical loading conditions. Values of (GCpi) are given in Table 2-5.
Table 2-5 Values of internal pressure coefficients
Enclosure classification (GCpi)
Open buildings 0.00

Partially open buildings 0.18
Partially enclosed buildings 0.55
Enclosed buildings 0.18
For a rigid building, the pressure acting on internal surfaces is obtained from the second term of ASCE
7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pi 5 qi (GCpi)
where: qi 5 qh . . . for all surfaces of enclosed buildings and for negative internal
pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
5 wind velocity pressure at roof height
or qi 5 qz . . . for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
5 wind velocity pressure at level of the highest opening that can affect the
positive internal pressure in partially enclosed buildings
and z 5 height of the highest opening that can affect the positive internal pressure
(GCpi) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the internal pressure coefficient from
Table 2-5
For a conservative evaluation of positive internal pressure, qi 5 qh .

Chapter 2 193
Example 2-4
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms analyzed in Example 2-2 is located
adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. All glazing in the building is impact resistant. Determine
the internal pressure acting on the building. Use the analytical directional design method.
Solution
Since the glazing is impact resistant, the building may be considered an enclosed building and the
product of the internal pressure coefficient and the gust effect factor is obtained from Table 2-5 as
(GCpi) 5 0.18
The wind velocity pressure at roof height is obtained from Example 2-2 as
qi 5 qh
5 69.80 lb/ft2
The pressure acting on all internal surfaces is obtained from the second term of ASCE 7 Equation
(27.3-1) as
pi 5 qi(GCpi)
5 qh(GCpi) . . . for an enclosed building
5 69.80 3 0.18
5 12.56 lb/ft2
2.4.5 External pressure coefficients and external pressures
For a rigid building, the pressure acting on external surfaces is obtained from the first term of ASCE
pe 5 qGCp
where: q 5 qh . . . for leeward walls, sidewalls, and roof, evaluated at a height, h
or q 5 qz . . . for windward walls evaluated at a height, z, above the ground
5 wind velocity pressure at a specific height, z, above the ground
and z 5 any specific height above the ground
G 5 gust effect factor given in ASCE 7 Section 26.11-1
Cp 5 external pressure coefficient from ASCE 7 Figures 27.3-1 and 27.3-2

For the windward wall, the external pressure coefficient increases with height and is independent of
the wall dimensions. For the leeward wall, the external pressure coefficient is constant over the height
of the wall and is utilized with the wind velocity pressure at roof height, and is a function of the wall
dimensions. For the sidewalls, the external pressure coefficient is constant over the height of the wall
and is utilized with the wind velocity pressure at roof height and is independent of the wall dimen-
sions. Values of the external pressure coefficient for walls are given in ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-1 and are
tabulated in Table 2-6. The distribution of external pressure on walls is shown in Figure 2-13.
Table 2-6 Wall external pressure coefficients
Surface L/B Cp Use with
Windward wall All values 0.8 qz

0–1 20.5 qh
Leeward wall 2 20.3
≥4 20.2
Sidewall All values 20.7 qh
Note: L
5 horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to wind direction
B 5 horizontal dimension of building measured normal to wind direction
qhGCp
qhGCp
Wind direction qhGCp
A A
qZGCp qhGCp
qhGCp
Elevation Section A-A
Figure 2-13 External wind pressure distribution

Chapter 2 195
For a flat roof, or gable roof with the ridge parallel to wind direction, or a gable roof with a pitch of
less than 10 degrees and with the ridge normal to the wind direction, the external pressure coefficient
depends on the horizontal distance from the windward edge, the applicable area of the roof, and the
h/L ratio. Values of the external pressure coefficient for these conditions are given in ASCE 7 Figure
27.3-1 and are tabulated in Table 2-7.
Table 2-7 Roof external pressure coefficients
Horizontal
distance from Applicable Pressure
Windward direction h/L windward edge area (ft2) coefficient Cp
0 to h/2 20.9, 20.18

h/2 to h 20.9, 20.18
≤ 0.5 All
h to 2h 20.5, 20.18
Normal to ridge for
θ , 10° and parallel . 2h 20.3, 20.18
to ridge for all θ and ≤ 100 21.3, 20.18
for flat roofs
0 to h/2 250 21.17, 20.18
≥ 1.0
≥ 1000 21.04, 20.18
. h/2 All 20.7, 20.18
Note: θ
5 angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
h 5 mean roof height except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
For a gable roof, with the ridge normal to wind direction and with a pitch of not less than 10 degrees,
the external pressure coefficient depends on the location windward or leeward of the ridge, the pitch
of the roof, the applicable area of the roof, and the h/L ratio. The leeward slope of the roof is subject
to pressure acting away from the surface for all pitch angles. For a pitch angle of 10 degrees, the
windward slope of the roof is also subjected to pressure acting away from the surface but, as the pitch
increases, may be subjected to pressure acting toward the surface. Both cases must be considered to
determine the most critical loading conditions. Values of the external pressure coefficient for these
conditions are given in ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-1 and, for a limited number of cases, are tabulated in Table
2-8. The distribution of external pressure on roofs is shown in Figure 2-13.

Table 2-8 Gable roof external pressure coefficients
Windward slope Leeward slope
Roof pitch  Roof pitch 

Windward
direction h/L 10° 20° 30° 45° ≥ 60° 10° 15° ≥ 20°
20.7 20.3 20.2

≤ 0.25 20.3 20.5 20.6
20.18 0.2 0.3 0.4 b
Normal to ridge 20.9 20.4 20.2 0.0

0.5 20.5 20.5 20.6
for θ ≥ 10° 20.18 0.0 0.2 0.4 b
a 20.7 20.3 0.0
≥ 1.0 20.7 20.6 20.6
20.18 20.18 0.2 0.3 b
Note: a. Cp 5 21.3 for A ≤ 100 ft2, Cp 5 21.17 for A 5 250 ft2, Cp 5 21.04 for A ≥ 1000 ft2
b. Cp 5 0.01 × θ for 60° ≤ θ ≤ 80°, Cp 5 0.8 for θ . 80°
Example 2-5
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms analyzed in Example 2-2 is located
the design wind pressure acting on the whole building for wind flowing normal to the 100-foot-long
side and the resultant base shear. Use the analytical directional design method.
Solution
L 5 horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to wind direction

5 40 ft
5 100 ft
L/B 5 length/width ratio
5 40/100
5 0.4
, 1.0

Chapter 2 197
h 5 roof height
5 24 ft
, 60 ft . . . low-rise building in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.2
h/L 5 roof height/length ratio
5 24/40
5 0.6
, 4.0
Hence, in accordance with ASCE 7 Sections C26.2 and 26.11.2, the building may be considered a rigid
structure and the gust effect factor is given by ASCE 7 Section 26.11.1 as
G 5 0.85
The roof area, measured from the windward edge for a distance of h/2 is given by
A 5 Bh/2
5 100 3 24/2
5 1200 ft2
. 1000 ft2
qh 5 wind velocity pressure at roof height
5 69.80 lb/ft2 . . . from Example 2-2
q15 5 wind velocity pressure at a height of 15 ft
For the windward wall, the external pressure is independent of the wall dimensions and is obtained
from Table 2-6 as
Cp 5 0.8
For the windward wall, the external pressure acting toward the wall surface is proportional to the wind
velocity pressure. The external pressure at roof height is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
ph 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 0.8
5 47.46 lb/ft2

The external pressure at a height of 15 feet is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
p15 5 q15GCp
5 64.77 3 0.85 3 0.8
5 44.04 lb/ft2
For the leeward wall, the external pressure coefficient is dependent on the length/width ratio of the
building and, for a value of L/B , 1.0, is obtained from Table 2-6 as
Cp 5 20.5
For the leeward wall, the external pressure coefficient is utilized with the wind velocity pressure at
roof height to give a uniform pressure acting away from the wall surface. The external pressure acting
on the full height of the wall is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pe 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.5)
5 229.67 lb/ft2
For the sidewalls, the external pressure coefficient is independent of the wall dimensions and is
obtained from Table 2-6 as
Cp 5 20.7
For the sidewalls, the external pressure coefficient is utilized with the wind velocity pressure at roof
height to give a uniform pressure acting away from the wall surface. The external pressure acting on
the full height of the wall is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pe 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.7)
5 241.53 lb/ft2
For the roof, the external pressure coefficient is dependent on the roof height/length ratio and varies
over the length of the roof and with the applicable area over which the pressure acts. For h/L 5 0.5
and a distance of 0 to h/2 from the windward edge, the external pressure coefficient is obtained from
Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 20.9 or 20.18
For h/L 5 1.0 and a distance of 0 to h/2 from the windward edge, and for an applicable area A . 1000
ft2, the external pressure coefficient is obtained from Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 21.04 or 20.18

Chapter 2 199
By interpolation for h/L 5 0.6, the external pressure coefficient is obtained as
Cp 5 20.9 2 (1.04 2 0.9) 3 0.1/0.5 or 20.18

5 20.93 or 20.18
For the roof, the external pressure coefficient is utilized with the wind velocity pressure at roof height
to give a uniform pressure acting away from the roof surface. The external pressure acting on the seg-
ment a distance of 0 to h/2 from the windward edge is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pe 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.93) or 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.18)
5 255.18 lb/ft2 or 210.68 lb/ft2
For the roof, for h/L 5 0.5 and a distance of h/2 to h from the windward edge, the external pressure
coefficient is obtained from Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 20.9 or 20.18
For h/L 5 1.0 and a distance greater than h/2 from the windward edge, the external pressure coefficient
is obtained from Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 20.7 or 20.18
Cp 5 20.7 2 (0.9 2 0.7) 3 0.4/0.5

5 20.86 or 20.18
For the roof, the external pressure acting on the segment a distance of h/2 to h from the windward edge
is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pe 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.86) or 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.18)
5 251.02 lb/ft2 or 210.68 lb/ft2
For the roof, the external pressure coefficient for h/L 5 0.5 and a distance of h to 2h from the wind-
ward edge, the external pressure coefficient is obtained from Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 20.5 or 20.18
For h/L 5 1.0 and a distance greater than h/2 from the windward edge, the external pressure coefficient
is obtained from Table 2-7 as
Cp 5 20.7 or 20.18

Cp 5 20.5 2 (0.7 2 0.5) 3 0.1/0.5

5 20.54 or 20.18
For the roof, the external pressure acting on the segment a distance greater than h from the windward
edge is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (27.3-1) as
pe 5 qhGCp
5 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.54) or 69.80 3 0.85 3 (20.18)
5 232.04 lb/ft2 or 210.68 lb/ft2
The design wind pressures for the main windforce-resisting system are shown in Figure 2-14. The val-
ues of the combined internal and external pressures are given in Table 2-9. Minimum values of design
wind pressure
-
do not govern. Since the building is of two stories and has flexible diaphragms, torsional
wind load cases 2 and 4 need not be considered.
12 ft 12 ft 16 ft
–55.18 lb/ft2
–51.02 lb/ft2
Wind direction –32.04 lb/ft2
47.46 lb/ft2
9 ft
Add internal pressure

±12.56 lb/ft2 –29.67 lb/ft2
15 ft
44.04 lb/ft2
Figure 2-14 Design wind pressures for Example 2-5

Chapter 2 201
Table 2-9 Design wind pressures for Example 2-5
Location Internal pressure Internal suction
Windward wall
0–15 ft 31.48 lb/ft2 56.60 lb/ft2
15–24 ft 34.90 lb/ft2 60.02 lb/ft2
Leeward wall 242.23 lb/ft2 217.11 lb/ft2
Sidewall 254.12 lb/ft2 229.00 lb/ft2
Roof
0–12 ft 267.74 lb/ft2 242.62 lb/ft2
or or
223.24 lb/ft2 1.88 lb/ft2
12–24 ft 263.58 lb/ft2 238.46 lb/ft2
or or
223.24 lb/ft2 1.88 lb/ft2
24–40 ft 244.60 lb/ft2 219.48 lb/ft2
or or
2
223.24 lb/ft 1.88 lb/ft2
Using the values shown in Figure 2-14, the strength level base shear acting normal to the 100-foot
side is determined from the product of the external pressure and the area over which it occurs and is
given by
Fw 5 100(44.04 3 15 1 47.46 3 9 1 29.67 3 24)/1000
5 180 kips
2.5 Simplified directional design method for MWFRS

The simplified method of ASCE 7 Chapter 27 Part 2 Section 27.5 is based on the analytical method of
ASCE 7 Chapter 27 Part 1. Wind pressures are obtained directly from a table. The method is applica-
ble to enclosed, simple diaphragm buildings of any roof geometry complying with the requirements
of either Class 1 buildings or Class 2 buildings. The procedure consists of the determination of the
following items:

• velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz , for the applicable exposure category . . . (Table 2-4)
• gust effect factor, G . . . (ASCE 7 Section 26.11)
• net pressures at top of walls, ph , and bottom of walls, po . . . (ASCE 7 Table 27.5-1)
• net roof pressures, ph . . . (ASCE 7 Table 27.5-2)
• if topographic factor Kzt . 1.0, apply factor to wall and roof pressures . . . (ASCE 7 Section
26.8)
• apply wall pressures simultaneously with roof pressures . . . (ASCE 7 Section 27.5.1)
• apply design wind load cases . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-8)
2.5.1 Wall pressure
In a simple diaphragm building where the wind loads are collected by diaphragms and transferred to
the main windforce-resisting system, windward and leeward wind loads may be combined into a single
load and applied to the windward wall. Similarly, internal pressures cancel out and need not be consid-
ered for the design of the main windforce-resisting system. ASCE 7 Table 27.5-1 tabulates net along-
wind pressure for walls. For a specific exposure category, wind speed, building height, and building
aspect ratio, two values of wind pressure are obtained from the table. As shown in Figure 2-15, these
are ph, the pressure at the top of the building, and p0 , the pressure at the bottom of the building. These
values do not include the effect of internal pressures since the internal pressures cancel out when con-
sidering the net pressures on simple diaphragm buildings.
The wind pressure values, ph and p0 , are the sum of the wind pressures acting simultaneously on the
windward and leeward walls. As indicated in Figure 2-15, these combined wind pressures are shown
acting on the windward wall of the building and this is an adequate representation when designing the
MWFRS.

Chapter 2 203
For Class 1 buildings, ASCE 7 Section 27.5.1 specifies that for L/B ratios less than 0.5, the wind pres-
sure values tabulated for L/B 5 0.5 are applicable. For L/B ratios greater than 2.0, the wind pressure
values tabulated for L/B 5 2.0 are applicable.
ph
p0
Elevation
Figure 2-15 Net pressure distribution on windward wall
As shown in Figure 2-16, sidewall pressures act outward, are constant over the full height of the build-
ing, and are determined from the applicable value of ph. The sidewall pressures are given by ASCE 7
Table 27.5-1 Note 2 as
psidewall 5 0.54ph . . . for 0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 1.0

5 0.64ph . . . for 2.0 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0
interpolate for 1.0 , L/B , 2.0
Wind direction
psidewall
psidewall
Plan
Figure 2-16 Net pressure distribution on sidewalls

For the design of drag struts and wall elements, it is necessary to determine the individual pressures on
the windward and leeward walls. The leeward wall pressure acts outward, is constant for the full height
of the building, and is determined from the applicable value of ph. The leeward wall pressure is given
by ASCE 7 Table 27.5-1 Note 4 as
pleeward wall 5 0.38ph . . . for 0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 1.0

5 0.27ph . . . for 2.0 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0
interpolate for 1.0 , L/B , 2.0
The windward wall pressure is calculated as the difference between the total net pressure from ASCE
7 Table 27.5-1 using the ph and p0 values and the constant leeward wall pressure. The effect of internal
pressure must also be included in order to obtain the total wall forces.
2.5.2 Roof pressure
ASCE 7 Table 27.5-2 tabulates net wind pressures for roofs of various configurations for exposure
category C. The net pressures are combined external pressures and internal pressures appropriate to
an enclosed building condition. For a specific roof configuration, wind speed, and building height,
values of wind pressure are obtained from the table for designated areas of the roof. Where two values
are given in the table, both values must be investigated. An adjustment for exposure category B or D
is made to the pressures by multiplying by the applicable factor from ASCE 7 Table 27.5-2, which
depends on the height of the structure. Adjustment factors for a limited number of heights are shown
in Table 2-10.
Table 2-10 Exposure adjustment factor
h (ft) 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exposure B 0.667 0.692 0.713 0.729 0.741 0.751 0.760 0.768 0.775 0.781
Exposure D 1.214 1.201 1.183 1.171 1.161 1.154 1.147 1.141 1.137 1.132
The distribution of wind pressures for a flat roof is shown in Figure 2-17.

Chapter 2 205
h/2 h/2
Wind direction
Figure 2-17 Net pressure distribution on a flat roof
Example 2-6
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms, shown in Figure 2-11, is located
the design net wind pressure acting on the whole building for wind flowing normal to the 100-foot-
long side and the resultant base shear. Use the simplified directional method.
Solution

V 5 170 mph . . . from Example 2-2
Exposure category 5 D . . . from Example 2-2
L 5 horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to wind direction
5 40 ft
5 100 ft
L/B 5 length/width ratio
5 40/100
5 0.4
, 5.0
. 0.2
h 5 roof height
5 24 ft
, 60 ft
Hence, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 27.4.2, the building may be considered a Class 1 building.
From the problem statement, the building is an enclosed simple diaphragm structure. Hence, the net
wind pressures given in ASCE 7 Tables 27.5-1 and 27.5-2 are applicable. Also, in accordance with
ASCE 7 Section 27.5.1, use wind pressures tabulated for L/B 5 0.5. From ASCE 7 Table 27.5-1 for
exposure D, the windward wall net pressures are obtained by interpolation for L/B 5 0.5 as shown in
Table 2-11 to give
ph 5 80.9 lb/ft2
p0 5 78.8 lb/ft2
Table 2-11 Determination of ph and p0
ph (lb/ft2) p0 (lb/ft2)
V 5 160 V 5 170 V 5 180 V 5 160 V 5 170 V 5 180

h (ft) mph mph mph mph mph mph
30 74.8 85.2 95.5 71.1 81.0 90.9

24 80.9 78.8
20 68.7 78.1 87.5 68.0 77.3 86.5
For a value of L/B 5 0.4, the sidewall pressures are given by ASCE 7 Table 27.5-1 Note 2 as
psidewall 5 0.54ph
5 0.54 3 80.9
5 43.7 lb/ft2
From ASCE 7 Table 27.5-2, three wind zones are applicable. These are zones 3, 4, and 5, as shown in
Figure 2-18. For the roof, the adjustment factor for exposure category D and a height (h) of 24 feet is
obtained by interpolation from Table 2-10 as
γ 5 1.183 1 6(1.201 2 1.183)/10

5 1.194
For the roof, for exposure category D at h 5 24 ft and V 5 170 mph, the net external pressure is
obtained by interpolating values from ASCE 7 Table 27.5-2, as shown in Table 2-12, and multiplying
by γ 5 1.194 to give
proof 5 1.194 3 262.5 . . . zone 3

5 274.63 lb/ft2

Chapter 2 207
proof 5 1.194 3 255.7 . . . zone 4

5 266.51 lb/ft2
proof 5 1.194 3 245.7 . . . zone 5
5 254.57 lb/ft2
Table 2-12 Determination of proof
Zone
h (ft) 3 4 5
30 265.7 258.6 248.1

24 262.5 255.7 245.7
20 260.4 253.8 244.1
The net design wind pressures for the main windforce-resisting system are shown in Figure 2-18. Min-
imum values of design wind pressure do not govern. Since the building is of two stories and has flex-
ible diaphragms, torsional wind load cases 2 and 4 of ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-8 need not be considered.
Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5
12 ft 12 ft 16 ft
–74.63 lb/ft2
– 66.51 lb/ft2
Wind direction –54.57 lb/ft2
80.9 lb/ft2
78.8 lb/ft2
Figure 2-18 Net wind pressures for Example 2-6

The base shear acting normal to the 100-foot side is determined from the product of the external pres-
sure and the area over which it occurs and is given by
Fw 5 100(80.9 1 78.8) 3 24/2000

5 191.6 kips
2.6 Analytical envelope design method for MWFRS

The envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 1 Section 28.3 is applicable to enclosed, par-
tially enclosed, and open low-rise regular buildings that have a flat, gable, or hip roof with a height not
exceeding 60 feet and not exceeding the least horizontal dimension. In addition, the structure must not
have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading, vortex shedding, or instability
due to galloping or flutter. Also, the structure must not be located at a site subject to channeling effects
or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions.
Wind pressure is calculated using the specified wind pressure equation as applicable to each building
surface. The method uses the envelope procedure to separate applied wind loads onto the windward
walls, leeward walls, and sidewalls of the building so as to correctly assess the forces in the members.
The procedure consists of the determination of the following items:
• velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz, for the applicable exposure category . . . (Table 2-4)
• wind velocity pressure, qh . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1)]
• external pressure coefficient, (GCpf) . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 28.3-1)
• internal wind pressure, pi 5 qh(GCpi) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (28.3-1)]

Chapter 2 209
• external wind pressure, pe 5 qh(GCpf) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (28.3-1)]
• apply loading patterns to each building corner . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 28.3-1)
2.6.1 Design parameters
The following design parameters are determined as for the directional procedure:
• risk category
• basic wind speed, V
• exposure category
• ground elevation factor, Ke
• topographic factor, Kzt
• directionality factor, Kd
• enclosure classification
• internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi)
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz , are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1, and for
exposure category B, differ from the values used in the directional procedure for a mean roof height
of 0 feet to 25 feet.
2.6.2 Wind velocity pressure
Taking a value for the ground elevation factor of Ke 5 1.0, the velocity pressure, q, at any height above
the ground is given by ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1) as
The velocity pressure varies with the height above ground level since the value of the velocity pressure
exposure coefficient also varies with the height above ground level.

For the envelope procedure of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 1, the gust effect factor is combined with the
internal pressure coefficients and denoted by (GCpi). Values of (GCpi) are tabulated in ASCE 7 Table
26.13-1 for the three different building enclosure classifications and are shown in Table 2-5, which is
repeated here.
Open buildings 0.00

Partially open buildings 0.18
Partially enclosed buildings 0.55
Enclosed buildings 0.18
The pressure acting on internal surfaces is obtained from the second term of ASCE 7 Equation (28.3‑1)
as
pi 5 6qh(GCpi)
where: qh 5 wind velocity pressure at mean roof height
(GCpi) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the internal pressure coefficient
Pressures act normal to wall and roof surfaces and are positive when acting toward the surface and
negative when acting away from the surface. The conditions that produce internal suction and internal
pressure are shown in Figure 2-8. Both cases must be considered for any building and added algebra-
ically to external pressures to determine the most critical loading conditions.
2.6.4 External pressure coefficients and external pressure

external pressure coefficients and denoted by (GCpf). Values of (GCpf) are tabulated in ASCE 7 Figure
28.3-1 and are shown in Tables 2-13 and 2-14. Values are given for two separate loading conditions.
These are load case A for wind acting transversely and load case B for wind acting longitudinally to
the building.

Chapter 2 211
Table 2-13 External pressure coefficients load case A
Load case A
Roof Building surface

angle 
(degrees) 1 2 3 4 1E 2E 3E 4E
0–5 0.40 20.69 20.37 20.29 0.61 21.07 20.53 20.43

20 0.53 20.69 20.48 20.43 0.80 21.07 20.69 20.64
30–45 0.56 0.21 20.43 20.37 0.69 0.27 20.53 20.48
90 0.56 0.56 20.37 20.37 0.69 0.69 20.48 20.48
Table 2-14 External pressure coefficients load case B
Load case B
Roof Building surface

angle 
(degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E 5E 6E
0–90 20.45 20.69 20.37 20.45 0.40 20.29 20.48 21.07 20.53 20.48 0.61 20.43
The pressure acting on external surfaces is obtained from the first term of ASCE 7 Equation (28.3-1) as
pe 5 qh(GCpf)
(GCpf) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the external pressure coefficient
External pressure coefficients are given for two zones on each wall and roof surface: an end zone and
an interior zone. The end zone width is given by ASCE 7 Figure 28.3-1 as either a or 2a where a is
the lesser of
a 5 0.1 3 (least horizontal dimension)

or a 5 0.4h
but not less than
either a 5 0.04 3 (least horizontal dimension)

or a 5 3 ft

Pressures act normal to wall and roof surfaces and are positive when acting toward the surface and neg-
ative when acting away from the surface. The design wind pressure on the main windforce-resisting
system is given by ASCE 7 Equation (28.3-1) as
p 5 qh[(GCpf) 2 (GCpi)]
5 pe 2 pi
2.6.5 Design wind load cases
The envelope procedure utilizes pseudo external pressure coefficients derived from wind tunnel tests
on building models successively rotated through 360 degrees. The pseudo pressure cases envelope the
desired structural actions (bending moment, shear, and thrust) independent of the wind direction. To
ensure that all possible conditions are considered, ASCE 7 Figure 28.3.1 indicates that both load case
A and load case B must be applied in turn to all four corners of the building, giving eight loading cases.
Two of these loading cases are shown in Figure 2-19.
6
4 3
4 3
2 6E
3E
4E 2
3E
θ 2E 1
4E
5
θ 2E 1
1E
2a 5E 1E
Windward
Corner
2a
Load Case A a Load Case B
Wind
Direction
Windward
Corner
Wind
Direction
Figure 2-19 Loading cases A and B
For each of the eight cases, both positive and negative internal pressure must be considered, resulting
in a total of 16 loading cases. Where the building is symmetrical about one axis, only two corners need
to be investigated. If the building is doubly symmetrical, only one corner needs to be investigated.
Where torsion must be considered, each of these load cases is also modified, as indicated in ASCE 7
Figure 28.3-1 Note 5.

Chapter 2 213
Example 2-7
The two-story steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms, shown in Figure 2-11, is located
the external wind pressure acting on the whole building for wind flowing normal to the 100-foot-long
side and the resultant base shear. Use the analytical envelope method.
Solution
V 5 170 mph . . . from Example 2-2

Exposure category 5 D . . . from Example 2-2
qh 5 wind velocity pressure at roof height
L 5 horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to the wind direction
5 40 ft
B 5 horizontal dimension of building normal to wind direction
5 100 ft
h 5 roof height
5 24 ft
, 60 ft
h/L 5 roof height/least horizontal dimension
5 24/40
5 0.6
, 1.0
Hence, in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.2, the building may be considered a low-rise structure
and the envelope method of ASCE 7 Section 28.3 is applicable. Values of (GCpf) may be obtained from
Table 2-13.
For a two-story building with flexible diaphragms, ASCE 7 Figure 28.3-1 Note 5 specifies that tor-
sional load cases may be neglected.
To determine the base shear of the building, the external pressures on surfaces 1 and 1E on the wind-
ward face and 4 and 4E on the leeward face must be determined. Roof pressures and internal pressures
are not required.

pe 5 qh(GCpf)
5 69.80(GCpf)
Values of pe are obtained from Table 2-13 and are tabulated in Table 2-15.
Table 2-15 External pressures for Example 2-7
Surface 1 1E 4 4E
(GCpf) 0.40 0.61 20.29 20.43

pe lb/ft2 27.92 42.58 220.24 230.01
The width of end zones 1E and 4E are given by ASCE 7 Figure 28.3-1 as the lesser of
2a 5 0.2 3 L
5 0.2 3 40
5 8 ft . . . governs
2a ≤ 0.8h
5 0.8 3 24
5 19.2 ft
but not less than
either 2a 5 0.08 3 L
5 0.08 3 40
5 3.2 ft
or 2a 5 6 ft
The base shear acting normal to the 100-foot side is determined from the product of the external pres-
sure and the area over which it occurs and is given by
Fw 5 h[2a(pe1E 2 pe4E) 1 (B 2 2a)(pe1 2 pe4)]

5 24[8(42.58 1 30.01) 1 (100 2 8)(27.92 1 20.24)]/1000
5 120 kips

Chapter 2 215
2.7 Simplified envelope design procedure for MWFRS

The simplified method of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 2 Section 28.5 is based on the envelope method
of ASCE 7 Chapter 28 Part 1. The combined windward wall and leeward wall wind pressures are
obtained directly from a table and applied to the windward vertical projected surface of the building.
Internal pressures are neglected as they cancel out. Roof pressures consist of combined external pres-
sures and internal pressures appropriate to an enclosed building and are applied to the horizontal pro-
jection of the roof. In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 28.6.2, the simplified method may be applied
to the design of buildings complying with all the following conditions:
• building is classified as an enclosed building as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• building is a low-rise building as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• building is a regular-shaped building as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• building has an approximately symmetrical cross section with either a flat roof, or a gable or
hip roof with q ≤ 45°
• building is a simple diaphragm building as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• building is not classified as flexible as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• building is not sensitive to dynamic effects and is not subject to channeling effects or buffeting
• torsional loads do not govern or the building complies with the requirements of ASCE 7 Appen-
dix D and is exempt from consideration of torsional load cases
2.7.1 Design procedure
The procedure consists of the determination of the following items:
• net pressures at walls and roofs, ps30 . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1)
• if topographic factor Kzt . 1.0, apply factor to wall and roof pressures . . . (ASCE 7 Figure
26.8-1)
• adjustment for building height and exposure category, l . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1)

• apply design wind loads to each corner of the building in turn as the windward corner . . .
(ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 Note 2)
2.7.2 Adjustment of net pressures
The simplified method uses tabulated values of net design pressures for various wind speeds, which
are based on exposure classification B at a height of h 5 30 feet. For other exposure classifications
and mean roof heights, an adjustment factor, l, is applied to the tabulated values. These height and
exposure factors are provided in ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 and, for a limited number of conditions, are
reproduced in Table 2-16. The net adjusted pressures are given by ASCE 7 Equation (28.5-1) as
ps 5 lKzt ps30
where: l 5 adjustment factor from Table 2-16
ps30 5 simplified design wind pressure for exposure B, at h 5 30 feet,
from ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1
The mean roof height is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as the average of the roof eave height to the
highest point on the roof surface, except that eave height is used for roof angles not exceeding 10
degrees.
Table 2-16 Height and exposure adjustment factors, l
Exposure
Mean roof
height, ft B C D
15 1.00 1.21 1.47

20 1.00 1.29 1.55
25 1.00 1.35 1.61
30 1.00 1.40 1.66
40 1.09 1.49 1.74
50 1.16 1.56 1.81
60 1.22 1.62 1.87

Chapter 2 217
For the purpose of designating the variation of wind pressure over the building, the building surface is
divided into interior zones, edge strips, end zones, and corner zones. Edge strips and end zones have a
width of 2a, corner zones have a width of a. The dimension a is defined as the lesser of

or a 5 0.4h
but not less than

or a 5 3 ft
2.7.3 Simplified method applied to the MWFRS
As shown in Figure 2.20, the design wind pressures are assumed to act normal to the projected wall
and roof areas. The values tabulated in ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 for the roof are composite pressures,
which include the internal pressures appropriate to an enclosed building condition. Values given for the
walls represent the sum of the positive pressure on the windward face of the building and the negative
(or suction) pressure on the leeward face and are applied to the windward projection of the building as
shown. Internal pressures for the walls are not included since they cancel.
2a
Figure 2-20 Application of wind loads

As specified in ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 Note 2, the longitudinal and the transverse loading patterns are
applied to each corner of the building in turn as the windward corner. However, where the building is
symmetrical about one axis, only two corners need to be investigated. If the building is doubly sym-
metrical, only one corner needs to be investigated.
The locations of end zones and interior zones for the main windforce-resisting system are shown in
Figure 2-21. For buildings that have flat roofs, a ridge line is assumed along the longitudinal axis of
the building. Values for the design wind pressure are given in ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 for wind flowing
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the building and for wind flowing transversely. Wind pressures are
positive when acting toward the projected surface and negative when acting away from the projected
surface. Values are provided for wind speeds of 85 to 200 miles per hour, roof slopes up to 45 degrees,
and overhangs.
Figure 2-21 Application of design wind pressures
Example 2-8
The regular two-story simple diaphragm steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms shown
in Figure 2-11 and analyzed in Example 2-2 is located adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. All
glazing in the building is impact resistant. The building is not sensitive to dynamic effects and is not
subjected to buffeting or channeling effects. Using the simplified envelope method, determine the design
wind pressures acting on the whole building for the transverse wind direction and the resultant base shear.

Chapter 2 219
Solution
From the problem statement and Figure 2-11:
• glazing is impact resistant . . . the building is enclosed
h 5 24 ft
, 60 ft
h/L 5 24/40
5 0.6
, 1.0 . . . the building is low rise
• the building is a regular-shaped building
• the building has a symmetrical cross section with a flat roof
• the building is a simple diaphragm building
h/L 5 0.6
, 4.0 . . . the building is not flexible
• the building is not subjected to channeling effects or buffeting
• the building is of two stories with flexible diaphragms and is exempt from consideration of
torsional load cases
Hence, the simplified envelope procedure is applicable.
V 5 wind speed
5 170 mph
h 5 mean roof height
5 24 ft
The dimension a is given by ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 as the lesser of
a 5 0.1 3 L
5 0.1 3 40
or a 5 0.4h
5 0.4 3 24
5 9.6 ft

but not less than
either a 5 0.04 3 L
5 0.04 3 40
5 1.6 ft
or a 5 3 ft
2a 5 width of end zone
5 8 ft
Kzt 5 1.0
The exposure classification is D and the combined height and exposure adjustment factor is obtained
from Table 2-16 as
l 5 1.60
Design wind pressures interpolated from ASCE 7 Figure 28.5-1 are multiplied by 1.60 and are shown
in Table 2-17.
Table 2-17 Design wind pressures for Example 2-8
Wind Zone Zone Horizontal

pressure, width, height, force,
Zone lb/ft2 ft ft kips
A 73.3 8 24 14.1
C 48.6 92 24 107.3
E 288.2 8 – –
F 250.1 8 – –
G 261.3 92 – –
H 238.7 92 – –
Total base shear 121.4
The horizontal force on each zone is obtained as the product of the zone pressure and the zone area and
is shown in Table 2-17 together with the total base shear.

Chapter 2 221
2.8 Components and cladding

Components and cladding are defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as elements of the building enve-
lope, which do not qualify as part of the main windforce-resisting system. The cladding of a build-
ing receives wind loading directly. Examples of cladding include wall and roof sheathing, windows,
and doors. Components receive wind loading from the cladding and transfer the load to the main
windforce-resisting system. Components include purlins, studs, fasteners, and roof trusses. Some ele-
ments, such as roof trusses and sheathing, may also form part of the main windforce-resisting system
and must be designed for both conditions.
Because of local turbulence, which may occur over small areas and at ridges and corners of buildings,
components and cladding are designed for higher wind pressures than the main windforce-resisting
system.
The effective wind area is used to determine external pressure coefficients. This is defined in ASCE 7
Section 26.2 as
A 5 bel
where: be 5 effective tributary width
l 5 element span length
≥ l/3
For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall be not greater than the area that is tributary to an
individual fastener.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 30.2.3, component and cladding elements with tributary areas
greater than 700 ft2 may be designed using provisions for the main windforce-resisting system.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 30.2.2, the design wind pressure for components and cladding
of buildings shall be not less than a net pressure of 16 lb/ft2 acting in either direction normal to the
surface.
2.8.1 Determination of components and cladding loads
Several procedures are available for determining the loads on components and cladding of buildings.
All procedures require compliance with the following conditions:
• the structure is a regular-shaped building without irregularities such as projections or indenta-
tions

• the structure does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading,
vortex shedding, or instability due to galloping or flutter
• the structure is not located at a site subject to channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of
upwind obstructions
The available procedures include:

1. The analytical envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 1 Section 30.3. Wind pres-
sures are calculated using equations specific to each building surface. This method is applicable
to buildings with all of the following characteristics:
• enclosed and partially enclosed buildings
• low-rise buildings as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• buildings with h ≤ 60 ft
• buildings that have flat roofs, gable roofs, multispan gable roofs, hip roofs, monoslope
roofs, stepped roofs, or sawtooth roofs
2. The simplified envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 2 Section 30.4. This method
is based on the analytical procedure of Part 1. Wind pressures are determined from a table and
adjusted for height and exposure. This method is applicable to buildings with all of the follow-
ing characteristics:
• enclosed buildings
• low-rise buildings as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2
• buildings with h ≤ 60 ft
• buildings that have flat roofs, gable roofs, or hip roofs
3. The analytical directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 3 Section 30.5. Wind pres-
sures are calculated using equations specific to each building surface. This method is applicable
to buildings with all of the following characteristics:
• enclosed and partially enclosed buildings
• buildings with h . 60 ft
• buildings that have flat roofs, gable roofs, pitched roofs, hip roofs, mansard roofs, or domed
roofs

Chapter 2 223
4. The simplified directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 4 Section 30.6. This
method is based on the analytical procedure of Part 3. Wind pressures are determined from a
table and adjusted for height and exposure. This method is applicable to buildings with all of
the following characteristics:
• enclosed buildings
• buildings with 60 ft , h ≤ 160 ft
• buildings that have flat roofs, gable roofs, monoslope roofs, and mansard roofs or hip roofs
2.9 Analytical envelope design method for components and cladding

The envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 1 Section 30.3 is applicable to enclosed and
partially enclosed low-rise regular buildings with a height not exceeding 60 feet and having a flat,
gable, multispan gable, hip, monoslope, stepped, or sawtooth roof. Wind pressure is calculated using
the specified wind pressure equation as applicable to each building surface. The procedure consists of
the determination of the following items:
• basic wind speed, V, for the applicable risk category . . . (ASCE 7 Section 26.5)
• velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kh, for the applicable exposure category . . . (ASCE 7
Table 26.10-1)
• wind velocity pressure, qh . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1)]
• external pressure coefficient, (GCpf) . . . (ASCE 7 Figures 30.3-1 through 30.3-7)
• internal wind pressure, pi 5 qh(GCpi) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (30.3-1)]

• external wind pressure, pe 5 qh(GCpf) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (30.3-1)]
The following design parameters are determined as for the main windforce-resisting system procedure:
• risk category
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kh , are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1.
2.9.2 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressure
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients for components and cladding are given in ASCE 7 Table
26.10-1.
Kz 5 2.01(15/zg)2/a . . . for z , 15 ft
5 2.01(z/zg)2/a . . . for 15 ft ≤ z ≤ zg
Values are tabulated in Table 2-18 for a limited number of heights.

Chapter 2 225
Table 2-18 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients for components and cladding
Height above ground level, ft
Exposure 0–15 20 25 30 40 50
B 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.76 0.81

C 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.98 1.04 1.09
D 1.03 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.22 1.27
Taking the ground elevation factor as Ke 5 1, the velocity pressure, qh , at mean roof height is given by
ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1) as
qh 5 0.00256Kh Kzt KdV2
26.13-1 and the values for enclosed and partially enclosed buildings are shown in Table 2-19.
Partially enclosed buildings 60.55

Enclosed buildings 60.18
The pressure acting on internal surfaces is obtained from the second term of ASCE 7 Equation (30.3‑1)
as
pi 5 6qh(GCpi)
(GCpi) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the internal pressure coefficient
ative when acting away from the surface. Both cases must be considered for any building and added
algebraically to external pressures to determine the most critical loading conditions.

Example 2-9
The two-story simple diaphragm steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms, shown in Figure
2-11, is located adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. The structure is not sensitive to dynamic
effects and is not located on a site at which channeling effects or buffeting occurs. Determine the wind
velocity pressure at roof height for cladding and components. If all glazing in the building is impact
resistant, determine the internal pressure acting on cladding and components. Use the analytical enve-
lope design method.
Solution
The analytical envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 1 Section 30.3 is applicable. For
a location on the shoreline, the exposure is category D and the wind speed, V, is obtained from ASCE
7 Figure 26.5-1B as 170 miles per hour. The relevant parameters are obtained from Example 2-2 as
Kh 5 velocity pressure exposure coefficient
5 1.11 . . . from Table 2-18 for a height of 24 ft for cladding and components
and exposure category D
5 1.0 . . . from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
5 0.85 . . . from ASCE 7 Table 26.6-1
Taking Ke 5 1.0, the velocity pressure, qh, at a roof height of 24 feet above the ground is given by
qh 5 0.00256Kh Kzt Kd KeV2

5 0.00256 3 1.11 3 1.0 3 0.85 3 1.0 3 1702
The product of the internal pressure coefficient and the gust effect factor for an enclosed building is
obtained from Table 2-19 as
(GCpi) 5 60.18
The internal pressure acting on all internal surfaces is given by the second term of ASCE 7 Equation
(30.3-1) as
pi 5 6qh(GCpi)
5 669.80 3 0.18
5 612.56 lb/ft2

Chapter 2 227
Because of local turbulence at corners and at roof eaves, an increase in pressure is produced in these
areas. Hence, as shown in Figure 2-22, walls are divided into two zones and roofs are divided into four
zones, with a different wind pressure coefficient assigned to each.
1.2h
0.6h
3 2
2
1 2h
1 0.
2 0.6h
1′ 0.2 3
1′ h
2h
5
1.
3
2 1 2
5 a
2
a 4 4
3
5 5
a a
Figure 2-22 Components and cladding loading diagram for roof slope  ≤ 7°
For the walls
The end zone width is given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-1 as a, where a is the lesser of

or a 5 0.4h
but not less than

or a 5 3 ft
Where the least horizontal dimension of the building is greater than 300 feet and the roof angle, θ, is
less than or equal to 7 degrees, the end zone width is given by the lesser of
a 5 0.1 × (least horizontal dimension)
or a 5 0.8h

For the roof
The zone width is given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A as
a 5 0.6h
The values of (GCp) are a function of the effective area attributed to the element considered and are
given in ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-1 for walls and ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A for roofs with a slope of q ≤
7 degrees. The values may also be derived from logarithmic expressions given in Tables C30.3-1 and
C30.3-2.
pe 5 qh(GCp)
(GCp) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the external pressure coefficient
Pressures act normal to wall and roof surfaces and are positive when acting toward the surface and
negative when acting away from the surface. The design wind pressure on components and cladding is
p 5 qh[(GCp) 2 (GCpi)]
5 pe 2 pi
For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall be not greater than the area that is tributary to
an individual fastener. In accordance with ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-1 Note 5, the values of (GCp) may be
reduced by 10 percent for the walls of buildings with a roof slope of 10 degrees or less.
Example 2-10
The two-story steel-frame office building, shown in Figure 2-11, is located adjacent to the shoreline in
Miami, Florida. The roof framing consists of open web joists at s 5 5-foot centers spanning 40 feet,
and all glazing in the building is impact resistant. Determine the design wind pressure acting on an
interior roof joist.
Solution
The velocity pressure, qh , at a roof height of 24 feet above the ground is given by Example 2-9 as
qh 5 69.80 lb/ft2 . . . at roof height
The interior pressure acting on all internal surfaces is obtained from Example 2-9 as
pi 5 612.56 lb/ft2

Chapter 2 229
The width of zone 1 and zone 2 is given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A as
a 5 0.6 3 h
5 0.6 3 24
5 14.4 ft . . . governs
The combined width of zones 1 and 2 is
Σa 5 4 3 14.4 ft
5 57.6 ft
This exceeds the span of the joist, which is
l 5 40 ft
Hence, only zones 1 and 2 are applicable to the joist and zone 1 does not develop.
The effective tributary width of a roof joist is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as the larger of
be 5 joist spacing
5 5 ft
or be ≥ l/3
5 40/3
5 13.33 ft . . . governs
The effective wind area attributed to the roof joist is then
A 5 bel
5 13.33 3 40
5 533.2 ft2
The negative external pressure coefficient for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.3‑2A as
(GCp) 5 21.0
The negative design wind pressure on a roof joist for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation
(30.3‑1) as
p 5 qh(GCp) 2 qh(GCpi)
5 pe2 pi
5 69.80 3 (21.0) 2 12.56
5 282.36 lb/ft2

The upward load on the roof joist over zone 1 is
w 5 ps
5 282.36 3 5
5 2412 lb/ft
The positive external pressure coefficient for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A as
(GCp) 5 0.2
The positive design wind pressure on a roof joist for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation (30.3‑1)
as
5 pe 1 pi
5 69.80 3 0.2 1 12.56
5 26.52 lb/ft2
The downward load on the roof joist over zone 1 is
w 5 ps
5 26.52 3 5
5 133 lb/ft
The negative external pressure coefficient for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A as
(GCp) 5 21.4
The negative design wind pressure on a roof joist for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation
(30.3-1) as
5 69.80 3 (21.4) 2 12.56
5 2110 lb/ft2
The upward load on the roof joist over eave zone 2 is
w 5 ps
5 2110 3 5
5 2550 lb/ft
The positive external pressure coefficient for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A as
(GCp) 5 0.2

Chapter 2 231
The positive design wind pressure on a roof joist for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation
(30.3-1) as
5 69.80 3 0.2 1 12.56
5 26.52 lb/ft2
The downward load on the roof joist over eave zone 2 is
w 5 ps
5 26.52 3 5
5 133 lb/ft
The wind loading acting on the roof joist is shown in Figure 2-23.
–412 lb/ft
–550 lb/ft –550 lb/ft
133 lb/ft
14.4 ft 11.2 ft 14.4 ft 40 ft

Upward load Downward load
Figure 2-23 Wind loading on roof joist
2.10 Simplified envelope design method for components and cladding

The simplified envelope design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 2 Section 30.4 is applicable to
enclosed low-rise regular buildings with a height not exceeding 60 feet and having flat, gable, or hip
roof shapes. Wind pressures are determined from a table and adjusted for height and exposure. The
procedure consists of the determination of the following items:

• net pressures at walls and roofs, pnet30 . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1)
• adjustment for building height and exposure category, l . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1)
• check minimum design wind pressure . . . (ASCE 7 Section 30.2.2)
• risk category
The net pressure values, pnet30, are obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1, and the adjustment factors for
building height and exposure category, l, are obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1.
The simplified method uses tabulated values of net design pressures for various wind speeds, which
are based on exposure classification B at a height of h 5 30 feet. For other exposure classifications and
mean roof heights, an adjustment factor, l, is applied to the tabulated values. These height and expo-
sure adjustment coefficients are provided in ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1. The net pressures are also based on
the effective wind area of the element under consideration, which is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as
A 5 bel
≥ l/3
A positive value for the pressure indicates that the pressure is acting toward the surface. A negative
value for the pressure indicates that the pressure is acting away from the surface. The mean roof height
is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as the average of the roof eave height to the highest point on the roof
surface, except that eave height is used for roof angles not exceeding 10 degrees.

Chapter 2 233
2.10.3 Net wind pressure
areas. Hence, as shown in ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1, for roofs with a slope of θ ≤ 7 degrees, the building
surface is divided into interior zones, edge strips, and corner zones. Walls are divided into two zones
and roofs are divided into four zones, with a different net wind pressure assigned to each. The net
pressure values tabulated in ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1 are composite pressures that include the interior
pressures appropriate to an enclosed building condition.
The applicable zone widths are given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1.
In each zone, values are provided for wind speeds of 95 to 200 miles per hour, for gable roof slopes
up to 45 degrees, and for overhangs. The net design wind pressure is given by ASCE 7 Equation
(30.4-1) as
pnet 5 lKzt pnet30

where: l 5 adjustment factor from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1
Kzt 5 topographic factor from ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
pnet30 5 net wind pressure for exposure B, at h 5 30 ft, from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1
Example 2-11
The regular two-story simple diaphragm steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms shown in
Figure 2-11 is located adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. The roof framing consists of open
web joists at 5-foot centers spanning 40 feet, and all glazing in the building is impact resistant. The
building is not sensitive to dynamic effects and is not subject to buffeting or channeling effects. Using
the simplified envelope design method, determine the design wind pressure acting on an interior roof
joist.
Solution
V 5 wind speed
5 170 mph
5 24 ft
5 1.0

a 5 width of zone 1 and zone 2 from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1

5 0.6 3 h
5 0.6 3 24
5 14.4 ft
The combined width of zones 1 and 2 is
Σa 5 4 3 14.4 ft
5 57.6 ft
This exceeds the span of the joist, which is
l 5 40 ft
Hence, only zones 1 and 2 are applicable to the joist and zone 1 does not develop.
be 5 joist spacing
5 5 ft
or be ≥ l/3
5 40/3
5 13.33 ft . . . governs
The effective wind area used to determine the external pressure coefficients is then
A 5 bel
5 13.33 3 40
5 533.2 ft2
The exposure classification is D and the combined height and exposure adjustment factor is obtained
from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1 as
l 5 1.59
Hence, design wind pressures interpolated from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1 are multiplied by 1.59.
The negative design wind pressure on a roof joist for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Equation
(30.4‑1) as
pnet 5 lKzt pnet30

5 1.59 3 1.0 3 (264.7)
5 2102.87 lb/ft2

Chapter 2 235
The upward load on the roof joist over interior zone 1 is

w 5 pnet30s
5 2102.87 3 5
5 2514 lb/ft
The positive design wind pressure on a roof joist for zone 1 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1 as
pnet 5 lKzt pnet30
5 1.59 3 1.0 3 16.7
5 26.55 lb/ft2
The downward load on the roof joist over interior zone 1 is

w 5 pnet30s
5 26.55 3 5
5 133 lb/ft
The negative design wind pressure on a roof joist for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure
30.4-1 as
pnet 5 lkzt pnet30
5 1.59 3 1.0 3 (285.9)
5 2136.58 lb/ft2
The upward load on the roof joist over eave zone 2 is

w 5 pnet30s
5 2136.58 3 5
5 2683 lb/ft
The positive design wind pressure on a roof joist for eave zone 2 is obtained from ASCE 7 Figure
30.4-1 as
pnet 5 lKzt pnet30
5 1.59 3 1.0 3 16.7
5 26.55 lb/ft2
The downward load on the roof joist over eave zone 2 is

w 5 pnet30s
5 26.55 3 5
5 133 lb/ft

–514 lb/ft
–683 lb/ft –683 lb/ft
133 lb/ft
14.4 ft 11.2 ft 14.4 ft 40 ft

Upward load Downward load
Figure 2-24 Wind loading on roof joist
2.11 Analytical directional design method for components and cladding

The analytical directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 3 Section 30.5 is applicable to
enclosed and partially enclosed regular buildings with a height exceeding 60 feet and having a flat,
pitched, gable, hip, mansard, arched, or domed roof. Wind pressure is calculated using the specified
wind pressure equation as applicable to each building surface. The procedure consists of the determi-
nation of the following items:
• velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz or Kh, for the applicable exposure category . . .
(ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1)
• wind velocity pressure, qz . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1)]

Chapter 2 237
• external pressure coefficient, (GCp) . . . (ASCE 7 Figure 30.5-1)
• internal wind pressure, pi 5 qz(GCpi) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (30.5-1)]
• external wind pressure, pe 5 qz(GCp) . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (30.5-1)]
• risk category
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients, Kz or Kh , are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 26.10-1.
2.11.2 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressure
The velocity pressure exposure coefficients for components and cladding are given in ASCE 7 Table
26.10-1.
Kz 5 2.01(z/zg)2/a . . . for 15 ft ≤ z ≤ zg
Taking Ke 5 1, the velocity pressure, qh , at mean roof height is given by ASCE 7 Equation (26.10-1) as
qh 5 0.00256Kh Kzt KdV2

For the directional procedure of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 3, the gust effect factor is combined with the
26.13-1, and the values for enclosed and partially enclosed buildings are shown in Table 2-20.
Partially enclosed buildings 60.55

Enclosed buildings 60.18
The pressure acting on internal surfaces is obtained from the second term of ASCE 7 Equation
(30.5‑1) as
pi 5 6qi (GCpi)
where: qi 5 qh . . . for all surfaces of enclosed buildings and for negative internal
pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
or qi 5 qz . . . for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings
5 wind velocity pressure at level of the highest opening that can affect the
positive internal pressure in partially enclosed buildings
and z 5 height of the highest opening that can affect the positive internal pressure
(GCpi) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the internal pressure coefficient from
Table 2-5
For a conservative evaluation of positive internal pressure
qi 5 qh
ative when acting away from the surface. Both cases must be considered for any building and added
algebraically to external pressures to determine the most critical loading conditions.

Chapter 2 239
areas. Hence, as shown in Figure 2-25, walls are divided into two zones and roofs are divided into three
zones, with a different wind pressure coefficient assigned to each.
Figure 2-25 Components and cladding loading diagram for roof slope  ≤ 7°
The end zone width is given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.5-1 as a, where a is given as
but not less than
a 5 3 ft
The values of (GCp) are a function of the effective area attributed to the element considered and are
given in ASCE 7 Figure 30.5-1 for walls and for roofs with a slope of q ≤ 10 degrees. The values may
also be derived6 from logarithmic expressions, and these are tabulated in Table 2-21 in terms of log to
the base 10 of the effective area.

Table 2-21 Values of external pressure coefficients (GCp) for roof slope  ≤ 10°
Zone Effective area A, ft2 (GCp)
1. Roof interior A ≤ 10 ft2 21.4

10 , A ≤ 500 ft2 21.6943 1 0.2943 log A
A . 500 ft2 20.9
2. Roof eaves A ≤ 10 ft2 22.3
10 , A ≤ 500 ft2 22.7120 1 0.4120 log A
A . 500 ft2 21.6
3. Roof corner A ≤ 10 ft2 23.2
10 , A ≤ 500 ft2 23.7297 1 0.5297 log A
A . 500 ft2 22.3
4. Wall interior A ≤ 20 ft2 20.9 or 0.9
20 , A ≤ 500 ft2(2ve) 21.0861 1 0.1431 log A
20 , A ≤ 500 ft2(1ve) 1.1792 2 0.2146 log A
2
A . 500 ft 20.7 or 0.6
5. Wall corner A ≤ 20 ft2 21.8 or 0.9
20 , A ≤ 500 ft2 (2ve) 22.5445 1 0.5723 log A
20 , A ≤ 500 ft2 (1ve) 1.1792 2 0.2146 log A
A . 500 ft2 21.0 or 0.6
pe 5 q(GCp)
where: q 5 qh . . . use with negative values of (GCp) for leeward walls, sidewalls, and
roof, evaluated at a height, h
or q 5 qz . . . use with positive values of (GCp) for windward walls evaluated at
height z above the ground
5 wind velocity pressure at a specific height, z, above the ground
and z 5 any specific height above the ground
(GCp) 5 product of the gust effect factor and the external pressure coefficient from
ASCE 7 Figure 30.5-1

Chapter 2 241
For the windward wall, the external pressure coefficient increases with height. For the leeward wall
and the sidewalls, the external pressure coefficient is constant over the height of the wall. The design
wind pressure on components and cladding is given by ASCE 7 Equation (30.5-1) as
p 5 q(GCp) 2 qi(GCpi)
5 pe2 pi
2.12 Simplified directional design method for components and cladding

The simplified directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 4 Section 30.6 is applicable to
enclosed regular buildings with a height greater than 60 feet and not exceeding 160 feet and having
a flat, gable, hip, mansard, or monoslope roof. Wind pressure is selected directly from a table and
adjusted for exposure category and effective wind area. The procedure consists of the determination
of the following items:
• net pressures at walls and roofs, ptable . . . (ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2)
• adjustment for effective area, RF, and exposure category, EAF . . . [ASCE 7 Equation (30.6-1)]
• check minimum design wind pressure . . . (ASCE 7 Section 30.2.2)
• risk category

The net pressure values, ptable , are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2. The adjustment factors for
building height and exposure category, EAF, are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2. The adjustment
factors for effective area, RF, are obtained from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2.
The simplified directional method uses tabulated values of net design pressures for various wind
speeds, which are based on exposure classification C at a height of h 5 30 feet. For other exposure
classifications and mean roof heights, an exposure adjustment factor, EAF, is applied to the tabulated
values. The height and exposure adjustment factors are provided in ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2. The net pres-
sures are also based on an effective wind area of 10 ft2 and must be adjusted for larger areas, depending
on the type of roof and the location on the surface. The area reduction factors, RF, are provided in
ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2. The effective area of an element is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as
A 5 bel
≥ l/3
A positive value for the pressure indicates that the pressure is acting toward the surface. A negative
value for the pressure indicates that the pressure is acting away from the surface. The mean roof height
is defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2 as the average of the roof eave height to the highest point on the roof
surface, except that eave height is used for roof angles not exceeding 10 degrees.
2.12.3 Net wind pressure
areas. Hence, as shown in ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 and Figure 2-26, the building surface is divided into
interior zones, edge strips, and corner zones. Walls are divided into two zones and roofs are divided
into three zones, with a different net wind pressure assigned to each. The net pressure values tabulated
in ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 are composite pressures that include the interior pressures appropriate to an
enclosed building condition.

Chapter 2 243
2a
a
3 2
2
1 a
3
1
2a
3 5
2 2
5 a
2
a 4 4
3
5 5
a a
Figure 2-26 Components and cladding loading diagram for roof slope  ≤ 7° and h . 60 feet
For a building height exceeding 60 feet
The end zone width is given by ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 as a, where a is given as
but not less than
a 5 3 ft
In each zone, values are provided for wind speeds of 110 to 200 miles per hour. Interpolation between
h values is permitted. The required pressure, pr , for a wind speed, Vr , that is not provided in the table
is given by
pr 5 ptable(Vr /Vtable)2
where: ptable 5 tabulated pressure from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 for wind speed, Vtable
Vr 5 wind speed at which pressure is required
Vtable 5 tabulated wind speed
For the design of parapets and overhangs, modifications are made to roof pressure and wall pressure
values as indicated in ASCE 7 Figures 30.6-1 and 30.6-2.

The net design wind pressure is given by ASCE 7 Equation (30.6-1) as

p 5 ptable(EAF)(RF)Kzt
where: RF 5 effective area reduction factor from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2
EAF 5 exposure adjustment factor from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2
Kzt 5 topographic factor as defined in ASCE 7 Figure 26.8-1
For a building height not exceeding 60 feet
For flat, hip, gable, monoslope, and mansard roofs with h ≤ 60 feet, roof pressures are obtained from
ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 2 and ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1. Wind loads are determined using the procedure
of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Part 2 Section 30.4.
For a building height of h ≤ 60 feet and a roof slope of θ ≤ 7 degrees, the zone widths are given by
ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2. Walls are divided into two zones and a roof is divided into four zones. The zone
width is
a 5 0.6h
Example 2-12
The regular six-story simple diaphragm steel-frame office building with flexible diaphragms, shown in
Figure 2-27, is located adjacent to the shoreline in Miami, Florida. The roof framing consists of open
web joists at 5-foot centers spanning 40 feet, and all glazing in the building is impact resistant. The
structure is not sensitive to dynamic effects and is not located at a site subject to channeling effects or
buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions. Determine the design wind pressure acting on an interior
roof joist. Use the simplified directional design method.
Wind
Direction
h = 72 ft
B = 100 ft L = 40 ft

Chapter 2 245
Solution
The height of 72 feet exceeds 60 feet and simplified directional design method of ASCE 7 Chapter 30
Part 4 Section 30.6 is applicable. The relevant parameters from previous examples are
V 5 wind speed
5 170 mph
exposure category 5D
5 72 ft
. 60 ft . . . ASCE 7 Section 30.6 is applicable
5 1.0
The width of zone 2 is given by ASCE 7 Figure 30.6-1 as
a 5 0.1 3 L
5 0.1 3 40
but not less than
a 5 3 ft
be 5 joist spacing
5 5 ft
or be ≥ l/3
5 40/3
5 13.33 ft . . . governs
The effective wind area attributed to the roof joist is then
A 5 bel
5 13.33 3 40
5 533.2 ft2
The exposure adjustment factor is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 as
EAF 5 1.146

The reduction factor for effective wind area is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 as
RF 5 NA . . . for roof zones 1 and 2, use a conservative value of 1.0
Hence, wind pressures from ASCE 7 Table 30.6-2 must be multiplied by the factor
(EAF)(RF)Kzt 5 1.146 3 1.0 3 1.0

5 1.146
To obtain wind pressures for a wind speed of 170 miles per hour, tabulated wind pressure values for a
wind speed of 160 miles per hour are multiplied by the factor
(170/160)2 5 1.13
Interpolation for h 5 72 feet is shown in Table 2-22.
Table 2-22 Determination of net wind pressures
Zone 1 Zone 2
h (ft) V 5 160 mph V 5 170 mph V 5 160 mph V 5 170 mph
80 2106.3 2120.1 2166.8 2188.5

72 2117.4 2165.0
70 2103.3 2116.7 2162.2 2159.1
The design wind pressure on a roof joist for interior zone 1 is
5 2117.4 3 1.146
5 2134.5 lb/ft2
w 5 ps
5 2134.5 3 5
5 2673 lb/ft
The design wind pressure on a roof joist for eave zone 2 is
5 2165.0 3 1.146
5 2189.1 lb/ft2

Chapter 2 247
w 5 ps
5 2189.1 3 5
5 2946 lb/ft
–946 lb/ft –946 lb/ft
–673 lb/ft
4 ft 32 ft 4 ft
Figure 2-28 Wind loading on roof joist for Example 2-12
References
3. International Code Council. Standard for Residential Construction in High-Wind Regions. ICC
600-14. Washington, DC, 2014.
4. American Wood Council. Wood Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Family Dwell-
ings: SBC High Wind Edition. WFCM-18. Washington, DC, 2018.
5. American Iron and Steel Institute. Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing—Prescriptive Method
for One- and Two-Family Dwellings. AISI S230-15. Washington, DC, 2015.
6. Mehta, K. C. and Perry, D. C. Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-98. ASCE
Press. Reston, VA, 2002.

CHAPTER 3
Seismic Design of Steel Structures
Nomenclature
Ab cross-sectional area of a horizontal boundary element in2
Ac cross-sectional area of a vertical boundary element in2
Ag gross area in2
Alw web area of link (excluding flanges) in2
Asc cross-sectional area of the yielding segment of steel core in2
Ast horizontal cross-sectional area of the link stiffener in2
Ca ratio of required strength to available axial yield strength –
Cd coefficient relating relative brace stiffness and curvature –
D dead load kips
D outside diameter of round HSS in
E seismic load effect kips
E modulus of elasticity of steel 5 29,000 ksi
Emh horizontal seismic load effect, including the overstrength factor kips, kip-in
Fe elastic critical buckling stress ksi
Fcr critical stress ksi
Fcre critical stress calculated using expected yield stress ksi
Fy specified minimum yield stress ksi
Fyb specified minimum yield stress of beam ksi
Fyc specified minimum yield stress of column ksi
Fu specified minimum tensile strength ksi
I moment of inertia in4
Ib moment of inertia of a horizontal boundary element in4
Ic moment of inertia of a vertical boundary element in4

250 Seismic Design of Steel Structures
K effective length factor –

L live load due to occupancy and moveable equipment kips
L length of column in
L length of brace in
L distance between vertical boundary element centerlines in
Lb unbraced length in
Lcf clear distance between column flanges in
Lh distance between beam plastic hinge locations in
Ma required flexural strength, using ASD load combinations kip-in
Mf maximum probable moment at the column face kip-in
Mp plastic bending moment kip-in
Mp plastic bending moment of a link kip-in
Mp,exp expected flexural strength kip-in
Mpr maximum probable moment at the location of the plastic hinge kip-in
Mr required flexural strength kip-in
Mu required flexural strength, using LRFD load combinations kip-in
My yield moment corresponding to yielding of the member in flexure kip-in
Pa required axial strength using ASD load combinations kips
Pc available axial strength kips
Pn nominal axial compressive strength kips
Pr required axial compressive strength kips
Pu required axial strength using LRFD load combinations kips
Py axial yield strength kips
Pysc axial yield strength of steel core kips
QE effect of horizontal seismic forces kips, kip-in
R seismic response modification coefficient –
Ra required tensile strength using ASD load combinations kips
Rn nominal strength kips
Rt ratio of the expected tensile strength to the specified minimum tensile strength –

Chapter 3 251
Ry ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield stress –
S snow load kips
SDS design spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second ft/sec2
Sh hinge location distance from face of column in
Va required shear strength using ASD load combinations kips
Vn nominal shear strength of link kips
Vp plastic shear strength of a link kips
Vr required shear strength using LRFD or ASD load combinations kips
Vu required shear strength using LRFD load combinations kips
Vy shear yield strength kips
Z plastic section modulus about the axis of bending in3
Zc plastic section modulus of column about the axis of bending in3
bbf width of beam flange in
bf width of flange in
d overall depth of beam in
d overall depth of link in
d* distance between centroids of beam flanges in
e length of link in
h clear distance between flanges less the fillet for rolled shapes in
h distance between horizontal boundary element centerlines in
ho distance between flange centroids in
r governing radius of gyration in
sh hinge location distance from center of column in
t thickness of column web or individual doubler plate in
tbf thickness of beam flange in
tf thickness of flange in
tw thickness of web in
tw web-plate thickness in
wz width of panel zone between column flanges in

Symbols
αs force level adjustment factor 5 1.0 for LRFD and 1.5 for ASD –
β compressive strength adjustment factor –
γtotal total link rotation angle rad
Δ design story drift in
Δb total brace axial deformation for the brace test specimen in
θ story drift angle rad
λhd slenderness parameter for highly ductile compression elements –
λmd slenderness parameter for moderately ductile compression elements –
f resistance factor –
fc resistance factor for compression –
fv resistance factor for shear –
w strain hardening adjustment factor –
Ωc safety factor –
Ωc safety factor for compression –
Ω0 system overstrength factor –
3.1 General design requirements

In accordance with IBC1 Section 2205.2, steel building structures assigned to seismic design category
D, E, or F must be designed and detailed as specified by AISC 341.2 In accordance with IBC Section
2205.2.2, steel building structures assigned to seismic design category B or C may also be designed
and detailed as specified by AISC 341. In this case, the seismic loads are computed using the response
modification coefficient, R, given in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1.3 However, in accordance with IBC Section
2205.2.1.1, steel building structures assigned to seismic design category B or C, with the exception of
cantilever column systems, may be designed and detailed as specified by AISC 360.4 In this case, the
seismic loads are computed using a response modification coefficient of R 5 3, and this alternative
may often result in a more economical structure. For seismic design category A, special detailing is not
required and steel building structures may be designed and detailed as specified by AISC 360.

Chapter 3 253
3.2 Material strength and ductility

Structural steels used in seismic applications must exhibit the following characteristics:
• a pronounced stress-strain plateau at the yield stress
• a large inelastic strain capability
• good weldability
Elements of the structural system that undergo extremely large plastic rotations in excess of 0.04
radians under the design earthquake are designated as highly ductile members. These members have
severe restrictions placed on their width-to-thickness ratios to prevent local buckling as plastic hinges
develop. An example of this is the link in an eccentrically braced frame. As shown in Figure 3-1,
inelastic action occurs primarily in the link, and the remaining members in the system remain essen-
tially elastic.
Plastic
hinge
Link
Figure 3-1 Eccentrically braced frame
Elements of the structural system that undergo moderate plastic rotations not exceeding 0.02 radians
under the design earthquake are designated as moderately ductile members. These members have less
restrictive limits placed on their width-to-thickness ratios. An example of this is the diagonal brace in
an eccentrically braced frame. As shown in Figure 3-1, the link serves as a fuse to limit the load trans-
ferred to the diagonal braces, which are designed to remain essentially elastic without the possibility
of buckling and are designed, as specified in AISC 341 Section F3.5a, as moderately ductile members.
As specified in AISC 341 Section F3.5b(1), the link is designed as a highly ductile member.
The diagonal braces in a special concentrically braced frame with chevron configuration, as shown
in Figure 3-2, act as the fuses in the system. Inelastic action occurs primarily in the braces and, as
specified in AISC 341 Section F2.5a, these are designed as highly ductile members. Beams remain
essentially elastic and are designed as moderately ductile members.
In order to prevent local buckling in elements that undergo large plastic deformations, stringent width-
to-thickness ratio limits are specified for highly ductile elements. Values of limiting width-to-thickness
ratios for moderately ductile compression members, lmd , and highly ductile compression members, lhd ,
are tabulated in AISC 341 Table D1.1 and are given in Table 3-1 for the more commonly used sections.

•
•
•
Plastic
hinges
Figure 3-2 Buckled compression brace
Table 3-1 Limiting width-to-thickness ratios
Width-to- Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

thickness
Element ratio Moderately ductile, lmd Highly ductile, lhd
Round HSS used as

D/t 0.062E/Ry Fy 0.053E/Ry Fy
diagonal bracesa
Rectangular HSS used
b/t 0.76(E/Ry Fy)0.5 0.65(E/Ry Fy)0.5
as diagonal braces
Rectangular HSS used
b/t 1.18(E/Ry Fy)0.5 0.65(E/Ry Fy)0.5
in beams or columns
Angles b/t 0.40(E/RyFy)0.5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5
Flanges of I-shaped
b/t 0.40(E/Ry Fy)0.5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5
members and channels
3.96(1 2 3.04Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5 2.57(1 2 1.04Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5
Webs of I-shaped sec- . . . for Ca ≤ 0.114 . . . for Ca ≤ 0.114
tions used as beams or h/tw 1.29(2.12 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5 0.88(2.68 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5
columnsb ≥ 1.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5 ≥ 1.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5
. . . for Ca . 0.114 . . . for Ca . 0.114
Webs of I-shaped sec-
tions used as diagonal h/tw 1.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5 1.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5
braces
Ca 5 Pu /fc Py . . . LRFD, Ca 5 Wc Pa /Py . . . ASD, SMF 5 special moment frames, IMF 5 intermediate moment frames
a. The limiting diameter-to-thickness ratio of round HSS members used as beams or columns shall not exceed 0.077E/Ry Fy.
b. For I-shaped beams in SMF systems, where Ca is less than or equal to 0.114, the limiting ratio h/tw shall not exceed 2.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5.
For I-shaped beams in IMF systems, where Ca is less than or equal to 0.114, the limiting width-to-thickness ratio shall not exceed
3.96(E/Ry Fy)0.5.

Chapter 3 255
3.3 Capacity design and expected material strength

For the design of some elements, a capacity design, or capacity-limited, approach is adopted. One ele-
ment of the system is designated as the yielding element, or structural fuse. The remaining elements in
the system are designed to remain elastic for the anticipated force developed in the yielding element.
An example of this is the link in an eccentrically braced frame. As shown in Figure 3-1, yielding
occurs at the ends of the link and a mechanism is formed. Forces in the remaining elements of the
system are obtained by removing the link and applying the gravity loads and link-induced loads to the
remaining structure. The remaining beams and columns are designed to resist the force produced in
the link so as to remain essentially elastic.
ASCE 7 Section C12.4.3.2 describes the basis of the capacity design method as the expected strength
of one or more elements in a structure being used to generate the required strength for other elements,
because the yielding of the former limits the forces delivered to the latter.
Steel sections invariably have a yield stress and a tensile strength greater than the specified minimum
values. An accurate estimate of the link strength at yield is required and this requires an accurate esti-
mate of the expected yield stress and tensile strength. Then,
expected yield stress 5 Ry Fy
expected tensile strength 5 Rt Fu
where: Ry 5 ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield strength
Rt 5 ratio of the expected tensile strength to the specified minimum tensile
strength
Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel used
Fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel used
Values of Ry and Rt are tabulated in AISC 341 Table A3.1 and are given in Table 3-2 for the more com-
monly used steels.
Table 3-2 Values of Ry and Rt
Application Grade Fy Fu Ry Rt
A36 36 58 1.5 1.2

Hot-rolled structural shapes
A992 50 65 1.1 1.1
and bars
A572 Grade 50 50 65 1.1 1.1
A500 Grade C, rectangular 50 62 1.3 1.2
Hollow structural sections
A500 Grade C, round 46 62 1.3 1.2
Pipes A53 Grade B 35 60 1.6 1.2
A36 36 58 1.3 1.2
Plates, strips, and sheets
A572 Grade 50 50 65 1.1 1.2

The factors Ry and Rt are applied only in the determination of the force developed in the designated
member at yield and not in the determination of the required capacity of other members in the system.
The required strength of the designated member is determined by elastic analysis methods for the pre-
scribed load combinations. In determining the required capacity of other elements in the system, nei-
ther the resistance factor, used in the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method, nor the safety
factor, used in the allowable stress design (ASD) method, is applied to the strength of the designated
yielding member.
Table 3-3 lists the ductility requirements for a number of bracing systems.
Table 3-3 Ductility requirements
System Highly ductile Moderately ductile
Ordinary concentrically braced frames

Diagonal braces 
Special concentrically braced frames
Diagonal braces 
Beams 
Columns 
Eccentrically braced frames
Diagonal braces 
Columns 
Link beams 
Beams outside the link 
Special moment frames
Beams 
Columns 
Buckling-restrained braced frames
Beams 
Columns 
3.4 Demand critical welds

Welds that are located in a joint subjected to high stress demands, the failure of which would result in
the severe degradation of the structure, are designated as demand critical. These welds must be made

Chapter 3 257
with filler metals that have twice the Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness values of filler metals com-
monly used. An example of demand critical welds is the groove welds at column splices in a special
concentrically braced frame. The actual stresses that occur at a column splice during a severe earth-
quake are not known with any certitude since the location of points of inflection in the column cannot
be reliably predicted. Failure of a column splice may lead to catastrophic failure of the system so a
conservative design approach is justified.
3.5 Protected zones

Discontinuities introduced into plastic hinge zones produce stress concentrations that may lead to frac-
ture. For this reason, discontinuities are prohibited in some areas of the seismic-force-resisting system.
The discontinuities that are prohibited are listed in AISC 341 Section I2.1 and consist of:
• holes, tack welds, erection aids, air-arc gouging, and unspecified thermal cutting
• steel-headed stud anchors and decking attachments that penetrate the beam flange; arc spot
welds as required to secure decking are permitted
• welded, bolted, screwed or shot-in attachments for perimeter edge angles, exterior facades,
partitions, duct work, piping, or other construction
The protected zones for a special concentrically braced frame are defined in AISC 341 Section F2.5c
and are shown in Figure 3-3.
4
L/
L
Figure 3-3 Protected zones for a special concentrically braced frame

3.6 Loads and load combinations

For LRFD, the prescribed load combinations given in ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 are

L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load
(12.4-3)
5 rQE
(12.4-4a)
5 0.2SDSD
be written as
(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 0.5L 1 0.2S . . . for live load ≤ 100 lb/ft2
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, load combination 7 is applicable, which is
(0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
The amplified seismic loads are given by load combinations 6 and 7 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6, which
are
(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE 1 0.5L 1 0.2S . . . for live load ≤ 100 lb/ft2
(0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 W0QE

Chapter 3 259
where: W0 5 overstrength factor given in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1

W0QE 5 Emh
5 effect of horizontal seismic forces, including overstrength
For some structural systems, the value of Emh is defined in AISC 341, and this is substituted in the
previous equations after multiplying by 1.0 for LRFD load combinations.
For ASD, the prescribed load combinations are given in ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5. Where the effects of
gravity and seismic loads are additive, load combinations 8 and 9 are applicable, which are

(1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525rQE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S . . . combination 9
The amplified seismic loads are given by load combinations 8, 9, and 10 of ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5,
which are
(1.0 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7 W0QE

(1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525 W0QE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S
(0.6 2 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7W0QE
W0QE 5 Emh
5 effect of horizontal seismic forces, including overstrength
For some structural systems, the value of Emh is defined in AISC 341, and this is substituted in the
above equations.
3.7 Concentrically braced frames

Chevron bracing, X bracing, K bracing, diagonal bracing, two-story X bracing, and zipper column
bracing are classified as concentrically braced frames5, 6, 7 and are shown in Figure 3-4. The bracing
members of a concentrically braced frame act as a truss system to resist lateral forces and are subjected
primarily to axial stress in the elastic range. During a severe earthquake, the bracing members and their
connections may undergo significant inelastic deformations into the post-buckling range and are sub-
ject to cyclic tension and compression. Cyclic rotations occur at plastic hinges, and bracing members
and their connections are specially detailed to avoid premature failure.

Figure 3-4 Concentrically braced frames
Concentrically braced frames are subdivided into two categories: ordinary concentrically braced
frames and special concentrically braced frames. Special concentrically braced frames are used where
significant ductility is required. Ordinary concentrically braced frames are designed for a relatively
higher load, using a lower value of the response modification factor, to obviate the need for significant
ductility in the system.
Inelastic deformation and buckling of K bracing members may produce lateral deflection of the con-
nected columns, causing instability and collapse. For concentrically braced frames, K bracing is not
allowed.
As shown in Figure 3-2, chevron or V bracing that is loaded in the inelastic range may cause large
unbalanced forces in the horizontal floor beam as the compressive strength of a bracing member dete-
riorates rapidly with reversing load cycles. For this reason, AISC 341 Section F1.4a requires that the
intersecting beam, in an ordinary concentrically braced frame, be designed for the unbalanced vertical
force produced. The two-story X bracing configuration and the zipper column configuration eliminate
the unbalanced force.
In accordance with AISC 341 Commentary Section F2.4d, tension-only bracing is allowed for ordi-
nary concentrically braced frames but not for special concentrically braced frames.
3.8 Ordinary concentrically braced frames

Ordinary concentrically braced frames, as specified in AISC 341 Section F1, may be utilized in build-
ing frame systems in all seismic design categories, with the exception of F, using a value of 3.25 for the
response modification coefficient and a value of 2.0 for the overstrength factor. As specified in ASCE
7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height in seismic design categories A, B, and
C. The maximum height permitted in seismic design categories D and E is 35 feet. An exception is
permitted in seismic design categories D, E, and F for single-story buildings up to a height of 60 feet
where the dead load of the roof does not exceed 20 pounds per square foot.

Chapter 3 261
Ordinary concentrically braced frames may not be utilized in dual systems with moment frames.
In accordance with AISC 341 Commentary Section F1.3, ordinary concentrically braced frames are
designed with a low R factor so as to remain essentially elastic under a seismic event and preclude
the need for significant ductility of the system. Diagonal braces are required to be moderately ductile
members with no ductility conditions imposed on the other members in the system. No protected
zones are specified.
To reduce the likelihood of buckling causing large unbalanced forces in the floor beam, AISC 341
Section F1.5b requires bracing members in a chevron configuration to be designed with a slenderness
ratio not exceeding
KL/r 5 4(E/Fy)0.5
where: K 5 effective length factor
L 5 length of the bracing member
r 5 governing radius of gyration
The required values of KL/r are given in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4 Limiting KL/r values
Fy kips/in2 KL/r
36 114
42 105
46 100
50 96
3.8.1 Diagonal braces
To determine the design force in a diagonal brace, the design seismic loads and the factored gravity
loads are applied to the frame as shown in Figure 3-5. The frame is analyzed as a vertical pin-jointed
truss and, ignoring gravity loads, the force in a brace in the bottom story is obtained as
FB 5 (F1 1 F2)/2cos q

F2
θ
F1 (1.2 + 0.2SDS)D + 0.5L
FB FB
Figure 3-5 Design of brace
The brace undergoes only moderate inelastic demands and AISC 341 Section F1.5a designates the
brace as a moderately ductile member. Moderately ductile members have less restrictive limits placed
on their width-to-thickness ratios. In tension-only frames, braces with slenderness ratios exceeding
200 need not comply with this requirement.
3.8.2 Beams in chevron configuration
As shown in Figure 3-2, the post-elastic behavior of the braces in a chevron configuration produces
a large, unbalanced force on the beam. Because of this, AISC 341 Section F1.4b requires beams to
be continuous between columns. In addition, both flanges of the beam must be provided with lateral
braces at the point of intersection of the braces to ensure the stability of the beam.
In designing the beam, a capacity approach is adopted and two load distributions are checked. It is
assumed in AISC 341 Section F1.4a that the diagonal braces provide no support to the beam and that
the beam supports all gravity loads and the unbalanced brace forces shown in Figure 3-2. It is also
assumed that the compression brace has buckled and has a residual strength of
0.3Pn 5 0.3Fcr Ag
where: Ag 5 gross area of member
Fcr 5 critical stress given by AISC 360 Section E3 using the specified yield
stress Fy
Pn 5 nominal axial strength
The force in the tension brace is assumed to be the least of the following:
(i) The force developed in the brace when the amplified seismic load is applied to the system, which
is given by
RW 5 W0QE
Chapter 3 263

This produces the load distribution shown in Figure 3-6(a), and the beam is designed for the loading
condition shown in Figure 3-6(b).
Ω0F2
θ
WG WG = (1.2 + 0.2SDS)D + 0.5L
Ω0F1
RΩ 0.3Pn
RΩ 0.3Pn
(a) (b)
Figure 3-6 Design of beam for amplified seismic force
(ii) The maximum force that can be developed by the system. As shown in Figure 3-7(a), when foun-
dation uplift occurs in the system, the force in the tension brace is R and the beam is designed for
the loading condition shown in Figure 3-7(b).
WG WG = (1.2 + 0.2SDS)D + 0.5L
R 0.3Pn
R 0.3Pn
(a) (b)
Figure 3-7 Design of beam for maximum force that can be developed

3.8.3 Columns
To determine the design force in a column, the design seismic loads and the factored gravity loads are
applied to the pion-jointed truss to give the post-elastic forces shown in Figure 3-8. It is assumed that
the compression brace has buckled and has a residual strength of
0.3Pn 5 0.3Fcr Ag
The force in the tension brace is assumed to be the expected yield strength, which is given by
Ru 5 Ry Fy Ag
Then, the required column axial compressive strength is
Pr 5 (SRu 1 S0.3Pn)sin q 1 S[(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L]/2

where: [(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L] 5 total gravity load on the beam
F2
θ Ru
WG
F1 0.3Pn
Ru
0.3Pn
Figure 3-8 Design of column for post-elastic forces
3.8.4 Diagonal brace connections
Bracing connections are designed for forces of sufficient magnitude to ensure that brace yielding or
buckling will occur prior to a connection failure.
As shown in Figure 3-9, the required strength of diagonal brace connections is determined from the
load effect based on the amplified seismic load.

Chapter 3 265
Ω0F2 RΩ
θ
WG
RΩ
Ω0F1
RΩ
RΩ
Figure 3-9 Design of brace connections
Required tensile strength

In accordance with AISC 341 Section F1.6a, the required strength of the connection in tension need
not exceed the value
Ru 5 Ry Fy Ag . . . for LRFD
Ra 5 Ry Fy Ag /1.5 . . . for ASD
Required compressive strength
The required strength of the connection in compression need not exceed the lesser value of
Pu 5 Ry Fy Ag . . . for LRFD
≤ 1.10Fcre Ag
Pa 5 Ry Fy Ag /1.5 . . . for ASD
≤ 1.10Fcre Ag /1.5
Fcre 5 critical stress determined using the expected yield stress Ry Fy
Where KL/r ≤ 4.71(E/Ry Fy)0.5 or Ry Fy /Fe ≤ 2.25, AISC 360 Equation (E3-2) governs and the critical
stress is
Fcre 5 (0.658k)Ry Fy
where: k 5 RyFy /Fe
Fe 5 elastic critical buckling stress
5 p2E/(KL/r)2 . . . from AISC 360 Equation (E3-4)
≥ Ry Fy /2.25
Where KL/r . 4.71(E/Ry Fy)0.5 or Ry Fy /Fe . 2.25, AISC 360 Equation (E3-3) governs and the critical
stress is
Fcre 5 0.877Fe

The brace length used for the determination of Fcre must not exceed the distance from brace end to
brace end.
When oversized holes are used, the available slip resistance of the connection need not exceed the
force in the connection determined from the design seismic loads, not including the amplified seismic
load. Bolt slip does not constitute connection failure and the associated energy dissipation can serve
to reduce seismic response.
Example 3-1
The two-story ordinary concentrically braced steel frame shown in Figure 3-10 forms part of the
building frame system of a structure in seismic design category D with a redundancy factor of 1.0 and
a design response acceleration of SDS 5 1.0g. The loads acting on the brace in the bottom story are
dead load, D 5 20 kips
live load, L 5 10 kips
design seismic force, QE 5 90 kips
Determine a suitable steel A53 pipe section for the brace in the bottom story.
Solution
Factored loads
The factored design load on the brace is given by load combination 7 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 as
Put 5 (0.9 2 0.2 SDS)D 1 rQE

5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 1.0)20 2 1.0 3 90
5 276 kips, tension

Chapter 3 267
The factored design load on the brace is given by load combination 6 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 as
Puc 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L 1 rQE 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 1.0)20 1 0.5 3 10 1 1.0 3 90 1 0.2 3 0
5 123 kips, compression . . . governs
Select section
The diagonal length of the brace, between workpoints, is
l 5 H/sin q
5 14/sin 45°
5 19.80 ft
Allowing for a connection length at each end of 2 feet, the actual brace length is
L 5 19.8 2 4.0
5 15.8 ft
The effective length factor for the brace, assuming hinged ends, is given by AISC 360 Table C–A-7.1,
item (d), as
K 5 1.0
The effective length of the brace is
KL 5 15.8 ft
The design strength in axial compression is defined in AISC 360 Section E3 as fcPn and is given by
AISC 360 Equation (E3-1) as
fc Pn 5 fc Ag Fcr
where: fc 5 resistance factor for compression
5 0.90
Ag 5 gross area of member
Fcr 5 critical stress
Pn 5 nominal axial compressive strength
From AISC Manual8 Table 4-6, select a steel pipe 6 XS, which has a design strength in axial compres-
sion, for an effective length of 15.8 feet, of
fc Pn 5 169 kips
. Puc . . . satisfactory

Member properties
The section properties of a steel pipe 6 XS are given in AISC Manual Table 4-6 and Table 1-14 as
A 5 7.83 in2
r 5 2.20 in
t 5 0.403 in
D 5 6.63 in
Fy 5 35 ksi
Fu 5 60 ksi
The ratio of expected yield stress to specified minimum yield strength is
Ry 5 1.6 . . . from Table 3-2
Local buckling
The diameter-to-thickness ratio of a moderately ductile pipe section is limited by AISC 341 Table
D1.1, as shown in Table 3-1, to a maximum value of
D/t 5 lmd
5 0.062E/Ry Fy
5 0.062 3 29,000/(1.6 3 35) . . . from Table 3-2
5 32.1
The actual diameter-to-thickness ratio is
D/t 5 6.63/0.403
5 16.5
, lmd . . . satisfactory
Slenderness ratio
AISC 341 Section F1.5b requires bracing members in a chevron configuration to be designed with a
slenderness ratio not exceeding
KL/r 5 4.0(E/Fy)0.5
5 4.0(29,000/35)0.5
5 115

Chapter 3 269
The actual slenderness ratio is
KL/r 5 15.8 3 12/2.20

5 86
Hence, the steel pipe 6 XS brace satisfies all requirements.
3.9 Special concentrically braced frames

Special concentrically braced frames, as specified in AISC 341 Section F2, may be utilized in building
frame systems in all seismic design categories using a value of 6 for the response modification coeffi-
cient and a value of 2.0 for the overstrength factor. As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation
is imposed on the building height in seismic design categories A, B, and C. The maximum height per-
mitted in seismic design categories D and E is 160 feet, and in seismic design category F, it is 100 feet.
Special concentrically braced frames may be utilized in dual systems with special moment frames in
all seismic design categories. In accordance with ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on
the building height, and a value of 7 is used for the response modification coefficient and a value of
2.5 for the overstrength factor.
Special concentrically braced frames may be utilized in dual systems with intermediate moment
frames, in all seismic design categories with the exceptions of E and F, using a value of 6 for the
response modification coefficient and a value of 2.5 for the overstrength factor. As specified in ASCE
7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height in seismic design categories A, B, and
C. The maximum height permitted in seismic design category D is 35 feet.
Special concentrically braced frames provide inelastic deformation capacity by brace buckling and
yielding of the brace in tension. In the elastic range, the frame behaves essentially as a vertical truss
with members subjected to axial load. In a severe earthquake, the diagonal bracing members undergo
significant inelastic deformation in the post-elastic range and provide a stable and ductile response.
Diagonal braces can sustain large inelastic cyclic deformations, as long as brittle failure due to local
buckling is prevented by limiting width-to-thickness ratios and connection failures are prevented.
Figure 3-11 shows a diagonal bracing configuration in which the story shear at every story is resisted
by braces oriented in a single direction. Since the post-buckling strength of a brace is considerably
less than its tensile strength, there is an accumulation of inelastic drift in the direction corresponding

Figure 3-11 Bracing aligned in one direction
to compression in the braces (to the left in Figure 3-11). After several cycles of inelastic deformation,
this produces excessive lateral deflection and possible instability. To prevent this, AISC 341 Section
F2.4a requires that the sum of neither the horizontal components of the compressive member forces
nor the horizontal components of the tensile member forces, along any line of bracing, shall exceed
70 percent of the total horizontal force along that line. This requirement is relaxed provided that the
braces are designed to resist the forces produced by the amplified seismic force applied to the frame.
3.9.1 Capacity design basis
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.3, the required strength of columns, beams, and connec-
tions is determined from the amplified seismic load where Emh , the effect of horizontal seismic forces
including overstrength, is replaced by the greater force determined from:
• an analysis in which all braces are assumed to have reached their maximum forces correspond-
ing to their expected strength in compression or in tension (i.e., all braces have reached their
maximum forces)
• an analysis in which all braces in tension are assumed to have reached their maximum forces
corresponding to their expected strength and all braces in compression are assumed to have
reached their post-buckling strength (i.e., tension braces have reached their maximum force
and compression braces their post-buckling force)
The expected brace strength in tension is
Ru 5 Ry Fy Ag
where: Ry 5 ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield strength
Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel used
Ag 5 gross area of section

Chapter 3 271
The expected brace strength in compression is
Pu 5 1.14Fcre Ag
≤ Ry Fy Ag
where: Fcre 5 critical stress given by AISC 360 Section E3 using the expected yield stress
Ry Fy in lieu of Fy
stress is
where: k 5 Ry Fy /Fe
≥ Ry Fy /2.25
stress is
Fcre 5 0.877Fe
The expected post-buckling strength of the compression brace is
0.3Pn 5 0.3Fcr Ag
where: Fcr 5 critical stress given by AISC 360 Section E3 using the normal value of Fy
A conservative value of
0.3Fcr 5 2.1 kips/in2
may be assumed as this is the value for a brace with the maximum permitted slenderness ratio of 200.
brace end. Braces shall be determined to be in compression or tension, neglecting the effects of gravity
loads.
3.9.2 Diagonal braces
To determine the design force in a diagonal brace, the design seismic loads and the factored gravity
loads are applied to the frame, as shown in Figure 3-5.

The brace undergoes large inelastic cyclic deformation demands with plastic hinges forming at the
center and ends of the compression brace. Hence, to prevent local buckling, AISC 341 Section F2.5a
designates the brace as a highly ductile member with severe restrictions on the width-to-thickness
ratio, as indicated in AISC 341 Table D1.1 or in Table 3-1 for the more commonly used sections.
The brace slenderness ratio is limited to a maximum value of
KL/r 5 200
To ensure a ductile response and prevent net section rupture of the brace at the connection, the brace
effective net area must not be less than the brace gross area. This typically requires the connection
of reinforcement at the ends of the brace. In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.5b(c), the speci-
fied minimum yield strength of the reinforcement may not be less than the specified minimum yield
strength of the brace. In addition, the connection of the reinforcement to the brace shall have sufficient
strength to develop the expected reinforcement strength on each side of the reduced section.
As specified in AISC 341 Section F2.5c and shown in Figure 3-3, the protected zones for braces extend
over the center one-quarter of the brace length and adjacent to each connection for a length equal to
the brace depth in the plane of buckling.
K-braced frames are not permitted in special concentrically braced frames. In accordance with AISC
341 Section 2.4d, tension-only frames are not permitted in special concentrically braced frames.
In order to prevent individual buckling of elements in built-up bracing members, stitch spacing closer
than normal is required.
As specified in AISC 341 Section F2.5b(b), a minimum of two stitches is required and bolted stitches
may not be located within the central quarter of the clear brace length. The total design shear strength
of the stitches shall be at least equal to the design tensile strength of each element. The slenderness
ratio of the individual members between stitches may not exceed 40 percent of the governing slender-
ness ratio of the built-up member.
Example 3-2
The three-story special concentrically braced steel frame shown in Figure 3-12 forms part of the build-
ing frame system of a structure in seismic design category D with a redundancy factor of 1.0 and a
design response acceleration of SDS 5 1.0. The loads acting on the brace in the bottom story are
design seismic force, QE 5 90 kips
Determine a suitable steel hollow structural section for the brace in the bottom story.

Chapter 3 273
Figure 3-12 Details for Examples 3-2 through 3-5
Solution
Factored loads
The factored design loads on the brace are given by
Puc 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 0.5L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 1.0)20 1 1.0 3 90 1 0.5 3 10 1 0.2 3 0
5 123 kips, compression
and Put 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 1.0)20 2 1.0 3 90
5 276 kips, tension
Select section
The diagonal length of the brace, between workpoints, is
l 5 H/sin q
5 14/sin 45°
5 19.80 ft
Allowing for a connection length at each end of 2 feet, the actual brace length is
L 5 19.8 2 4.0
5 15.8 ft

The effective length factor for the brace, assuming hinged ends, is given by AISC 360 Table C–A-7.1,
item (d), as
K 5 1.0
KL 5 15.8 ft
Second order effects are negligible and may be neglected.
From AISC Manual Table 4-5, select an A500 Grade C HSS 6.625 3 0.280, which has a design
strength in axial compression, for an effective length of 15.8 feet, and a yield stress of Fy 5 46 ksi, of
fc Pn 5 134 kips
Member properties
The section properties of an A500 Grade C HSS 6.625 3 0.280 are given in AISC Manual Table 4-5
and Table 1-13 as
Ag 5 5.20 in2
r 5 2.25 in
t 5 0.26 in
5 design wall thickness
D/t 5 25.5 in
Fy 5 46 ksi
Fu 5 62 ksi
Ry 5 1.3
Rt 5 1.2
Local buckling
The diameter-to-thickness ratio of a highly ductile, round hollow section is limited by Table 3-1 to a
maximum value of
D/t 5 0.053E/Ry Fy
5 0.053 3 29,000/(1.3 3 46)
5 25.7

Chapter 3 275
The actual diameter-to-thickness ratio is
D/t 5 25.5
Slenderness ratio
AISC 341 Section F2.5b(a) requires bracing members in a chevron configuration to be designed with
a slenderness ratio not exceeding
KL/r 5 200
KL/r 5 15.8 3 12/2.25

5 84.3
Hence, the HSS 6.625 3 0.280 brace satisfies all requirements.
3.9.3 Diagonal brace connections
Required tensile strength
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.6c.1(a), the required strength of the connection in tension is
not less than the expected yield strength of the brace, which is
where: Ag 5 area of the brace
However, the required strength in tension need not exceed the maximum force that can be transferred
to the brace by the system.
Required compressive strength
The required strength of the connection in compression is given by AISC 341 Section F2.6c.2 as
Pu 5 Ry Fy Ag . . . for LRFD
≤ 1.14Fcre Ag
Pa 5 Ry Fy Ag /1.5 . . . for ASD
≤ 1.14Fcre Ag /1.5

stress is
where: k 5 Ry Fy /Fe
≥ Ry Fy /2.25
stress is
Fcre 5 0.877Fe
brace end.
When oversized holes are used, the available slip resistance of the connection need not exceed the
force in the connection determined from the design seismic loads, including the amplified seismic
load. Bolt slip does not constitute connection failure and the associated energy dissipation can serve
to reduce seismic response.
Accommodation of brace buckling
Brace connections are subject to severe stress reversals due to the cyclic buckling of the diagonal
braces. To prevent fracture of the connection resulting from brace rotations, bracing connections must
have either sufficient strength to confine inelastic rotation to the bracing member or sufficient ductility
to accommodate brace end rotations. For brace buckling in the plane of the gusset plates, the end con-
nections should be designed to resist the expected flexural strength of the brace, which is
M 5 Ry Fy Zb . . . for LRFD
5 Ry Fy Zb /1.5 . . . for ASD
where: Zb 5 plastic section modulus of the brace
For brace buckling out of the plane of single plate gussets, weak-axis bending in the gusset is invoked
by restraint-free member end rotation. The brace is terminated on the gusset plate a minimum of twice
the gusset plate thickness from a line about which the gusset plate can bend unrestrained by the col-
umn or beam. This is shown in Figure 3-13.
The interface forces at a gusset plate may be determined by the uniform force method.8, 9 Using this
method, equilibrium is achieved at a bracing connection by means of linear forces at the interface and
without any moments. The design of the gusset plate is facilitated by using the Whitmore construc-
tion,8, 10 which determines the effective section resisting the applied forces from the brace. As shown

Chapter 3 277
Figure 3-13 Gusset plate requirements
in Figure 3-14, two lines inclined at 30 degrees to the direction of the tensile force are drawn from the
first connectors in the bolt group to a line drawn through the last line of connectors to establish the
length of the Whitmore section. The design capacity of the gusset plate in tension yielding is deter-
mined using the area of the Whitmore section.
Figure 3-14 Whitmore section

Example 3-3
The three-story special concentrically braced steel frame shown in Figure 3-12 forms part of the
building frame system of a structure in seismic design category D with a redundancy factor of 1.0. The
braces in all stories are identical.
Determine a suitable thickness for the grade A36 gusset plate on the second floor beam shown in Fig-
ure 3-15 and the size of fillet weld required.
8
60
Solution
Brace expected yield stress
The minimum required tensile strength of the gusset plate, in accordance with AISC 341 Section
F2.6c.1(a), must not be less than the expected yield strength of the A500 Grade C HSS 6.625 3 0.280
brace, determined as
Ru 5 Ry Fy Ag
5 1.3 3 46 3 5.20
5 311 kips

Chapter 3 279
Fillet weld design
For design purposes, it is convenient to determine the design strength of a 1⁄16-inch fillet weld per inch
run of E70XX grade electrodes, which is given by
qu 5 fFw te
5 0.75 3 0.6 3 70 3 0.707 3 1⁄16
5 1.39 kips per inch per 1⁄16 inch
If D denotes the number of 1⁄16 inch in weld size, the design capacity of a weld is
Qu 5 Dqu kips/in
5 1.39D kips/in
The total length of weld provided on the brace is obtained from Figure 3-15 as
L 5 4 3 17
5 68 in
The required fillet weld size per 1⁄16 inch is
Ru 5 max strength of brace

5 max force on connection
5 Pu
D 5 Pu /Lqu
5 311/(68 3 1.39)
5 3.3 sixteenths
The required weld size is
w 5 1⁄4 in . . . to the nearest 1⁄16 in
For this weld size, the maximum thickness of the gusset plate is limited by AISC 360 Table J2.4 to
tg 5 3⁄4 in
. 1⁄2 in . . . satisfactory
Select a 1⁄2-inch-thick gusset plate.

Base metal thickness

The design shear rupture capacity of a plate is given by AISC 360 Equation (J4-4) as
Qb 5 fFBM t
5 0.75 3 0.60Fu t
5 0.45Fu t kips/in
5 1.39D kips/in
Hence, to develop the full capacity of the weld, for welds on one side only of a plate, the minimum
required plate thickness is
t 5 1.39D/0.45Fu
5 3.09D/Fu
To develop the full capacity of the weld, for welds on both sides of a plate, the minimum required plate
thickness is
t 5 6.18D/Fu
Hence, using A36 steel with a tensile strength of 58 kips per square inch (ksi), the minimum thickness
of gusset plate to develop the full strength of the 1⁄4-inch fillet welds opposite to each other on both
sides of the plate is
tg 5 6.18 3 4/58
5 0.43 in
Hence, a 1⁄2-inch-thick gusset plate is adequate.
Using an A500 Grade C HSS brace with a tensile strength of 62 kips per square inch, the minimum
wall thickness of the brace to develop the full strength of the 1⁄4-inch fillet welds on one side only of
the brace is
t 5 3.09 3 4/62
5 0.20 in
Hence, the wall thickness of the brace of 0.26 inch is adequate.
Brace tension rupture limit state
The brace selected in Example 3-2 is an HSS 6.625 3 0.280. As shown in Figure 3-15, a slot is cut in
the end of the brace that is fitted over the gusset plate and welded in place. To allow clearance for the
gusset plate, the slot is cut 1⁄8-inch oversize. Therefore, the net section of the brace at the slot is
As 5 A 2 2(tg 1 0.125)t
5 5.20 2 2(0.5 1 0.125) 3 0.26
5 4.88 in2

Chapter 3 281
In order to reinforce the end of the brace, two sections of an HSS 7.000 3 0.188 are welded to the
brace as shown in Figure 3-16. The inside diameter of the HSS 7.000 3 0.188 is 6.624 inches and this
matches the outside diameter of the HSS 6.625 3 0.280 brace. From the dimensions shown in Figure
3-16, the chord length of the reinforcement is
c 5 3.5 in
HSS 7.000 × 0.188 reinforcement
c = 3.5 in
HSS 6.625 × 0.280 brace
Figure 3-16 Reinforcement for brace
The design wall thickness of the HSS 7.000 3 0.188 reinforcement is
tr 5 0.174 in
The radius of curvature at the center line of the reinforcement is
Rr 5(D 1 tr)/2
5 (6.625 1 0.174)/2
5 3.40 in
The angle subtended by the chord c at the center of the brace is
q 5 2sin21(c/2Rr)
5 2sin21(3.5/6.80)
5 62°
The arc length of the reinforcement is
s 5 Rrq
5 2pRrq/360
5 2 3 3.14 3 3.40 3 62/360
5 3.68 in

The area of the reinforcement is
Ar 5 2str
5 2 3 3.68 3 0.174
5 1.28 in2
The total net area of the brace plus reinforcement at the gusset plate is
An 5 Ar 1 As
5 1.28 1 4.88
5 6.16 in2
The length of weld at the slot is l 5 17 inches, and the outside diameter of the brace plus reinforcement
is Dr 5 7 inches. Hence,
l/Dr 5 17/7
5 2.4
. 1.3
Hence, from AISC Table D3.1, the shear lag coefficient is given by
U 5 1.0
The total effective area of the brace plus reinforcement at the gusset plate is
Ae 5 UAn
5 6.16 in2
. 5.20 . . . satisfies AISC 341 Section F2.5b(c)
The factor Rt given in Table 3-2 is used to determine the expected increase in the tensile strength of the
brace. Hence, the design capacity for the tensile rupture condition of the brace is given by AISC 341
Section A3.2 as
ft Rn 5 0.75Rt Fu Ae
5 0.75 3 1.2 3 62 3 6.16
5 344 kips
. Ru . . . satisfactory
The expected yield strength of each section of the reinforcement is given by AISC 341 Section A3.2 as
Ru 5 Ry Fy Ar /2
5 1.3 3 46 3 1.28/2
5 38 kips

Chapter 3 283
To develop the full capacity of the reinforcement requires a length of 1⁄8-inch fillet weld of
L 5 Ru /1.39D
5 38/(1.39 3 2)
5 14 inches
This length is distributed on both sides of the reinforcement, and the total length of reinforcement
required is 14 inches, as shown on Figure 3-15.
Gusset plate block shear
From Figure 3-15, the gross shear area of the gusset, which equals the net shear area, is
Agv 5 2ltg
5 2 3 17 3 0.50
5 17 in2
From Figure 3-15, the net tension area of the gusset, which equals the gross tension area, is
Agt 5 Dtg
5 6.625 3 0.5
5 3.31 in2
For uniform tensile stress, the reduction coefficient is given by AISC 360 Section J4.3, as
Ubs 5 1.0
Hence, the rupture strength in tension is given by
Ubs Fu Agt 5 1.0 3 58 3 3.31

5 192 kips
The strength in shear is given by
0.6Fy Agv 5 0.6 3 36 3 17

5 367 kips
The block shear design strength is given by AISC 360 Equation (J4-5) as
fRn 5 f(0.6Fy Agv 1 Ubs Fu Agt)

5 0.75(367 1 192)
5 419 kips

Gusset plate tension yielding limit state

The length of the Whitmore section is given by
lw 5 D 1 2l tan 30°
5 6.625 1 2 3 17tan 30°
5 26 in
The design capacity of the gusset plate in tension yielding, which governs, is given by AISC 360 Sec-
tion D2 as
ftPn 5 0.9Fy lw t
5 0.9 3 36 3 26 3 0.5
5 421 kips
Gusset plate compressive strength
The radius of gyration of the gusset plate is
rg 5 tg /(12)0.5
5 0.50/3.46
5 0.145 in
The length of the gusset plate from the end of the pipe to the junction of the beam and column is
lg 5 18 in
The effective length factor for a gusset plate welded on two edges is given by11
K 5 0.5
The slenderness ratio is
Klg /rg 5 0.5 3 18/0.145
5 62
From AISC Manual Table 4-14, the design axial compressive stress for the gusset plate is
fc Fcr 5 26.5 ksi
The design compressive strength of the gusset plate is
fc Pgn 5 fc Fcr lw tg
5 26.5 3 26 3 0.5
5 345 kips

Chapter 3 285
Gusset plate design loads
From Example 3-2, the slenderness ratio of the brace is
KL/r 5 84.3
4.71(E/Ry Fy)0.5 5 4.71 3 [29,000/(1.3 3 46)]0.5
5 103.7
. KL/r . . . AISC 360 Equation (E3-2) governs
5 3.142 3 29,000/84.32
5 40.23 kips/in2
k 5 Ry Fy /Fe
5 1.3 3 46/40.23
5 1.49
Fcre 5 critical stress
5 (0.658k)Ry Fy
5 0.6581.49 3 1.3 3 46
5 32.05 kips/in2
The required compressive strength of the connection in compression is given by AISC 341 Section
F2.6c.2 as the lesser of
Pu 5 Ry Fy Ag
5 1.3 3 46 3 5.20
5 311 kips
or Pu 5 1.14Fcre Ag
5 1.14 3 32.05 3 5.20
5 190 kips . . . governs
, fc Pgn . . . satisfactory
Hence, the A36 1⁄2-inch-thick gusset plate satisfies all requirements.

3.9.4 Beams in chevron configuration
As shown in Figure 3-2, the post-elastic behavior of the braces in a chevron configuration produces
a large, unbalanced force on the beam. Because of this, AISC 341 Section F2.4b requires beams to
be continuous between columns. In addition, both flanges of the beam must be provided with lateral
braces at the point of intersection of the braces to ensure the stability of the beam. The beam is classi-
fied as a moderately ductile member and requires lateral bracing, as specified by AISC 341 Equation
(D1-2), at a maximum spacing of
Lb 5 0.19Ry E/Ry Fy
The required strength of the lateral bracing is given by AISC 360 Equation (A-6-7) as
Prb 5 0.02MrCd /ho

where: Mr 5 Ry Fy Z . . . for LRFD
Cd 5 1.0 . . . for single curvature
ho 5 distance between flange centroids
As indicated in Section 3.9.1, the beam is designed for the more critical of the two loading distribu-
tions shown in Figure 3-17(a) or (b).

Pu 5 1.14Fcre Ag . . . for LRFD

≤ Ry Fy Ag
0.3Pn 5 0.3Fcr Ag . . . for LRFD
WG WG
(a) (b)
Ru 0.3Pn Ru Pu
Figure 3-17 Beam loading

Chapter 3 287
The beam-to-column connection is specified in AISC 341 Section F2.6b as either a simple connection
with a rotation capacity of 0.025 radian or a fully restrained moment connection. If a moment connec-
tion is used, the connection must be designed to resist a moment equal to the lesser of the following:
(i) M 5 1.1Ry Fy Zb . . . for LRFD
5 1.1Ry Fy Zb /1.5 . . . for ASD
(ii) M 5 S1.1Ry Fy Zc . . . for LRFD
5 S1.1Ry Fy Zc /1.5 . . . for ASD
where: Zb 5 plastic section modulus of the beam
Zc 5 plastic section modulus of a column
Example 3-4
ing frame system of a structure in seismic design category D with a redundancy factor of 1.0. The loads
acting on the beam at the second floor are
dead load, D 5 1 kip/ft

live load, L 5 0.5 kip/ft
The braces in all stories are identical. The design response acceleration is SDS 5 1.0g.
Select a suitable W27 section, with a yield stress of 50 kips per square inch, for the beam.
Solution
Unbalanced vertical force
The unbalanced vertical force on the beam, in accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.3, is given by the
greater force determined from
(a) Qb 5 (Ry Fy Ag 2 0.3Pn)sin 45°
or
(b) Qb (Ry Fy Ag 2 Pu)sin 45°

where: Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel used in the brace
5 46 ksi . . . from Example 3-2
Ag 5 gross area of the brace
5 5.20 in2 . . . from Example 3-2

Pn 5 nominal strength of the 15.8-ft long brace in axial compression from AISC
Manual Table 4-5
5 fc Pn /fc
5 134/0.90
5 149 kips
Pu 5 expected brace strength in compression . . . from Example 3-3
5 1.14Fcre Ag
5 1.14 3 32.05 3 5.20
5 190 kips
Ry Fy Ag 5 expected yield strength of the brace
5 311 kips . . . from Example 3-3
For load case (a)
Qb 5 (311 2 0.3 3 149)0.707

5 188 kips
The factored moment on the beam is
Mu 5 (1.2D 1 0.2D 1 0.5L)l2/8 1 Qbl/4

5 (1.2 3 1.0 1 0.2 3 1.0 1 0.5 3 0.5) 3 282/8 1 188 3 28/4
5 1478 kip-ft
As shown in Figure 3-18, the factored axial load on the beam is

Pr 5 (Ry Fy Ag 1 0.3Pn)cos 45°/2
5 (311 1 0.3 3 149)0.707/2
5 126 kips
1.65 kips/ft
126 kips 126 kips

252 kips
188 kips
Figure 3-18 Post-buckling forces for Example 3-4 load case (a)

Chapter 3 289
For load case (b)
The unbalanced vertical force on the beam is
Qb 5 (Ry Fy Ag 2 Pu)sin 45°

5 (311 2 190)0.707
5 86 kips
The factored moment on the beam is
Mu 5 (1.4D 1 0.5L)l2/8 1 Qbl/4

5 (1.4 3 1.0 1 0.5 3 0.5) 3 282/8 1 86 3 28/4
5 764 kip-ft
As shown in Figure 3-19, the factored axial load on the beam is
Pr 5 (Ry Fy Ag 1 Pu)cos 45°/2

5 (311 1 190)0.707/2
5 177 kips
Load case (a) governs.
1.65 kips/ft
177 kips 177 kips

354 kips
86 kips
Figure 3-19 Forces due to expected brace compression for Example 3-4 load case (b)
Combined compression and flexure
As specified in AISC 341 Section F2.4b, the top and bottom flanges of the beam at the point of inter-
section of chevron braces are laterally supported. Ignoring the column depth, the unbraced segment
lengths about the x- and y-axes are
Lbx 5 28 ft
Lby 5 14 ft

A W27 3 146 trial section is selected and will be analyzed using AISC 360 Equations (H1-1a) or (H1-
1b) as applicable. The relevant properties of the W27 3 146 are
Ag 5 43.2 in2
I 5 5660 in4
bf /2tf 5 7.16
h/tw 5 39.4
rx 5 11.5 in
ry 5 3.20 in
fb Mp 5 1740 kip-ft
fBF 5 29.5 kips
Lp 5 11.3
KL/rx 5 1.0 3 28 3 12/11.5
5 29.2
KL/ry 5 1.0 3 14 3 12/3.20
5 52.5 . . . governs
Fb 5 50 ksi
Local buckling
The flange width-to-thickness ratio for the moderately ductile beam is limited by Table 3-1 to a max-
imum value of
bf /2tf 5 0.40(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.40[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 9.18
The actual flange width-to-thickness ratio is
bf /2tf 5 7.16
The ratio of required strength to available strength is
Ca 5 Pr /fb Py
5 126/(0.9 3 43.2 3 50)
5 0.065
, 0.114

Chapter 3 291
Hence, the web height-to-thickness ratio is limited by Table 3-1 to a maximum value of
h/tw 5 3.96(1 2 3.04Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 3.96(1 2 3.04 3 0.065)[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 73
The actual web height-to-thickness ratio is
h/tw 5 39.4
Design compressive strength
From AISC Manual Table 4-14, for KL/ry 5 52.5, the design axial compressive stress for the beam is
fc Fcr 5 36.8 ksi
The design compressive strength of the beam is
fc Pn 5 fc Fcr Ag
5 36.8 3 43.2
5 1590 kips
Pr /fcPn 5 126/1590
5 0.079
, 0.2
Hence, AISC 360 Equation (H1-1b) applies and, for bending about the x-axis only, is given by
Pr /2fc Pn 1 Mux /fb Mnx ≤ 1.0
Second-order analysis
The Euler buckling load for a braced frame is given by AISC 360 Equation (A-8-5) as
Pe1 5 p2EI/(KL)2
5 p229,000 3 5660/(28 3 12)2
5 14,335 kips
The reduction factor for a member in a braced frame, with pinned ends, subjected to transverse loading
is given by AISC 360 Appendix 8.2.1 as
Cm 5 1.0

From AISC 360 Equation (A-8-3), the multiplier to account for P-d effects is given by
B1 5 Cm /(1 2 Pr /Pe1)
5 1.0/(1 2 126/14,335)
5 1.01
For a braced frame, the required flexural strength is given by AISC 360 Equation (A-8-1) as
Mr 5 B1Mu
5 1.01 3 1478
5 1493 kip-ft
Design flexural strength
For a moment distribution on the beam that is approximately triangular, the bending coefficient depen-
dent on the moment gradient is
Cb 5 1.67
From AISC Manual Table 3-2, a W27 3 146 with an unbraced length of 14 feet has a design flexural
strength about the strong axis of
fbMnx 5 Cb[fb Mp 2 (fBF)(Lb 2 Lp)]

5 1.67[1740 2 29.5(14 2 11.3)]
5 2773 kip-ft
The maximum permitted value is
fb Mp 5 1740 kip-ft
Interaction equation
The left side of AISC 360 Equation (H1-1b) is
Pr /2fc Pn 1 Mr /fb Mnx

5 0.079/2 1 1493/1740
5 0.90
Hence, the W27 3 146 beam is adequate.

Chapter 3 293
3.9.5 Columns
Columns are designated in AISC 341 Section F2.5a as highly ductile members.
As indicated in AISC 341 Section F2.6a, welds at a column splice are subjected to high stress demands
and are designated as demand critical, as are welds at column-to-base plate connections and beam-to-
column connections. In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.6d, welds at a splice must be complete
joint-penetration groove welds, and the splice is designed to develop at least 50 percent of the lesser
available flexural strength of the connected columns. The required shear strength of the joint is
Vr 5 SFy Zc /Hc . . . for LRFD

5 SFy Zc /1.5Hc . . . for ASD
where: Zc 5 plastic section modulus of a column
SFy Zc 5 sum of the nominal plastic flexural strengths of the columns above and
below the splice
Hc 5 clear height of the column between beam connections
As specified in AISC 341 Section D2.5a, column splices must be located at least 4 feet from the beam-
to-column connection.
As indicated in AISC 341 Section F2.3, the column is designed for the more critical of the two loading
distributions shown in Figure 3-20(a) or (b) for an X-braced frame.
Pu 5 1.14Fcre Ag . . . for LRFD

≤ Ry Fy Ag
Pa 5 1.14Fcre Ag /1.5 . . . for ASD
≤ Ry Fy Ag /1.5
0.3Pn 5 0.3Fcr Ag . . . for LRFD

5 0.3Fcr Ag /1.5 . . . for ASD
brace end.

Then, the required compressive strength of the column is the more critical of the following two
expressions
Pr 5 (SRu 1 SPu)sin q 1 S(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L

Pr 5 (SRu 1 S0.3Pn)sin q 1 S(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L
where the gravity loads acting on the column are D 5 dead load and L 5 live load.
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.3, flexural forces on the columns due to story drift may be
neglected.
θ
Ru Ru
Pu 0.3Pn
Ru Ru
Pu 0.3Pn
(a) (b)
Figure 3-20 Column loading
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F2.3, the required strength of columns need not exceed the least
of the following:
• the forces corresponding to the resistance of the foundation to overturning uplift
• the forces determined from nonlinear analysis
Example 3-5
ing frame system of a structure in seismic design category D with a redundancy factor of 1.0. The loads
acting on the column in the bottom story are

The braces in all stories are identical. Uplift of the foundation does not govern.
Select a suitable W14 section, with a yield stress of 50 kips per square inch, for the column.

Chapter 3 295
Solution
The two applicable loading conditions are shown in Figure 3-21(a) and (b). From Examples 3-3 and
3-4
Ru 5 expected yield strength of the A500 Grade C HSS 6.625 3 0.280 brace
5 Ry Fy Ag
5 311 kips
Pn 5 nominal strength of the 15.8-ft long brace in axial compression
5 fc Pn /fc
5 149 kips
Pu 5 expected brace strength in compression
5 1.14Fcre Ag
5 190 kips
Pu
Ru 0.3Pn Ru
0.3Pn
Pu
Pu
Ru 0.3Pn Ru
0.3Pn Pu
Pu
Ru 0.3Pn Ru
(a) 0.3Pn (b) Pu
Figure 3-21 Column loading cases for Example 3-5
For load case (a)
The unbalanced vertical force on the midpoint of the beam is
Qb 5 (Ry Fy Ag 2 0.3Pn)sin 45°

5 (311 2 0.3 3 149)0.707
5 188 kips

The required column compressive strength is
Pr 5 3Qb /2 1 2 3 0.3Pnsin 45° 1 (1.2 1 0.2S)D 1 0.5L

5 3 3 188/2 1 2 3 0.3 3 149 3 0.707 1 1.4 3 80 1 0.5 3 30
5 472 kips
For load case (b)
The unbalanced vertical force on the midpoint of the beam is
Qb 5 (Ry Fy Ag 2 Pu)sin 45°

5 (311 2 190)0.707
5 86 kips
The required column compressive strength is
Pr 5 3Qb /2 1 2 3 Pu sin 45° 1 (1.2 1 0.2S)D 1 0.5L

5 3 3 86/2 1 2 3 190 3 0.707 1 1.4 3 80 1 0.5 3 30
Select section
The unbraced length of the column, using centerline dimensions, is
L 5 14 ft
The effective length factor for the column, assuming hinged ends, is given by AISC 360 Table C–A-71,
item (d), as
K 5 1.0
The effective length of the column is
KL 5 14 ft
From AISC Manual Table 4-1a, select a W14 3 68, which has a design strength in axial compression,
for an effective length of 14 feet, of
fc Pn 5 640 kips
. Pr . . . satisfactory

Chapter 3 297
Member properties
The section properties of a W14 3 68 are
A 5 20.0 in2
ry 5 2.46 in
bf /2tf 5 6.97
h/tw 5 27.5
Fy 5 50 ksi
Fu 5 65 ksi
Local buckling
The flange width-to-thickness ratio for a highly ductile member is limited by Table 3-1 to a maximum
value of
bf /2tf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.32[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 7.35
bf /2tf 5 6.97
Ca 5 Pr /fb Py
5 525/(0.9 3 20.0 3 50)
5 0.583
. 0.114
h/tw 5 0.88(2.68 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.88(2.68 2 0.583)[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 42.4
h/tw 5 27.5

Slenderness ratio
KL/ry 5 14.0 3 12/2.46

5 68.3 . . . satisfactory
, 200
Hence, the W14 3 68 column satisfies all requirements.
3.10 Eccentrically braced frames

Eccentrically braced frames,12, 13, 14 as illustrated in Figure 3-22, may provide a high degree of stiffness
in the elastic range that is comparable to that of concentrically braced frames. The bracing member in
an eccentrically braced frame is connected to the beam so as to form a short link between the brace
and the column or between two opposing braces. The link acts as a fuse to prevent other elements in
the frame from being overstressed. The shorter the link, the stiffer the frame becomes and the smaller
the drift produced. During a major earthquake, the link is designed to deform inelastically and provide
a nonlinear energy-absorbing capacity similar to a special moment-resisting frame. The other framing
elements are designed to remain elastic and to be sufficiently strong to cause the link to yield. Shear
or flexural yielding of the link provides a ductile response comparable to that obtained in special
moment-resisting frames.
Figure 3-22 Eccentrically braced frames
Eccentrically braced frames, as specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, may be utilized in building frame
systems in all seismic design categories using a value of 2 for the overstrength factor and a value of
8 for the response modification coefficient. As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is
imposed on the building height in seismic design categories A, B, and C. The maximum height permit-
ted in seismic design categories D and E is 160 feet, and in seismic design category F, it is 100 feet.

Chapter 3 299
Eccentrically braced frames may be utilized in dual systems with special moment frames, in all seis-
mic design categories, using a value of 2.5 for the overstrength factor. In accordance with ASCE 7
Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height. A value of 8 is specified for the response
modification coefficient.
3.10.1 Basic requirements
The ductility demands in an eccentrically braced frame are concentrated in the links. Braces, columns
and beams outside the link are designed to be stronger than the link and to remain essentially elastic.
The link acts as a fuse to limit the loads transferred to other members in the frame and prevents buck-
ling of the braces. Usually, the beam and the link are a single continuous wide flange member and any
increase in yield strength present in the link will also be present in the beam segment outside of the
link. Hence, the available strength of the beam can be increased by Ry.
To ensure that stable inelastic deformations can occur in the link, it is designated a highly ductile mem-
ber. Similarly, columns are designated highly ductile members. Braces and the beam outside the link,
if a different section from the link, are designated moderately ductile members.
Links are designated as protected zones.
3.10.2 Link requirements
AISC 341 Section F3.5b(1) specifies the following design requirements:
• to ensure stability of the highly ductile link during inelastic deformations, compact sections
shall be used complying with the flange width-to-thickness ratios in Table 3-1 of
bf /2tf ≤ 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5
where: bf 5 flange width
tf 5 flange thickness
• if e ≤ 1.6Mp /Vp , the link may satisfy the requirements for a moderately ductile member with
bf /2tf ≤ 0.40(E/Ry Fy)0.5
• doubler plates on the web of the link are not allowed because they are ineffective during inelas-
tic deformation
• links are a protection zone and holes are not allowed in the web of the link because these affect
the inelastic deformation of the link web

3.10.3 Link shear strength
Depending on the length of the link, either shear yielding or flexural yielding may occur at the ends of
the link. A balanced shear condition exists when flexural and shear hinges occur simultaneously. This
occurs with a link length of
ey 5 2Mp /Vp
For lengths less than ey , a shear mode predominates, and for lengths greater than ey , a flexural mode
predominates.
For flexural yielding
As shown in Figure 3-23, if flexural plastic hinges form at the ends of the link, a point of inflection
occurs at the center of the link. When as Pr /Pc ≤ 0.15, the effect of axial force on the link moment
capacity need not be considered, and the nominal plastic flexural strength is given by AISC 341 Equa-
tion (F3-8) as
Mp 5 FyZ
where: Z 5 link plastic section modulus
Fy 5 link specified minimum yield stress
as 5 1.0 for LRFD and 1.5 for ASD
Figure 3-23 Forces on link

Chapter 3 301
When as Pr /Pc . 0.15, the reduced nominal plastic flexural strength is given by AISC 341 Equation
(F3-9) as
Mp 5 Fy Z(1 2 as Pr /Pc)/0.85
where: Pr 5 required axial strength
5 Pu . . . for LRFD
5 Pa . . . for ASD
Pc 5 available axial strength
5 Py . . . for LRFD
5 Py /1.5 . . . for ASD
Py 5 nominal axial yield strength given by AISC 341 Equation (F3-6)
5 Fy Ag
where: Ag 5 gross area of link
From Figure 3-23, the shear produced at the ends of the link is given by AISC 341 Equation (F3-7) as
Vn 5 2Mp /e
≤ Vp
where: e 5 length of link
Vp 5 plastic shear strength
For shear yielding
When shear yielding occurs at the ends of a link and as Pr /Pc ≤ 0.15, the effect of axial force on the
shear yielding capacity need not be considered, and the nominal shear yielding strength is given by
AISC 341 Equation (F3-2) as
Vn 5 Vp
5 0.60Fy Alw
where: Alw 5 web area
5 (db 2 2tf)tw . . . for I-shaped link sections
db 5 depth of link
tf 5 flange thickness
tw 5 web thickness

The moment produced at the ends of the link is
Mr 5 Vne/2
When as Pr /Pc . 0.15, the reduced nominal shear yielding capacity is given by AISC 341 Equation
(F3-3) as
Vp 5 0.6Fy Alw[1 2 (as Pr /Pc)2]0.5
3.10.4 Link length
Links with high axial forces subject to flexural yielding may not be able to develop adequate rotations
and may exhibit unstable inelastic behavior. Hence, where high axial forces can develop in the link, its
length is limited to ensure that shear yielding, rather than flexural yielding, governs. Where as Pr /Pc .
0.15 and r9 ≤ 0.5, the length of the link is limited by AISC 341 Equation (F3-10) to
e ≤ 1.6Mp /Vp
Where as Pr /Pc . 0.15 and r9 . 0.5, the length of the link is limited by AISC 341 Equation (F3-11) to
e ≤ [1.15 2 0.3r9]1.6Mp /Vp

where: r9 5 (Pr /Py)/(Vr /Vy)
Vr 5 required shear strength
5 Vu . . . for LRFD
5 Va . . . for ASD
Vy 5 nominal shear yield strength given by AISC 341 Equation (F3-13) as
5 0.6Fy Alw
Where as Pr /Pc ≤ 0.15, there is no upper limitation on link length.
3.10.5 Link rotation
For the maximum inelastic story drift, the elements of the frame may be considered rigid and the link
rotation angle, gp , is derived as shown in Figure 3-24, which is given by
gp 5 LD/he
5 Lqp /e

Chapter 3 303
where: L 5 beam length between column centers

D 5 maximum inelastic story drift
h 5 story height
e 5 length of link
qp 5 story drift angle
gp 5 link rotation angle
θ θ
Figure 3-24 Link rotation
To limit the inelastic deformation of the frame, the link rotation angle is limited by AISC 341 Section
F3.4a to the following values
gp ≤ 0.080 radian . . . for short links of length e ≤ 1.6Mp /Vp
gp ≤ 0.020 radian . . . for long links of length e ≥ 2.6Mp /Vp
These limits are illustrated in Figure 3-25 and linear interpolation may be used for intermediate link
lengths.

Figure 3-25 Link rotation angle
3.10.6 Link stiffeners for I-shaped cross sections
To ensure stable behavior of the link under cyclic loading, AISC 341 Section F3.5b.4 specifies the
following detailing requirements:
• To prevent web instability under cyclic loading, full-depth web stiffeners shall be provided on
both sides of the link web at the brace end of the link. As shown in Figure 3-26, the stiffeners
shall have a combined width of
2bst ≥ bf 2 2tw
and a thickness of
tst 5 0.75tw
≥ 3⁄8 in
where: bf 5 link flange width
tw 5 link web thickness
• The weld between the stiffener and the web is required to develop the full strength of the stiff-
ener, as shown in Figure 3-26. The weld must be adequate to resist the force as given by
Pw ≥ Ast Fy . . . for LRFD
≥ Ast Fy /1.5 . . . for ASD
where: Ast 5 area of stiffener
5 bst tst

Chapter 3 305
Figure 3-26 Stiffener details
The weld between the stiffener and the flange is necessary to develop the rigidity of the stiffener and
restrain flange buckling. The weld force is given by
Pw ≥ Ast Fy /4 . . . for LRFD
≥ Ast Fy /4(1.5) . . . for ASD
• For a shear link with e ≤ 1.6Mp /Vp, intermediate stiffeners are required, as shown in Figure
3-27, at a spacing of
s ≤ 30tw 2 d/5 . . . for gp 5 0.08 radian
s ≤ 52tw 2 d/5 . . . for gp ≤ 0.02 radian
Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate link rotations.
For 2.6Mp /Vp ≤ e , 5Mp /Vp
intermediate stiffeners are required at a distance of 1.5bf from each end of the link.
For 1.6Mp /Vp ≤ e , 2.6Mp /Vp
intermediate stiffeners are required to satisfy both the above requirements.
For e . 5Mp /Vp
intermediate stiffeners are not required.
• Single-sided, full-depth web intermediate stiffeners are permitted, provided the link depth is
less than 25 inches. The required width is given by
bst ≥ bf /2 2 tw

Figure 3-27 Link details
and the thickness by
tst 5 tw
≥ 3⁄8 in
Where the link depth is 25 inches or greater, similar intermediate stiffeners are required on both sides
of the web.
• As specified in AISC 341 Section F3.4b, lateral bracing to the top and bottom flanges is nec-
essary at each end of the link to prevent instability and restrain the link from twisting out of
plane. Lateral support must be provided to both flanges at the ends of the link. The required
strength of the lateral bracing is given by AISC 341 Equation (D1-4) as
Pbl 5 0.06Ry Fy Z/ho as
where: Ry 5 ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield
strength as given in Table 3-2
Z 5 plastic section modulus of the beam

Chapter 3 307
Example 3-6
Figure 3-28 shows the bottom story of a five-story eccentrically braced steel frame with a redundancy
factor of 1.0. The total design lateral force acting at the level of the second floor is indicated. If the
effects of gravity loads may be neglected, select a suitable W10 section, with a yield stress of 50 kips
per square inch, for the link.
Solution
Select a link length.
e 5 4 ft
The strength design forces acting on the link are
Vr 5 Vu 5 shear force on the link, from Figure 3-28

5 Vh/Lbm
5 90 3 14/12
5 105 kips
Pr 5 Pu 5 axial force on the link, from Figure 3-28
5 0 kip . . . effect of axial force on the link design need not be considered
Pr /Pc , 0.15 . . . no upper limit on link length

Select section
From AISC Manual Table 1-1, select a W10 3 68 that has the following member properties
d 5 10.4 in
bf 5 10.1 in
tw 5 0.47 in
tf 5 0.77 in
ho 5 9.63 in
bf /2tf 5 6.58
h/tw 5 16.7
Zx 5 85.3 in3
Fy 5 50 ksi
Mp 5 nominal plastic flexural strength
5 Zx Fy
5 85.3 3 50/12
5 355 kip-ft
Aw 5 web area
5 (d 2 2tf)tw
5 (10.4 2 2 3 0.77)0.47
5 4.16 in2
Vn 5 Vy 5 Vp 5 nominal shear strength of link for Pr /Pc , 0.15, from AISC 341 Equation
(F3-2)
5 0.60Fy Aw
5 0.60 3 50 3 4.16
5 125 kips
f 5 resistance factor given by AISC 360 Section G2.1(a)
5 1.0
fVp 5 design shear strength
5 1.0 3 125
5125 kips
. Vu . . . satisfactory

Chapter 3 309
1.6Mp /Vp 5 1.6 3 355/125

5 4.54 ft
. e . . . link behavior is governed by shear yielding
Design requirements
The nominal required moment capacity of the link for shear yielding is
Mr 5 required moment at the end of the link
5 Vn e/2 . . . taking a conservative value
5 125 3 4/2
5 250 kip-ft
fMp 5 design flexural strength
5 0.9 3 355
5 320 kip-ft
. Mr . . . satisfactory
Local buckling
value of
bf /2tf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5
5 0.32[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 7.35
bf /2tf 5 6.58
For a value of Pu 5 0 and Ca 5 0, the web height-to-thickness ratio is limited by Table 3-1 to a max-
imum value of
h/tw 5 2.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5
5 2.57[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 59.0
h/tw 5 16.7

Link rotation
The displacements in the bottom story may be determined using the virtual work method.15 To deter-
mine the elastic drift in the bottom story, a unit virtual load is applied to the frame as shown in Figure
3-29a, and the forces, u, are obtained. The design loads are applied to the frame as shown in Figure
3-29b, and the forces, P, are obtained. Neglecting the upper stories and the effects of bending moments
in the link and in the beams outside the link, the elastic drift in the bottom story is given by
De 5 SPuL/AE
where: P 5 axial force in a member due to the applied design loads
u 5 axial force in a member due to the virtual unit load
L 5 length of a member
A 5 cross-sectional area of a member
E 5 modulus of elasticity of a member
(a) (b)
Figure 3-29 Determination of drift
The area of the W10 3 68 beam is 19.9 square inches and the area of the diagonal brace may be
assumed to be 11.6 square inches. Details of the calculation are shown in Table 3-5.
Table 3-5 Details for Example 3-6
Member P kips u kips L in A in2 PuL/A
Beam 90 1.00 144 19.9 651

Brace 2138 20.77 221 11.6 2024
Brace 138 0.77 221 11.6 2024
Total 4699

Chapter 3 311
The elastic drift in the bottom story is given by
De 5 SPuL/AE
5 4699/29,000
5 0.162 in
The total inelastic drift in the bottom story is given by
D 5 Cd De
where: Cd 5 deflection amplification factor
5 4.0 . . . from ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1
and D 5 0.65 in
The link rotation angle is
gp 5 LD/he
5 28 3 0.65/(14 3 48)
5 0.027 radian
1.6Mp /Vp 5 1.6 3 355/125
5 4.54 ft
.e
Hence, from AISC 341 Section F3.4a, the link rotation capacity is limited to
ga 5 0.080 radian
. gp . . . satisfactory
Stiffener details
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F3.5b.4, full-depth web stiffeners are required on both sides of
the link web at the diagonal brace ends of the link.
Single-sided, full-depth web intermediate stiffeners are permitted because the link depth is less than
25 inches. The minimum required width is given by
bst 5 bf /2 2 tw
5 10.1/2 2 0.47
5 4.58 in . . . use 4.75 in

The required thickness is given by the greater of
tst 5 3⁄8 in
or tst 5 tw
5 1⁄2 in . . . governs
The weld between the grade A36 stiffener and the web is required to develop the force given by
Pw 5 Ast Fy
5 4.58 3 0.5 3 36
5 82.44 kips
The total length of fillet weld provided for welds on both sides of the stiffener, allowing for 0.75-inch
corner snips, is
l 5 2[(d 2 2tf) 2 1.5]

5 2[(10.4 2 2 3 0.77) 2 1.5]
5 14.72 in
The design fillet weld strength per 1⁄16 inch of E70XX electrodes is
qu 5 1.39 kips/in
The required weld size per 1⁄16 inch is
D 5 Pw /lqu
5 82.44/(14.72 3 1.39)
5 4.0 sixteenths
Hence, the required weld size is
w 5 4.0/16
5 1⁄4 in
The minimum size of weld permitted for the 1⁄2-inch-thick stiffener is given by AISC 360 Table J2.4 as
wmin 5 3⁄16 in
, w . . . satisfactory, use 1⁄4-in fillet weld
The minimum thickness of stiffener required to match the shear rupture strength of the welds on oppo-
site sides of the plate is given by
tmin 5 6.18D/Fust
5 6.18 3 4/58

Chapter 3 313
5 0.43
, tst . . . satisfactory
The weld between the stiffener and the flange is required to develop the force given by
Pw 5 Ast Fy /4
5 4.58 3 0.5 3 36/4
5 20.6 kips
The total length of weld provided for welds on both sides of the stiffener, allowing for 0.75-inch corner
snips, is
l 5 2(bst 2 0.75)
5 2(4.75 2 0.75)
5 8.0 in
Using E70XX fillet welds, the required weld size per 1⁄16 inch is
D 5 Pw /lqu
5 20.6/(8.0 3 1.39)
5 1.9 sixteenths
The required weld size is
w 5 3⁄16 . . . minimum
The link rotation angle is
gp 5 0.027 radian
Hence, by interpolation the required intermediate stiffener spacing is
s 5 49.4tw 2 d/5 . . . for gp ≤ 0.027 radian

5 49.4 3 0.47 2 10.4/5
5 21 in
Provide two intermediate stiffeners to give a spacing of
sp 5 48/3
5 16 in
, s . . . satisfactory

3.10.7 Beam requirements
AISC 341 Section F3.3 and Commentary Section F3.3 specify the following design requirements for
the beam outside the link:
• The nominal required axial and flexural capacity of the beam shall be determined from load
combination 6 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 with the amplified seismic force, Emh, replaced by
(1.25 3 0.88) 5 1.1 times the nominal shear capacity of the link to give
Emh 5 1.1RyVn
strength of the link
Vn 5 nominal shear capacity of the link
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F3.5a, the design capacity of the beam determined using
the procedures from AISC 360 Sections C, E, F, and H may be multiplied by Ry . For Grade 50
steel, Ry 5 1.1 and the enhanced design capacity becomes
RyfRn 5 1.1 3 fRn
5 0.99Rn . . . for f 5 0.9
• Where required, the beam shall be provided with lateral support at both the top and bottom
flanges. Each support shall have a design capacity given by AISC 360 Equation (A-6-7) as
Prb 5 0.02MrCd /ho
where: Cd 5 1.0 for single curvature
Mr 5 Ry Fy Z . . . for LRFD
5 Ry Fy Z/1.5 . . . for ASD
Example 3-7
factor of 1.0. The total design lateral force acting at the level of the second floor is indicated. The
effects of gravity loads may be neglected. Determine if the W10 3 68 section selected for the link is
adequate for the beam outside the link.

Chapter 3 315
Solution
The design forces acting on the beam and link are shown in Figure 3-30. In accordance with AISC 341
Section F3.3, the beam is designed for the maximum forces that can be generated by the link using an
overstrength factor of
W0 5 1.1Ry
5 1.1 3 1.1
5 1.21
Mr
Before applying the overstrength factor, the forces acting on the beam are
Vbm 5 shear force on the beam, from Figure 3-30

5 Mr /Lbm
5 250/12
5 21 kips
Vn 5 nominal shear strength of the link

Rbr 5 Vn 1 Vbm . . . from Figure 3-30

5 125 1 21
5 146 kips
where: Mr 5 required moment capacity of the link, from Example 3-6
5 250 kip-ft
Pbm 5 axial force on the beam, from Figure 3-28
5 Vn Lbm /h
5 125 3 12/14
5 107 kips
Design shear strength
Allowing for the overstrength factor, 1.1Ry , the nominal required shear capacity of the beam, in accor-
dance with AISC 341 Section F3.3, is given by
Vu 5 1.1RyVbm
5 1.21 3 21
5 25 kips
The enhanced design shear capacity, in accordance with AISC 341 Section F3.5a, is given by
RyfVn 5 1.1 3 0.9 3 125 kips . . . from Example 3-6

5 124 kips
Combined compression and flexure
Allowing for the overstrength factor, 1.1Ry , as specified in AISC 341 Section F3.3, the applied moment
on the beam is
Mu 5 1.1Ry Mr
5 1.21 3 250
5 303 kip-ft
Allowing for the overstrength factor, 1.1Ry , as specified in AISC 341 Section F3.3, the applied axial
load on the beam is
Pu 5 1.1Ry Pbm
5 1.21 3 107
5 129 kips

Chapter 3 317
As specified in AISC 341 Section F3.4b, lateral bracing is required to the top and bottom flanges at
each end of the link with a design strength of
Pb1 5 0.06Ry Fy Zx /ho

5 0.06 3 1.1 3 50 3 85.3/9.63
5 29 kips
In addition, lateral bracing is provided at the center of the beam to the top and bottom flanges with a
design strength of
Pb 5 0.02MrCd /ho
5 0.02Ry Fy ZxCd /ho
5 0.02 3 1.1 3 50 3 85.3 3 1.0/9.63
5 10 kips
The unbraced segment lengths about the x- and y-axes are thus
Lbx 5 12 ft
Lby 5 6 ft
The W10 3 68 section will be analyzed using AISC 360 Equations (H1-1a) or (H1-1b). The relevant
properties of the W10 3 68 are
A 5 19.9 in2
I 5 394 in4
rx 5 4.44 in
ry 5 2.59 in
Mp 5 355 kip-ft
fBF 5 3.85
Lp 5 9.15
KLby /ry 5 1.0 3 6 3 12/2.59
5 27.8
KLbx /rx 5 1.0 3 12 3 12/4.44
5 32.4 . . . governs

Local buckling
The flange width-to-thickness ratio for a moderately ductile member is limited by Table 3-1 to a max-
imum value of
bf /2tf 5 0.40(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.40[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 9.18
bf /2tf 5 6.58
Ca 5 Pu /fb Py
5 129/(0.9 3 19.9 3 50)
5 0.144
. 0.114
h/tw 5 1.29(2.12 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 1.29(2.12 2 0.145)[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 58.5
h/tw 5 16.7
Design compressive strength
From AISC Manual Table 4-14, the design axial compressive stress for the beam for KL/r 5 32.4 is
fc Fcr 5 41.7 ksi
As specified in AISC 341 Section F3.5a, the enhanced design axial compressive stress for the beam is
Ryfc Fcr 5 1.1 3 41.7

5 45.9 ksi

Chapter 3 319
The enhanced compressive strength of the beam is
Ryfc Pn 5 Ryfc Fcr Ag

5 45.9 3 19.9
5 913 kips
then: Pu /Ryfc Pn 5 129/913
5 0.14
, 0.20
Hence, AISC 360 Equation (H1-1b) applies and, after modifying in accordance with AISC 341 Section
F3.5a, this is given by
Pu /2Ryfc Pn 1 Mux /Ryfb Mnx ≤ 1.0

where: Mux 5 required flexural strength about the strong axis, including second-order
effects
5 B1Mnt
5 B1Mu
5 303B1
Mnx 5 nominal flexural strength about the strong axis in the absence of axial load
5 Mp
5 355 kip-ft
Second-order analysis
The Euler buckling load for the beam is given by AISC 360 Equation (A-8-5) as
Pe1 5 p2EI/(KLx)2
5 p2 3 29,000 3 394/(12 3 12)2
5 5433 kips
The reduction factor for a member in a braced frame, with one end pinned and not subjected to trans-
verse loading, is given by AISC 360 Appendix 8.2.1 as
Cm 5 0.6
From AISC 360 Equation (A-8-3), the multiplier to account for P-d effects is given by
B1 5 Cm /(1 2 Pu /Pe1)
5 0.6/(1 2 129/5433)
5 0.61

The minimum permitted value is
B1 5 1.0
The required flexural strength is given by AISC 360 Equation (A-8-1) as
Mux 5 B1Mnt
5 1.0 3 303
5 303 kip-ft
Design flexural strength
The beam unbraced length is
Lbm 5 6 ft
, Lp
Hence, the enhanced flexural capacity is
Ryfb Mnx 5 1.1 3 0.9 3 355

5 351 kip-ft
Interaction equation
The left side of AISC 360 Equation (H1-1b) is
Pu/2Ryfc Pn 1 Mux /Ryfb Mnx

5 0.14/2 1 303/351
5 0.93
Hence, the W10 3 68 beam is adequate.
3.10.8 Diagonal brace requirements
AISC 341 Section F3.3 specifies the following design requirements for the diagonal brace:
• To allow for strain hardening in the link, the nominal required axial and flexural capacity of the
brace are determined from load combination 6 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 with the earthquake
force, Emh, replaced by the amplified nominal shear capacity of the link defined as
1.25RyVn

Chapter 3 321
strength of the link
Vn 5 nominal shear capacity of the link
• As shown in Figure 3-27, the intersection of the brace and beam centerlines are at the end of
the link or within the link. In accordance with AISC 341 Commentary Section F3.5b.1, when
the intersection of the brace and beam centerlines are located outside the link, the eccentricity
produced creates additional moment in the beam and this must be considered in the design.
• The required strength of the brace-to-beam connection must be sufficient to resist forces cor-
responding to link yielding and strain hardening. If the brace resists a portion of the link end
moment, the additional end moment must be considered in the design.
Example 3-8
factor of 1.0. The total design lateral force acting at the level of the second floor is indicated. If the
effects of gravity loads may be neglected, select a suitable rectangular hollow structural section, with
a yield stress of 50 kips per square inch, for the diagonal brace.
Solution
The unbraced length of the brace, using conservative centerline dimensions, is given by
Lbr 5 [(Lbm)2 1 h2]0.5

5 (122 1 142)0.5
5 18.4 ft
Factored loads
Before applying the overstrength factor, the forces acting on the beam and link are shown in Figure
3-30. The vertical component of the axial force in the brace is
Rbr 5 Vn 1 Vbm
5 125 1 21
5 146 kips
The axial force in the brace is
Pbr 5 Rbr Lbr /h

5 146 3 18.4/14
5 192 kips

In accordance with AISC 341 Section F3.3, the brace shall be designed for the maximum forces that
can be generated by the link using an overstrength factor of
W0 5 1.25Ry
5 1.25 3 1.1
5 1.38
Allowing for the overstrength factor, the applied axial force on the brace is
Pu 5 W0Pbr
5 1.38 3 192
5 265 kips
Select section
KLbr 5 1.0 3 18.4

5 18.4 ft
From AISC Manual Table 4-4, select an HSS 7 3 7 3 1⁄2 that has a design strength in axial compres-
sion, for an effective length of 18.4 feet, of
fc Pn 5 312 kips
. Pu . . . satisfactory
Local buckling
The width-to-thickness ratio of a moderately ductile rectangular hollow section is limited by Table 3-1
to a maximum value of
b/t 5 0.76(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.76[29,000/(1.3 3 50)]0.5
5 16.1
The actual width-to-thickness ratio is
b/t 5 7/0.465
5 15.1

Chapter 3 323
3.10.9 Column requirements
Columns are designed using capacity design principles based on the forces generated by the fully
yielded and strain hardened link so as to prevent failure of a column or formation of a soft story. The
required forces in the column are determined from load combination 6 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 with
the earthquake force, Emh , replaced by the amplified forces developed in the links. In accordance with
AISC 341 Section F3.3, the overstrength factor is
W0 5 1.25Ry
5 1.25 3 1.1
5 1.38
Since all links above the level of the column under consideration are unlikely to reach their maximum
shear strength simultaneously, a relaxation is permitted for multistory frames. For this situation, AISC
341 Commentary Section 3.3 gives a value for the overstrength factor of
W0 5 0.88 3 1.25Ry
5 0.88 3 1.25 3 1.1
5 1.21
In addition, the required strength of columns need not exceed the lesser of the following two conditions:
• forces corresponding to the resistance of the foundation to overturning uplift
• forces determined from nonlinear analysis
In designing a column, flexural forces resulting from seismic drift are neglected.
Welds at a column splice are subjected to high stress demands and inelastic strains and are designated
as demand critical in AISC 341 Section F3.6a as are welds at column-to-base plate connections and
beam-to-column connections. In accordance with AISC 341 Section F3.6d, welds at a splice must be
complete joint-penetration groove welds, and the splice is designed to develop at least 50 percent of the
lesser available flexural strength of the connected columns. The required shear strength of the joint is
Vr 5 SFy Zc /Hc . . . for LRFD
5 SFy Zc /1.5Hc . . . for ASD
where: Zc 5 plastic section modulus of a column
SFy Zc 5 sum of the nominal plastic flexural strengths of the columns above and
below the splice
Hc 5 clear height of the column between beam connections
Columns are designated in AISC 341 Section F3.5a as highly ductile members.

Example 3-9
factor of 1.0. The total design lateral force acting at the level of the second floor is indicated. The grav-
ity loads acting on the column in the bottom story are

The design response acceleration is SDS 5 1.0g.
Select a suitable W12 section, with a yield stress of 50 kips per square inch, for the column and deter-
mine the design uplift on the column.
Solution
The seismic forces, produced by the nominal strength of the link, acting on the link and the beam out-
side the link are as shown in Figure 3-30 and determined in Example 3-7. These forces are transferred
to the column, as shown in Figure 3-31. Assuming that the beams at all floors and at the roof are W10
3 68, the total compressive force acting on the column at the second floor is
Pcol 5 4Rbr 2 5Vbm

5 4 3 146 2 5 3 21
5 479 kips
The total seismic tensile force acting at the base of the column is
Tcol 5 5Rbr 2 5Vbm

5 5 3 146 2 5 3 21
5 625 kips
Factored loads
For maximum compression load in the column for a frame of five stories, AISC 341 Section F3.3
specifies the following loading for the design of the column
Pu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L 1 0.2S 1 W0QE

where: W0QE 5 forces generated by 1.1RyVn
5 1.1 3 1.1Pcol
5 1.1 3 1.1 3 479
5 580 kips

Chapter 3 325
and Pu 5 (1.2 1 0.2)130 1 0.5 3 50 1 580

5 787 kips
Select section
The unbraced length of the column, using centerline dimensions, is
L 5 14 ft
The effective length of the column is
KL 5 1.0 3 14
5 14 ft
From AISC Manual Table 4-1, select a W12 3 96 that has a design strength in axial compression, for
an effective length of 14 feet, of
fc Pn 5 1020 kips

Member properties
The section properties of a W12 3 96 are
A 5 28.2
bf /2tf 5 6.76
h/tw 5 17.7
Local buckling
value of
bf /2tf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.32[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 7.35
bf /2tf 5 6.76
Ca 5 Pu /fb Py
5 787/(0.9 3 28.2 3 50)
5 0.62
. 0.114
h/tw 5 0.88(2.68 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.88(2.68 2 0.62)[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 41.6
h/tw 5 17.7
Hence, the W12 3 96 column satisfies all requirements.

Chapter 3 327
Design uplift
For maximum tensile load in the column for a frame of five stories, AISC 341 Section F3.3 specifies
the following loading
Tu 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 2 W0QE

5 (0.9 2 0.2)130 2 1.21 3 625
5 2665 kips
3.11 Special moment frames

Special moment frames resist seismic forces by means of the large inelastic deformations that occur in
the ductile frame. Inelastic rotations may occur at plastic hinges in the beam-column joints and shear
deformations may occur in the joint panel zone.
Special moment frames, as specified in AISC 341 Section E3, may be utilized in all seismic design
categories using a value of 3 for the overstrength factor and a value of 5.5 for the deflection amplifi-
cation factor. As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height in
any seismic design category.
Special moment frames may be utilized in dual systems with braced frames or shear walls. The system
limitations for the different types are specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1.
3.11.1 Beam-to-column connections
Failures of steel special moment frame systems in the 1994 Northridge earthquake in California
occurred at the beam-column joint. The typical prescriptive joint specified at that time was unable to
sustain the large inelastic deformations that occurred at the joint. The factors contributing to the joint
failures were:
• stress concentrations at the beam bottom flange weld
• unsuitable weld metal used at the beam-column connection
• variations of member strength from prescribed values
• the use of larger beams than had previously been tested
• fatigue failure at the joint

Beam-column connections are now required by AISC 341 Section E3.6b to be capable of developing
an interstory drift angle of at least 0.04 radian with a residual moment capacity of 80 percent of the
nominal plastic moment capacity of the beam. As a result of an extensive research program,16, 17, 18 a
number of joint assemblies were initially determined to meet these criteria and were designated pre-
qualified connections for special moment frames. These prequalified connections may be categorized
into the six main types, which are illustrated in Figure 3-32.
Subsequently, several proprietary joint assemblies have been developed and designated prequalified.
These include the slotted web connection,19 the SidePlate connection,20 the Kaiser bolted bracket,21
the Simpson strong frame moment connection,22 and the Conxtech Conxl moment connection.22
The slotted web connection is shown in Figure 3-33. In this system a slot is introduced into the top
and bottom of the beam web at the beam-column interface. In addition to a welded shear plate, the
beam web is welded to the column flange. The separation of the beam flanges and beam web allows
the flanges and web to buckle independently. This eliminates the lateral-torsional mode of beam buck-
ling and the associated torsional flange/weld stresses that are characteristic of nonslotted beams. In
addition, this provides a uniform distribution of flexural stress and strain at the flange/weld connection
and eliminates vertical shear in the welds at the beam flanges. The beam web resists the entire vertical
shear and its share of the beam moment and the flanges resist the residual moment. The fatigue life of
the connection is more than triple the fatigue life of a nonslotted connection because of the elimination
of vertical shear at the flange/welds.
The SidePlate connection is shown in Figure 3-34 and consists of a column tree with shop-welded
side plates. In the field, the column trees are erected and full-length beams are hoisted into position
between two parallel column side plates. The beams are attached to the side plates with bolts and fil-
let welds. The parallel full-depth side plates reinforce the connection and force the plastic hinging to
occur in the beam at one-third the depth of the beam from the end of the side plates. The connection
exhibits high resistance to blast and progressive collapse.
The Kaiser bolted bracket moment connection is shown in Figure 3-35 and consists of a cast high-
strength steel bracket fastened to each beam flange and bolted to the column flange. The bracket is
either shop welded or bolted to the beam flange and is field bolted to the column flange. Field welding
is entirely eliminated and frame erection is facilitated. The bracket develops the maximum moment
capacity of the connected beam, and plastic hinge formation occurs outside the connection in the beam
at the end of the bracket. Inelastic rotation is intended to occur in the beam in the region near the end
of the brackets.

Chapter 3 329
Sh
a
b
bbf
d
Reduced beam section
Unreinforced flange-welded web
Lp
Free flange Welded or bolted flange plate

Lst
Ltee
tbf
tpl
Bolted stiffened or unstiffened end plate Double split tee
Figure 3-32 Prequalified connections

Beam slot
Shear plate
Figure 3-33 Slotted web connection
Figure 3-34 SidePlate connection

Chapter 3 331
Figure 3-35 Kaiser bolted bracket connection
3.11.2 Design principles
The formation of plastic hinges at the beam-column interface during a seismic event results in large
inelastic strain demands at the connection, leading to brittle failure. To prevent this occurrence, the
prequalified connections are designed to produce the plastic hinges within the beam span, as shown
in Figure 3-36. This condition may be achieved by reducing the section of the beam22, 23 at the desired
location of the plastic hinge or by reinforcing the beam at the connection so as to prevent the formation
θp drift angle
Plastic hinge
Plastic hinge
Lh
Figure 3-36 Formation of plastic hinges

of a hinge in this region. By this means, the connection at the beam-column interface remains nomi-
nally elastic and the inelastic deformation occurs away from the connection. The hinge location dis-
tances are provided in AISC 358.
The design principles are formulated on an expected strength basis using the probable strengths of the
materials.
The probable beam plastic moment, allowing for overstrength of the steel; the difference in yield
strengths of the beam flanges and web materials; and the estimated strain hardening is given by AISC
Mpr 5 Cpr Ry Ze Fy
where: Ry 5 overstrength coefficient given in Table 3-2
5 ratio of the expected yield stress to the specified minimum yield strength of
the material
Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the beam
Ze 5 effective plastic section modulus of the beam at the zone of plastic hinging
Cpr 5 peak connection strength coefficient defined by AISC 358 Equation (2.4-2)
5 (Fy 1 Fu)/2Fy
≤ 1.2
5 1.15 . . . for Fy 5 50 ksi and Fu 5 65 ksi
5 1.4 . . . for unreinforced flange-welded web connections, from AISC 358
Section 8.7
Fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength of the beam
From Figure 3-37 and AISC 358 Equation (5.8-9), the shear force at the plastic hinge on the left end
of the beam is given by
Vh 5 2Mpr /Lh 1 wuLh /2

Vh9 5 22Mpr /Lh 1 wu Lh /2
where: wu 5 factored gravity load on the beam, from AISC 358 Section 5.8
5 1.2D 1 0.5L 1 0.2S . . . for L ≤ 100 lb/ft2
Lh 5 distance between plastic hinges
Neglecting the gravity load on the length, Sh , the resulting bending moment at the face of the column
is given by AISC 358 Equation (5.8-6) as
Mf 5 Mpr 1 VhSh . . . for symmetrical loading on the beam

Chapter 3 333
For reduced beam section connections, in accordance with AISC 358 Equation (5.8-8), the bending
moment at the face of the column is limited to
Mf ≤ fd Ry ZbFy
where: Zb 5 plastic section modulus of the beam at the column face
fd 5 1.0 . . . from AISC 358 Section 2.4.1
For the portion of the single bay frame indicated, the resulting bending moment at the center of the
column is given by AISC 358 Section 5.4(2) as
*
Mpb 5 Mpr 1 Vhsh
sh
Sh Lh Sh
h
′
h
h h
Sh
Figure 3-37 Shear at plastic hinge

3.11.3 Strong column-weak beam concept
Under normal circumstances, a strong column-weak beam concept is adopted to ensure that inelas-
tic drift is uniformly distributed over the height of the building and inelastic deformations are con-
centrated at the ends of the beams. As shown in Figure 3-38(a), this prevents frame instability due
to P-delta effects. The formation of plastic hinges in the columns of a story may cause a soft story
condition, as shown in Figure 3-38(b). The large inelastic displacements produced in the lower story
columns increase the P-delta effect and may lead to column failure.
∆ ∆
Plastic hinges
Soft story
(a) (b)
Figure 3-38 Collapse mechanisms
The strong column-weak beam concept may be achieved in accordance with AISC 341 Equation
(E3‑1) by ensuring that
SMpc
* /SMpb
* . 1.0
where: SMpc
* 5 the sum of the projections of the nominal flexural strengths of the columns
above and below the joint to the beam centerline with a reduction for the
axial force in the column as given by AISC 341 Equation (E3-2)
5 SZc(Fyc 2 Puc /Ag) . . . for LRFD
SMpb
* 5 the sum of the projections of the expected flexural strengths of the beams at
the plastic hinge locations to the column centerline
5 Mpr 1 Vh Sh . . . for one-sided (exterior column) connections
In accordance with AISC 341 Equation (F3-3), SMpb

* is calculated in accordance with AISC 358 Equa-
tion (5.8-5) as
* 5 S(Cpr Ry Fyb Zb 1 Vh sh)
SMpb

Chapter 3 335
where: Puc 5 required axial compressive strength in the column using LRFD load
combinations, including the amplified seismic load
Zc 5 plastic section modulus of the column
Fyc 5 specified minimum yield stress of the column
Ag 5 gross area of the column
AISC 341 Section E3.4a(a) relaxes the strong column-weak beam requirement for columns with Puc
, 0.3Pc and the column is either:
(i) located in a one-story building or in the top story of a multistory building
or
(ii) located in a column line in which the available shear strength of all exempted columns is less
than 33 percent of the total available shear strength of the column line, and the available shear
strength of all exempted columns in the story is less than 20 percent of the total available shear
strength of the story
where: Pc 5 nominal axial compressive strength of the column
5 Fy Ag
AISC 341 Section E3.4a(b) also provides an exemption for a column located in a story with a ratio of
available shear strength to required shear strength 50 percent greater than that of the story above.
Example 3-10
Figure 3-39 shows the beam-column connection of a reduced beam section steel special moment frame
with a redundancy factor of 1.0. The span between column centers is L 5 25 feet, the factored gravity
load on the beam is wu 5 2 kips per foot, and the factored axial compressive force on the column is
Puc 5 200 kips. Determine if the strong column-weak beam requirement is satisfied.
Solution
The relevant section properties of the W14 3 132 column are
Plastic modulus, Zc 5 234 in3

Yield stress, Fyc 5 50 ksi
Tensile strength, Fuc 5 65 ksi
Depth, dc 5 14.7 in
Flange thickness, tcf 5 1.03 in
Flange width, bcf 5 14.7 in

Web thickness, tcw 5 0.645 in

hc /tcw 5 17.7
bcf /2tcf 5 7.15
k1 5 1.56 in
kdes 5 1.63 in
kdet 5 2.31 in
Area, Ag 5 38.8 in2
The relevant section properties of the W21 3 122 beam are
Plastic modulus, Zb 5 307 in3

Yield stress, Fyb 5 50 ksi
Depth, db 5 21.7 in
Flange thickness, tbf 5 0.96 in
Flange width, bbf 5 12.4 in
Web thickness, tbw 5 0.60 in
hb /tbw 5 31.3
bbf /2tbf 5 6.45
ho 5 20.7 in

Chapter 3 337
Reduced beam section
AISC 358 Section 5.8 specifies the dimensions of the reduced section shown in Figure 3-40 as
a 5 (0.5 to 0.75)bf
b 5 (0.65 to 0.85)d
c 5 (0.1 to 0.25)bf
r 5 (4c2 1 b2)/8c . . . from AISC 358 Figure 5.1
Figure 3-40 Reduced beam section details
Select the following values
a 5 7 in
5 0.56bf . . . satisfactory
b 5 14 in
5 0.65d . . . satisfactory
c 5 3 in
5 0.24bf . . . satisfactory
r 5 (4 3 32 1 142)/(8 3 3)
5 9.7 in
Shear force at plastic hinge
The effective plastic section modulus of the beam at the zone of plastic hinging at the center of the
reduced section is given by AISC 358 Equation (5.8-4) as
Zbe 5 Zb 2 2ctbf (db 2 tbf)

5 307 2 2 3 3 3 0.96(21.7 2 0.96)
5 188 in3

The probable beam plastic moment is given by AISC 358 Equation (2.4-1) as
Mpr 5 Cpr Ry Zbe Fyb

5 1.15 3 1.1 3 188 3 50
5 11,891 kip-in
The hinge location distance from the center of the column is
sh 5 dc /2 1 a 1 b/2
5 14.7/2 1 7 1 14/2
5 21.35 in
The distance between plastic hinges is
Lh 5 L 2 2sh
5 25 3 12 2 2 3 21.35
5 257.3 in
The shear force at the plastic hinge is given by AISC 358 Equation (5.8-9) as
Vh 5 2Mpr /Lh 1 wu Lh /2
5 2 3 11,891/257.3 1 (2/12)257.3/2
5 114 kips
Bending moment at the column
Neglecting the gravity load on the length Sh , the resulting bending moment at the face of the column is
Mf 5 Mpr 1 Vh Sh
5 Mpr 1 Vh (a 1 b/2)
5 11,891 1 114(7 1 14/2)
5 13,487 kip-in
For reduced beam section connections, in accordance with AISC 358 Equation (5.8-8), the bending
moment at the face of the column is limited to
Mpe ≤ fd Ry Zb Fyb
where fd 5 ductile resistance factor from AISC 358 Section 2.4.1
5 1.0

Chapter 3 339
The right side of the expression is
fd Ry Zb Fyb 5 1.0 3 1.1 3 307 3 50

5 16,885 kip-in
. Mf . . . satisfactory
The resulting bending moment at the center of the column is
*
Mpb 5 Mpr 1 Vh sh
5 11,891 1 114 3 21.35
5 14,325 kip-in
Strong column-weak beam
The sum of the nominal flexural strengths of the column above and below the joint at the beam center-
line, with a reduction for the factored axial force in the column, is given by AISC 341 Equation (E3-2)
as
* 5 SZc(Fyc 2 Puc /Ag)
SMpc
where: Puc 5 required axial compressive strength in the column
5 200 kips
Zc 5 plastic section modulus of the column
5 234 in3
Fyc 5 specified minimum yield stress of the column
5 50 ksi
Ag 5 gross area of the column
5 38.8 in2
and SMpc
* 5 2 3 234(50 2 200/38.8)
5 20,988 kip-in
The ratio of column moments to beam moment is
SMpc
* /SMpb
* 5 20,988/14,325
5 1.5
. 1.0 . . . satisfactory

3.11.4 Beam details
To limit local flange buckling, AISC 341 Section E3.5a specifies the use of sections with a maximum
flange width-to-thickness ratio, for a highly ductile member, of
bbf /2tbf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5

In accordance with AISC 358 Section 5.3.1(6), this ratio may be determined, in reduced beam section
connections, at the ends of the center two-thirds of the reduced section of the beam, unless gravity
loading moves the hinge point significantly from the center of the reduced section.
To prevent stress concentrations resulting in a brittle mode of failure, abrupt changes of flange area are
not permitted in the plastic hinge regions. The hinging area is defined in AISC 341 Section E3.5c as
the distance from the face of the column to one-half the beam depth beyond the theoretical hinge point.
Connections, shear studs, or other attachments shall not be permitted in the hinging area.
To provide adequate web stability for a highly ductile member with Ca ≃ 0, Table 3-1 gives a maxi-
mum height-to-thickness ratio of
hb /tbw 5 2.57(E/Ry Fy)0.5

Lateral bracing is necessary, as specified in AISC 341 Section D1.2, to the top and bottom flanges of
the beam to prevent instability. Bracing is required near all concentrated loads, at changes in cross
section, where a hinge may form, and at a maximum spacing of
lcr 5 0.095ry E/Ry Fy
Where the beam supports a concrete slab along its whole length, lateral bracing is not required to the
top flange.
In accordance with AISC 358 Section 5.3.1(8), the protected zone for a reduced beam design extends
from the column face to the end of the reduced section.
The flanges and web of the beam are connected to the column flange with complete joint penetration
groove welds and are designated demand critical welds by AISC 341 Section E3.6a(c).
Example 3-11
Figure 3-39 shows the beam-column connection of a steel special moment frame with a redundancy
factor of 1.0. The beam supports a concrete slab over its full length. Determine if the beam satisfies
local buckling requirements.

Chapter 3 341
Solution
The flange width-to-thickness ratio is limited by Table 3-1 to a maximum value of
bbf /2tbf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5

5 0.32[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 7.35
For a reduced beam section, the flange width may be taken at the ends of the center two-thirds of the
reduced section. However, using the full width, the actual flange width-to-thickness ratio is
bbf /2tbf 5 6.45

For a value of Ca ≃ 0, the height-to-thickness ratio of the web is limited by Table 3-1 to a maximum
value of
hb /tbw 5 2.57(E/RyFy)0.5
5 2.57[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 59.0
hb /tbw 5 31.3
The beam supports a concrete slab and lateral bracing is not required to the top flange.
3.11.5 Column details
In accordance with AISC 341 Table D1.1, columns shall comply with the slenderness requirements of
a highly ductile member given in Table 3-1.
In accordance with AISC 341 Section E3.4c, where the ratio of column moments to beam moments is
SMpc
* /SMpb
* , 2.0
lateral bracing of column flanges at beam-column connections is provided at the levels of both the top
and bottom beam flanges. Where a concrete slab is supported, this may be considered to provide the
necessary bracing.
Where SMpc * ≥ 2.0, bracing is required only at the level of the top flanges of the beams.
* /SMpb

Example 3-12
Figure 3-39 shows the beam-column connection of a steel special moment-resisting frame with a
redundancy factor of 1.0. The beam supports a concrete slab over its full length. Determine if the col-
umn satisfies local buckling requirements.
Solution
The ratio of column moments to beam moment is obtained from Example 3-10 as
SMpc
* /SMpb
* 5 1.5
, 2.0
Hence, the flange width-to-thickness ratio of the column is limited by Table 3-1 to a maximum value
of
bcf /2tcf 5 0.32(E/Ry Fy)0.5
5 0.32[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 7.35
bcf /2tcf 5 7.15
Ca 5 Puc /fc Pyc
5 200/(0.9 3 38.8 3 50)
5 0.115
. 0.114
hc /tcw 5 0.88(2.68 2 Ca)(E/Ry Fy)0.5
5 0.88(2.68 2 0.115)[29,000/(1.1 3 50)]0.5
5 51.8
hc/tcw 5 17.7
Lateral bracing is provided by the concrete slab.

Chapter 3 343
3.11.6 Panel zone design
To prevent shear buckling during cyclic loading, the individual thicknesses of column webs and dou-
bler plates shall not be less than the value given by AISC 341 Equation (E3-7) as
t 5 (dz 1 wz)/90
where: dz 5 db 2 2tf of deeper beam at connection
wz 5 panel zone width between column flanges
The thickness of any doubler plate may be included in t, provided it is connected to the column web
with a minimum of four plug welds adequate to prevent local buckling of the plate, as shown in Fig-
ure 3-41. In addition, as specified in AISC 341 Section E3.6e3, where the doubler plate is placed
against the column web, it must be welded to the column flanges to develop the available shear yield-
ing strength of the doubler plate. The doubler plate must be either complete-joint-penetration groove
welded or fillet welded to the column flanges. Where continuity plates are not used, the doubler plate
must be fillet welded top and bottom to develop the proportion of the total force that is transmitted to
the doubler plate. For this situation, the doubler plates must extend a minimum of 6 inches above and
below the top and bottom of the deeper beam. Where continuity plates are used, the doubler plate must
be welded to the continuity plates to develop 75 percent of the available shear strength of the doubler
plate. Where the doubler plates are placed away from the column web, they must be placed symmetri-
cally in pairs and complete-joint-penetration groove welded to continuity plates to develop the pro rata
share of the total force transmitted to the doubler plate.
A A
k1 + (1/2 in max)
ho Plug welds
to doubler
1
/4 in
Lnet
kdet + 11/2 in kdet + (11/2 in min)
Typ Section A-A
Figure 3-41 Continuity plates

From AISC 341 Section 3E.6e(1), the required shear strength of the panel zone is determined from
the summation of the moments at the column faces by projecting the expected moments at the plastic
hinges to the column faces. The required shear strength is
Ru 5 Mf /ho
where: ho 5 distance between beam flange centroids
Mf 5 bending moment at the face of the column
5 Mpr 1 VhSh
Vh 5 shear force at plastic hinge
5 2Mpr /Lh 1 wuLh /2
Lh 5 length between plastic hinges
wu 5 factored gravity load on the beam
5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L 1 0.2S
Sh 5 distance between plastic hinge and face of column
The design shear strength of the column panel zone is given by AISC 360 Equation (J10-11) as
Ru 5 0.60fFy dc tp(1 1 3bcf t 2cf /db dc tp)

where: f 5 1.0 . . . from AISC 341 Section E3.6e
tp 5 tcw 1 ddbl
ddbl 5 doubler plate thickness
Example 3-13
factor of 1.0. Determine if doubler plates are required.
Solution
Shear buckling
The minimum column web thickness to prevent shear buckling is given by AISC 341 Equation
(E3-7) as
t 5 (dz 1 wz)/90
5 (db 2 2tf 1 dc 2 2tcf)/90
5 (21.7 2 2 3 0.96 1 14.7 2 2 3 1.03)/90
5 0.360 in

Chapter 3 345
The actual column web thickness is
tcw 5 0.645
. t . . . satisfactory
Required shear strength
From AISC 341 Section 3E.6e(1), the required shear strength of the panel zone is
Ru 5 Mf /ho
5 13,487/20.7
5 652 kips
Available shear strength
The available shear strength of the column panel zone is given by AISC 360 Equation (J10-11) as
fRn 5 0.60fFy dc tcw[1 1 (3bcf t 2cf )/(db dc tcw)]

5 0.60 3 1.0 3 50 3 14.7 3 0.645[1 1 (3 3 14.7 3 1.032)/(21.7 3 14.7 3 0.645)]
5 349 kips
, Ru . . . unsatisfactory
A doubler plate is required with a thickness of 0.75 inch to give a total thickness of
tp 5 tcw 1 ddbl
5 0.645 1 0.75
5 1.395 in
This provides an available shear strength of
fRn 5 680 kips

3.11.7 Continuity plates
Requirements for the provision and design of continuity plates, also known as stiffener plates, are pro-
vided in AISC 358 Section 2.4, AISC 341 Section E3.6f, and AISC 360 Section J10.
As specified in AISC 358 Section 2.4, continuity plates must be provided in accordance with the
details of the particular prequalified connection where these are required. Where continuity plates are
not specifically detailed for a prequalified connection, they must be provided in accordance with AISC
341.

Where the beam flange is welded to the flange of a W-shape column, AISC 341 Equation (E3-8)
requires the provision of a continuity plate when
tcf , bbf /6
The beam flange force applied to the column flange is specified by AISC 341 Section E3.6f.1. Where
the beam web is welded to the column flange, it is assumed that the web participates in transferring the
beam moment, Mf , to the column and the beam flange force is
Pf 5 0.85Mf /as d*
Where the beam web is bolted to the column flange, it is assumed that only the beam flanges transfer
the beam moment to the column and the beam flange force is
Pf 5 Mf /as d*
where: Mf 5 maximum probable moment at face of column
Pf 5 required strength at the column face
ho 5 distance between centroids of beam flanges
as 5 LRFD-ASD force level adjustment factor
Where the required strength at the column face exceeds the available column strength, continuity
plates in accordance with AISC 360 Section J10.8 and AISC 341 Section E3.6f.2 must be provided.
The minimum continuity plate thickness specified by AISC 341 Section E3.6f is
tst 5 0.75tbf . . . for two-sided (interior column) connections

and tst 5 tbf /2 . . . for one-sided (exterior column) connections
The minimum width of a continuity plate is required to match the beam flange.
In accordance with AISC 360 Section J10.8, where continuity plates are required, they shall be designed
as axially loaded columns to support the beam flange force. The effective length is taken as
Le 5 0.75h
where: h 5 clear distance between flanges, less the corner radii
5 dc 2 2kdes
dc 5 depth of column
kdes 5 distance from outer face of column flange to web toe of fillet design value
The cross section of the column may be considered to consist of the stiffener and a strip of column web
having a width of 25tw.
Continuity plates are welded to the column flange using complete-joint-penetration groove welds,
as shown in Figure 3-41. Continuity plates are clipped as detailed in AISC 358 Section 3.6 and as

Chapter 3 347
shown in Figure 3-41 to avoid the column k-area. The plates are welded to column webs using com-
plete-joint-penetration groove welds or fillet welds. The required strength of the sum of the welded
joints of the continuity plates to the column web is the lesser of the following:
(i) the sum of the design strengths in tension of the contact areas of the continuity plates to the col-
umn flanges, which is
Ru 5 2fFyst tst(bst 2 k1 2 0.5 in)
(ii) the design strength in shear of the contact area of the continuity plates with the column web,
which is
Ru 5 2 3 0.60fFyst tst Lnet

where: Lnet 5 net length of continuity plate
5 dc 2 2(kdet 1 1.5 in) . . . from AISC 358 Section 3.6
kdet 5 distance from outer face of column flange to web toe of fillet detailing value
(iii) the design strength in shear of the column panel zone, which is given by AISC 360 Equation
(J10‑11) as
Ru 5 0.60fFydctp[1 1 (3bcf t 2cf )/(db dc tp)]

where: f 5 1.0 . . . from AISC 341 Section E3.6c
tp 5 tcw 1 ddbl
ddbl 5 doubler plate thickness
(iv) the sum of the beam flange forces produced by the maximum probable moment at the column
face, which is
Ru 5 Mpr /ho
Example 3-14
factor of 1.0. Design the continuity plates using A36 steel.
Solution
bbf /6 5 12.4/6
5 2.07 in
. tcf . . . continuity plates are required

Continuity plate thickness
The minimum continuity plate thickness specified by AISC 341 Section E3.6f.2 is
tst 5 tbf /2 . . . for one-sided (exterior column) connections

5 0.96/2
5 0.48
Use tst 5 0.75 in
The required continuity plate width is
bst 5 (bbf 2 tcw)/2

5 (12.4 2 0.645)/2
5 5.88 in
Use bst 5 7 in
The beam flange design force for a welded beam web is given by
Puc 5 0.85Mf /ho

5 0.85 3 13,487/20.7
5 554 kips
The effective column resisting the flange force consists of the two stiffener plates plus a strip of web
having a width of 25tcw . The effective column has a moment of inertia of
I  tst(2bst 1 tcw)3/12
5 0.75 3 (14.645)3/12
5 196 in4
The area of the effective column is
A 5 2bst tst 1 25(tcw)2

5 2 3 7 3 0.75 1 25 3 0.6452
5 20.9 in2
The radius of gyration of the effective column is
r 5 (I/A)0.5
5 (196/20.9)0.5
5 3.06 in

Chapter 3 349
The clear distance between flanges less the corner radii is
h 5 dc 2 2kdes
5 14.7 2 2 3 1.63
5 11.44 in
For an effective length factor of K 5 0.75, the slenderness ratio of the effective column is
KL/r 5 0.75h/r
5 0.75 3 11.44/3.06
5 2.80
From AISC Manual Table 4-14, the available axial compressive stress for the stiffener is
Fcr 5 32.4 ksi
The available axial strength of the stiftener
Pc 5 Fcr A
5 32.4 3 20.9
5 677 kips
Continuity plate welding
The required strength of the sum of the welded joints of the continuity plates to the column web is the
lesser of the following:
(i) the sum of the design strengths in tension of the contact areas of both continuity plates to the
column flanges, which is
Ru 5 2fFyst tst(bst 2 k1 2 0.5 in)

5 2 3 0.9 3 36 3 0.75 3 (7 2 1.56 2 0.5)
5 240 kips
(ii) the design strength in shear of the contact area of both continuity plates with the column web,
which is
Ru 5 2 3 0.60fFyst tst Lnet

5 2 3 0.6 3 0.9 3 36 3 0.75[14.7 2 2(2.31 1 1.5)]

(iii) the design strength in shear of the column panel zone, which is
Ru 5 0.60fFy dc tp[1 1 (3bcf t 2cf )/(dbdctp)]

(iv) the sum of the expected yield strengths of the beam flanges transmitting force to the continuity
plates, which is
Ru 5 Mpr /ho
5 11,891/20.7
5 574 kips
The total length of fillet weld provided for welds on both sides of the continuity plates is
l 5 2 3 2(Lnet 2 0.5) . . . from Figure 3-41

5 2 3 2(7.08 2 0.5)
5 26.3 in
The design fillet weld strength per 1⁄16 inch of E70XX electrodes is given by AISC 360 Table J2.5 as
qu 5 0.60fFEXXAw
5 0.60 3 0.75 3 70 3 0.707/16
5 1.39 kips/in
The required weld size per 1⁄16 inch is
D 5 Ru /lqu
5 206/(26.3 3 1.39)
5 5.6 sixteenths
Hence, the required weld size is
w 5 5.6/16
5 3⁄8 in . . . to the nearest 1⁄16 in
The thickness of the column web is 5⁄8 inch and the minimum allowable fillet weld size connecting the
stiffeners to the web is given by AISC 360 Table J2.4 as
wmin 5 1⁄4 in
, w . . . satisfactory

Chapter 3 351
The minimum thickness of web required to match the shear rupture strength of the welds on opposite
sides of the web is given by AISC Manual Part 9 as
tmin 5 6.19D/Fuc
5 6.19 3 5.6/65
5 0.53 in
, tcw . . . satisfactory
3.12 Buckling-restrained braced frames

A buckling-restrained brace consists of a brace in which buckling is inhibited, thereby permitting com-
pression yielding of the brace to occur, as well as tensile yielding.24, 25, 26 As shown in Figure 3-42, the
brace element consists of a steel core encased in a steel tube filled with mortar that acts as a restraining
element. The steel core is debonded over its length from the mortar fill, thus allowing relative deforma-
tion between the two elements. Axial loads are resisted by the core only, whereas the casing and mortar
fill prevents Euler buckling and local buckling of the core. As shown in Figure 3-42, several alternative
configurations are possible for the core and for the end attachments.
In a conventional special concentric braced frame with chevron configuration, the strength of the struc-
ture is limited by the Euler buckling load of the brace in compression. A typical hysteretic response for
an unrestrained brace is shown in Figure 3-43. The buckling of the brace under compression loading
produces a significant loss in strength, a reduction in the area under the hysteretic curve, and a decrease
in the amount of energy dissipation. Because of this, the single-diagonal braced frame is not permitted.
The strength of the beam is governed by the unbalanced forces in the tension and compression braces.
The braces are designed to resist buckling, resulting in large forces in the connections and the frame.
In a buckling-restrained braced frame with chevron configuration, ductile yielding in both tension and
compression occurs in the brace. This produces a symmetrical hysteretic curve, as shown in Figure
3-43, with a consequent increase in energy dissipation and the ability to resist numerous cycles of
alternating loads without degradation. Because the tension and compressive strengths of a buckling-re-
strained brace are almost identical, the single-diagonal braced frame is permitted. The buckling-re-
strained braced frame provides an elastic stiffness equivalent to that of an eccentrically braced frame,
and ductility and energy dissipation equivalent to that of a special moment frame.
The design of a buckling-restrained braced frame is based on the utilization of buckling-restrained

braces qualified by testing. As specified in AISC 341 Section K3, cyclic testing is required on a buck-
ling-restrained brace test specimen and on a subassemblage test specimen. The performance of the
brace and the subassemblage must be satisfactory up to a deformation corresponding to twice the
design story drift of the prototype frame with a minimum value for the story drift of 1 percent of the
story height. Prequalified braces are available from several manufacturers.27, 28

Figure 3-42 Buckling-restrained braced frames
Buckling-restrained braced frames, as specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, may be used in building
frame systems in all seismic design categories. A value of 8 is specified for the response modification
coefficient, a value of 2.5 for the overstrength factor, and a value of 5 for the deflection amplification
factor. As specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height in seismic
design categories A, B, and C. The maximum height permitted in seismic design categories D and E is
160 feet, and in seismic design category F, it is 100 feet.
Inelastic deformations under the design earthquake occur primarily as brace yielding in tension and
compression, while other members of the frame remain nominally elastic.
Buckling-restrained braced frames may be used in dual systems with special moment frames in all
seismic design categories, using a value of 8 for the response modification coefficient, a value of 2.5
for the overstrength factor, and a value of 5 for the deflection amplification factor. In accordance with
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height.

Chapter 3 353
Figure 3-43 Hysteretic response
3.12.1 Buckling-restrained brace applications
Buckling-restrained braces are typically used in concentrically braced frames. In a special concentri-
cally braced frame, buckling of the compression brace is the controlling factor in the strength of the
frame. Compression buckling results in severe loss of brace capacity and ductility, and the formation
of plastic hinges in the brace leads to eventual fracture. Since buckling strength governs the size of
the braces, the brace is unnecessarily strong in tension. Hence, the design of other members of the
braced frame, using capacity design principles, results in member sizes that are larger than necessary.
For chevron bracing configurations, the beam intersected by the braces has to be designed for the large
unbalanced brace force.
Buckling-restrained brace frames have superior ductile performance compared with special concentri-
cally braced frames. The buckling restrained brace has almost identical strengths in tension and com-
pression and is not subject to compression buckling and degradation in hysteretic response. Hence,
the brace forces are lower than in a special concentrically braced frame and the other members of the
frame are correspondingly smaller. In addition, the beam intersected by the braces in a chevron con-
figuration does not have to be designed for a large unbalanced brace force.

ASCE 7 Table 12.8-2 gives values for the building period parameter, Ct, of 0.03 for a buckling-
restrained braced frame and 0.02 for a special concentrically braced frame. Hence, the building fun-
damental period, T, given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7), is 50 percent higher for the special buckling-
restrained frame. This results in a lower value of the seismic response coefficient, Cs, given by ASCE 7
Equation (12.8-3) and a lower value of the seismic base shear, V, given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1).
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 gives values for the response modification coefficient, R, of 8 for a buckling-
restrained braced frame and 6 for a special concentrically braced frame. This results in a lower value
of the seismic response coefficient, Cs, given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-3) and a lower value of the
seismic base shear, V, given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-1).
The reduction in design forces on the buckling-restrained braced frame results in a decrease in mate-
rial quantities and reduced foundation costs and makes this a cost-effective alternative to the special
concentrically braced frame.29
3.12.2 Brace requirements
The steel core is designed to resist the design axial force in the brace. The design axial strength of the
brace is given by AISC 341 Equation (F4-1) as
Pysc 5 Fysc Asc

where: Fysc 5 specified minimum yield stress of the steel core, or actual yield stress as
determined from a coupon test
Asc 5 net area of steel core
The required area of the steel core is determined from

Asc 5 Pu /fFysc
where: Pu 5 calculated load on the brace from AISC 341 Section F4.3, based on the
seismic base shear and neglecting the effects of gravity loads
f 5 resistance factor
5 0.9
W 5 safety factor
5 1.67
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F4.2, the buckling-restraining system shall prevent Euler buck-
ling and local buckling of the steel core at a deformation corresponding to the larger of twice the design
story drift or 2 percent of the story height. The design drift is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15) as
Dx 5 DxeCd /Ie

Chapter 3 355
where: Dxe 5 theoretical drift, caused by the code-prescribed design level forces, as
determined by an elastic analysis
Cd 5 deflection amplification factor for inelastic deformation, given in ASCE 7
Table 12.2-1
Ie 5 seismic importance factor given in ASCE 7 Table 1.5-2
As shown in Figure 3-44, the elongation of the brace, Db, for a story drift of Dx is
Db 5 Dx cos q
Lateral Vertical Rotation

displacement displacement
Figure 3-44 Brace deformation
Because of the brace overstrength in compression, a vertical upward deflection is produced in a beam
intersected by braces in a chevron configuration. In accordance with AISC 341 Section C-F4.4a, the
maximum elongation of the brace must be increased to allow for this vertical deflection. As shown in
Figure 3-44, the elongation of the brace, Db , for a vertical deflection of Dy is
Db 5 Dy sin q
Similarly, the buckling-restrained brace must perform satisfactorily with end connection rotational
demands corresponding to twice the design story drift. As shown in Figure 3-44, the end rotation asso-
ciated with a design story drift of Dx is
l  Dx /h
The design of a buckling-restrained brace is based on the testing of a similarly sized specimen and on
a brace subassemblage that includes rotational demands. The uniaxial test is required to demonstrate
adequate brace hysteretic performance and to determine the overstrength factors for the design of the
other prototype members. The subassemblage test is required to demonstrate that deformations and
rotations of the prototype structure will not cause failure of any of the component parts. For some

subassemblage arrangements, a single test may qualify as both a subassemblage and a brace test. Test
requirements are detailed in AISC 341 Section K3 and are designed to confirm that the brace can
function as intended. Prequalified braces may be selected from catalogs,27, 28 provided that they have
adequate strength and are similar in scale to the prototype.
To be acceptable, the prequalified brace must satisfy the following requirements of AISC 341 Section
K3.3c, which are:
• the cross-sectional shape and orientation of the steel core shall be the same as that of the
prototype
• the axial yield stress of the steel core shall not be less than 30 percent nor more than 120 per-
cent of the prototype
• the method of separation between the steel core and the buckling restraining mechanism, and
the material used, shall be the same as in the prototype
Hence, the axial strength of the steel core of the prototype brace may vary from a maximum of 3.33Pysc
to a minimum of 0.83Pysc , where Pysc is the design axial strength of the steel core of the prequalified
brace.
Testing also provides the designer with the magnitude of the adjusted, or maximum, brace strength
that can be developed in the prototype. The maximum brace force may be significantly greater than the
design strength because of compression overstrength, strain hardening, and the use of a resistance fac-
tor. The adjusted brace strength is used in the design of the brace connections and the other prototype
members using capacity-design principles. As shown in Figure 3-45 and defined in AISC 341 Section
F4.2a, the adjusted brace strength in tension is given by
Tmax 5 wRy Pysc
where: Tmax 5 tensile force in the brace at a brace deformation of Dbm
Dbm 5 deformation of the brace corresponding to the design story drift of the
prototype
Pysc 5 Fysc Asc
w 5 strain hardening adjustment factor
Ry 5 ratio of expected yield stress to specified minimum yield stress
5 1.0 . . . when Fysc is determined from a coupon test of the steel core
The adjusted brace strength in compression is given by
Pmax 5 bwRy Pysc
where: Pmax 5 compressive force in the brace at a brace deformation of Dm
b 5 compression overstrength adjustment factor
5 Pmax/Tmax
≤ 1.5 . . . from AISC 341 Section K3.8

Chapter 3 357
Figure 3-45 Brace force/displacement diagram
Braces with values of b and w less than unity are not permitted. In addition, the ratio of maximum
compressive force to maximum tension force shall not exceed 1.5 during the brace tests for cycles with
a deformation greater than Dby
where: Dby 5 deformation of brace corresponding to yield
The required test loading protocol is specified in AISC 341 Section K3.4c and is illustrated in Figure
3-46. Two cycles of loading are required at brace deformations and rotations corresponding to Dby ,
0.5Dbm , Dbm , 1.5Dbm , and 2Dbm . In addition, for the brace test specimen, additional cycles are required
at a deformation of 1.5Dbm to produce a cumulative inelastic axial deformation of 200 times the yield
deformation.
The requirements for the steel core of the brace test specimen are specified in AISC 341 Section K3.3e
and are:
• the specified minimum yield stress shall be identical with that of the prototype
• the measured yield stress shall be not less than 90 percent of that of the prototype, as measured
by coupon tests
• the specified minimum ultimate stress and strain shall not exceed those of the prototype

Figure 3-46 Testing protocol
Example 3-15
Figure 3-47 shows the bottom story of a multistory buckling-restrained braced frame with a redun-
dancy factor of r 5 1.0. The structure is located on a site with a design response acceleration of
SDS 5 1.0g. The specified minimum yield stress of the grade A36 steel core is Fysc 5 40 kips/in2. The
design story drift produced by the design loads is estimated as 1 percent of the story height, and the
vertical deflection of the beam at the second floor as 1/500 times the beam span. The load acting on a
brace based on the seismic base shear and neglecting gravity loads is
design seismic force 5 230 kips

Chapter 3 359
Determine the area required for the steel core of the prototype and the requirements of a suitable pre-
qualified brace.
Solution
The seismic load acting on the prototype brace is given in the problem statement as
Pu 5 230 kips
The required design axial strength of the steel core is
Pysc 5 Pu /f
5 230/0.9
5 256 kips
The required area of the steel core is given by AISC 341 Equation (F4-1) as
Asc 5 Pysc /Fysc

5 256/40
5 6.40 in2
The minimum permissible axial strength of a prequalified brace is given by AISC 341 Section K3.3c as
Pymin 5 0.3 3 Pysc

5 0.3 3 256
5 77 kips
The maximum permissible axial strength of a prequalified brace is given by AISC 341 Section K3.3c as
Pymax 5 1.2 3 Pysc

5 1.2 3 256
5 307 kips
The brace deformation caused by the design story drift is
Dbm 5 Dx cos q
Dbm 5 0.01 3 hcos q
5 0.01 3 14 3 12cos 45°
5 1.19 in

The brace deformation caused by the vertical deflection of the beam is

Db 5 Dy sin q
5 (l/500)sin q
5 (28 3 12/500)sin 45°
5 0.48 in
The minimum deformation required from the prequalified brace in accordance with AISC 341 Section
F4.4a is
Dbm 1 Db 5 1.19 1 0.48
5 1.67 in
3.12.3 Brace connection requirements
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F4.6c, the required strength of bracing connections is
Pu 5 Pmax
where: Pmax 5 adjusted brace strength in compression
5 bwRy Pysc
Pysc 5 design axial strength of the brace
Example 3-16
Figure 3-47 shows the bottom story of a multistory buckling-restrained braced frame with a design
axial strength of the steel core of Pysc 5 256 kips, which is established using the yield stress deter-
mined from a coupon test. The following factors are obtained from the prequalification tests
5 1.15
5 1.35
Determine the required strength of bracing connections.

Chapter 3 361
Solution
From AISC 341 Section F4.6c, the required strength of bracing connections is
Pu 5 bwRy Pysc
5 1.15 3 1.35 3 1.0 3 256
5 397 kips
3.12.4 Beam design requirements
In a buckling-restrained braced frame utilizing chevron bracing, AISC 341 Section F4.4a requires the
beam to be continuous between columns and to be designed to carry all tributary gravity loads, without
support from the bracing, using the load combinations of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6. In addition, for load
combinations that include seismic effects, the earthquake load, Emh , is replaced by the unbalanced
force, Qb , produced by the adjusted brace strengths in tension and compression. The beam is then
designed for the load combinations
(1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L 1 0.2S 1 Qb

(0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 2 Qb
As specified in AISC 341 Section F4.4a(b), the top and bottom flanges of the beam must be laterally
supported, as a minimum, at the point of intersection of the chevron braces. This may be achieved by
designing the lateral brace for the force given by AISC 360 Appendix 6, Equation (A-6-7) as
Pbr 5 0.02MrCd /ho

where: Mr 5 beam required flexural strength
5 Ry ZFy
Cd 5 curvature factor
5 1.0 for bending in single curvature
ho 5 distance between beam flange centroids
The required stiffness of the lateral brace is given by AISC 360 Appendix 6, Equation (A-6-8) as
bbr 5 10Mr Cd /fLb ho

where: f 5 resistance factor
5 0.75
Lb 5 laterally unbraced length

Additional bracing is provided, as necessary for a moderately ductile member, to satisfy AISC 341
Equation (D1-2).
To reduce the possibility of local buckling, AISC 341 Section F4.5a requires beams to be compact
sections, as tabulated in Table 3-1 for moderately ductile members.
Example 3-17
Figure 3-47 shows the bottom story of a multistory buckling-restrained braced frame with a design
axial strength of the steel core of Pysc 5 256 kips, which is established using the yield stress deter-
mined from a coupon test. The following factors are obtained from the prequalification tests
5 1.15
5 1.35
Determine the unbalanced vertical force, Qb , produced by the adjusted brace strengths in tension and
compression.
Solution
The adjusted brace strength in compression is defined in AISC 341 Section F4.2a as
Pmax 5 bwRy Pysc

where: b 5 compression overstrength adjustment factor
5 1.15
5 1.35
Pysc 5 design axial strength of the brace
5 256 kips
Hence: Pmax 5 1.15 3 1.35 3 1.0 3 256
5 397 kips

Chapter 3 363
The adjusted brace strength in tension is defined in AISC 341 Section F4.2a as
Tmax 5 wRy Pysc

5 1.35 3 1.0 3 256
5 346 kips
The unbalanced vertical force is
Qb 5 (Pmax 2 Tmax)sin q
5 (397 2 346)sin 45°
5 36 kips
3.12.5 Column design requirements
In a buckling-restrained braced frame for load combinations that include seismic effects, AISC 341
Section F4.3 requires the earthquake load, Emh , to be determined from the adjusted brace strengths in
tension and compression. AISC 341 Section F4.5a requires columns to be compact sections, as tabu-
lated in Table 3-1 for moderately ductile members.
In accordance with AISC 341 Section F4.6a, welds at column splices and column-to-base plate con-
nections are designated demand critical.
Example 3-18
The three-story buckling-restrained braced frame shown in Figure 3-48(a) has braces in all stories with
a design axial strength of the steel core of Pysc 5 256 kips, which is established using the yield stress
determined from a coupon test. The following factors are obtained from the prequalification tests
5 1.15
5 1.35
The building is located on a site with a design response acceleration parameter of SDS 5 1.0g. The
gravity loads acting on the columns in the bottom story are

Determine the required axial strength of the columns in the bottom story.

14 ft 14 ft
Tmax Pmax
14 ft
Pmax
θ
Tmax Pmax
14 ft
Pmax
Pmax
14 ft Tmax
Pmax
(a) (b)
Solution
The seismic loading condition is shown in Figure 3-48(b). From Example 3-17
Tmax 5 adjusted brace strength in tension
5 wRy Pysc
5 1.35 3 1.0 3 256
5 346 kips
Pmax 5 bwRy Pysc
5 1.15 3 1.35 3 1.0 3 256
5 397 kips
The unbalanced, vertical upward force on the midpoint of the beam is
Qb 5 (Pmax 2 Tmax)sin q
5 (397 2 346)sin 45°
5 36 kips
Allowing for the gravity loads, and applying load combination 6 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6, the required
column compressive strength is
Pr 5 23Qb/2 1 2 3 Pmax sin 45° 1 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L
5 23 3 36/2 1 2 3 397 3 sin 45° 1 1.4 3 80 1 0.5 3 30
5 634 kips

Chapter 3 365
3.13 Steel special plate shear walls

In a steel special plate shear wall, an unstiffened steel plate is connected to the surrounding beams
and columns in a building frame and resists earthquake forces by ductile, hysteretic behavior.30, 31 As
shown in Figure 3-49, the steel plates are installed in one or more bays of the building frame over
the full height of the structure. The horizontal boundary elements, consisting of the beams in the
framework, are connected to the vertical boundary elements, consisting of the columns, with moment-
resisting connections. The building frame is designed to support all gravity loads without assistance
from the steel plates. Lateral loads are resisted by the buckling of the plate, utilizing diagonal tension
field action, while the boundary elements remain elastic, with the exception of plastic hinges that
occur at the ends of the beams. For intermediate horizontal boundary elements, with a web member
of equal thickness above and below, the net force applied to the element by the vertical components of
the tension fields is zero. At the top panel, the top horizontal boundary element must possess sufficient
strength to resist the vertical component of the tension field. Similarly at the bottom panel, the bottom
horizontal boundary element must resist the tension field in the plate, and this may be achieved by
anchoring the element to the foundation.
Figure 3-49 Steel special plate shear wall
The advantages of the steel special plate shear wall are:
• the system allows wall thicknesses less than for other systems
• the system can be constructed more quickly than other systems
• there is a reduction in weight compared with concrete shear walls

The disadvantages of the steel special plate shear wall are:
• the system is more flexible than other systems and may require additional stiffening elements
• to prevent compression stress being introduced into the plates, the plates must be installed after
dead load deformation has occurred in the building frame
Steel special plate shear walls, as specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, may be utilized in building frame
systems in all seismic design categories using a value of 2 for the overstrength factor and a value of
6 for the deflection amplification factor. A value of 7 is specified for the response modification coef-
ficient. No limitation is imposed on the building height in seismic design categories A, B, and C. The
maximum height permitted in seismic design categories D and E is 160 feet, and in seismic design
category F, it is 100 feet.
Steel special plate shear walls may be utilized in dual systems, with special moment frames, in all
seismic design categories using a value of 2.5 for the overstrength factor and 6.5 for the deflection
amplification factor. A value of 8 is specified for the response modification coefficient. In accordance
with ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1, no limitation is imposed on the building height.
3.13.1 Web requirements
The minimum aspect ratio to ensure ductility is typically
L/h 5 0.6
The maximum aspect ratio is limited by the strength of the horizontal boundary element.
The L/tw ratio usually ranges from a minimum of 300 to a maximum of 800.
The angle of inclination of the tension field to the vertical is given by AISC 341 Equation (F5-2) as
tan4a 5 (1 1 twL/2Ac)/(1 1 tw h/Ab 1 tw h4/360Ic L)

where: tw 5 thickness of the web
L 5 distance between vertical boundary element centerlines
Ac 5 cross-sectional area of a vertical boundary element
h 5 distance between horizontal boundary element centerlines
Ab 5 cross-sectional area of a horizontal boundary element
Ic 5 moment of inertia of a vertical boundary element

Chapter 3 367
The nominal shear strength of the plate web is given by AISC 341 Equation (F5-1) as
Vn 5 0.42Fy twLcf sin 2a

where: Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the plate
Lcf 5 clear distance between vertical boundary element flanges
The resistance factor is
f 5 0.90
Example 3-19
Figure 3-50 shows one panel of a steel special plate shear wall with moment-resisting beam-column
connections. The plate is 1⁄4 inch thick with a yield stress of Fy 5 36 kips/in2. Determine the nominal
shear strength of the panel.
W12 × 106
1
/4-in plate
W12 × 72
hcf = 10.98 ft
h = 12 ft
Lcf = 10.93 ft
L = 12 ft

Solution
From Figure 3-50:
tw 5 0.25 in
Ac 5 31.2 in2 . . . for a W12 3 106
L 5 12 3 12 5 144 in
h 5 12 3 12 5 144 in
Ic 5 933 in4
Ab 5 21.1 in2 . . . for a W12 3 72
The panel aspect ratio is
L/h 5 12/12
5 1.0
The width/thickness ratio is
L/tw 5 144/0.25
5 576
. 300 . . . satisfactory
The angle of inclination of the tension field to the vertical is given by AISC 341 Equation (F5-2) as
tan4a 5 (1 1 tw L/2Ac)/(1 1 tw h/Ab 1 tw h4/360Ic L)

5 (1 1 36/62.4)/[1 1 36/21.1 1 746,496/(360 3 933)]
5 0.32
tan a 5 0.752
a 5 36.95°
The nominal shear strength of the plate web is given by AISC 341 Equation (F5-1) as
Vn 5 0.42Fy tw Lcf sin 2a

5 0.42 3 36 3 0.25 3 10.93 3 12 3 sin 73.90°
5 476 kips

Chapter 3 369
3.13.2 Strip model methodology
The boundary elements of a panel must resist the forces developed by the tension field action of the
fully yielding web. These forces are determined from a plane frame analysis with the web represented
by a number of pin-ended strips inclined at an angle, a, to the vertical, as shown in Figure 3-51. A
minimum of 10 equally spaced strips are required to give accurate results, and the expected tensile
strength of a strip is given by AISC 341 Commentary Section F5.6c as
Ts exp 5 RyFyAs
where: Ry 5 ratio of expected yield stress to specified minimum yield stress of the plate
Fy 5 specified minimum yield stress of the plate
As 5 area of a strip
5 tw(Lcf cos a 1 hcf sin a)/n
hcf 5 clear distance between horizontal boundary element flanges
n 5 number of strips per panel
≥ 10
hcf
Lcf
Figure 3-51 Strip model
Example 3-20
Figure 3-50 shows one panel of a steel special plate shear wall with moment-resisting beam-column
connections. The plate is 1⁄4 inch thick with a yield stress of Fy 5 36 kips/in2. The web is divided into
10 equally spaced strips aligned in the direction of the tension field. Determine the expected tensile
strength of a strip.

Solution
The angle of inclination of the tension field to the vertical is obtained in Example 3-19 as
a 5 36.95°
The area of a strip is given by AISC 341 Commentary Section F5.6c as
As 5 tw(Lcf cos a 1 hcf sin a)/n

5 0.25(10.93 3 12cos 36.95° 1 10.98 3 12sin 36.95°)/10
5 4.60 in2
The ratio of expected yield stress to specified minimum yield stress of the plate is
Ry 5 1.3 . . . from Table 3-2 for A36 steel
The specified minimum yield stress of the plate is
Fy 5 36 kips/in2 . . . from Table 3-2 for A36 steel
The expected tensile strength of a strip is given by AISC Commentary Section F5.6c as
Ts exp 5 Ry Fy As
5 1.3 3 36 3 4.60
5 215 kips
References
2. American Institute of Steel Construction. Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings. AISC
341-16. Chicago, IL, 2016.
4. American Institute of Steel Construction. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. AISC 360-
16. Chicago, IL, 2016.
5. Tremblay, R. “Seismic Behavior and Design of Concentrically Braced Frames.” Engineering
Journal, 38, No. 3. American Institute of Steel Construction. Chicago, IL, 2001.
6. Engelhardt, M. D. Concentrically Braced Frames. AISC. Chicago, IL, 2007.
7. Sabelli, R. “Mechanism Analysis in the 2010 Seismic Provisions.” NASCC Steel Conference Pro-
ceedings. AISC. Chicago, IL, 2011.
8. American Institute of Steel Construction. Manual of Steel Construction, Fifteenth Edition. Chi-
cago, IL, 2017.

Chapter 3 371
9. Thornton, W. A. “Designing for Cost Efficient Fabrication.” Modern Steel Construction. 32, No.
2. AISC. Chicago, IL, February 1992.
10. Astaneh-Asl, A. Steel Tips: Seismic Behavior and Design of Gusset Plates. Structural Steel Edu-
cational Council. Moraga, CA, 1998.
11. Gross, J. L. “Experimental Study of Gusseted Connections.” Engineering Journal. 27, No. 3.
AISC. Chicago, IL, 1990.
12. Lindsey, S. D. Eccentric Braced Steel Frames for Wind and Low-to-Moderate Seismic Loads.
American Institute of Steel Construction. Chicago, IL, 2003.
13. Becker, R. and Ishler, M. Seismic Design Practice for Eccentrically Braced Frames. Structural
Steel Educational Council. Moraga, CA, 1996.
14. Structural Engineering Association of California. Seismic Design Manual, Volume 3: Building
Design Examples: Steel, Concrete, and Cladding. International Conference of Building Officials.
Whittier, CA, 2000.
15. Williams, A. Structural Analysis: In Theory and Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann. Burlington,
MA/ICC. Washington, DC, 2009.
16. Federal Emergency Management Agency. FEMA 350 Recommended Seismic Design Criteria for
New Steel Moment-Frame Buildings. SAC Joint Venture. Sacramento, CA, June 2000.
17. American Institute of Steel Construction. Prequalified Connections for Special and Intermediate
Steel Moment Frames for Seismic Applications. AISC 358-16. Chicago, IL, 2016.
18. Hamburger, R. O., Krawinkler, H., Malley, J. O., and Adan, S. M. “Seismic Design of Steel Spe-
cial Moment Frames: A Guide for Practicing Engineers.” NEHRP Seismic Design Technical Brief
No. 2. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD, 2009.
19. International Code Council. Slotted Web Beam-to-Column Steel Moment Frame Connection.
ICC-ES Evaluation Report, ESR-1093. Washington, DC, 2011.
20. SidePlate Systems, Inc. Engineer’s Design Guide. Laguna Hills, CA, 2012.
21. Adan, S. M. and Gibb, W. “Experimental Evaluation of Kaiser Bolted Bracket Steel Moment-
Resisting Connections.” Engineering Journal, 46, No. 3. American Institute of Steel Construction,
2009.
22. Engelhardt, M. D. and Matthew, M. A. “What’s new with prequalified connections?” Modern
Steel Construction, AISC. Chicago, IL, November 2016.
23. Iwankiw, N. R. “Ultimate strength considerations for seismic design of the reduced beam section
(internal plastic hinge).” Engineering Journal, 34, No. 1. American Institute of Steel Construc-
tion. Chicago, IL, 1997.
24. Lopez, W. A. and Sabelli, R. “Seismic Design of Buckling-Restrained Braced Frames.” NASCC
Steel Conference Proceedings. AISC. Chicago, IL, 2008.
25. Structural Engineering Association of California. “Buckling-Restrained Braced Frames.” SEAOC
Blue Book: Seismic Design Recommendations. SEAOC. Sacramento, CA, 2009.
26. Robinson, K. and Black, C. “Specifying Buckling-Restrained Braced Frames: How to Get What
You Want.” NASCC Steel Conference Proceedings. AISC. Chicago, IL, 2011.

27. CoreBrace. Product Information. West Jordan, UT, 2006.

28. Star Seismic. Product Information. Park City, UT, 2006.
29. Dasse Design Inc. Cost Advantages of Buckling-Restrained Braced Frame Buildings. Dasse. San
Francisco, CA, 2009.
30. Seillie, I. F. and Hooper, J. D. “Steel Plate Shear Walls: Practical Design and Construction.” Mod-
ern Steel Construction, 45, No. 4. AISC. Chicago, IL, April 2005.
31. Sabelli, R. Steel Plate Shear Walls. Design Guide No. 20. AISC. Chicago, IL, 2006.

CHAPTER 4
Seismic Design of Concrete Structures
Nomenclature
a depth of equivalent rectangular stress block in
Abrg net bearing area of the head of stud, anchor bolt, or headed deformed bar in2
Ach cross-sectional area of a member measured to the outside edges of transverse in2
reinforcement
Acv gross area of concrete section bounded by web thickness and length of section in the in2
direction of shear force considered in the case of walls
Ag gross area of concrete section in2
Aj effective cross-sectional area within a joint in a plane parallel to plane of beam in2
reinforcement
ANc projected concrete failure area of a single anchor or group of anchors, for calculation in2
of strength in tension
ANco projected concrete failure area of a single anchor, for calculation of strength in in2
tension if not limited by edge distance or spacing
As area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension reinforcement in2
Ase,N effective cross-sectional area of anchor in tension in2
Ase,V effective cross-sectional area of anchor in shear in2
Ase,w effective cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement in tension in2
Ast total area of nonprestressed longitudinal reinforcement in2
Atr total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement that crosses the potential in2
plane of splitting
Av area of shear reinforcement within spacing s in2
b width of compression face of member in
bc cross-sectional dimension of member core measured to the outside edges of the in
transverse reinforcement
bf effective flange width of T section in
bw web width in

374 Seismic Design of Concrete Structures
c distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis in

ca1 distance from the center of an anchor shaft to the edge of concrete in one direction in
ca1 minimum edge distance in
ca2 distance from center of an anchor shaft to the edge of concrete in the direction in
perpendicular to ca1
cb lesser of: (a) the distance from center of a bar to nearest concrete surface and in
(b) one-half the center-to-center spacing of bars being developed
cc clear cover of reinforcement in
c1 dimension of column measured in the direction of the span for which moments are in
being determined
c2 dimension of column measured in the direction perpendicular to c1 in
Cd deflection amplification factor –
d effective depth of section in
da outside diameter of anchor or shaft diameter of headed stud, headed bolt, or hooked in
bolt
db nominal diameter of bar in
D effect of service dead load –
eh distance from the inner surface of the shaft of a J- or L-bolt to the outer tip of the J- in
or L-bolt
E effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced forces –
Ec modulus of elasticity of concrete psi
Es modulus of elasticity of reinforcement steel 29,000 ksi
fc9 specified compressive strength of concrete psi
fr modulus of rupture psi
fs tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads psi
futa specified tensile strength of anchor steel psi
fy specified yield strength for nonprestressed reinforcement psi
fya specified yield strength of anchor steel psi
fyt specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement psi
h overall thickness, height, or depth of member in
hef effective embedment depth of anchor in
hu laterally unsupported height at extreme compression fiber of wall in
hw height of entire wall from base to top in
Chapter 4 375
hx maximum center-to-center spacing of longitudinal bars laterally supported in

by corners of crossties or hoop legs around the perimeter of the column
Hn column clear height in
I moment of inertia of section about centroidal axis in4
Icr moment of inertia of cracked section in4
Ig moment of inertia of gross concrete section in4
kcp coefficient for pryout strength –
Ktr transverse reinforcement index in
l span length of beam in
lc vertical distance between supports in
lc length of compression member, measured center-to-center of the joints in
ld development length in tension of deformed bar in
ldc development length in compression of deformed bar in
ldh development length in tension of hooked bar in
lo length over which special transverse reinforcement must be provided in
lsc compression lap splice length in
lst tension lap splice length in
lw length of entire wall in direction of shear force in
L effect of service live load –
Ln beam clear span in
Lr effect of service roof live load –
Ma maximum moment in member due to service loads including P-delta effects lb-in
Mcr cracking moment lb-in
Mn nominal flexural strength at section lb-in
Mnb nominal flexural strength of beam including slab where in tension lb-in
Mnc nominal flexural strength of column framing into joint, calculated for factored axial lb-in
force
Mpr probable flexural strength of member assuming a tensile stress in the longitudinal lb-in
bars of 1.25fy and a strength reduction factor f of 1.0
Msa maximum moment in wall due to service loads, excluding P-delta effects lb-in
Mu factored moment at section lb-in
n number of items –

n Es /Ec –
Nb basic concrete breakout strength in tension of a single anchor in cracked concrete lb
Ncb nominal concrete breakout strength in tension of a single anchor lb
Ncbg nominal concrete breakout strength in tension of a group of anchors lb
Ncp basic concrete pryout strength of a single anchor lb
Ncpg basic concrete pryout strength of a group of anchors lb
Nn nominal strength in tension lb
Np pullout strength in tension of a single anchor in cracked concrete lb
Npn nominal pullout strength in tension of a single anchor lb
Nsa nominal strength of a single anchor or individual anchor in a group of anchors in lb
tension as governed by the steel strength
Nsb side-face blowout strength of a single anchor lb
Ps unfactored axial load at midheight section including effects of self-weight lb
Pu factored axial force lb
PD secondary moment due to lateral deflection lb-in
QE effect of horizontal seismic forces –
R effect of rain load –
R response modification factor –
s center-to-center spacing of hoops or stirrups in
so hoop spacing calculated by ACI 318 Equation (18.7.5.3) in
so center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement within the length lo in
S effect of snow load –
SDS response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second –
U strength of a member to resist factored loads in such combinations as stipulated in –
the code
V shear force lb
Vb basic concrete breakout strength in shear of a single anchor in cracked concrete lb
Vc nominal shear strength provided by concrete lb
Vcb nominal concrete breakout strength in shear of a single anchor lb
Vcbg nominal concrete breakout strength in shear of a group of anchors lb
Vcp nominal concrete pryout strength of a single anchor lb

Chapter 4 377
Vcpg nominal concrete pryout strength of a group of anchors lb

Ve shear force due to probable beam moments lb
Vs nominal shear strength of shear reinforcement lb
w distributed load kips/ft
yt distance from the centroidal axis of the gross section to the extreme fiber in tension in
Symbols
b1 factor relating depth of equivalent rectangular compressive stress block to depth of –
neutral axis
Dcr calculated out-of-plane deflection at midheight of wall corresponding to cracking in
moment Mcr
Dn calculated out-of-plane deflection at midheight of wall corresponding to nominal in
flexural strength Mn
Ds out-of-plane deflection due to service loads in
Du calculated out-of-plane deflection at midheight of wall due to factored loads in
ec assumed maximum compressive strain in concrete –
λ modification factor for lightweight concrete –
λa modification factor for lightweight concrete used in concrete anchorage applications –
r ratio of As to bd –
r redundancy factor –
rl ratio of area of distributed longitudinal reinforcement to gross concrete area
perpendicular to that reinforcement
rt ratio of area of distributed transverse reinforcement to gross concrete area –
perpendicular to that reinforcement
f strength reduction factor –
yc,N factor used to modify tensile strength of anchors based on presence or absence of –
cracks in concrete
yc,P factor used to modify pullout strength of anchors based on presence or absence of –
cracks in concrete
yc,V factor used to modify shear strength of anchors based on presence or absence of –
cracks in concrete and presence or absence of supplementary reinforcement
ye factor used to modify development length based on reinforcement coating –
yec,N factor used to modify tensile strength of anchors based on eccentricity of applied –
loads

yec,V factor used to modify shear strength of anchors based on eccentricity of applied loads –
yed,N factor used to modify tensile strength of anchors based on proximity to edges of –
concrete member
yed,V factor used to modify shear strength of anchors based on proximity to edges of –
concrete member
ys factor used to modify development length based on reinforcement size –
yt factor used to modify development length for casting location in tension –
W0 amplification factor to account for overstrength of the structure in the inelastic range –
4.1 Special moment frames

Special moment frames are the only moment frames permitted in seismic design categories D, E, and
F. No limitation is placed on building height and the following parameters are specified in ASCE 71
Table 12.2-1 as
R 5 response modification factor

58
Cd 5 deflection amplification factor
5 5.5
W0 5 structure overstrength factor
inelastic range
53
Special moment frames may also be utilized in dual building systems with special reinforced concrete
shear walls. No limitation is placed on building height and the following parameters are specified in
ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 as
R 57
Cd 5 5.5
W0 5 2.5
Special moment frames are detailed to ensure that absorption of seismic forces can occur at large
inelastic displacements without impairment of the structural integrity. The design principles are for-
mulated on an expected strength basis using the probable strength of the materials. Members are
designed to resist the design seismic forces and gravity loads and, in addition, are required to resist
forces generated by the probable flexural strength of a member after strain hardening effects occur in
the reinforcement.

Chapter 4 379
4.1.1 Design loads
The 2018 IBC2 adopts by reference the American Concrete Institute’s Building Code and Commen-
tary3 with some exceptions that are given in IBC Sections 1901.2, 1903.1, and 1905. For earthquake
loads, the load combinations given by ACI Equations (5.3.1a) and (5.3.1g) must be utilized to obtain
the required strength U, and these are
U 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S . . . ACI Equation (5.3.1e)

and U 5 0.9D 1 1.0E . . . ACI Equation (5.3.1g)
L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load
E 5 strength level seismic load
In Equation (5.3.1e), replace 1.0L with 0.5L except for floors in garages and places of public assembly
and for floor loads in excess of 100 psf.
The seismic load is a function of both horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced forces, and when
the effects of gravity and seismic loads are additive, is given by ASCE 7 Equations (12.4-1), (12.4-3),
and (12.4-4a) as
E 5 rQE 1 0.2SDSD
where: QE 5 effect of horizontal seismic forces
0.2 second
D 5 effect of dead load
r 5 redundancy factor
The required load combination may now be defined by ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 load combination 6 as
U 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S
In Equation (5.3.1e), replace 1.0L with 0.5L except for floors in garages and places of public assembly
and for floor loads in excess of 100 psf.
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, the seismic load is given by ASCE Equa-
tions (12.4-2), (12.4-3), and (12.4-4a) as
E 5 rQE 2 0.2SDS D
The required load combination may now be defined by ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 load combination 7 as
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE

To determine the required strength to resist the effects of gravity loads due to dead load, floor live load,
and roof live load only, the load combination given by ACI Equation (5.3.1b) is applicable, and this is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5(Lr or S or R)

where: Lr 5 roof live load
R 5 rain load
To determine the design strength of a member, the appropriate strength reduction factor, f, is applied
to the nominal strength of the member. The values of the reduction factor for reinforced concrete spec-
ified in ACI Sections 2.2, 21.2.1, and 21.2.2 are
f 5 0.9 for flexure of tension-controlled sections

5 1.0 for probable flexural strength in special moment frames
5 0.75 for shear and torsion
5 0.6 for shear in walls and special moment frame members with a nominal
shear strength less than the shear corresponding to their nominal flexural
strengths
5 0.75 for compression-controlled members with spiral reinforcement
5 0.65 for compression-controlled members with lateral ties
5 0.65 for bearing
5 0.85 for shear in joints of special moment frames
The nominal strength of a member is determined in accordance with the principles defined in ACI Sec-
tion 21.2.2.3. These principles are employed in several design aids.4, 5, 6 The nominal flexural capacity
of a tension-controlled member, with only tensile reinforcement, may also be determined from the
expression6
Mn 5 As fy d(1 2 0.59rfy /fc9)
where: As 5 area of tensile reinforcement
fy 5 yield strength of the reinforcement
d 5 effective depth of section
r 5 reinforcement ratio
5 As /bd
fc9 5 compressive strength of the concrete
b 5 width of compression face of section

Chapter 4 381
4.1.2 Beam details
The reinforcement detailing provisions of ACI Chapter 18 are intended to produce a ductile structure
capable of withstanding the large inelastic deformations that occur during a severe earthquake.
Flexural members are defined in ACI Section 18.6.2.1 as elements having a clear span not less than
four times the effective depth.
To provide a compact cross section with good stability during nonlinear displacements, geometrical
constraints are imposed in ACI Section 18.6.2.1. As shown in Figure 4-1, these are
bw/h ≥ 0.3
bw ≥ 10 inches
≤ c2 1 0.75c1 on each side of a column
≤ c2 1 c2 on each side of a column
where: bw 5 web width
h 5 beam depth
c1 5 column width in direction of span
c2 5 column width perpendicular to c1
c2
c2 c1
c2
Figure 4-1 Beam details

ACI Sections 9.6.1.2 and 18.6.3 stipulate limitations on the amount of longitudinal reinforcement to
prevent steel congestion, ensure nonbrittle ductile behavior, and provide a minimum reinforcement
capacity greater than the tensile strength of the concrete. As shown in Figure 4-1, these limitations are
rmin ≥ 3( fc9)0.5/fy
≥ 200/fy
rmax ≤ 0.025
In addition, to allow for the possibility of moment reversals:
• at least two continuous reinforcing bars shall be provided at the top and bottom of the beam
• at the ends of the member, positive moment strength is required at least equal to one-half of the
negative moment strength
• at any section along the beam, neither the positive nor the negative moment strength shall be
less than one-fourth of the moment strength at the ends of the beam
Reinforcement splices are not permitted in regions of plastic hinging as splices are unreliable under
inelastic cyclic loading conditions. Hence, ACI Section 18.6.3.3 specifies that splices shall not be used:
• within a beam-to-column joint
• within a distance of twice the beam depth from the face of the joint
• within a distance of twice the beam depth from locations of flexural yielding
To prevent the spalling of concrete cover at splice locations, hoop reinforcement shall be provided over
the lap length with a maximum spacing of d/4 or 4 inches.
To account for the reinforcement stress exceeding the yield stress for bars of sizes 3 through 11, ACI
Section 18.8.5.1 specifies that the development length for a hooked bar in normalweight concrete shall
not be less than the larger of
ldh 5 fy db /65l( fc9)0.5

or 5 8db
or 5 6 inches
where: db 5 bar diameter
fy 5 specified yield strength of reinforcement
l 5 0.75 for lightweight concrete
l 5 1.0 for normalweight concrete
The hook shall be located within the confined core of a column or boundary element. For straight bars
of sizes 3 through 11 embedded in confined concrete, the development length is given as
ld 5 2.5ldh

Chapter 4 383
and where the depth of concrete cast in one lift beneath the bar exceeds 12 inches
ld 5 3.25ldh
For straight bars not entirely embedded in confined concrete, the development length is given by
ldm 5 1.6ld 2 0.6ldc
where: ldc 5 length of bar in confined concrete
Transverse reinforcement is required to provide shear resistance, to provide confinement to the con-
crete at locations of plastic hinging, and to control lateral buckling of longitudinal bars after the con-
crete cover has spalled. Closed hoops, as shown in Figure 4-2, are required to provide confinement and
may also provide shear resistance. Seismic stirrups or links with 135-degree seismic hooks provide
only shear resistance. Either single-piece or two-piece closed hoops may be provided. The two-piece
hoop consists of a seismic stirrup and a seismic crosstie with one 135-degree seismic hook and one
90-degree hook. Adjacent crossties must have the seismic hooks on opposite sides of the member
unless confined by a slab on only one side. For this situation, the 90-degree hook is placed on the side
with the slab. Hoops are required in accordance with ACI Section 18.6.4.1:
• over a distance of 2h from face of a column
• over a distance of 2h on both sides of a section subjected to plastic hinging
The first hoop must be located not more than 2 inches from the face of the column. The hoop spacing
shall not exceed the lesser of
smax 5 d/4
or 5 6db
or 5 6 inches
where: d 5 beam effective depth
db 5 diameter of smallest longitudinal bar
For diameter, see

ACI Table 25.3.2
Figure 4-2 Seismic hoops and stirrups

Where hoops are not required, stirrups with seismic hooks at both ends must be provided throughout
the length of the member at a maximum spacing of d/2. Details of hoop and stirrup requirements are
Figure 4-3 Hoop and stirrup locations
4.1.3 Beam design
To ensure ductile flexural failure of a beam and prevent brittle shear failure, ACI Section 21.5.4 requires
the design shear force to be determined from the probable flexural strength that can be developed at
the ends of the beam plus the factored tributary gravity loads. The probable flexural strength is calcu-
lated7, 8, 9 by assuming that strain hardening increases the effective tensile strength of the reinforcement
by 25 percent and by using a strength reduction factor f of 1.0, as specified in ACI Section 2.2. The
probable flexural strength is given by
Mpr 5 As(1.25fy)d[1 2 0.59r(1.25fy)/fc9]

5 As fy d(1.25 2 0.92rfy /fc9)
As shown in Figure 4-4, moments of opposite sign act at the ends of a beam bent in double curvature
and the sense of the moments reverses as the seismic loading reverses. The sign convention adopted
in the figure is that bending moments at the ends of a member are shown acting from the joint to the
member; in other words, the support reactions are considered. The arrowheads point toward the face
of the member that is in tension.

Chapter 4 385
Figure 4-4 Beam shear due to probable flexural strength
Both the positive and negative probable flexural strengths must be calculated at both ends of the beam
in order to determine the critical shear value. The design shear force at the left end of the beam for
seismic load acting to the left is
Ve 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Ln 1 VgL

where: Ln 5 beam clear span
VgL 5 shear at the left end of the beam due to the factored tributary gravity loads
The design shear force at the right end of the beam for seismic load acting to the right is
Ve 5 (Mpr3 1 Mpr4)/Ln 1 VgR

where: VgR 5 shear at the right end of the beam due to the factored tributary gravity loads
The design shear capacity of the beam is given by ACI Equation (22.5.1.1) as
fVn 5 fVc 1 fVs

where: fVc 5 design shear capacity of the concrete from ACI Equation (22.5.5.1)
5 2fbw d l( fc9)0.5

fVs 5 design shear capacity of the shear reinforcement from ACI Equation
(22.5.10.5.3)
5 fAv fy d/s
l 5 modification factor for lightweight concrete
Av 5 area of shear reinforcement
s 5 spacing of shear reinforcement
In accordance with ACI Section 18.6.5.2, the shear resistance of the concrete shall not be included in
the shear capacity of the beam when both of the following conditions occur:
• the seismic induced shear force represents one-half or more of the total applied shear
• the factored axial compressive force is less than Ag fc9/20
Example 4-1
The beam of an interior bay of a special moment-resisting frame is shown in Figure 4-5. The building
is an office building and floor live load is less than 100 psf. The structure has a redundancy factor of
r 5 1.0 and the 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is
SDS 5 0.826g. The service level gravity loads and bending moments are indicated in the figure together
with the proposed beam and column sections and the moments due to the design level seismic forces.
The bending moments are shown acting at the face of the joint. Bending moments and axial forces due
to roof live load are negligible. Reinforcement consists of Grade 60 bars, the normalweight concrete
cylinder strength is 4000 psi, and 1.5-inch clear cover is provided to stirrups and hoops. Determine the
required reinforcement details.
Solution
The longitudinal reinforcement required to resist the factored loads is determined first.
Load combinations
For dead load and live load, the applicable load combination is given by ACI Equation (5.3.1b), which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5(Lr or S or R)
The factored beam support moment for dead and live load is then
Mu 5 1.2 3 66 1 1.6 3 37
5 138 kip-ft . . . tension on the top face of the beam

Chapter 4 387
Where the effects of dead load and seismic load are additive, the applicable loading case is given by
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 as
U 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S
The corresponding factored beam support moment is
Mu 5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)66 1 1.0 3 200 1 0.5 3 37 1 0 . . . floor live load

, 100 psf
5 309 kip-ft . . . tension on the top face of the beam
Where the effects of dead load and seismic load counteract, the applicable loading case is given by
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
The corresponding factored beam support moment is
Mu 5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 0.826)66 2 1.0 3 200

5 2152 kip-ft . . . tension on the bottom face of the beam

The factored beam span moment for dead and live load is
Mu 5 1.2 3 45 1 1.6 3 26
5 96 kip-ft . . . tension on the bottom face of the beam
The required design moments, in accordance with ACI Section 18.6.3, are:
• negative moment at beam support
Mu 5 309 kip-ft
• positive moment at beam support
Mu 5 152 kip-ft
≥ 309/2
5 155 kip-ft . . . governs
• positive moment in beam span
Mu 5 96 kip-ft . . . governs
≥ 309/4
5 77 kip-ft
• negative moment in beam span
Mu 5 309/4
5 77 kip-ft
Longitudinal reinforcement
For the top reinforcement in the beam, at the face of the column, provide two #8 and three #7 bars to
give a reinforcement area of
As 5 3.38 in2
and r 5 As /bd
5 3.38/(21 3 21.5)
5 0.0075
, 0.025 . . . satisfies ACI Section 18.6.3
3( fc9)0.5/fy 5 3(4000)0.5/60,000
5 0.0032
, r . . . satisfies ACI Section 9.6.1.2

Chapter 4 389
200/fy 5 200/60,000
5 0.0033
, r . . . satisfies ACI Section 9.6.1.2
The limiting reinforcement ratio for a tension-controlled section is
rt 5 0.319b1 fc9/fy . . . from ACI Section 21.2.2

5 0.319 3 0.85 3 4/60
5 0.0181
. r . . . section is tension controlled
Hence, the design flexural strength provided is given by
Mu 5 fAs fy d(1 2 0.59rfy /fc9)

5 0.9 3 3.38 3 60 3 21.5(1 2 0.59 3 0.0075 3 60/4)/12
5 305 kip-ft
 309 kip-ft . . . satisfactory
For the bottom reinforcement in the beam, at the face of the column, provide three #7 bars to give a
reinforcement area of
As 5 1.80 in2
and r 5 As /bd
5 1.80/(21 3 21.5) . . . neglecting the flange concrete
5 0.0040
The design flexural strength provided is given by

5 0.9 3 1.80 3 60 3 21.5(1 2 0.59 3 0.0040 3 60/4)/12
5 168 kip-ft
. 155 kip-ft . . . satisfactory
For the bottom reinforcement in the beam span, provide three #7 bars to give a reinforcement area of
As 5 1.80 in2
and r 5 0.0040


5 168 kip-ft
For the top reinforcement in the beam span, provide two #7 bars to give a reinforcement area of
As 5 1.20 in2
and r 5 0.0027

5 0.9 3 1.20 3 60 3 21.5(1 2 0.59 3 0.0027 3 60/4)/12
5 113 kip-ft
1.33 3 77 5 102 kip-ft
, 113 kip-ft
Hence, the reinforcement ratio of r 5 0.0027, which is less than 0.0033, conforms to ACI Section
9.6.1.3 and is satisfactory.
Crack control
To limit cracking, ACI Section 24.3.2 limits the center-to-center spacing of the tension reinforcement
to a maximum of
s 5 600/fs 2 2.5cc . . . with fs in ksi
where: fs 5 (2/3)fy
5 (2/3) 3 60
5 40 ksi
cc 5 clear cover to the tension reinforcement
5 1.5 1 0.38 . . . using #3 seismic stirrups
5 1.88 in
or s 5 12 3 40/fs . . . with fs in ksi
5 12 in

Chapter 4 391
For the bottom reinforcement in the beam span, the actual spacing of the three #7 bars is
sa 5 (bw 2 2cc 2 db)/2

5 (21.0 2 2 3 1.88 2 0.88)/2
5 8.2 in
Transverse reinforcement
Figure 4-6 shows the reinforcement areas that are effective for seismic load acting to the left. The
probable flexural strength at the left end of the beam is given by
Mpr1 5 As fy d(1.25 2 0.92rfy /fc9)

5 3.38 3 60 3 21.5(1.25 2 0.92 3 0.0075 3 60/4)/12
5 417 kip-ft
Bending moment, kip-ft
Figure 4-6 Reinforcement areas and probable moments

The probable flexural strength at the right end of the beam is given by
Mpr2 5 As fy d(1.25 2 0.92rfy /fc9)

5 1.80 3 60 3 21.5(1.25 2 0.92 3 0.0040 3 60/4)/12
5 231 kip-ft
The factored gravity load on the beam is
wu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 0.5L

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)1.5 1 0.5 3 0.85
5 2.47 kips/ft
The corresponding shear force at the left end of the beam is
VgL 5 wu Ln /2
5 2.47 3 22/2
5 27 kips
The design shear force at the left end of the beam for seismic load acting to the left is
Ve 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Ln 1 VgL

5 (417 1 231)/22 1 27
5 30 1 27
5 57 kips
8f( fc9) bw d 5 8 3 0.75 3 21 3 21.5(4000)0.5/1000
0.5
5 171 kips
. Ve . . . ACI Section 22.5.1.2 is satisfied
The seismic-induced shear force represents more than half of the total shear and the axial compressive
force is less than Ag fc9/20. Hence, in accordance with ACI Section 18.6.5.2, the shear capacity of the
concrete may not be included in the shear capacity of the beam. In addition, the nominal shear strength
of the beam is not less than the shear corresponding to the development of the nominal flexural strength
of the beam, with f 5 0.75 for shear in accordance with ACI Section 21.2.2. The maximum spacing of
hoop reinforcement is given by ACI Section 18.6.4.7 as the lesser of
smax 5 6db
5 6 3 0.88
5 5.3 in . . . governs
or 5 6 in

Chapter 4 393
or 5 d/4
5 21.5/4
5 5.4 in
The design capacity of shear reinforcement is given by ACI Equation (22.5.10.5.3) as
fVs 5 fAv fy d/s
Providing #4 hoops at 4-inch spacing gives a design shear capacity of
fVs 5 0.75 3 0.40 3 60 3 21.5/4

5 97 kips
. Ve . . . satisfactory
Provide hoops at 4-inch spacing over a length of 2h 5 4 feet from the face of each column. At 4 feet
from the face of the column, the shear force acting on the beam is given by
Vu 5 Ve 2 4wu
5 57 2 4 3 2.47
5 47 kips
4f( fc9)0.5bw d 5 86 kips
. Vu . . . ACI Section 9.7.6.2.2 allows the lesser of s 5 d/2 or 24 in
Using #3 seismic stirrups, the required spacing is
s 5 fAv fy d/Vu
5 0.75 3 0.22 3 60 3 21.5/47
5 4.5 in
To comply with bar curtailment requirements, provide #3 seismic stirrups at 31⁄2-inch spacing over the
remainder of the span with the exception of the location of splices. This gives a design capacity of
fVs 5 fAv fy d/s
5 0.75 3 0.22 3 60 3 21.5/3.5
5 61 kips

Curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement
From the top reinforcement at the face of the column, two #8 bars and one #7 bar will be curtailed. The
remaining two #7 bars provide a design flexural strength of
Mu 5 113 kip-ft
The applied moment equals 113 kip-ft at a distance, x, from the face of the column given by
2113 5 Vex 2 Mpr1 2 wu x2/2

2113 5 57x 2 417 2 2.47x2/2
x 5 6.2 ft
The physical cut-off point of the #8 bars is located an additional distance beyond this point, as speci-
fied by ACI Section 9.7.3.3, given by the larger of
12db 5 12 3 1.0
5 12 in
or d 5 21.5 in . . . governs
Hence, the physical cut-off point is a distance from the face of the column given by
Lc 5x1d
5 6.2 1 1.8
5 8 ft
In addition, the physical cut-off point may not be less than a development length from the face of the
column, and since the depth of concrete beneath the bars exceeds 12 inches, this is given by ACI Sec-
tions 18.8.5.3 and 18.8.5.4 as
ldm 5 1.6ld 2 0.6ldc

where: ldc 5 length of bar in confined concrete
5 length over which hoops are provided
5 4 ft
ld 5 3.25ldh
5 3.25 3 fy db/65l( fc9)0.5
5 3.25 3 14.6/12
5 3.95 ft
and ldm 5 1.6 3 3.95 2 0.6 3 4
5 3.9 ft
, Lc

Chapter 4 395
Hence, the cut-off point for the two #8 and one #7 top bars is 8 feet from the face of the column.
The point of inflection is located a distance, y, from the face of the column given by
0 5 Ve y 2 Mpr1 2 wu y2/2
5 57y 2 417 2 2.47y2/2
y 5 9.1 ft
. Lc
Hence, the bars are terminated in a tension zone and must satisfy either ACI Section 9.7.3.5(a),
9.7.3.5(b), or 9.7.3.5(c). At 8 feet from the face of the column, the design shear strength provided is
fVn 5 61 kips
At 8 feet from the face of the column, the shear force acting on the beam is given by
Vu 5 Ve 2 8wu
5 57 2 8 3 2.47
5 37 kips
, 2fVn /3 . . . (5 41 kips)
Hence, ACI Section 9.7.3.5(a) is satisfied and the bars may be curtailed at a distance of 8 feet from the
face of the column.
Splicing of longitudinal reinforcement
The three #7 bars in the bottom of the beam will be spliced within the span. Hoop reinforcement con-
sisting of #3 bars at the required spacing of 4 inches will be provided over the length of the splice. The
development length of the bars may be determined using ACI Section 25.4.2.3. From ACI Equation
(25.4.2.3a), the development length is given by
ld /db 5 0.075fyytyeys /[l( fc9)0.5(cb 1 Ktr)/db]

where: cb 5 minimum of one-half the center-to-center spacing of the bars being
developed or center of bar to nearest concrete surface
5 s/2
5 8.2/2
5 4.1 in
or 5 1.5 1 0.38 1 0.88/2
5 2.32 in . . . governs

The transverse reinforcement index is

Ktr 5 40Atr /sn
where: Atr 5 cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement crossing the plane of
splitting
5 2 3 0.11 in2
s 5 spacing of the transverse reinforcement
5 4 in
n 5 number of bars being developed along the potential plane of splitting
53
Hence, Ktr 5 40 3 2 3 0.11/(4 3 3)
5 0.73 in
and (cb 1 Ktr)/db 5 (2.32 1 0.73)/0.88
5 3.5
use 2.5 . . . max
yt 5 reinforcement location factor
5 1.0 . . . for bottom bars
ye 5 reinforcement coating factor
5 1.0 . . . for uncoated reinforcement
ys 5 reinforcement size factor
5 1.0 . . . for #7 bars
l 5 lightweight aggregate factor
5 1.0 . . . for normalweight concrete
and ld /db 5 0.075 3 60,000 3 1.0 3 1.0 3 1.0/[1.0 3 2.5(4000)0.5]
5 28.5
ld 5 28.5 3 0.88
5 25 in
All bars are spliced at midspan and a class B splice is required. The class B splice length is
ldB 5 1.3ld
5 1.3 3 25
5 33 in

Chapter 4 397
The beam reinforcement details are shown in Figure 4-7.
31/2 31/2
Figure 4-7 Beam reinforcement details
4.1.4 Column details
Geometrical constraints are imposed on columns based on established design practice and these are
given in ACI Section 18.7.2.1 as
hmin ≥ 12 in
hmin/hperp ≥ 0.4
where: hmin 5 minimum cross-sectional dimension
hperp 5 dimension perpendicular to minimum dimension
Longitudinal reinforcement limits are imposed by ACI Section 18.7.4.1 in order to control creep,
reduce steel congestion, and provide a flexural capacity in excess of the cracking moment.
These limitations are
rg ≥ 0.01
≤ 0.06
where: rg 5 ratio of reinforcement area to cross-sectional area
Spalling of the concrete cover typically occurs at the ends of columns, which makes these areas unde-
sirable for the location of lap splices. Lap splices, proportioned as tension lap splices, are restricted
by ACI Section 18.7.4.3 to the center half of the column where moment reversals are less likely. Lap

splices shall be enclosed with confinement reinforcement, conforming to ACI Sections 18.7.5.2 and
18.7.5.3, over the full length of the splice. In accordance with ACI Section 18.2.7.2, Type 1 mechanical
splices, which develop 125 percent of the specified yield strength of the bar, may not be used within a
distance equal to twice the column depth from the joint face. Type 2 mechanical splices, which develop
the specified tensile strength of the bar, may be used at any location. In accordance with ACI Section
18.2.8.1, welded splices may not be used within a distance equal to twice the column depth from the
joint face.
Transverse reinforcement, consisting of closed hoops and crossties, shall be provided throughout
the height of the column to furnish shear resistance and confinement. As specified in ACI Section
18.7.5.2(e) and shown in Figure 4-8, longitudinal bars supported by the corner of a crosstie or hoop
leg must be spaced a maximum distance of 14 inches on center.
Figure 4-8 Column transverse reinforcement
At the ends of the column, over the length, lo , specified by ACI Section 18.7.5.1, the area of the rec-
tilinear hoop reinforcement required is given by the greater value obtained from ACI Table 18.7.5.4
Equations (a) and (b), which are
Ash 5 0.3sbc(Ag/Ach 2 1)fc9/fyt . . . for Pu ≤ 0.3Ag fc9 and fc9 ≤10,000 psi
and Ash 5 0.09sbc fc9/fyt . . . for Pu ≤ 0.3Ag fc9 and fc9 ≤10,000 psi
where: s 5 spacing of hoop reinforcement
Ag 5 gross area of column section
Ach 5 cross-sectional area measured out-to-out of hoop reinforcement
bc 5 dimension of core measured out-to-out of hoop reinforcement

Chapter 4 399
In accordance with ACI Section 18.7.5.1, confinement reinforcement is required over a distance of lo
from each joint face given by the maximum of
lo 5h
or lo 5 Hn /6
or lo 5 18 inches
where: h 5 depth of column
Hn 5 column clear height
The spacing of the confinement reinforcement is limited by ACI Section 18.7.5.3 to the smaller value
given by
so 5 hmin /4
or so 5 6db
or so 5 6 in
or so 5 4 1 (14 2 hx)/3 . . . ACI Equation (18.7.5.3)
where: hmin 5 minimum column dimension
hx 5 maximum center-to-center spacing of longitudinal bars, supported by the
corner of a crosstie or hoop leg, on all faces of the column
5 14 inches maximum
db 5 diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
The spacing need not be taken less than 4 inches.

Where confinement reinforcement is not required, the hoop spacing, in accordance with ACI Section
18.7.5.5, shall not exceed the smaller value given by
smax 5 6db
or 5 6 in
where: db 5 diameters of smallest longitudinal bar
Details of column reinforcement are shown in Figure 4-9.
If the thickness of the concrete cover outside the hoops exceeds 4 inches, additional transverse rein-
forcement shall be provided, as required by ACI Section 18.7.5.7, at a maximum spacing of 12 inches.
Concrete cover on the additional transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 4 inches.

min
Figure 4-9 Column reinforcement details
Columns supporting discontinued walls are required by ACI Section 18.7.5.6 to be supplied with
confinement reinforcement over their full height when the axial force due to seismic effects is Pu .
Ag fc9/10. The confinement reinforcement shall extend into the wall for the development length of the
largest longitudinal bar.

Chapter 4 401
4.1.5 Column design
The formation of plastic hinges at both ends of a story’s columns due to seismic loads may produce
a sidesway mechanism that causes the story to collapse. To prevent this, a strong column-weak beam
design is required by ACI Section 18.7.3.2. A column forming part of the lateral-force-resisting system
must be designed to satisfy ACI Equation (18.7.3.2), which is
SMnc ≥ 1.2SMnb
where: SMnc 5 sum of the nominal flexural strengths of columns at the face of a joint
calculated for the applicable factored axial force, resulting in the lowest
flexural strength
SMnb 5 sum of the nominal flexural strengths of beams at the face of the joint
and in the same plane as the columns. In T-beam construction, slab
reinforcement within an effective width of the flange is assumed to
contribute to the negative flexural strength. The effective flange width is
defined in ACI Section 6.3.2 as the lesser of
bf 5 l/4
or 5 16hf 1 bw
or 5 sw 1 bw
where: l 5 beam span
hf 5 flange thickness
bw 5 width of web
sw 5 clear distance between webs
As shown in Figure 4-10, the strong column-weak beam relationship applies to seismic loading from
either direction. The sign convention adopted in the figure is that bending moments at the ends of a
member are shown acting from the joint to the member; in other words, the support reactions are con-
sidered. The arrowheads point toward the face of the member that is in tension.
Where the strong column-weak beam concept of ACI Equation (18.7.3.2) cannot be satisfied at a
joint, ACI Section 18.7.3.3 requires the column to be designed as a member, not designated as part
of the seismic-force-resisting system. In addition, such columns are to be ignored in calculating the
lateral strength and stiffness of the structure. However, since the columns contribute to the stiffness of
the structure prior to developing plastic hinges, their influence should be included in determining the
design base shear and torsional effects.

Figure 4-10 Strong column-weak beam design
In accordance with ACI Section 18.7.6.1.1, the design shear force for columns shall be calculated
using the probable moment strengths at the top and bottom of the column associated with the factored
axial load, Pu, acting on the column. The probable flexural strength is calculated by assuming that
strain hardening increases the effective tensile strength of the reinforcement by 25 percent and by
using a strength reduction factor f of 1.0, as specified in ACI Section 2.2. As shown in Figure 4-11,
the design shear force at the top and bottom of the column is
Ve 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Hn
where: Hn 5 column clear height
Figure 4-11 Column shear due to probable flexural strength

Chapter 4 403
However, the column design shear need not exceed the value determined from the probable moment
strengths of the beams framing into the top and bottom of the column. As shown in Figure 4-12, the
design shear force for this condition, provided that the column stiffness is the same in all stories, is
given by
Ve 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2 1 Mpr3 1 Mpr4)/2Hn
In addition, the transverse reinforcement must also be adequate to resist the factored shear calculated
by analysis of the structure.
Figure 4-12 Column shear due to beam probable flexural strength
The cyclical nonlinear effects produced by seismic loading necessitate additional shear requirements
to ensure a ductile flexural failure. Where the factored compressive force in a member is less than
Ag fc9/20 and the seismic-induced shear represents one-half or more of the total design shear, the shear
resistance of the concrete, Vc , shall be neglected over the length, lo. Shear reinforcement shall then be
provided to resist the total design shear as required by ACI Section 18.7.6.2.1.
Example 4-2
The columns of an interior bay of the special moment-resisting frame shown in Figure 4-5 have a clear
height of 10 feet. The structure has a redundancy factor of r 5 1.0 and the 5-percent damped, design
spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. The service level gravity
loads and bending moments are indicated in the figure together with the proposed beam and column
sections and the moments due to the design level seismic forces. The bending moments are shown

acting at the face of the joint. Second-order effects may be neglected and the axial force due to seis-
mic loads and the bending moments due to dead and live load are negligible. Neglect roof live load.
Reinforcement consists of Grade 60 bars and the normalweight concrete cylinder strength is 4000 psi.
Columns are at 24 3 12 feet on center. Determine the required reinforcement details for the column
above the third floor.
Solution
The longitudinal reinforcement to resist the factored loads is determined first.
Load combinations
For dead load and live load, the applicable load combination for the column above the third floor is
given by ACI Equation (5.3.1b), which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5(Lr or S or R)
The factored column axial load for dead and live load is then
Pu3, D1L 5 1.2 3 400 1 1.6 3 100

5 640 kips
Where the effects of dead load and seismic load are additive, the applicable loading cases are given by
U 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S
The corresponding factored column axial load is
Pu3 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 400 1 1.0 3 0 1 0.5 3 100 1 0
5 596 kips
The corresponding factored column moment is
Mu3 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 176 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 176 kip-ft

Chapter 4 405
For the column below the third floor, the applicable factored loads for the dead load plus seismic load
combination are
Pu2 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 470 1 1.0 3 0 1 0.5 3 120 1 0
5 702 kips
The corresponding factored column moment is
Mu2 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 0.5L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 224 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 224 kip-ft
Column reinforcement
Providing eight #8 bars gives a reinforcement area of
As 5 6.32 in2
Gross area of the column is
Ag 5 23 3 23
5 529 in2
and rg 5 As /Ag
5 6.32/529
5 0.012
0.01Ag 5 5.29
, As . . . satisfies ACI Section 18.7.4.1
0.06Ag 5 31.74
. As . . . satisfies ACI Section 18.7.4.1
Column axial and flexural capacity
For zero applied moment on the column above the third floor, the design capacity in axial compression
is obtained from the appropriate interaction diagram obtained using the computer program spColumn,5
which is shown in Figure 4-13 as
fPn3 5 1121 kips

. Pu3, D1L . . . satisfactory

For a factored applied load of 596 kips on the column above the third floor, the design flexural capac
ity is
fMn3 5 399 kip-ft

. Mu3 . . . satisfactory
For a factored applied load of 702 kips on the column below the third floor, the design flexural capac-
ity is
fMn2 5 379 kip-ft

. Mu2 . . . satisfactory
P (kip)
2500
23″
2.5″
9″
23″ Y
9″
Nominal diagram, fy=75 ksi
2.5″
X
1500
Design diagram, fy=60 ksi

1121
(379 kip-ft, 702 kips) (640 kip-ft, 596 kips)
(399 kip-ft, 596 kips)

500
200 400 600

Mx (kip-ft)
-500
Figure 4-13 Interaction diagram5 for Example 4-2

Chapter 4 407
Strong column-weak beam
In determining the negative moment strength of the beam framing into the column, the reinforcement
within an effective width of the flange is assumed to contribute to the negative flexural strength. The
effective flange width is defined in ACI Section 6.3.2 as the lesser of
be 5 16hf 1 bw
5 16 3 0.5 1 21/12
5 9.75 ft
or 5 sw 1 bw
5 12 ft
or 5 l/4
5 24/4
where: l 5 beam span
hf 5 flange thickness
bw 5 width of stem
sw 5 clear distance between stems
The distribution reinforcement in this width of flange is
Asf 5 0.0018 3 6 3 72
5 0.78 in2
Hence, the total area of reinforcement in the top of the beam at the face of the column is
As 5 3.38 1 0.78
5 4.16 in2
r 5 As /bw d
5 4.16/(21 3 21.5)
5 0.0092
The nominal negative moment strength of the beam framing into the right-hand face of the joint is
determined from the expression6
MnR 5 As fy d(1 2 0.59rfy /fc9)
5 4.16 3 60 3 21.5(1 2 0.59 3 0.0092 3 60/4)/12
5 411 kip-ft

The nominal positive moment strength of the beam framing into the left-hand face of the joint is
obtained from Example 4-1 as
MnL 5 168/f
5 168/0.9
5 187 kip-ft
Hence, 1.2SMnb 5 1.2(411 1 187)
5 718 kip-ft
The sum of the nominal flexural capacities of the columns framing into the joint at the third floor is
SMnc 5 (fMn3 1 fMn2)/f

5 (399 1 379)/0.65
5 1197 kip-ft
. 1.2SMg . . . satisfies ACI Equation (18.7.3.2)
Column shear
The maximum factored column shear is obtained from Figure 4-5 as
Vu 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 1.2 3 0 1 1.0 3 35 1 0 1 0
5 35 kips
In accordance with ACI Sections 2.2 and 18.7.6.1.1, the design shear force for the column above the
third floor may be calculated from the probable moment strengths at the top and bottom of the col-
umn. The column probable moment strength is determined by assuming a strength reduction factor of
zero and a tensile reinforcement stress of 1.25fy . The maximum probable moment, at both the top and
bottom of the column, occurs at an axial load of Pu 5 596 kips and is obtained from the appropriate
interaction diagram5 using f 5 1.0 and fy 5 75 ksi, as shown in Figure 4-13, to give
Mpr 5 640 kip-ft
The clear height of the column is
Hn 5 10 ft
The design shear force is then
Ve 5 2Mpr /Hn
5 2 3 640/10
5 128 kips

Chapter 4 409
However, in accordance with ACI Section 18.7.6.1.1, the maximum design shear force in the column
need not exceed that determined from the probable flexural strengths of the beams that frame into
either side of the joint. The probable beam strengths, assuming a strength reduction factor of unity and
a tensile reinforcement stress of 1.25fy , were derived in Example 4-1 as
Mpr1 5 Mpr3
5 417 kip-ft
Mpr2 5 Mpr4
5 231 kip-ft
As shown in Figure 4-12, the design shear force in the column for this condition, since the column
stiffness is the same in all stories, is given by
Ve 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2 1 Mpr3 1 Mpr4)/2Hn

5 2(417 1 231)/(2 3 10)
5 65 kips
, 128 kips
. Vu
then: Ve 5 65 kips . . . governs and ACI Section 18.7.6.1.1 is satisfied
The compressive force value given by
Ag fc9/20 5 529 3 4/20

5 106 kips
, Pu3
Hence, in accordance with ACI Section 18.7.6.2.1, the design shear strength provided by the concrete
may be utilized, and neglecting axial compression, this is given by ACI Equation (22.5.5.1) as
fVc 5 0.75 3 2lbw d( fc9)0.5

5 0.75 3 2 3 1.0 3 23 3 (23 2 1.5 2 0.5 2 0.5)(4000)0.5/1000
5 45 kips
, Ve
The design shear strength required from shear reinforcement is given by ACI Equation (11-2) as
fVs 5 Ve 2 fVc
5 65 2 45
5 20 kips
, 4 3 fVc . . . satisfies ACI Section 22.5.1.2

The maximum hoop spacing, in accordance with ACI Section 18.7.5.5, may not exceed the lesser
value given by
s 5 6db
5 6 3 1.0
5 6 in
or s 5 6 in
Hence, a spacing of 6 inches is appropriate, with the exception of confinement reinforcement at the
ends of the column and at lap splices.
The area of shear reinforcement, at a spacing of 6 inches, that is required to provide a shear strength
of fVs is specified by ACI Equation (22.5.10.5.3) as
Av 5 fVs s/fdfy
5 20 3 6/(0.75 3 20.5 3 60)
5 0.13 in2
The minimum size of crosstie required for a #8 longitudinal bar is specified by ACI Section 25.7.2.2(a)
as a #3 bar, and at least one crosstie is required to satisfy the lateral support requirements of ACI Sec-
tion 18.7.5.2(e).
0.3Ag fc9 5 0.3 3 529 3 4
5 635 kips
. Pu3 5 596 kips
Hence, ACI Section 18.7.5.2(f) does not apply.
The minimum area of shear reinforcement, which may be provided at a spacing of 6 inches, is given
by ACI Section 10.6.2.2 as
Av(min) 5 50bw s/fyt . . . governs for fc9 , 4444 lb/in2
5 50 3 23 3 6/60,000
5 0.12 in2 . . . does not govern
, 0.13 in2
Providing a #4 hoop and one #4 crosstie gives an area of
Av 5 3 3 0.2
5 0.6 in2
. 0.13 in2 . . . satisfactory
From Figure 4-13, the center-to-center spacing between longitudinal bars is
hx 5 9 in
Chapter 4 411
Confinement reinforcement
The point of inflection of the column lies within the center half of the column clear height. Hence, in
accordance with ACI Section 18.7.5.1, confinement reinforcement is required for a distance from each
joint face given by the greater of
lo 5 Hn /6
5 10 3 12/6
5 20 in
or lo 5 18 in
or lo 5h
5 23 in . . . governs
The spacing of the confinement reinforcement is limited by ACI Section 18.7.5.3 to the minimum
value given by
so 5 hmin /4
5 23/4
5 5.75 in
or so 5 6db
5 6 3 1.0
5 6 in
or so 5 6 in
5 4 1 (14 2 9)/3
5 5.7 in . . . governs
Using #4 hoop reinforcement bars at 4 inches on center, and providing 11⁄2 inches clear cover to the
bars, gives a core dimension, measured out-to-out of the hoop reinforcement, of
bc 5 23 2 3
5 20 in
The area, calculated out-to-out of the confining bars, is
Ach 5 bc2
5 202
5 400 in2

The required area of confinement reinforcement is given by the greater value obtained from ACI Table
18.7.5.4 Equations (a) and (b), which are
Ash 5 0.3sbc(Ag /Ach 2 1) fc9/fy

5 0.3 3 4 3 20(529/400 2 1)4/60
5 0.52 in2 . . . governs
or Ash 5 0.09sbc fc9/fy
5 0.09 3 4 3 20 3 4/60
5 0.48 in2
A #4 hoop with one #4 crosstie provides an area of confinement reinforcing of
Ash 5 0.60 in2

. Ash . . . satisfactory
To conform with ACI Section 18.7.4.3, a tension splice is required within the center half of the clear
column height. Hoop reinforcement, at a spacing of 4 inches, is provided over the splice length in
accordance with ACI Section 18.7.5.3. The lap length required for a Class B splice is specified by ACI
Section 25.5.2.1 as being equal to 1.3 times the tensile development length. The development length is
given by ACI Equation (25.4.2.3a) as
ld 5 0.075db fy /[( fc9)0.5(cb 1 Ktr)/db] . . . where l 5 yt 5 ye 5 ys 5 1.0
For the reinforcement layout indicated, (cb 1 Ktr)/db equals its maximum permissible value of 2.5 and
1.3ld 5 1.3 3 0.075 3 1.0 3 60,000/[2.5(4000)0.5]

5 37 in
Details of the column reinforcement are shown in Figure 4-14.

Chapter 4 413
Figure 4-14 Column reinforcement for Example 4-2

4.1.6 Joint design and details
Joints are designed on an expected strength basis using the probable strength of the materials. At a joint
in a frame, the horizontal design shear force is determined as required by ACI Section 18.8.2.1 and as
shown in Figure 4-15. The shear force produced in the column by the probable moment strengths of
the beams at the joint is
V 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Hc
where: Hc 5 floor-to-floor height
The probable tensile force in the tensile reinforcement in the beam framing into the right-hand face of
the joint is
T1 5 1.25As1 fy
where: As1 5 area of tensile (top) reinforcement of right-hand beam
Figure 4-15 Forces acting at a joint
The probable compressive force in the concrete in the beam framing into the left-hand face of the joint
is
C2 5 T2
5 1.25As2 fy
where: As2 5 area of tensile (bottom) reinforcement of left-hand beam
The net shear acting on the joint is given by
Ve 5 T1 1 T2 2 V
5 1.25fy(As1 1 As2) 2 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Hc

Chapter 4 415
In accordance with ACI Section 18.8.4, the nominal shear capacity of the joint depends on the concrete
strength and effective area of the joint, and the contribution of hoops to the shear strength is neglected.
The nominal shear strength of the joint is given by
Vn 5 20lAj ( fc9)0.5 for joints confined on four faces

5 15lAj ( fc9)0.5 for joints confined on opposite faces or on three faces
5 12lAj ( fc9)0.5 for other conditions
where: Aj 5 effective cross-sectional area within the joint
l 5 0.75 . . . lightweight concrete
l 5 1.0 . . . normalweight concrete
As shown in Figure 4-16, the effective joint depth equals the overall depth of the column. Where a
beam frames into a column of larger width, the effective joint width is given by
be 5b1h
≤ b 1 2x
where: b 5 beam width
h 5 column depth
x 5 smaller distance from edge of beam to edge of column
Figure 4-16 Effective area of a joint

As specified in ACI Section 18.8.3.1, hoop reinforcement shall be provided through the joint as
required at the ends of the column. Where beams frame into three or fewer sides of the joint, hoop
reinforcement, Ash , as specified over the length of the column, lo , shall be provided throughout the
height of the joint. Where beams frame into all four faces of the joint and provide confinement, ACI
Section 18.8.3.2 requires hoop reinforcement with an area of Ash /2 at a maximum spacing of 6 inches.
A joint is considered confined, in accordance with ACI Section 18.8.3.2, where the beam width is at
least three-fourths of the column width.
As required by ACI Section 18.8.2.2, beam reinforcement terminating in a column shall extend to the
far face of the confined concrete core and be provided with an anchorage length as specified in ACI
Section 18.8.5. Typical joint details are shown in Figure 4-17.
Figure 4-17 Typical joint details
Example 4-3
The columns of an interior bay of the special moment-resisting frame shown in Figure 4-5 have a
clear height of 10 feet. Beams frame into the opposite faces of the column as indicated. Reinforcement
consists of Grade 60 bars and the normalweight concrete cylinder strength is 4000 psi. Determine the
required reinforcement details for an interior joint at the third floor.

Chapter 4 417
Solution
The longitudinal reinforcement in the beams on either side of the joint is shown in Figure 4-6. The
reinforcement areas are
As1 5 3.38 in2

As2 5 1.80 in2
The probable tensile forces in the reinforcement are
T1 5 1.25 3 As1 fy
5 1.25 3 3.38 3 60
5 254 kips
T2 5 1.25 3 As2 fy
5 1.25 3 1.80 3 60
5 135 kips
The probable moment strengths are obtained from Example 4-1 as
Mpr1 5 417 kip-ft

Mpr2 5 231 kip-ft
The shear force produced in the column by the probable moment strengths of the beams is
V 5 (Mpr1 1 Mpr2)/Hc
5 (417 1 231)/12
5 54 kips
The net shear acting on the joint is given by
Ve 5 T1 1 T2 2 V
5 254 1 135 2 54
5 335 kips
The effective joint width is given by the lesser of
be 5b1h
5 21 1 23
5 44 in

or be 5 b 1 2x
5 21 1 2 3 1
The effective cross-sectional area of the joint is
Aj 5 hbe
5 23 3 23
5 529 in2
The design shear strength of the joint, which is confined on opposite faces, is given by ACI Section
18.8.4 with f 5 0.85 as specified by ACI Section 21.2.4.3 as
fnVn 5 f 3 15Aj ( fc9)0.5 . . . for joints confined on opposite faces or on three faces
5 0.85 3 15 3 529(4000)0.5/1000
5 427 kips
. Ve . . . satisfactory
Provide #4 hoops and crossties at 4 inches on center through the joint.
4.2 Special structural walls

Special structural walls10 are defined in ACI Section 2.3 as walls designed in accordance with ACI
Sections 18.2.3 through 18.2.8. For bearing wall systems, special structural walls are the only shear
walls permitted in seismic design categories D through F. No limitation is placed on building height
in seismic design categories A, B, and C and a limiting height of 160 feet applies in seismic design
categories D and E. In seismic design category F, the height is restricted to 100 feet. The following
parameters are specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 as
R 5 response modification factor

5 5.0
55
W0 5 structure overstrength factor
inelastic range
5 2.5

Chapter 4 419
Similarly, for building frame systems, special reinforced concrete structural walls are the only shear
walls permitted in seismic design categories D through F. No limitation is placed on building height
in seismic design categories A, B, and C, and a limiting height of 160 feet applies in seismic design
categories D and E. In seismic design category F, the height is restricted to 100 feet. The following
parameters are specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 as
R 56
Cd 55
W0 5 2.5
Special reinforced concrete shear walls may also be utilized in dual building systems with special
moment frames. No limitation is placed on building height in any seismic design category and the
following parameters are specified in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 as
R 57
Cd 5 5.5
W0 5 2.5
4.2.1 Shear capacity of shear walls
In accordance with ACI Section 18.10.3, the design shear force, Vu , shall be obtained from a lateral
load analysis of the structure with the appropriate factored load combinations.
The nominal shear strength of a shear wall may be determined as specified in ACI Section 18.10.4 and
given in the ACI Equation (18.10.4.1) as
Vn 5 Acv[ac l( fc9)0.5 1 rt fy]

where: Acv 5 gross area of concrete section bounded by the web thickness and length of
the section in the direction of the shear force
rt 5 reinforcement ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement
ac 5 3 . . . for hw /lw ≤ 1.5
5 2 . . . for hw /lw ≥ 2.0
l 5 lightweight concrete modification factor
Linear interpolation may be used in the determination of ac for values of hw /lw between 1.5 and 2
hw 5 height of wall
lw 5 length of wall in direction of shear force

As specified by ACI Section 18.10.4.4, the maximum allowable nominal shear strength for all vertical
wall segments resisting a common lateral force is
Vn 5 8Acv ( fc9)0.5
where: Acv 5 gross combined area of all wall segments
For any individual wall segment, the maximum allowable nominal shear strength is
Vn 5 10Acv ( fc9)0.5
where: Acv 5 area of segment considered
In accordance with ACI Section 18.10.2.1, where the design shear force, Vu , exceeds Acv l( fc9)0.5, the
minimum distributed web reinforcement ratios for the horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be
rt 5 0.0025
rl 5 0.0025
where: rl 5 reinforcement ratio of vertical shear reinforcement
Where the design shear force, Vu , does not exceed Acv l( fc9)0.5, the minimum reinforcement ratios for
the horizontal and vertical reinforcement may be as specified in ACI Table 11.6.1. For this situation,
the minimum required reinforcement ratios are
rl 5 0.0012 . . . for #5 deformed bars or smaller with fy ≥ 60 ksi

5 0.0015 . . . for other deformed bars
rt 5 0.0020 . . . for #5 deformed bars or smaller with fy ≥ 60 ksi
5 0.0025 . . . for other deformed bars
In addition, the spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed 18 inches each way. In order to con-
trol cracking and inhibit fragmentation of the wall due to cyclical loading in the inelastic range, ACI
Section 18.10.2.2 specifies the provision of two curtains of reinforcement where the design shear force
exceeds the value
Vu 5 2Acv l( fc9)0.5 or hw /lw ≥ 2.0
4.2.2 Special boundary elements
For shear walls subjected to combined flexural and axial load, ACI Section 18.10.5.1 requires the
wall to be designed in accordance with ACI Section 22.2.2. The strain distribution across the section
is assumed linear with a maximum concrete compressive strain of 0.003. The assumptions used are

Chapter 4 421
The effective width of flanged sections contributing to the section is specified in ACI Section 18.10.5.2
as half the distance between adjacent walls but not more than 25 percent of the wall height, as shown
in Figure 4-19.
In accordance with ACI Section 18.10.6.2, special boundary elements are required where the distance
from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis is not less than the value given by ACI Equation
(18.10.6.2)
c 5 lw /600(1.5du /hw)
where: lw 5 length of wall
hw 5 height of wall
du 5 design displacement of the wall
5 Cd dxe /Ie
5 actual anticipated inelastic displacement caused by the design ground
motion and defined in ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6
Cd 5 deflection amplification factor defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1
dxe 5 theoretical displacement caused by the code-prescribed design level forces,
as determined by an elastic analysis
Ie 5 importance factor
and du /hw ≥ 0.005
0.85
Figure 4-18 Assumptions used in shear wall design

Figure 4-19 Effective flange widths
The depth, c, is calculated for the factored axial force and nominal moment strength, consistent with
the design displacement, du , resulting in the largest neutral axis depth.
Special boundary element confinement reinforcement shall be provided in the zones specified in ACI
Sections 18.10.6.2 (b) and 18.10.6.4 as indicated in Figure 4-20. The area of rectilinear confinement
reinforcement required is given by ACI Table 18.10.6.4(f) as the greater of
Ash 5 0.09sbc fc9/fyt

Ash 5 0.3sbc (Ag /Ach 2 12) fc9/fyt
where: s 5 spacing of transverse reinforcement
bc 5 dimension of confined core of boundary element measured out-to-out of
transverse reinforcement
fyt 5 yield strength of transverse reinforcement
Ag 5 gross area of concrete section
Ach 5 cross-sectional area measured out-to-out of transverse reinforcement
value given by
s 5 hmin /4
or s 5 6db
≥ 4 in
≤ 6 in

Chapter 4 423
b hu/16
Figure 4-20 Special boundary element dimensions
where: hmin 5 minimum boundary element dimension

db 5 diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
hx 5 maximum horizontal spacing of hoop or crosstie legs on all faces of the
boundary element
5 14 in maximum
≤ 2b/3
Details of wall reinforcement are shown in Figure 4-21.
Special boundary element confinement reinforcement shall extend into the support at least the devel-
opment length of the largest longitudinal bar or at least 12 inches into a footing or mat.
Horizontal reinforcement in the wall web shall extend to within 6 inches of the wall end and shall be
anchored within the confined core of the boundary element to develop the full tensile strength of the
reinforcement.

2b/3 2b/3
Figure 4-21 Special boundary element reinforcement
4.2.3 Nonspecial boundary elements
Where special boundary elements are not necessary and the vertical reinforcement ratio at the wall
boundary exceeds 400/fy, ACI Section 18.10.6.5 requires confinement reinforcement extending hori-
zontally from the extreme compression fiber a distance not less than the larger of
xt 5 c 2 lw /10
or 5 c/2
The maximum spacing of the confinement reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of 8 inches or 8db .
Over a height equal to the greater of lw or Mu /4Vu , the maximum spacing is reduced to the lesser of 6
inches or 6db where yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement is likely to occur.
Except where the factored shear force in the wall is less than Acv l( fc9)0.5, horizontal reinforcement in
the wall web shall be anchored at the end of the wall with a standard hook engaging the edge reinforce-
ment. Alternatively, the edge reinforcement may be enclosed in U-stirrups spliced to the horizontal
reinforcement.
Example 4-4
The shear wall of a bearing wall system is shown in Figure 4-22. The structure has a redundancy factor
of r 5 1.0 and the 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second
is SDS 5 0.826g. The service level gravity loads are indicated in the figure together with the proposed
wall section and the moment and shear due to design level seismic forces. Roof live load is negligible.
Reinforcement consists of Grade 60 bars and the normalweight concrete cylinder strength is 4000 psi.
The importance factor, Ie , is 1.0. Determine the required reinforcement details.

Chapter 4 425
Solution
The required shear reinforcement is determined first.
Load combinations
For dead load and live load, the applicable load combination is given by ACI Equation (5.3.1b), which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5(Lr or S or R)
The factored axial load for dead and live load is then
Pu,D1L 5 1.2 3 300 1 1.6 3 50

5 440 kips
11/2 in
11/2 in
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6, which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

The factored wall axial load caused by dead load and live load is
Pu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)300 1 1.0 3 0 1 0.5 3 50 1 0
5 435 kips
The corresponding factored wall moment is
Mu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 8400 1 0 1 0
5 8400 kip-ft
The corresponding factored shear force is
Vu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 250 1 0 1 0
5 250 kips
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, the applicable loading case is given by
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
The factored wall axial load is then
Pu, -E 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE

5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 0.826)300 1 1.0 3 0
5 220 kips
The corresponding bending moment and shear force are
Mu 5 8400 kip-ft
Vu 5 250 kips
Shear reinforcement required
The wall parameters are
Acv 5 gross area of concrete section bounded by the web thickness and length of
section
5 12 3 12 3 12
5 1728 in2

Chapter 4 427
hw/lw 5 48/12
54
.2
and ac 5 2.0 . . . from ACI Section 18.10.4.1
Acv l( fc9)0.5 5 1728 3 1.0 3 (4000)0.5/1000
5 109 kips
, Vu
, Vu /2
Hence, in accordance with ACI Section 18.10.2.2, two curtains of reinforcement are necessary and the
required minimum reinforcement ratios, specified by ACI Section 18.10.2.1, along both the longitudi-
nal and transverse axes are
rv 5 rn 5 0.0025
Horizontal reinforcement consisting of #5 bars in each face at a spacing of 18 inches provides a rein-
forcement ratio of
rt 5 2 3 0.31/(12 3 18)
5 0.00287
The proposed spacing does not exceed the maximum permissible value of 18 inches, given by ACI
Section 18.10.2.1, and is satisfactory.
Hence, from ACI Section 18.10.4.1, the design shear force is given by
fVn 5 fAcv[acl( fc9)0.5 1 rtfy]

5 0.75Acv[2( fc9)0.5 1 rtfy]
5 0.75 3 1728[2(4000)0.5 1 0.00287 3 60,000]/1000
5 387 kips
Vertical reinforcement consisting of #5 bars in each face at a spacing of 18 inches also satisfies all
criteria. Hence, #5 bars in each face at a spacing of 18 inches is satisfactory.

Design for load combinations
The total steel area in the wall consists of 16 #5 bars and 16 #8 bars, giving a total area of
Ast 5 16 3 0.31 1 16 3 0.79

5 17.60 in2
Ag 5 Acv 1 2 3 15 3 3
5 1818 in2
The design axial load strength of the wall, in the absence of bending moment, is given by ACI Equa-
tion (22.4.2.2) as
fPn 5 0.8f[0.85fc9(Ag 2 Ast) 1 fy Ast]

5 0.8 3 0.65[0.85 3 4(1818 2 17.6) 1 60 3 17.6]
5 3732 kips
. Pu,D1L . . . satisfactory
Under combined flexure and axial load, the assumed maximum compressive strain in the concrete is
specified in ACI Section 22.2.2.1 as
ec 5 0.003
In accordance with ACI Section 22.2.1.2, strain in reinforcement and concrete is assumed directly
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, and assuming the depth to the neutral axis is given
by c 5 24 inches, the strain produced in a reinforcing bar is
es 5 eec /c
5 e 3 0.003/24
5 0.000125e
where: e 5 distance of a reinforcing bar from the neutral axis
The force produced in a reinforcing bar is given by
F 5 es As Es
5 0.000125 3 29,000eAs
5 3.625eAs
where: As 5 area of the reinforcing bar
Es 5 modulus of elasticity of reinforcement

Chapter 4 429
The strain-producing yield in the reinforcement is
ey 5 fy /Es
5 60/29,000
5 0.00207
The maximum force is then produced in the reinforcement and is given by
Fmax 5 60As kips
In accordance with ACI Section 22.2.2.4.1, the depth of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress
block is
a 5 cb1
where: b1 5 compression zone factor
5 0.85 as defined in ACI Section 22.2.2.4.3
then: a 5 24 3 0.85
5 20.4 in
The strain distribution across the section and the forces developed are shown in Figure 4-23.
Figure 4-23 Strain distribution in the section

All bars from 1 through 8 are in tension and are stressed to the yield stress. Bar 9 has a tensile force of
T9 5 3.625 3 3 3 0.62
5 7 kips
The sum of the tensile forces in the reinforcement is
ST 5 60(12 3 0.31 1 8 3 0.79) 1 7

5 609 kips
The compressive forces in the reinforcement are
C10 5 3.625 3 11.5 3 2.37 5 99 kips

C11 5 3.625 3 16.5 3 2.2 5 132 kips
C12 5 60 3 2.37 5 142 kips
The sum of the compressive forces in the reinforcement is
SC 5 373 kips
The force in the concrete stress block is given by ACI Section 22.2.2.4.1 as
Cc 5 0.85fc9(ah 2 A9)
s
5 0.85 3 4(20.4 3 12 1 15 3 3 2 2 3 2.37 2 2.2)

5 962 kips
The nominal axial load capacity at this strain condition is
Pn 5 Cc 1 SC 2 ST
5 962 1 373 2 609
5 726 kips
The design axial load capacity at this strain condition is
fPn 5 0.65 3 726

5 472 kips
The nominal moment capacity for this neutral axis depth is obtained by summing moments about the
middepth of the section and is given by
Mo 5 (72 2 20.4/2)Cc 1 69.5T1 1 64.5T2 1 59.5T3 1 45T4 1 27T5 1 9T62 9T7

2 27T8 2 45T9 1 59.5C10 1 64.5C11 1 69.5C12

Chapter 4 431
5 61.8 3 962 1 69.5 3 142 1 64.5 3 132 1 59.5 3 142 1 45 3 37.2

1 27 3 37.2 1 9 3 37.2 2 9 3 37.2 2 27 3 37.2 2 45 3 7 1 59.5
3 99 1 64.5 3 132 1 69.5 3 142
5 111,916 kip-in
5 9326 kip-ft
The strain in the extreme tension steel is
es 5 0.000125e
5 0.000125 3 117.5
5 0.015
. 0.005
Hence, from ACI Figure R21.2.2b, the section is tension controlled and
f 5 0.9
The design moment capacity is given by ACI Section 21.2.2 as
fMo 5 0.9 3 9326

5 8394 kip-ft
 Mu . . . satisfactory
The wall is adequate with the assumed depth to the neutral axis of c 5 24 inches.
Boundary zone requirements
The theoretical elastic displacement, caused by the code-prescribed design level forces, is given in
Figure 4-22 as
dxe 5 2.2 in
Applying the deflection amplification factor defined in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 as Cd 5 5, the total
inelastic design displacement is derived from ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6 as
du 5 Cd dxe /Ie
5 5 3 2.2/1.0
5 11 in
du /hw 5 11/576
5 0.019
. 0.005 . . . satisfies ACI Section 18.10.6.2

The parameter for determining if special boundary elements are necessary is
lw /600(1.5du /hw) 5 144/(600 3 1.5 3 0.019)

5 8.4 in
,c
Hence, special boundary elements are necessary, extending horizontally a distance from the extreme
compression fiber given by ACI Section 18.10.6.4(a) as the larger of
lz 5 c 2 0.1lw
5 24 2 0.1 3 144
5 9.6 in
or lz 5 c/2
The length provided is
lz 5 15 in . . . satisfactory
The special boundary elements must extend vertically a distance above the base given by ACI Section
18.10.6.2(b) as the larger of
hz 5 Mu /4Vu
5 8400/(4 3 250)
5 8.4 ft
or hz 5 lw
The length provided is
hz 5 12 ft . . . satisfactory
Boundary zone confinement reinforcement
value given by
s 5 hmin /4
5 15/4
5 3.75 in

Chapter 4 433
or s 5 6db
5 6 3 1.0
5 6 in
where: hx 5 15 2 2 3 1.5 2 2 3 0.5 . . . from Figure 4-22
5 11 in
then: so 5 4 1 (14 2 11)/3
5 5 in
Using #4 hoop reinforcement bars at a spacing of 4 inches on center, and providing 11⁄2-inch clear
cover to the bars, gives a core dimension, measured out-to-out of the hoop reinforcement, of
bc 5 15 2 3 . . . from Figure 4-22

5 12 in
The area of confinement reinforcement required is given by ACI Table 18.10.6.4(f), which is
Ash 5 0.09sbc fc9/fyt

5 0.09 3 4 3 12 3 4/60
5 0.29 in2
A #4 hoop provides an area of confinement reinforcing of
Ash 5 0.40 in2

4.3 Slender wall design

The alternative design method of slender concrete walls11 is an empirical design technique detailed in
ACI Section 11.8. In the design of a slender wall, consideration of P-delta effects is required.

4.3.1 General requirements
In accordance with ACI Section 11.8.1.1, the following limitations apply:
• the cross-section must be constant over the height of the wall
• the wall must be tension controlled for out-of-plane moment effects
• the design moment strength is governed by
fMn ≥ Mcr
where: Mcr 5 cracking moment defined in ACI Section 24.2.3.5
5 fr Ig /yt
fr 5 modulus of rupture defined in ACI Equation (19.2.3.1)
5 7.5l( fc9)0.5
l 5 modification factor for lightweight concrete from ACI Table
19.2.4.2
yt 5 distance from centroidal axis of gross section to the extreme tension
fiber
5 h/2 . . . for centrally placed reinforcement
Ig 5 moment of inertia of gross concrete section neglecting reinforcement
5 lw h3/12
h 5 overall thickness of wall
lw 5 horizontal length of wall
• the factored axial force at the midheight of the section is governed by
Pu ≤ 0.06 fc9Ag
• the maximum permissible deflection at midheight due to service loads, including second-
order effects, is
Ds ≤ lc /150 . . . lc is the vertical distance between supports
In accordance with ACI Section 11.8.2.1, the wall is analyzed as a simply supported, axially loaded
member subject to an out-of-plane uniformly distributed lateral load, with maximum moments and
deflections occurring at midheight.
An effective area of longitudinal tension reinforcement is used in the design calculations and this is
defined in ACI Section R11.8.3.1 as
Ase,w 5 As 1 Pu h/2fy d
5 (Pu 1 As fy)/fy . . . for one central layer of reinforcement

Chapter 4 435
Hence, the nominal moment strength is given by
Mn 5 Ase,w fy(d 2 a/2)
The depth of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress block is defined in ACI Section 22.2.2.4.1 as
a 5 Ase,w fy /0.85fc9lw
The depth to the neutral axis is
c 5 a/b1
where: b1 5 compression zone factor as defined in ACI Section 22.2.2.4.3
4.3.2 Required strength
The factored applied moment, Mu, at the location of maximum moment in the wall must include the
effects of the factored axial loads and eccentricities, the factored lateral load, and the P-delta effects.
As shown in Figure 4-24, the ultimate moment is given by ACI Equation (11.8.3.1a) as
Mu 5 Mua 1 Pu Du
5 Mua /[1 2 5Pulc2/(0.75)(48EcIcr)] . . . from ACI Equation (11.8.3.1d)
where: Pu 5 factored applied axial load at the location of the maximum moment
5 Pur 1 Puw
Pur 5 factored applied axial load at top of wall
Puw 5 factored weight of wall above the location of the maximum moment
(for a wall hinged top and bottom with a uniformly distributed load, the
maximum moment occurs at midheight)
Mua 5 maximum moment due to factored lateral and eccentric vertical loads
5 wu lc2/8 1 Pure/2
wu 5 factored lateral load
e 5 eccentricity of applied axial load at top of wall

Figure 4-24 Loads on slender wall
and Du 5 wall displacement at location of maximum moment

5 5Mu lc2/(0.75)48Ec Icr . . . from ACI Equation (11.8.3.1b)
where: lc 5 vertical distance between supports
Icr 5 moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete
5 nAse,w(d 2 c)2 1 lw c3/3 . . . from ACI Equation (11.8.3.1c)
n 5 modular ratio of elasticity
5 Es /Ec
≥6
Es 5 modulus of elasticity of reinforcing steel
5 29,000 ksi
Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete
5 57,000( fc9)0.5 . . . from ACI Section 19.2.2.1
The factored moment Mu may be determined either by iterative calculation using ACI Equation
(11.8.3.1a) or by direct calculation using ACI Equation (11.8.3.1d).

Chapter 4 437
4.3.3 Service load deflections
For seismic loads, the appropriate load combination is given by ACI Section R11.8.4 as
u 5 D 1 0.5L 1 0.7E
The maximum permissible deflection at midheight, Ds , due to service vertical and lateral loads is given
by ACI Section 11.8.1.1(e) as
Ds 5 lc /150
For Ma . 2Mcr /3, the midheight service deflection is given by ACI Table 11.8.4.1(b) as
Ds 5 2Dcr /3 1 (Ma 2 2Mcr /3)(Dn 2 2Dcr /3)/(Mn 2 2Mcr /3)
For Ma ≤ 2Mcr /3,
Ds 5 MaDcr /Mcr . . . ACI Table 11.8.4.1(a)

Dcr 5 5Mcr lc2/48Ec Ig . . . ACI Equation (11.8.4.3a)
Dn 5 5Mn lc2/48Ec Icr . . . ACI Equation (11.8.4.3b)
where: Ma 5 maximum unfactored moment due to service loads, including P-delta
effects, obtained by iteration of deflections
5 Msa 1 Ps Ds
Msa 5 maximum unfactored applied moment due to service loads, not including
P-delta effects
Ps 5 unfactored axial load
Example 4-5
The slender wall of a tilt-up concrete structure is shown in Figure 4-25. The structure has a redundancy
factor of r 5 1.0 and the 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2
second is SDS 5 0.826g. The service level gravity loads are indicated in the figure and act at an eccen-
tricity of 7 inches with respect to the center of the proposed wall section. Reinforcement consists of
Grade 60 bars and the normalweight concrete cylinder strength is 4000 psi. The structure is assigned
to seismic design category D, and the roof diaphragm may be considered flexible. Determine if the
reinforcement details are satisfactory.

Roof
Roof
24.78
Solution
The applied loads are determined first.
Factored loads
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6, which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.0E 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S
Considering a 1-foot width of panel, the factored axial load from the roof, not including roof live load,
is given by
Pur 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)220 1 1.0 3 0 1 0 1 0
5 300 lb

Chapter 4 439
The factored axial load from the weight of the wall above the midheight section is
Puw 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 1.0L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)(150 3 9 3 6/12) 1 1.0 3 0 1 0 1 0
5 922 lb
The total factored axial load at the midheight section is
Pu 5 Pur 1 Puw
5 1222 lb
The factored seismic lateral force on the wall is given by ASCE 7 Section 12.11.1 as
wu 5 0.40ISDS ww
5 0.40 3 1.0 3 0.826(150 3 6/12)
5 24.78 psf
The corresponding factored bending moment at the midheight section is
Muw 5 wu lc2/8
5 24.78 3 172/8
5 895 lb-ft
The eccentricity of the roof load about the wall centerline is
e 5 7 in
The factored bending moment at the midheight section caused by the eccentricity is
Mue 5 Pur e/2

5 300 3 7/24
5 88 lb-ft
The total factored wall moment at the midheight section due to seismic lateral force and the eccentric
roof load is
Mua 5 Muw 1 Mue

5 895 1 88
5 983 lb-ft
5 11.80 kip-in

Applied factored moment including P-delta effects
The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is given by ACI Section 19.2.2.1 as
Ec 5 57,000( fc9)0.5
5 57,000(4000)0.5/1000
5 3605 ksi
The modular ratio is
n 5 Es /Ec
5 29,000/3605
5 8.0
. 6 . . . satisfies ACI Section 11.8.3.1(a)
For #4 vertical bars at 9-inch spacing, the reinforcement area per foot width is
As 5 0.27 in2
The effective reinforcement area for one central layer of reinforcement is given by
Ase,w 5 (Pu 1 As fy)/fy

5 (1.222 1 0.27 3 60)/60
5 0.29 in2
The depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, as shown in Figure 4-26, is given by ACI Section
22.2.2.4.1 as
a 5 Ase,w fy /0.85fc9lw
5 0.29 3 60/(0.85 3 4 3 12) . . . for a 1-foot width
5 0.43 in
For a concrete strength of 4000 pounds per square inch, the factor b1 is given by ACI Section 22.2.2.4.3
as
b1 5 0.85
The depth to the neutral axis is given by ACI Section 22.2.2.4.1 as
c 5 a/b1
5 0.43/0.85
5 0.51 in

Chapter 4 441
Figure 4-26 Strain conditions
From ACI Equation (11.8.3.1c), the moment of inertia of the cracked section is
Icr 5 nAse,w(d 2 c)2 1 lw c3/3

5 8.0 3 0.29(6/2 2 0.51)2 1 12 3 0.513/3
5 14.91 in4
The magnification factor to account for P-delta effects is given by ACI Equation (11.8.3.1d) as
B1 5 1 2 5Pu lc2/(0.75)48Ec Icr

5 1 2 5 3 1.222 3 (17 3 12)2/(0.75 3 48 3 3605 3 14.91)
5 1 2 0.13
5 0.87
The factored applied moment including P-delta effects is given by
Mu 5 Mua 1 Pu Du
5 Mua /B1
5 11.80/0.87
5 13.56 kip-in

Design strength of section
The nominal moment strength is given by11
Mn 5 Ase,w fy(d 2 a/2)

5 0.29 3 60(3 2 0.43/2)
5 48.46 kip-in
As shown in Figure 4-26, the strain in the tension reinforcement is given by
es 5 ec(3 2 c)/c
5 0.003(3 2 0.51)/0.51
5 0.015
. 0.005
Hence, from ACI Section R21.2.2, the section is tension controlled and ACI Section 11.8.1.1(b) is
satisfied.
In accordance with ACI Section 21.2.1, the strength reduction factor is given by
f 5 0.9
Hence, the design moment strength is given by
fMn 5 0.9 3 48.46

5 43.61 kip-in
. Mu . . . satisfactory
Axial stress
The total factored axial load at midheight of the wall is
Pu 5 1222 lb
The factored axial load stress at midheight of the wall is
0.06fc9Ag 5 0.06 3 4000 3 12 3 6

5 17,280 lb
. Pu
The required limitation of ACI Section 11.8.1.1(d) is satisfied.

Chapter 4 443
Cracking moment
The moment of inertia of the concrete section about its centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement, is
Ig 5 bt3/12
5 12 3 63/12
5 216 in4
The modulus of rupture is given by ACI Equation (19.2.3.1) as
fr 5 7.5l( fc9)0.5
5 7.5 3 1.0(4000)0.5
5 474 lb/in2
The distance from the centroidal axis of the gross section to the extreme fiber in tension is obtained
from Figure 4-26 as
yt 5d
5 3 in
The cracking moment is given by ACI Equation (24.2.3.5b) as
Mcr 5 fr Ig /yt
5 474 3 216/3000
5 34.13 kip-in
, fMn
The required limitation of ACI Section 11.8.1(c) is satisfied.
Service level deflection
Where the effects of dead load and seismic load are additive, the applicable loading case for service
load design is given by ACI Section R11.8.4 as
U 5 D 1 0.5L 1 0.7E
5 (1 1 0.2 3 0.7SDS)D 1 1.0L 1 0.7rQE
Considering a 1-foot width of panel, the service level axial load from the roof, not including roof live
load, is given by
Pr 5 (1 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0
5 (1 1 0.14 3 0.826)220 1 0
5 245 lb

The service level axial load from the weight of the wall above the midheight section is
Pw 5 (1 1 0.14SDS)D
5 (1 1 0.14 3 0.826)(150 3 9 3 6/12)
5 753 lb
The total service level axial load at the midheight section is
Ps 5 Pr 1 Pw
5 998 lb
The service level seismic lateral force on the wall is
w 5 0.7wu
5 0.7 3 24.78
5 17.35 psf
The corresponding factored bending moment at the midheight section is
Mw 5wlc2/8
5 17.35 3 172/8
5 627 lb-ft
The eccentricity of the roof load about the wall centerline is
e 5 7 in
The service level bending moment at the midheight section caused by the eccentricity is
Me 5 Pr e/2
5 245 3 7/24
5 71 lb-ft
The total service level wall moment at the midheight section due to seismic lateral force and the eccen-
tric roof load is
Msa 5 Mw 1 Me
5 627 1 71
5 698 lb-ft
5 8.38 kip-in

Chapter 4 445
The maximum allowable deflection under service loads is given by ACI Section 14.8.4 as
Ds 5 lc /150
5 17 3 12/150
5 1.36 in
The corresponding moment at this deflection due to service loads including P-delta effects is
Ma 5 Msa 1 Ps Ds
5 8.38 1 0.998 3 1.36
5 9.74 kip-in
, 2Mcr /3 . . . ACI Table 11.8.4.1(a) applies
The midheight deflection, corresponding to the moment, Mcr , is given by ACI Equation (11.8.4.3a) as
Dcr 5 5Mcr lc2/48Ec Ig

5 5 3 34.13(17 3 12)2/(48 3 3605 3 216)
5 0.19 in
From ACI Table 11.8.4.1(a), the deflection for a P-delta moment of Ps Ds is
D 5 Ma Dcr /Mcr
5 9.74 3 0.19/34.13
5 0.054 in
, Ds
Hence, the midheight deflection corresponding to the actual service level moment is less than the max-
imum allowed and the section is satisfactory.
4.4 Anchorage in concrete

The development of an anchor rod in a concrete wall or footing is determined by the methods given
in ACI Chapter 17, as amended by IBC Section 1905.1.8. Embedment failure modes13 in the concrete
element that must be considered include concrete breakout, pullout, side-face blowout, shear breakout,
concrete pryout, and splitting. These are illustrated in Figure 4-27. Failure modes in the steel anchor
are tensile failure and shear failure.
Cast-in anchors and post-installed anchors have different design requirements. This section covers the
requirements of cast-in headed studs, headed bolts, and hooked bolts.

In designing anchors for structures assigned to seismic design categories C through F for seismic
loads, the desired failure mode is yielding of the ductile steel element of the anchor. This is achieved
by the provisions of ACI Section 17.2.3 as modified by IBC Section 1905.1.8. The modified procedure
is as follows:
• In accordance with ACI Section 17.2.3.4.1, where the tensile component of the strength-level
earthquake force is equal to or less than 20 percent of the total factored tensile force, the anchor
design strength is taken as equal to the design strength of an anchor for nonseismic loads.
• In accordance with ACI Section 17.2.3.4.2, where the tensile component of the strength-level
earthquake force exceeds 20 percent of the total factored tensile force, the anchor is designed
in accordance with ACI Section 17.2.3.4.3 and the design strength is determined from ACI
Section 17.2.3.4.4.
• Where anchors are designed for the wall anchorage force given by ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1,
which is Fp 5 0.4SDS ka IeWp , IBC Section 1905.1.8 adds the following exception to ACI Sec-
tion 17.2.3.4.2:
Anchors designed to resist wall out-of-plane forces with design strengths equal to or greater
than the force determined in accordance with ASCE 7 Equation 12.11-1 or 12.14-10 shall
be deemed to satisfy Section 17.2.3.4.3(d).
• ACI Section 17.2.3.4.3(d), as modified by IBC Section 1905.1.8, is:
The anchor or group of anchors shall be designed for the maximum tension obtained from
design load combinations that include E, with E increased by W0. The anchor design tensile
strength shall be calculated from 17.2.3.4.4.
• Then, in accordance with ACI Section 17.2.3.4.4, the design strength for concrete breakout,
pullout, and side-face blowout is reduced by 25 percent.
• Where anchor reinforcement is provided in accordance with ACI Section 17.4.2.9, the design
strength of the anchor reinforcement is used instead of the concrete breakout strength.
An exemption to ACI Section 17.2.3.5.3 is provided by IBC Section 1905.1.8 for the concrete break-
out strength in shear parallel to an edge of anchor bolts attaching wood sill plates of light-frame wood
structures to foundations or foundation stem walls, provided all of the following are satisfied:
1. The allowable in-plane shear strength of the anchor is determined in accordance with ANSI/
AWC NDS14 Table 12E for lateral design values parallel to grain.
2. The maximum anchor nominal diameter is 5⁄8 inch.
3. Anchor bolts are embedded into concrete a minimum of 7 inches.
4. Anchor bolts are located a minimum of 13⁄4 inches from the edge of the concrete parallel to the
length of the wood sill plate.
5. Anchor bolts are located a minimum of 15 anchor diameters from the edge of the concrete per-
pendicular to the length of the wood sill plate.
6. The sill plate is of 2- or 3-inch nominal thickness.
Chapter 4 447
The concrete breakout strength in shear need not be computed for this condition.
An exemption to ACI Section 17.2.3.5.3 is provided by IBC 1905.1.8 for the concrete breakout strength
in shear parallel to an edge of anchor bolts attaching cold-formed steel track of light-frame construc-
tion to foundations or foundation stem walls, provided all of the following are satisfied:
length of the track.
4. Anchor bolts are located a minimum of 15 anchor diameters from the edge of the concrete per-
pendicular to the length of the track.
5. The track is 33 to 68 mil designation thickness.
The concrete breakout strength in shear need not be computed for this condition.
The allowable in-plane shear strength of exempt anchors, parallel to the edge of concrete, shall be
permitted to be determined in accordance with AISI S100 Section E3.3.1.
In light-frame construction of bearing or nonbearing walls, an exemption to ACI Section 17.2.3.5.3(a)

through (c) is provided by IBC Section 1905.1.8 for the shear strength of concrete anchor bolts, of
1-inch diameter or less, attaching sill plate or steel track to foundations, when the design strength of
the anchors is determined in accordance with ACI Section 17.5.2.1(c). This permits the adoption of
a nominal shear strength for the bolts, parallel to an edge, of twice the value given by ACI Equations
(17.5.2.1a) and (17.5.2.1b).
Figure 4-27 Concrete embedment failure modes

4.4.1 Design requirements for tensile loading
Concrete breakout strength
For a single anchor remote from the edges of the concrete element, as shown in Figure 4-28, the fail-
ure surface in the concrete is assumed to be a pyramid with its apex at the centerline of the rod at the
bearing contact surface of the head, with the failure surface radiating outward to the surface at a slope
of 1 to 1.5. The projected area of this failure surface on the concrete outer surface is given by ACI
Equation (17.4.2.1c) as
ANco 5 9h2ef
where: hef 5 effective anchor embedment depth
5 depth from the concrete outer surface to the bearing contact surface of the
head
Figure 4-28 Concrete failure surface for a single anchor
Failure occurs, and concrete breakout results, when the tensile stress on the failure surface exceeds the
tensile strength of the concrete. The nominal concrete breakout strength for a single cast-in anchor in
tension is given by ACI Equation (17.4.2.1a) as
Ncb 5 ANcyed,Nyc,Nycp,N Nb/ANco
where: ANc 5 projected area of the failure surface for a single anchor as limited by
adjacent free edges

Chapter 4 449
yed,N 5 modification factor for edge effects

5 1.0 for a minimum edge distance of 1.5hef from ACI Section 17.4.2.5
5 0.7 1 0.3ca,min /1.5hef for a minimum edge distance , 1.5hef
yc,N 5 modification factor for cracked concrete from ACI Section 17.4.2.6
5 1.0 for concrete that is cracked at service load levels
5 1.25 for concrete that is uncracked at service load levels
ycp,N 5 modification factor for post-installed anchors from ACI Section 17.4.2.7
5 1.0 for cast-in anchor
Nb 5 basic concrete breakout strength in tension of a single cast-in anchor in
cracked concrete as defined in ACI Section 17.4.2.2
5 16la( fc9)0.5(hef )5/3 for 11 in , hef , 25 in . . . from ACI Equation (17.4.2.2b)
5 24la( fc9)0.5(hef )1.5 for all other values of hef . . . from ACI Equation (17.4.2.2a)
la 5 modification factor for lightweight concrete
5 1.0 for normalweight concrete with cast-in anchor
Where anchor rods are spaced closer than three times their embedment depth, the failure surfaces of
adjacent anchors intersect. The failure surface for such an anchor group is determined by projecting
the failure surface outward from a line through the anchor heads, as shown in Figure 4-29. The pro-
jected area of this failure surface on the concrete outer surface, when remote from edges, is given by
ANc 5 3hef (b 1 3hef ) . . . for a single row of anchors

5 (a 1 3hef )(b 1 3hef ) . . . for multiple rows of anchors
≤ nANco
where: n 5 number of anchors in the group
b 5 distance between outside anchors in the group
a 5 distance between outside anchors in the group perpendicular to b
The nominal concrete breakout strength for a cast-in anchor group in tension is given by ACI Equation
(17.4.2.1b) as
Ncbg 5 ANcyec,Nyed,Nyc,Nycp,N Nb /ANco

where: ANc 5 projected area of the failure surface for the anchor group as limited by
adjacent free edges
yec,N 5 modification factor for eccentrically loaded anchor groups
5 1.0 for concentrically loaded groups from ACI Section 17.4.2.4

1.5
1
b+
b
a
1.5
1 a+
b+
Figure 4-29 Concrete failure surface for an anchor group
The strength reduction factor for an anchor or anchor group governed by concrete breakout, side-face
blowout, pullout, or pryout strength is given by ACI Section 17.3.3 as
f 5 0.75 . . . where supplementary reinforcement is provided to tie the concrete

failure prism into the structural member
5 0.70 . . . where supplementary reinforcement is not provided
Steel strength of anchor
The design strength of a ductile anchor rod in tension is given by ACI Section 17.3.3 and ACI Equation
(17.4.1.2) as
fNsa 5 0.75Ase,N futa

where: Ase,N 5 effective cross-sectional area of anchor rod in tension
futa 5 specified tensile strength of the anchor steel
≤ 1.9fya
≤ 125,000 psi
fya 5 specified yield strength of anchor steel

Chapter 4 451
Ductile bolts include ASTM A307 grade A with a minimum specified tensile strength of 60 kips per
square inch.
The design strength of a brittle steel anchor rod in tension is given by ACI Section 17.3.3 and ACI
Equation (17.4.1.2) as
fNsa 5 0.65Ase,N futa
Pullout strength of anchor in tension
The nominal concrete pullout strength for a single anchor in tension is given by ACI Equation (17.4.3.1)
as
Npn 5 yc,P Np
where: Np 5 8Abrg fc9 . . . headed bolt or stud
5 0.9eh da fc9 . . . hooked bolt, where 3da , eh , 4.5da
Abrg 5 net bearing area of bolt or stud head
fc9 5 concrete compressive strength
eh 5 distance from outer tip of hooked bolt to inner surface of the shaft
da 5 outside diameter of bolt
yc,P 5 modification factor for cracked concrete from ACI Section 17.4.3.6
5 1.0 for concrete that is cracked at service load levels
5 1.4 for concrete that is uncracked at service load levels
Side-face blowout strength of anchor in tension
Side-face blowout is caused by spalling of the concrete surface adjacent to the head of an anchor that is
close to the face of the concrete. The nominal concrete blowout strength for a single anchor in tension,
with hef . 2.5ca1, is given by ACI Equation (17.4.4.1) as
Nsb 5 160ca1(Abrg fc9)0.5 l a . . . for ca2 ≥ 3ca1
5 (1/4 1 ca2 /4ca1)160ca1(Abrg fc9)0.5 l a . . . for 1.0 ≤ ca2 /ca1 ≤ 3
where: ca1 5 minimum distance from center of anchor shaft to edge of concrete
ca2 5 distance from center of anchor shaft to edge of concrete perpendicular to ca1

4.4.2 Design requirements for shear loading
Concrete breakout strength
For a single anchor remote from edges perpendicular to the shear force, as shown in Figure 4-30, the
failure surface in the concrete is assumed to be a half pyramid with a side length of 3c1 and a depth
of c1. The projected area of this failure surface on the concrete outer surface is given by ACI Section
R17.5.2.1 as
AVco 5 4.5c2a1
where: ca1 5 distance from center of anchor rod to edge of concrete in the direction of
the shear force
ca1
ca1
V
1.0 1.5
V 1.5 ca1 1.5ca1
1.5 ca1 1.5 ca1
3c
a1
ca1
Figure 4-30 Concrete failure surface for a single anchor
The nominal concrete breakout strength for a single cast-in anchor in shear is given by ACI Equation
(17.5.2.1a) as
Vcb 5 AVcyed,V yc,V yh,V Vb /AVco

where: AVc 5 projected area of the failure surface for a single anchor as limited by corner
influences and member thickness
yed,V 5 modification factor for edge effects
5 1.0 for ca2 ≥ 1.5ca1 from ACI Section 17.5.2.6 where ca2 5 distance from
center of anchor rod to edge of concrete normal to direction of shear force
5 0.7 1 0.3ca2/1.5ca1 . . . for ca2 , 1.5ca1
yc,V 5 modification factor for cracked concrete from ACI Section 17.5.2.7
5 1.0 for concrete that is cracked with no supplementary reinforcement
5 1.4 for concrete that is cracked with a #4 bar or greater between the anchor
and the edge and with the reinforcement enclosed in stirrups

Chapter 4 453
yh,V 5 modification factor for anchors located in a member with ha , 1.5ca1

5 (1.5ca1 /ha)0.5 . . . from ACI Equation (17.5.2.8)
≥ 1.0
ha 5 thickness of member
Vb 5 basic concrete breakout strength in shear of a single anchor in cracked
concrete as defined in ACI Section 17.5.2.2
5 7(le /da)0.2(da)0.5( fc9)0.5 la(ca1)1.5 . . . from ACI Equation (17.5.2.2a)
≤ 9la( fc9)0.5(ca1)1.5
where: da 5 diameter of anchor
le 5 load-bearing length of anchor for shear
5 hef for anchors of constant thickness
≤ 8da
The nominal concrete breakout strength for an anchor group in shear, as shown in Figure 4-31, is given
by ACI Equation (17.5.2.1b) as
Vcbg 5 AVcyec,V yed,V yc,V yh,V Vb/AVco

where: AVc 5 projected area of the failure surface for the anchor group as limited by
corner influences and member thickness
yec,V 5 modification factor for eccentrically loaded anchor groups
5 1.0 for concentrically loaded groups from ACI Section 17.5.2.5
ca1
V
ha s
1.5
1.0
3c
a1 +s
Figure 4-31 Concrete failure surface for an anchor group in shear

The strength reduction factor for an anchor or anchor group is given by ACI Section 17.3.3 as
f 5 0.75 . . . where supplementary reinforcement is provided to tie the concrete

failure prism into the structural member
5 0.70 . . . where supplementary reinforcement is not provided
Steel strength of anchor
The design strength of an anchor rod in shear is given by ACI Section 17.5.1.2 as
fVsa 5 0.65Ase,V futa . . . headed stud

5 0.65 3 0.6Ase,V futa . . . headed bolt and hooked bolt
where: Ase,V 5 effective cross-sectional area of anchor rod in shear
Ductile bolts include ASTM A307 grade A with a minimum specified tensile strength of 60 kips per
square inch.
where: futa 5 specified tensile strength of anchor rod
≤ 125 ksi
≤ 1.9fy
fya 5 specified yield strength of anchor
Concrete pryout strength of anchor in shear
The nominal concrete pryout strength for a single anchor in shear is given by ACI Equation (17.5.3.1a)
as
Vcp 5 kcp Ncb

where: kcp 5 1.0 . . . for hef , 2.5 inches
5 2.0 . . . for hef ≥ 2.5 inches
Ncb 5 nominal concrete breakout strength for a single anchor in tension as given
by ACI Equation (17.4.2.1a)
5 ANcyed,N yc,N ycp,N Nb /ANco

Chapter 4 455
4.4.3 Interaction of tensile and shear forces
Where Vua . 0.2fVn and Nua . 0.2fNn, the interaction expression of ACI Equation (17.6.3) applies,
and
Nua /fNn 1 Vua /fVn ≤ 1.2

Where Vua , 0.2fVn , shear effects are neglected, the full design strength in tension is permitted, and
fNn ≥ Nua
Where Nua , 0.2fNn , tension effects are neglected, the full design strength in shear is permitted, and
fVn ≥ Vua
Example 4-6
Check the design of the wall anchorage of the tilt-up concrete structure shown in Figure 4-32. The
structure has an importance factor of Ie 5 1.0; a redundancy factor of r 5 1.0; and the 5-percent
damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. The building
is assigned to seismic design category D. The normalweight concrete cylinder strength is 4000 psi. The
roof diaphragm may be considered flexible and spans Lf 5 50 feet. Anchor bolts are 1⁄2-inch-diameter
hex head ASTM A307 grade C with a minimum specified tensile strength of 60 ksi. Anchorages are
located at sa 5 8-foot centers and anchor bolts are not torqued. Supplementary reinforcement is not
provided and the concrete may be considered cracked. The weight of the wall is w 5 75 lb/ft2. Shear
on the attachment is negligible and the full design strength in tension is permitted.
ca1

Solution
Anchor bolts are located 6 inches from the top of the wall, and edge distance and spacing exceed the
minimum values specified in ACI Section 17.7. Hence, side-face blowout and splitting need not be
considered.
The anchor bolts are ductile, and from ACI Section 17.3.3, the strength reduction factors are
f 5 0.75 . . . for tension on a ductile anchor bolt

f 5 0.70 . . . for concrete breakout or pullout without supplemental
reinforcement
The wall anchor force is determined from ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.1. Hence, in accordance with
IBC-modified ACI Sections 17.2.3.4.2 and 17.2.3.4.3, the strength of the anchorage for concrete
breakout and pullout is reduced by 25 percent.
The properties of the 1⁄2-inch-diameter hex bolts are13
Ase 5 effective area
5 0.142 in2
Abrg 5 bearing area of head
5 0.291 in2
futa 5 minimum specified tensile strength
5 60 ksi
Applied loads on the anchor
The weight of wall tributary to an anchor is obtained from Figure 4-32 as
Wp 5 sawH 2/2lc
5 8 3 75 3 24.52/[1000(2 3 24)]
5 7.5 kips
The span in feet of the flexible diaphragm is
Lf 5 50 ft
The amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility is
ka 5 1.0 1 Lf /100
5 1.0 1 50/100
5 1.5

Chapter 4 457
The seismic force on an anchor is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.11-1) as
Fp 5 0.4SDS ka IeWp
5 0.4 3 0.826 3 1.5 3 1.0 3 7.5
The minimum permissible force on one anchor is
Fmin 5 0.2ka IeWp

5 0.2 3 1.5 3 1.0 3 7.5
5 2.25 kips . . . does not govern
, Fp
In accordance with ASCE Section 12.11.2.2.2, steel elements of the anchor system other than anchor
bolts must be designed for the strength design force given by
Tu 5 1.4Fp
5 1.4 3 3.72
5 5.21 kips
Concrete breakout strength in tension
As shown in Figure 4-32, the projection of the failure surface for the anchor group on the concrete
outer surface has an area of
ANc 5 (1.5hef 1 ca1)(s 1 3hef)

5 (1.5 3 5.5 1 6)(6.5 1 3 3 5.5)
5 328 in2
, 2ANco . . . satisfies ACI Section 17.4.2.1
The projection of the failure surface for a single anchor on the concrete outer surface has an area of
ANco 5 9h2ef
5 9 3 5.52
5 272 in2
The basic concrete breakout strength in tension of a single anchor in cracked concrete, as defined in
ACI Section 17.4.2.2, is
Nb 5 24( fc9)0.5(hef)1.5
5 24(4000)0.5(5.5)1.5/1000
5 19.58 kips

yed,N 5 0.7 1 0.3ca1,min /1.5hef

5 0.7 1 0.3 3 6/8.25
5 0.92
yc,N 5 yec,N 5 ycp,N 5 1.0
The design concrete breakout strength for the anchor group for seismic loading is given by ACI Sec-
tion 17.2.3.4.4 and ACI Equation (17.4.2.1b) as
0.75fNcbg 5 0.75fANcyec,Nyed,Nyc,Nycp,NNb/ANco
5 0.75 3 0.70 3 328 3 1.0 3 0.92 3 1.0 3 1.0 3 19.58/272
5 11.40 kips
. Fp . . . satisfactory
Pullout strength of anchor in tension
The design concrete pullout strength for a single anchor in tension is given by ACI Section 17.2.3.4.4
and ACI Equation (17.4.3.1) as
0.75fNpn 5 0.75fyc,PNp
where: Np 5 8Abrg fc9 . . . for a headed bolt
5 8 3 0.291 3 4
5 9.31 kips
yc,P 5 modification factor for pullout strength of anchors for cracked concrete
from ACI Section 17.4.3.6
5 1.0 . . . for concrete that is cracked at service load levels
hence: 0.75fNpn 5 0.75 3 0.7 3 1.0 3 9.31
5 4.89 kips
The concrete pullout strength of the two bolts is
2Npn 5 2 3 4.89
5 9.78 kips
Strength of anchor rods in tension
The steel strength is based on the effective area of the threaded rod. For a 1⁄2-inch-diameter threaded
rod, the effective area is13
Ase,N 5 0.142 in2

Chapter 4 459
The minimum specified tensile strength of the two ASTM A307 grade A anchor rods is 60 kips per
square inch. Hence, the design strength of the two 1⁄2-inch-diameter ductile anchor rods is given by ACI
Equation (17.4.1.2) as
2fNsa 5 2fAse,N futa

5 2 3 0.75 3 0.142 3 60
5 12.78 kips
References
3. American Concrete Institute. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commen-
tary: (318-14). Farmington Hills, MI, 2014.
4. American Concrete Institute. Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook SP-17(14). Farmington
Hills, MI, 2014.
5. Structure Point LLC. Concrete Design Software: spColumn. Skokie, IL, 2014.
6. Williams, A. Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures. Dearborn Press. Chicago, IL, 2012.
7. Structural Engineering Association of California. “Reinforced Concrete Structures.” SEAOC Blue
Book: Seismic Design Recommendations. SEAOC. Sacramento, CA, 2009.
8. Fanella, D. A. Design of Low-Rise Concrete Buildings for Earthquake Forces. ICC. Washington,
DC, 2009.
9. Fanella, D. A. “Special Moment Frames.” Structural Engineer, 3, No. 8, (28–33). September
2002.
10. Fanella, D. A. “Structural Walls.” Structural Engineer, 3, No. 10, (32–35). November 2002.
11. American Concrete Institute and Structural Engineers Association of Southern California. Report
of the Task Committee on Slender Walls. Los Angeles, CA, 1982.
12. Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. Wood Construction Connectors. Catalogue C-C-2017. Pleas-
anton, CA, 2017.
13. Cook, R. A. Strength Design of Anchorage to Concrete. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL,
1999.
14. American Wood Council. National Design Specification for Wood Construction. ANSI/AWC
NDS-2018. Leesburg, VA, 2018.

CHAPTER 5
Seismic Design of Wood Structures
Nomenclature
A area in2
Ao total area of openings in a perforated shear wall ft2
b length of a shear wall or shear wall segment ft
bs length of a shear wall or shear wall segment for determining aspect ratio ft
C compression chord force lb
Co shear capacity adjustment factor –
E modulus of elasticity psi
G specific gravity –
Ga apparent shear stiffness from nail slip and panel shear deformation kips/in
h height of a shear wall or shear wall segment ft
Ke effective length factor –
L dimension of a diaphragm perpendicular to the application of force ft
SLi sum of perforated shear wall segment lengths ft
R response modification coefficient –
t uniform uplift force lb/ft
T tension chord force lb
v induced unit shear lb/ft
V seismic base shear lb
V shear force lb
W dimension of a diaphragm parallel to the application of force ft
x distance from chord splice to nearest support ft

462 Seismic Design of Wood Structures
Symbols
Da total vertical elongation of wall anchorage system in
Dc diaphragm chord splice slip in diaphragm in
ddia maximum diaphragm deflection determined by elastic analysis in
W0 system overstrength factor –
5.1 General provisions

5.1.1 Building classification
In accordance with IBC1 Section 602, only buildings of construction classification III, IV, or V may be
constructed of wood. For Type III construction, fire-retardant-treated wood framing complying with
IBC Section 2303.2 is required for exterior walls. For Type IV construction, heavy timber construction
is required. Type V construction may utilize any materials permitted by the code. Determination of the
applicable construction classification depends on building height and area limitations, as specified in
IBC Section 503, and on the intended use of the building, as specified in IBC Section 302.
5.1.2 Design methodology
Wood structures may be designed using the allowable stress design method, the load and resistance
factor design method, or the conventional light-frame construction provisions. The load combinations
applicable to the allowable stress design method are specified in ASCE 72 Section 2.4. The load com-
binations applicable to the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method are specified in ASCE 7
Section 2.3. The conventional light-frame construction provisions of IBC Section 2308 are prescrip-
tive requirements based on generally accepted practice and are restricted to light wood-frame building
construction with a maximum height of three stories. The method is not permitted, in accordance with
IBC Section 2308.2, for buildings in areas where the basic wind speed exceeds 130 miles per hour, or
for buildings with live load exceeding 40 pounds per square foot. The method is limited by IBC Table
2308.2.1 to buildings with a maximum of two stories in seismic design category C. The method is
limited by IBC Table 2308.2.1 to buildings with a maximum of one story in seismic design categories
D and E.
For the allowable stress design (ASD) method, IBC Section 2306.1 specifies the adoption of the
National Design Specification for Wood Construction3, 4 and Special Design Provisions for Wind and
Seismic.5 In the ASD method, the calculated stress in an element, due to the service level loads, must
not exceed the prescribed allowable stress.
For the LRFD method, IBC Section 2307.1 specifies the adoption of the National Design Specification
for Wood Construction and Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic. The LRFD method is
based on limit state principles to determine the maximum load-carrying capacity of a structure. A uni-
form level of reliability is achieved for all structures by ensuring that the nominal resistance capacity

Chapter 5 463
of an element multiplied by the appropriate reduction factor is not less than the demand produced by
the factored loads.
5.2 Lateral-force-resisting system

5.2.1 Lateral load path
Figure 5-1 shows the lateral load path in a one-story structure and indicates the individual components
and fastening details required. A continuous load path is necessary to transfer the lateral seismic and
wind forces from the upper portion of the structure to the foundations. Vertical and horizontal struc-
tural assemblies are used to provide a lateral-force-resisting system and the assemblies are secured and
interconnected by fasteners.
6 6
Figure 5-1 Lateral load path

For conventional light-frame construction, IBC Table 2304.10.1 provides prescribed fastening details
and these are the minimum required for all lightweight wood-frame construction. As required by IBC
Section 2304.10.2, sheathing fasteners shall be driven flush with the surface of the sheathing. Pro-
truding or overdriven nails do not provide the intended shear capacity. As specified by IBC Section
2304.10.6, fabricated fasteners shall be formed from galvanized steel or other approved corrosion-
resistant material with a minimum thickness of 0.0329 inch.
The horizontal, or nearly horizontal, structural assemblies consist of the roof and floor diaphragms that
transmit lateral forces to the shear walls. Diaphragms are composed of wood structural panels fixed
to wood framing members. Wood structural panels are defined in IBC Section 202 as consisting of
plywood, oriented strand board, and composite panels.
The vertical structural assemblies consist of shear walls and are also composed of wood structural
panels fixed to wood framing members. The imposed lateral forces produce overturning forces and
racking of the shear walls.
5.2.2 Connection details
The connection details required in a two-story, wood-frame structure to ensure the transfer of lateral
forces from the roof and second floor to the foundation are shown in Figure 5-2. The roof diaphragm
shear is transferred to end blocking between framing joists and the boundary nail spacing is obtained
from SDPWS5 Tables 4.2A–4.2D. The shear is transferred from the end blocking to the top plate of
the second-story shear wall, either by proprietary framing anchors or by means of horizontal wood
blocking, as shown. The alternative method shown, using toenails, is not recommended because of
the possibility of splitting caused by close nail spacing or shrinking of the end blocking. In seismic
design categories D, E, and F, SDPWS Section 4.1.7 prohibits the use of toenails where the lateral
force exceeds 150 pounds per linear foot for ASD and 205 pounds per linear foot for LRFD. The nail
spacing required at the shear wall edge is obtained from SDPWS Tables 4.3A–4.3D. The total shear
force at the bottom of the second-story shear wall is due to the self-weight of the shear wall plus the
roof diaphragm shear. This is transferred through the bottom plate to the second-floor end blocking
by nailing. The shear from the second-floor diaphragm is also transferred to the end blocking by the
diaphragm boundary nailing. Similarly, the accumulated forces are transferred to the sill plate of the
first-story shear wall. Finally, anchor bolts transfer the force in the sill plate to the concrete foundation.
To resist the uplift of the second-story shear wall, the end posts of the second story and the first-story
shear walls are tied together with steel straps. Alternatively, the end posts of the shear walls may be
tied together by a steel rod connected to hold-down supports either bolted or nailed to the end posts.

Chapter 5 465
Figure 5-2 Lateral and vertical force transfer

5.3 Diaphragms
5.3.1.1 Diaphragm function
A plywood diaphragm acts as a horizontal deep beam to collect and transfer lateral forces to the shear
walls. Structural wood panels form the beam web to resist shear force, purlins act as web stiffeners,
and the boundary members normal to the load form the flanges to resist flexural effects.7, 8 Shear
stresses are assumed uniformly distributed across the depth of the diaphragm. The boundary members,
acting as the flange or chord of the diaphragm, may consist of the double top plate of a wood-frame
shear wall, a steel or wood ledger on the inside face of a concrete wall, or steel reinforcement in a
masonry or concrete wall. The contribution of the plywood sheathing to the flexural capacity of the
deep beam is neglected and the chords are assumed to resist the total applied moment by developing
axial forces that provide a couple equal and opposite to the moment. As shown in Figure 5-3, the axial
force in a chord is given by
Fc 5 Ft
5 MD /BD
where: MD 5 bending moment in the diaphragm
5 wL2/8
BD 5 distance between chord centers
 depth of diaphragm
Figure 5-3 Diaphragm action

Chapter 5 467
5.3.1.2 Blocked diaphragms
The terms blocked diaphragm and unblocked diaphragm are defined in SDPWS Section 2.2 and
shown in Figure 5-4. When all edges of the structural wood panels are supported by and are nailed to
framing members, the diaphragm is termed blocked. This increases the strength of the diaphragm and
may be achieved by spacing purlins and sub-purlins at suitable centers so as to support the edges of a
4 3 8-foot panel. When this framing arrangement is not possible, 23 flat-wise blocking pieces may
be nailed or clipped to the framing members, as shown in Figure 5-4. Connecting the structural wood
panels to framing members around the entire perimeter of the panel prevents buckling of the panel
and provides higher allowable design loads than unblocked diaphragms. SDPWS Table 4.2.4 specifies
the maximum aspect ratio for unblocked wood structural panel diaphragms as 3:1 and for blocked
diaphragms, 4:1.
Figure 5-4 Diaphragm construction
5.3.2 Diaphragm strength
The strength of wood structural panels is controlled by the shear strength of the panel, by nail heads
pulling through the panel face, by nails splitting panel edges, and by buckling of the panel. The nomi-
nal unit shear capacity of a plywood diaphragm depends on the sheathing thickness, grade, and orien-
tation; the width of the framing members; the support of the panel edges; and the nail spacing, type,
and penetration. The nominal unit shear capacities for blocked wood structural panel diaphragms are
given in SDPWS Table 4.2A. Separate values are provided for wind or seismic loads, and values for
wind loads are 40-percent higher than for seismic loads. For cases not covered by this table, additional
nominal unit shear capacities may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.2B for high load diaphragms for
wind or seismic loading.
For the ASD method, allowable unit shear capacity is determined by dividing the tabulated nominal
unit shear capacity by a reduction factor of 2. For the LRFD method, the design unit shear capacity is
determined by multiplying the tabulated nominal unit shear capacity by a resistance factor, fD, of 0.8.

In accordance with SDPWS Section 4.2.7.1.1, the following construction requirements are necessary
for wood structural panel diaphragms:
• minimum size of panel is 4 3 8 feet, except at boundaries and changes in framing where a
minimum panel dimension of 24 inches is required unless all edges of the undersized panels
are supported by and fastened to framing members or blocking
• maximum spacing of nails at panel edges is 6 inches
• where the spacing of supporting framing is less than 48 inches, the maximum nail spacing
along intermediate framing members is 12 inches; otherwise, the maximum spacing is 6 inches
• nails along intermediate framing members and blocking must be the same size as specified for
panel edge nailing
• nails are located at least 3⁄8 inch from panel edges
• a 3-inch nominal or greater framing member is required at abutting panel edges where nails are
spaced at 21⁄2 inches or less or where 10d nails with a penetration exceeding 11⁄2 inches and a
spacing of 3 inches or less are used; otherwise, 2-inch nominal framing members may be used
• nails at panel edges are staggered where nails are spaced at 21⁄2 inches or less or where 10d nails
with a penetration exceeding 11⁄2 inches and a spacing of 3 inches or less are used
High load diaphragms develop their additional strength by the use of multiple rows of fasteners at
adjoining panel edges and boundaries. Nominal 3- or 4-inch-wide framing members, as specified in
SDPWS Table 4.2B, are required at these locations in order to prevent splitting of the framing mem-
bers. Boundary and panel edge nailing details are shown in Figure 5-5.
S = tabulated nail spacing Panel joint
Top plate
Framing
5 or 7 equal
21/2 – 31/2
1
/2
spaces
3
/8 min
21/2 3
/8 min
1
/2
S S
Boundary nailing Adjoining panels
Figure 5-5 High load diaphragm nailing details

Chapter 5 469
The more stringent requirements for high load blocked wood structural panel diaphragms are given in
SDPWS Section 4.2.7.1.2 and these are:
• minimum size of panel is 4 3 8 feet, except at boundaries and changes in framing where a
minimum panel dimension of 24 inches is required unless all edges of the undersized panels
are supported by and fastened to framing members or blocking
• maximum spacing of nails at panel edges is 6 inches
• where the spacing of supporting framing is 32 inches or less, the maximum nail spacing along
intermediate framing members is 12 inches; otherwise, the maximum spacing is 6 inches
• nails along intermediate framing members and blocking must be the same size as specified for
panel edge nailing
• nails are located at least 3⁄8 inch from panel edges but not less than the distances shown in Fig-
ure 5-5
• a 3-inch nominal or greater framing member is required at diaphragm boundaries and abutting
panel edges; otherwise, 2-inch nominal framing members may be used
• nails at diaphragm boundary edges are equally spaced and staggered where nails are spaced at
3 inches or less
Nominal unit shear capacity values are provided in SDPWS Table 4.2C for unblocked wood structural
panels. SDPWS Table 4.2D provides nominal unit shear capacity values for diagonal, double diagonal,
and horizontal lumber sheathing.
The shear stress is assumed uniform over the depth of the diaphragm and the unit shear stress in a
diaphragm is given by
q 5 Q/BD
where: Q 5 shear force at the section considered
BD 5 depth of diaphragm
For a given plywood panel grade, thickness, orientation, and edge support, the required nail spacing
may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.2A. Since the shear decreases in a uniformly loaded diaphragm
from the end supports to midspan, the nail spacing may be progressively increased. The strength of a
diaphragm may be increased by increasing the grade and thickness of the plywood, reducing nail spac-
ing, increasing the width of framing members, blocking all panel edges, and staggering panel edges in
the direction of the applied force.

The nominal unit shear capacities given in SDPWS Table 4.2A are based on the use of common nails.
The tabulated shear capacities are also based on framing of Douglas Fir-Larch or Southern Pine. For
framing of other species, these values are multiplied by the adjustment factor
AF 5 1 2 (0.5 2 G)
≤ 1.0
where: G 5 specific gravity of the framing lumber
Example 5-1
The tilt-up concrete industrial building shown in Figure 5-6 is located on a site with a site classification
D. The seismic importance factor is Ie 5 1.0 and the seismic design category is D. The design spectral
response accelerations are SDS 5 0.826g and SD1 5 0.469g. The weight of the roof is 19 pounds per
square foot and the weight of the concrete bearing walls is 75 pounds per square foot with a compres-
sive strength of 4 kips per square inch. The roof sheathing is 3⁄8-inch-nominal Structural I grade ply-
wood and the roof framing is of Douglas Fir-Larch. Assume the roof diaphragm is flexible and neglect
the effect of wall openings. Draw the required nailing diagram and determine the chord reinforcement
required for north-south seismic loads.
Solution
The aspect ratio of the roof diaphragm is
a 5 256/120
5 2.1
, 4.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Table 4.2.4 for a blocked diaphragm
North-south tributary dead load
The relevant dead load tributary to the roof diaphragm in the north-south direction is due to the north
and south walls and the roof dead load, and is given by
Roof 5 19 3 120
5 2280 lb/ft
North wall 5 75 3 24.52/(2 3 24)
5 938 lb/ft
South wall 5 938 lb/ft

Chapter 5 471
L
N
t=
The total dead load tributary to the roof diaphragm in the north-south direction is
wpx 5 (2280 1 2 3 938)256/1000

5 1064 kips

Redundancy factor
The structure is regular in plan with shear walls on all four sides. In addition, the length of the east and
west shear walls is W 5 120 feet, and the height is h 5 24 feet. Hence, in accordance with ASCE 7
Section 12.3.4.2b, the number of equivalent bays is
n 5 W/h
5 120/24
55
.2
Hence, the building complies with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.2b, and the redundancy factor is
r 5 1.0
Seismic parameters
The design spectral response accelerations are given as
SDS 5 0.826g
SD1 5 0.469g
The seismic importance factor is
Ie 5 1.0
The seismic design category is D and specially detailed reinforced concrete shear walls are required
with a response modification factor from Table 1-16 of R 5 5.0.
Fundamental period
The approximate fundamental period is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-7) as
Ta 5 Ct(hn)3/4
where: Ct 5 0.02 for a tilt-up concrete building
hn 5 roof height
5 24.5 ft
Then, the fundamental period is
Ta 5 0.02(24.5)3/4
5 0.22 sec

Chapter 5 473
The response spectrum parameter is
TS 5 SD1 /SDS
5 0.469/0.826
5 0.57
. Ta
Seismic design coefficient
Hence, ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-2) governs and the seismic design coefficient is
Cs 5 SDS Ie /R
5 0.826 3 1.0/5.0
5 0.165
In seismic design category D, the strength level design seismic load acting on a diaphragm is given by
Fpx 5 wpx SFi /Swi

5 Cswpx . . . for a single-story structure
5 0.165 3 1064
5 176 kips
The minimum diaphragm force is specified by ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-2)
Fpx 5 0.2SDS Iewpx

5 0.2 3 0.826 3 1.0 3 1064
5 0.165 3 1065
5 176 kips
From ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-11), the diaphragm force for a single-story building is
Fx 5 Vwx hxk/Swi hik . . . for Ta , 0.5 sec, k 5 1.0, and V is the seismic base shear
5 Cswpx
5 0.165 3 1064

North-south diaphragm shear
Applying the tributary area method, the strength level shear force along the diaphragm boundaries at
grid lines 1 and 9 is
QE 5 Fpx /2
5 88 kips
The strength level shear force on the diaphragm is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.4-1) as
E 5 rQE 1 0.2SDS D
5 1.0 3 88
5 88 kips
The required nominal shear capacity is given by SDPWS Section 4.2.3 as
Vn 5 E/0.8
5 110 kips
The required nominal unit shear capacity along the diaphragm boundaries is
vn1 5 Vn /W
5 110 3 1000/120
5 917 lb/ft
The nail spacing may be changed at the beam locations, shown in Figure 5-7, and the unit shear a dis-
tance 48 feet from the boundary is given by
vn2 5 vn1 3 80/128

5 573 lb/ft

Chapter 5 475
917
573
573
917
Figure 5-7 Nailing diagram
Nail spacing
The required nail spacing is obtained from SDPWS Table 4.2A with a case 4 plywood layout applica-
ble and all edges blocked. Framing, at continuous panel edges parallel to the load in the north-south
direction, consists of 31⁄8 3 12-inch glued-laminated beams, and in the east-west direction, consists of
33 purlins. Using 3⁄8-inch Structural I grade plywood and 8d nails with 13⁄8-inch penetration, the nail
spacing required in the two diaphragm zones is given in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Nail spacing requirements
Zone 1 2
Diaphragm boundaries 21⁄2 inches 6 inches

Continuous panel edges 21⁄2 inches 6 inches
Other edges 4 inches 6 inches
Intermediate members 12 inches 12 inches
Nominal shear provided, plf 1200 600
Nominal shear required, plf 917 573
The required 21⁄2-inch nail spacing is accommodated at diaphragm boundaries in the 33 ledger and at
continuous panel edges in the 31⁄8-inch glued-laminated beam.

East-west tributary dead load
The total dead load tributary to the roof diaphragm in the east-west direction is
wpx 5 (19 3 256 1 2 3 938)120/1000

5 809 kips
East-west diaphragm shear
Applying the tributary area method, the strength level shear force along the diaphragm boundaries at
grid lines A and D is
QE 5 Fpx /2
5 0.2 3 0.826 3 1.0 3 809/2
5 67 kips
The required nominal unit shear capacity along the diaphragm boundaries is
vn 5 QE /(L 3 0.8)
5 67 3 1000/(256 3 0.8)
5 327 lb/ft
, vn2
Hence, the nail spacing determined for the north-south seismic direction governs.
Chord reinforcement
The strength level bending moment at the midpoint of the north and south boundaries due to the north-
south seismic force is
MD 5 Fpx L/8
5 176 3 256/8
5 5632 kip-ft
The corresponding strength level chord force is
Ft 5 MD /W
5 5632/120
5 46.9 kips

Chapter 5 477
Using Grade 60 reinforcement at the top of the concrete walls, the area of reinforcement required is
given by ACI9 Section 21.2 as
As 5 Ft /(f 3 fy)
5 46.9/(0.9 3 60)
5 0.87 in2
Providing two #7 bars gives an area of
As 5 1.20 in2
. 0.87 in2 . . . satisfactory
5.3.3 Diaphragm deflection
Diaphragm deflection, in inches, is determined by SDPWS Equation (4.2-1), which is
ddia 5 Dbending deflection 1 Dshear deflection 1 Dchord-splice slip

5 5vL3/8EAW 1 0.25vL/1000Ga 1 S(Dc x)/2W
where: v 5 maximum unit shear due to strength level design loads in the direction
under consideration, lb/ft
L 5 diaphragm length, ft
E 5 elastic modulus of the chords, psi
A 5 area of chord cross section, in2
W 5 diaphragm width, ft
Ga 5 apparent diaphragm shear stiffness from nail slip and panel shear
deformation, kips/in (from SDPWS Tables 4.2A through 4.2D)
S(Dc x) 5 sum of individual chord-splice slip values on both sides of the diaphragm,
each multiplied by its distance to the nearest support

The first term in the expression accounts for bending deflection, the second term for shear deflection,
and the third for chord-splice slip. The assumptions used in deriving the expression are:8
• the diaphragm is simply supported
• the diaphragm is uniformly nailed
• the diaphragm is completely blocked
• the diaphragm depth and width are constant and the diaphragm is without openings
• the diaphragm is uniformly loaded
Example 5-2
For the tilt-up concrete building shown in Figure 5-6, determine the total inelastic deflection of the
diaphragm.
Solution
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.8.6, deflections are calculated using the strength level code-pre-
scribed design forces.
Hence, the required nominal unit shear values previously determined are multiplied, as shown in Fig-
ure 5-8, by the factor
l 5 0.8
Bending deflection
The chord consists of two #7 bars with an area of
A 5 1.20 in2
The elastic modulus of the chords is given by ACI Section 20.2.2.2 as
E 5 29,000,000 psi
The bending deflection is given by
Dbending deflection 5 5vL3/8EAW

5 5 3 734 3 2563/(8 3 29,000,000 3 1.20 3 120)
5 1.84 in

Chapter 5 479
734
458
458
734
Figure 5-8 Strength level shear values
Shear deflection
For 3⁄8-inch-thick Structural I grade plywood with 8d nails and 33 framing, the diaphragm shear stiff-
ness is obtained from SDPWS Table 4.2A as
Ga 5 9 kips/in
The shear deflection is given by
Dshear deflection 5 0.25vL/1000Ga

5 0.25 3 734 3 256/1000 3 9
5 5.22 in
Chord-splice slip
There is no slip in the reinforced concrete chord.
Diaphragm deflection, in inches, is determined by SDPWS Equation (4.2-1), which is
ddia 5 Dbending deflection 1 Dshear deflection 1 Dchord-splice slip

5 1.84 1 5.22 1 0
5 7.06 in

5.3.4 Diaphragm flexibility
5.3.4.1 General considerations
The determination of diaphragm flexibility is dependent on the relative deformations of the dia-
phragms and shear walls in a structure. A building with wood-frame diaphragms may not necessarily
be considered a flexible structure, as this determination depends on the stiffness of the shear walls. A
building with a wood-frame roof and concrete or masonry shear walls will behave as a flexible struc-
ture because the walls are highly rigid. A structure with a wood-frame roof and wood shear walls may
not necessarily be considered flexible, as this depends on the relative deformations of the diaphragms
and shear walls.
5.3.4.2 Design methodology
Because the design of a structure is affected by its classification as either a rigid or a flexible structure,
a determination of the classification is necessary at the commencement of the design.
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.1, diaphragms constructed of wood structural panels or
untopped steel decking are considered flexible, provided either of the following two conditions are
met:
• the vertical elements of the structure are steel- or composite-braced frames or concrete,
masonry, steel, or composite shear walls
• the structure is a one- or two-family residential building
In structures of light-frame construction, diaphragms constructed of wood structural panels or untopped

steel decking are also considered flexible, provided all of the following conditions are met:
• toppings of concrete or similar materials are not placed over wood structural panel diaphragms
except for nonstructural toppings not greater than 11⁄2 inches thick
• each line of vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting system complies with the allowable
story drift of ASCE 7 Table 12.12-1
5.3.4.3 Flexible diaphragm
A diaphragm that does not satisfy the conditions listed in Section 5.3.4.2 is considered flexible, in
accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.3, when the midpoint displacement of the diaphragm, under
lateral load, exceeds twice the average story drift. This is illustrated in Figure 5-9. The diaphragm may
then be modeled as a simple beam between end supports, and the distribution of loading to the sup-
ports is independent of their relative stiffness and is proportional to the tributary areas supported. The
diaphragm has insufficient stiffness to distribute torsional moments.

Chapter 5 481
Figure 5-9 Diaphragm flexibility
5.3.4.4 Rigid diaphragm
In accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.2, diaphragms of concrete slabs or concrete-filled metal
deck with span-to-depth ratios of three or less in structures that have no horizontal irregularities are
considered rigid. The diaphragm is sufficiently stiff to distribute torsional moments and allowance
must then be made for the additional forces created by torsional effects with the diaphragm and sup-
ports assumed to undergo rigid body rotation. The distribution of loading to the supports is propor-
tional to their relative stiffness and is independent of the tributary areas supported.
In accordance with IBC Section 1604.4, a diaphragm is rigid for the purpose of distribution of story
shear and torsional moment when the lateral deformation of the diaphragm is less than or equal to two
times the average story drift.
Example 5-3
For the tilt-up concrete building shown in Figure 5-6, determine if the diaphragm may be considered
flexible. The weight of the concrete bearing walls is ww 5 75 pounds per square foot. The length of the
east and west walls is W 5 120 feet.
Solution
To apply the criteria of ASCE 7 Section 12.3.1.3, the deflection of the shear walls on the east and west
ends of the building is required.

Force acting on the shear wall
Assume that the total 120-foot length of wall on each end acts as a shear wall and that the wall can-
tilevers from the base. The forces acting on the shear wall consist of the force applied at roof level
from the diaphragm plus the shear force due to the wall self-weight. The force from the diaphragm at
strength level value is
QE 5 88 kips
The wall self-weight is
Ww 5 ww hW
5 0.075 3 24.5 3 120
5 220.5 kips
The force due to the wall self-weight, which acts at the midheight of the wall, is
QW 5 CsWw
5 0.165 3 220.5
5 36 kips
For the purpose of determining the in-plane deflection of the wall, 50 percent of QW may be assumed
as acting at the top of the wall. The equivalent force at the top of the wall is then
QT 5 QE 1 QW /2
5 88 1 36/2
5 106 kips
Shear wall deflection
The rigidity of a cantilever concrete wall is derived as the reciprocal of the deflection of the wall due
to a unit load applied at the top edge. This deflection is given by
d 5 dF 1 dS
where: dF 5 deflection due to flexure
5 4(H/L)3/Et . . . for a cantilever
5 3(H/L)/Et
H 5 height of wall
5 24.5 ft
L 5 length of wall
5 120 ft

Chapter 5 483
E 5 elastic modulus of the concrete

5 57,000( fc9)0.5
5 3605 ksi . . . for fc9 5 4000 psi from ACI Section 19.2.2.1
t 5 wall thickness
5 6 in
The rigidity of the shear wall is determined as indicated in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 Rigidity of shear wall
H L 4(H/L)3 5 Et dF 3(H/L) 5 Et dS Et (dF 1 dS) 5 Et d R/Et
24.5 120 0.034 0.613 0.647 1.546
The actual rigidity of the shear wall is
R 5 1.546Et
5 1.546 3 3605 3 6
5 33,440 kips/in
The deflection of the shear wall is
dxe 5 QT /R
5 106/33,440
5 0.003 in
The total inelastic displacement is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15) as

dx 5 Cd dxe /Ie . . . where Cd 5 5.0, as given in Table 1-16
5 5.0 3 0.003/1.0
5 0.015 in
, 0.5 3 diaphragm deflection
Hence, the diaphragm is flexible.

5.3.5 Subdiaphragm requirements
5.3.5.1 Crossties
To distribute the out-of-plane anchorage forces developed by concrete and masonry walls and prevent
the walls separating from the diaphragm, continuous crossties are provided between the diaphragm
chords on opposite walls. In seismic design categories C through F, as stipulated in ASCE 7 Section
12.11.2.2.1, the continuous ties must be additional to the diaphragm sheathing. The diaphragm sheath-
ing is not considered effective for providing the continuity required.
5.3.5.2 Subdiaphragms
To reduce the number of continuous, full-depth ties required, subdiaphragms as defined in ASCE 7
Section 11.2 are used to span between the continuous ties,10, 11 as shown in Figure 5-10. The subdi-
aphragm must be designed for all criteria prescribed for the main diaphragm, with the anchor ties
running the full depth of the subdiaphragm to provide full transfer of the anchorage force by devel-
opment into the sheathing. The subdiaphragm must act independently to transfer the wall anchorage
force from the anchorage ties to the continuous, full-depth ties in the main diaphragm. A maximum
aspect ratio of 2.5 is prescribed for the subdiaphragm. Toenails may not be used to provide anchorage
in seismic design categories C through F, nor shall ledgers be used in cross-grain bending or tension.
Where the wall anchor spacing exceeds 4 feet, the wall must be designed to span between the anchors,
in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.11.2.
b
N
Figure 5-10 Subdiaphragm details

Chapter 5 485
Example 5-4
For the tilt-up concrete building shown in Figure 5-6, determine a suitable subdiaphragm layout for
north-south seismic forces and calculate the design force in the continuous crossties.
Solution
As shown in Figure 5-10, the 31⁄8 3 12-inch glued-laminated beams at a spacing of 8 feet provide
the wall anchorage locations. The 32 3 20-foot area bounded by the concrete walls and the 51⁄8 3
21-inch glued-laminated beams on grid lines B on the north side and F on the south side and by the
63⁄4 3 24-inch glued-laminated, continuous, full-depth crossties on the east and west sides is selected
as the subdiaphragm. The 51⁄8 3 21-inch glued-laminated beams on grid lines B and F constitute the
subdiaphragm chords.
Aspect ratio
The subdiaphragm aspect ratio is
b/d 5 32/20
5 1.6
Anchorage force
The strength level pull-out force on one anchor was determined in Example 4-6 as
Fp 5 3720 lb
The service level anchorage force at roof diaphragm level is
p 5 0.7Fp /s
5 0.7 3 3720/8
5 326 lb/ft
Subdiaphragm ties
The 31⁄8 3 12-inch glued-laminated subdiaphragm ties transfer the strength level anchorage force of
3720 pounds into the subdiaphragm. The service level stress produced in the tie by the anchor force is
Ft 5 Fc
5 0.7Fp /A . . . where A is the cross-sectional area of the 31⁄8 3 12-inch tie
5 0.7 3 3720/37.5
5 69 psi
This is additional to the bending stress due to dead load, and in accordance with NDS Table 2.3.2, a
load duration factor of 1.6 is applicable for load combinations that include seismic forces.

Subdiaphragm sheathing stress
The design service level unit shear in the subdiaphragm is
q 5 pb/2d
5 326 3 32/(2 3 20)
5 261 lb/ft
Hence, the capacity of the nailing in the main diaphragm in zone 2 is adequate.
Crosstie force
The function of the subdiaphragm is to transfer the wall anchorage force into the continuous 63⁄4 3
24-inch glued-laminated crossties. The design service level force in the continuous crossties at a spac-
ing of 32 feet is given by
Pt 5 pb
5 326 3 32
5 10,432 lb
To provide continuity between the north and south walls, hinge connectors are required between grid
lines C and D and between grid lines D and E, as shown in Figure 5-10.
Subdiaphragm chords
The chord force in the subdiaphragm is resisted by the 51⁄8 3 21-inch glued-laminated beams on grid
lines B and F. The design service level force in the 51⁄8 3 21-inch glued-laminated subdiaphragm
chords is given by
Ft 5 pb2/8d
5 326 3 322/(8 3 20)
5 2086 pounds
Because the exterior concrete walls also act as chords, additional reinforcement is required to supple-
ment the reinforcement provided for the main diaphragm chords. Using Grade 60 reinforcement, the
additional area of reinforcement required is given by ACI Section 21.2 as
A9 5 Ft /(f 3 fy)0.7
5 2086/(0.9 3 60,000 3 0.7)
5 0.055 in2

Chapter 5 487
The total area required, including the main diaphragm chord reinforcement, is
AT 5 A9 1 A
5 0.055 1 0.87
5 0.925 in2
Two #7 bars are provided, giving an area of
As 5 1.20 in2 . . . satisfactory
5.3.6 Design of collectors
5.3.6.1 General requirements
A collector is defined in ASCE 7 Section 11.2 as a diaphragm element, in line with the applied force,
that collects and transfers diaphragm shear forces to the vertical shear walls. As shown in Figure 1-36,
where shear walls are discontinuous or reentrant corner irregularities are present in a building, col-
lector elements or drag struts are required to ensure deformation compatibility and prevent localized
tearing of the diaphragm. The drag strut transfers the shear originating in the unsupported portion of
the diaphragm to the shear wall.
5.3.6.2 Collector design forces
For structures assigned to seismic design category C, D, E, or F, collector elements and their connec-
tions are designed in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 12.10.2. The collector design forces are the
maximum of the three following conditions:
• forces resulting from application at each level of the design lateral force, Fx , calculated from
ASCE 7 Equations (12.8-11) and (12.8-12), which give
Fx 5 Vwx hxk/Swi hik

The value of Fx is determined using load combinations 6 and 7 with overstrength factor W0 of
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6.
• forces resulting from the application at each level of the diaphragm design force, Fpx , calcu-
lated from ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1) as
Fpx 5 wpxSFi /Swi

The value of Fpx is determined using load combinations 6 and 7 with overstrength factor W0 of
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6.

• forces resulting from the application at each level of the minimum diaphragm design force, Fpx ,
Fpx 5 0.2SDS Iewpx

The value of Fpx is determined using basic load combinations 6 and 7 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6.
The following exception is permitted by ASCE 7 Section 12.10.2.1:
• For structures braced entirely by wood light-frame shear walls, collector elements and their
connections need only be designed for forces resulting from the application at each level of the
diaphragm design force, Fpx , calculated from ASCE 7 Equation (12.10-1) as
Fpx 5 wpx SFi /Swi
The value of Fpx is determined using basic load combinations 6 and 7 of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6.
The following increase in forces is required by ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.4:
• For structures assigned to seismic design category D, E, or F and having a horizontal structural
irregularity of Type 1, 2, 3, or 4 or a vertical structural irregularity of Type 4, the design force
determined from ASCE 7 Section 12.10.1.1 is increased by 25 percent for collectors and their
connections. Where the design force is calculated using the seismic load effects, including the
overstrength factor of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6, the 25 percent increase is not applied.
5.3.6.3 Load combinations
Using the ASD method, the force is determined using load combinations 8 and 9 with overstrength
factor W0 of ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 as
F 5 (1.0 1 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7W0QE
F 5 (1.0 1 0.105SDS)D 1 0.525W0QE 1 0.75L 1 0.75S
L 5 floor live load
QE 5 strength level effect of horizontal seismic forces
SDS 5 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration, for a period of
0.2 second
for an abbreviated number of structures in Table 1.16
inelastic range

Chapter 5 489
Where the effects of gravity and seismic loads counteract, load combination 10 of ASCE 7 Section
2.4.5 is applicable, which is
F 5 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)D 1 0.7rQE
5.3.6.4 Design method
As shown in Figure 5-11, the collector on grid line B between grid lines 2 and 3 transfers the shear in
the flexible diaphragm to the discontinuous shear wall between grid lines 1 and 2. The unit shear in the
diaphragm on each side of the shear wall and collector is given by
qD 5 W/2l
The unit shear in the discontinued shear wall is given by
qW 5 22W/l
Figure 5-11 Collector details

The net shear over the length of the collector is
qC 5 2qD
5 2 3 W/2l
5 W/l
The net shear over the length of the shear wall is
qWn 5 2qD 1 qW
5 2 3 W/2l 2 2W/l
5 2W/l
The maximum drag force occurs at the connection of the collector to the shear wall and is given by
F 5 l 3 qC
5 l 3 W/l
5W
Example 5-5
The tilt-up concrete industrial building, shown in Figure 5-12, is located in Orange County, California,
on a site with a site classification D. The maximum considered earthquake response accelerations are
SDS 5 0.826g and SD1 5 0.469g. The weight of the roof is 19 pounds per square foot and the weight
of the concrete walls is 75 pounds per square foot. The roof sheathing is 3⁄8-inch-nominal Structural I
grade plywood and the roof framing is of Douglas Fir-Larch. Assume the roof diaphragm is flexible
and neglect the effect of wall openings. Determine the maximum force that can be delivered to the
collector.
Solution
From Example 5-1, the governing strength level seismic force on the diaphragm is
Fpx 5 176 kips
The service level seismic force on the diaphragm is
W 5 0.7 3 176
5 123 kips

Chapter 5 491
The net shear over the length of the collector is
qC 5 W/4l
5 123/(4 3 60)
5 0.513 kips/ft
The maximum drag force occurs at the connection of the collector to the shear wall and is given by
F 5 l 3 qC
5 60 3 0.513
5 30.8 kips
The overstrength factor for a bearing wall structure with specially detailed reinforced concrete shear
walls is obtained from Table 1-16 as 2.5. However, from the footnote to ASCE 7 Table 12.1-1, this may
be reduced by 0.5 for a building with a flexible diaphragm. Hence,
W0 5 2.0
The maximum design service level force at the connection of the collector to the shear wall is given by
Fmax 5 F 3 W0
5 30.8 3 2.0
5 61.6 kips

5.4 Shear walls

5.4.1.1 Shear wall function
A shear wall is defined in SDPWS Section 2.2 as a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to
the plane of the wall. A shear wall acts as a vertical cantilevered diaphragm in transferring lateral
forces from a horizontal diaphragm to the foundation. The construction details for a typical plywood
sheathed shear wall are shown in Figure 5-13. The plywood sheathing forms the web of the cantilever
to resist shear force, vertical studs act as web stiffeners, and the end studs form the flanges to resist
flexural effects. As in the case of a horizontal diaphragm, the design capacity of a shear wall depends
on the thickness and grade of the plywood sheathing; the width of the framing members; support of
the panel edges; and the spacing, penetration, and type of nail used. This capacity has been determined
experimentally.12
A blocked shear wall is defined in SDPWS Section 2.2 as a shear wall in which all adjacent panel edges
are fastened to either common framing members or common blocking. Nominal unit shear capacity
values are provided in SDPWS Table 4.3A for wood structural panel shear walls with sheathing on one
side only, all panel edges blocked, and minimum 2-inch nominal framing or blocking members. Sepa-
rate values are provided for wind or seismic loads, and values for wind loads are 40 percent higher than
for seismic loads. The tabulated values are based on the use of common nails or galvanized box nails.
For the ASD method, allowable unit shear capacity is determined by dividing the tabulated nominal
unit shear capacity by a reduction factor of 2. For the LRFD method, the design nominal unit shear
capacity is determined by multiplying the tabulated nominal unit shear capacity by a resistance factor,
fD , of 0.8.
In accordance with SDPWS Section 4.3.7, the following construction requirements are necessary for
wood structural panel shear walls:
• minimum size of panel is 4 3 8 feet, except at boundaries and changes in framing
• maximum spacing of studs is 24 inches
• where stud spacing is less than 24 inches or panel thickness is greater than 7⁄16 inch, the maxi-
mum nail spacing along intermediate framing members is 12 inches; otherwise, the maximum
spacing is 6 inches
• nails along intermediate framing members must be the same size as specified for panel edge
nailing
• nails are located at least 3⁄8 inch from panel edges
• maximum nail spacing at panel edges is 6 inches

Chapter 5 493
In accordance with SDPWS Table 4.3A Note 2, the tabulated nominal unit shear values for 7⁄16-inch
structural panels may be increased to the values given for 15⁄32-inch structural panels with the same
nailing, provided the studs are spaced at a maximum of 16-inch centers or the panels are placed with
the long dimension across the studs.
Nominal unit shear capacity values are provided in SDPWS for other sheathing materials besides wood
structural panels. SDPWS Table 4.3B provides nominal unit shear capacity values for wood structural
panels applied over 1⁄2-inch or 5⁄8-inch gypsum wallboard or gypsum sheathing board. SDPWS Table
4.3C provides nominal unit shear capacity values for gypsum and Portland cement plaster shear walls.
Gypsum and Portland cement plaster shear walls are not permitted in seismic design categories E and
F. SDPWS Table 4.3D provides nominal unit shear capacity values for lumber sheathing. Diagonal
lumber sheathing and double diagonal lumber sheathing are not permitted in seismic design categories
E and F. Horizontal and vertical lumber sheathing are not permitted in seismic design categories D, E
and F.
An unblocked shear wall is defined in SDPWS Section 2.2 as a shear wall that has fasteners at bound-
aries and vertical framing members only. Blocking between vertical framing members at adjacent
panel edges is not provided. Unblocked wood structural panel shear walls are permitted up to a max-
imum height of 16 feet, with a maximum aspect ratio of 2:1, and a maximum nail spacing of 6 inches
at panel edges. The nominal unit shear capacity, vub , of an unblocked shear wall is given by SDPWS
Equation (4.3-2) as
vub 5 vbCub
where: Cub 5 unblocked shear wall adjustment factor
vb 5 nominal unit shear capacity of a blocked wood structural panel shear wall
with a stud spacing of 24 inches and nail spacing of 6 inches at panel edges
The unblocked shear wall adjustment factor is given in SDPWS Table 4.3.3.2, which is reproduced in
Table 5-3.
Table 5-3 Unblocked shear wall adjustment factor
Nail spacing, in Stud spacing, in
Supported edges Intermediate framing 12 16 20 24

6 6 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5
6 12 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4

Figure 5-13 Shear wall details7
5.4.1.2 Aspect ratio
To ensure satisfactory deflection of the shear wall, SDPWS Table 4.3.4 imposes a maximum height-
width ratio on wood structural panel blocked shear walls of 31⁄2:1. For wood structural panels with
aspect ratios (bs /h) greater than 2:1, the nominal shear values in SDPWS Table 4.3A are multiplied by
the aspect ratio factor 1.25 2 0.125h/bs . The shear wall height, h, is defined in SDPWS Section 2.3 as
the clear height from top of foundation to bottom of diaphragm framing above. The shear wall width
is defined in SDPWS Section 2.3 as the horizontal sheathed dimension of wall.
For unblocked wood structural panel shear walls, the maximum aspect ratio permitted is 2:1.

Chapter 5 495
5.4.1.3 Summing shear capacities
Where sheathing of the same material and of equal shear capacity is applied to both faces of the shear
wall, the nominal shear capacity for the wall may be taken as twice the value permitted for one side, in
accordance with SDPWS Section 4.3.3.3. Where the shear capacities are not equal and the sheathing
materials are dissimilar, the nominal shear capacity is taken as the maximum value given by twice the
permitted capacity for the side with the lower capacity or equal to the permitted capacity for the side
with the higher capacity.
However, for wind design, the combined nominal shear capacity of shear walls sheathed with a combi-
nation of wood structural panels, hardboard panel siding, or structural fiberboard on one side and gyp-
sum wallboard on the opposite side may be taken as the sum of the sheathing capacities of each side.
In accordance with SDPWS Section 4.3.3.3.2, summing shear capacities of dissimilar sheathing mate-
rials applied to the same face is not permitted.
In accordance with SDPWS Section 4.3.3.4, summing shear capacities of dissimilar sheathing materi-
als applied to the same wall line is not permitted. Where shear walls in a line, with aspect ratios greater
than 2:1, are sheathed with wood structural panels, the nominal shear capacities may be combined,
provided that the shear capacities are multiplied by the factor (2bs /h). Where multiplied by (2bs/h), the
capacities need not be reduced by the aspect ratio factor.
5.4.1.4 Framing members
The width of the nailed face of framing members and blocking is required by SDPWS Section 4.3.7.1
to be 2 inches nominal or greater at adjoining panel edges, except that a 3-inch nominal or greater
width at adjoining panel edges and staggered nailing at all panel edges are required where any of the
following conditions exist:
• nail spacing is 2 inches or less at adjoining panel edges
• 10d common nails having penetration into framing members and blocking of more than 11⁄2
inches are spaced at 3 inches on center or less at adjoining panel edges
• required nominal unit shear capacity on either side of the shear wall exceeds 700 lb/ft in seis-
mic design categories D, E, and F
Where the width of the nailed face of framing members is required to be 3 inches nominal, two fram-
ing members that each have 2-inch nominal thickness are permitted to be used, provided they are
connected with fasteners designed to transfer the induced shear between members. Where fasteners
connecting the two framing members are spaced less than 4 inches on center, they must be staggered.
Where panels are applied on both faces of a shear wall and nail spacing is less than 6 inches on center
on either side, panel joints are required by SDPWS Table 4.3A Note 6 to be offset to fall on different
framing members. Alternatively, the width of the nailed face of framing members is required to be 3
inches nominal or greater at adjoining panel edges and nails at all panel edges are to be staggered.

Double end posts are usually provided in order to accommodate the bolts or nails in the hold-down.
Similarly, to provide continuity for the top plate and to provide overlapping at intersections, a double
plate is customarily used, and in accordance with IBC Section 2308.5.3.2, a minimum splice length
of 4 feet must be provided between the two plates with not fewer than eight 16d nails on each side of
the joint.
5.4.1.5 Sill plates
Sill plates are required by IBC Section 2308.5.3.1 to be 2-inch-nominal thickness or larger. IBC Sec-
tion 2308.5.3.1 requires the sill plate to have a minimum width not less than that of the wall studs
in order to provide a nailing surface for the wall sheathing and to reduce the perpendicular-to-grain
compressive stress in the plate.
IBC Section 2304.12.1.4 requires the sill plate to be of treated wood, or wood naturally resistant to
decay, when located on a concrete foundation in direct contact with earth.
5.4.1.6 Shear walls supporting concrete or masonry walls
Because of excessive deflections, in accordance with SDPWS Section 4.1.5, plywood sheathed shear
walls must not be used to resist lateral forces contributed by concrete or masonry construction in
structures exceeding two stories in height. In addition, for two-story buildings of concrete or masonry
construction, the following limitations are imposed:
• Shear walls and diaphragms must have all edges blocked and shear walls in the two stories
must align.
• Story-to-story wall heights must not exceed 12 feet.
• Story drift must not exceed the limit of ASCE 7 Table 12.12-1.
• In the lower story, the minimum thickness of plywood permitted is 15⁄32-inch.
• Diaphragms shall not be designed to transmit lateral forces by torsional force distribution.
• Diaphragms shall not cantilever past the outermost supporting shear wall.
5.4.1.7 Overturning restraint
Because of the light weight of timber-frame construction, it is usually necessary to provide hold-
downs at the ends of plywood sheathed shear walls to resist overturning. Overturning restraint is
determined using service level load combinations. An adequate bearing length is required for the bolts

Chapter 5 497
in the hold-down, and this is achieved with a double end post. Slip between the hold-down and the end
post may cause failure of the nails connecting the sheathing to the sill plate. To reduce slip of the hold-
down, bolt holes shall be a maximum of 1⁄16-inch oversize and bolts shall be properly tightened. Slip
may be further reduced by using hold-downs with a predeflected seat screwed to the end post. Where a
single hold-down is attached to one side of the end post, an eccentric connection results. This produces
flexural stress in the end post, which must be analyzed at the net section.13
5.4.1.8 Anchor bolts
Transfer of the lateral force from the shear wall to the foundation is achieved by anchor bolts in the sill
plate. IBC Section 2308.3.1 requires these to be not less than 1⁄2-inch diameter, embedded a minimum
of 7 inches into the concrete foundation, and spaced a maximum of 6 feet apart. A bolt shall be located
not more than 12 inches or less than 4 inches from each end of the shear wall and a minimum of two
bolts is required. In seismic design category E, IBC Section 2308.3.1.2 requires anchor bolts to be
not less than 5⁄8-inch diameter. The allowable design single shear value of an anchor bolt connecting a
wood member to concrete is given in NDS Table 12E.
To reduce cross-grain bending in the sill plate, SDPWS Section 4.3.6.4.3 requires a steel plate washer
not less than 0.229 3 3 3 3 inches in size under each nut. As shown in Figure 5-14, the plate washer
must extend to within 1⁄2 inch of the edge of the sill plate on the sheathed side where the nominal unit
shear capacity of the sheathing exceeds 400 lb/ft for wind or seismic loads. To enable this, the hole in
the plate washer is diagonally slotted with a width up to 3⁄16 inch larger than the bolt diameter and a slot
length not exceeding 13⁄4 inches. A standard cut washer is placed between the plate washer and the nut.
Sheathing
Standard
½″ max cut washer
3″ x 3″ x 0.229″
plate washer with
1¾″ slot
Sill plate
Anchor bolt
Figure 5-14 Sill plate with plate washer14

Standard cut washers may be used where anchor bolts are designed to resist shear only and all of the
following requirements are met:
• the shear wall is designed as an individual full-height wall segment with required uplift anchor-
age at shear wall ends sized to resist overturning, neglecting the dead load stabilizing moment
• the shear wall aspect ratio, h:b, does not exceed 2:1
• the nominal unit shear capacity of the shear wall does not exceed 980 lb/ft for seismic, or 1370
lb/ft for wind
It has been determined from a testing program that the yield strength of the wood sill plate governs
over the strength of the concrete in the foundation.15 This is reflected in IBC Section 1905.1.8, which
provides an exemption to ACI Section 17.2.3.5.3 for determining the concrete breakout strength of
anchor bolts in shear. The concrete breakout strength in shear parallel to an edge of anchor bolts
attaching wood sill plates of bearing or nonbearing walls of light-frame wood structures to foundations
or foundation stem walls need not be computed, provided all of the following are satisfied:
1. The allowable in-plane shear strength of the anchor is determined in accordance with NDS
Table 12E for lateral design values parallel to grain.
length of the wood sill plate.
5. Anchor bolts are located a minimum of 15 anchor diameters from the edge of the concrete,
perpendicular to the length of the wood sill plate.
6. The sill plate is of 2-inch or 3-inch nominal thickness.
5.4.1.9 Openings in shear walls
Where openings occur in a shear wall, special design provisions are specified by SDPWS Section
4.3.5. Three different techniques are available for designing shear walls with openings, as shown in
Figure 5-15, and these are:
• The segmented approach7 considers each full-height segment of the wall as a separate shear-
resisting element and ignores the stiffening effect of sheathing above and below the openings.
Hold-downs are necessary at the ends of each segment.
• The perforated shear wall method16 considers the wall capacity as a percentage of the capacity
of a solid wall. Force transfer around the openings is neglected and this provides the lowest
estimate of the wall capacity of the three methods. Hold-downs are required only at the ends
of the overall shear wall.

Chapter 5 499
• The force transfer method17 considers the force transfer around openings and provides the
highest estimate of the wall capacity of the three methods. Hold-downs are required only at the
ends of the overall shear wall.
Figure 5-15 Shear wall design
5.4.2 Shear wall strength
The nominal shear capacity of a wood structural panel shear wall depends on the thickness and grade
of the wood structural panel; the width of the framing members; support of the panel edges; and the
spacing, penetration, and type of nail used. This capacity has been determined experimentally.12 Nom-
inal unit shear values are provided in SDPWS Table 4.3A for walls with sheathing on one side only, all
panel edges blocked, and a minimum of 2-inch-nominal framing members.
Example 5-6
The wood shear wall shown in Figure 5-16 is located in a building assigned to seismic design category
D. The vertical dead load on the wall from the roof diaphragm is 60 pounds per foot and the weight of
the shear wall is 15 pounds per square foot. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0 and the seismic design
coefficient is Cs 5 0.14. The spectral response acceleration parameter at short periods is SDS 5 0.826g.
Design the shear wall for a strength level seismic force of 7 kips using sheathing of 15⁄32-inch Structural
I grade plywood and framing of Douglas Fir-Larch.
Solution
As shown in Figure 5-16, the shear wall end posts and top plate consist of double 2 3 4-inch members
and the sill consists of a single 3 3 4-inch member. Proprietary hold-downs are provided with a dis-
tance of 11⁄2 inches between the face of the end post and the center of the tie rod.

Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of the shear wall is
a 5 8/12
5 0.67
, 2.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Section 4.3.4 for full allowable shear values
Design loads
The self-weight dead load of the shear wall is

WS 5 12 3 8 3 15
5 1440 lb
The service level seismic load produced by the self-weight of the shear wall is
FS 5 0.7CsWS
5 0.7 3 0.14 3 1440
5 141 lb
and this load acts at the midheight of the shear wall. The service level seismic unit shear produced by
the self-weight of the wall is
qS 5 FS /L
5 141/12
5 12 lb/ft

Chapter 5 501
The service level seismic force applied at the top of the wall by the diaphragm is
FW 5 0.7V
5 0.7 3 7000
5 4900 lb
The service level seismic unit shear produced by the seismic force applied at the top of the wall by the
diaphragm is
qW 5 FW /L
5 4900/12
5 408 lb/ft
The total service level unit shear at the base of the wall is due to the self-weight of the shear wall plus
the seismic force applied at the top of the wall by the diaphragm. The total unit shear in the wall is
given by
q 5 r(qW 1 qS)
5 1.0(408 1 12)
5 420 lb/ft
The required nominal unit shear is
qn 5 2q
5 2 3 420
5840 lb/ft
Nail spacing
The nominal unit shear for 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood applied to studs at 24 inches on center
may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A. Using 8d nails with 13⁄8-inch penetration into 2-inch-nominal
Douglas Fir-Larch vertical studs with all panel edges backed by 2-inch-nominal blocking, the required
nail spacing is:
• all panel edges 4 in
• intermediate framing members 12 in
• nominal capacity provided 860 lb/ft
• nominal capacity required 840 lb/ft . . . satisfactory

Anchor bolts
The design service level shear force at the base of the wall is given by
FE 5 r(FS 1 FW)
5 1.0(141 1 4900)
5 5041 lb
In seismic design category D, IBC Section 2308.3.1 requires anchor bolts to be not less than 1⁄2-inch
diameter, embedded a minimum of 7 inches into the concrete foundation, and spaced a maximum of 6
feet apart. The nominal design parallel-to-grain load on a 5⁄8-inch-diameter anchor bolt in the 21⁄2-inch-
thick Douglas Fir-Larch sill plate, with a bolt embedment of 7 inches into the concrete foundation, is
tabulated in NDS Table 12E and is given by
Z 5 1180 lb
The load duration factor for seismic loads is given by NDS Section 2.3.2 as
CD 5 1.6
The adjusted design lateral load is
Z 9 5 CD Z 
5 1.6 3 1180
5 1888 lb
Three 5⁄8-inch-diameter anchor bolts are adequate, spaced as indicated.
A steel plate washer measuring 0.229 3 3 3 3 inches is required under each nut of the anchor bolts.
Hold-down force
The vertical roof dead load acting on the shear wall is
WR 5 60 3 12
5 720 lb
The service level loading on the shear wall is shown in Figure 5-16. The service level overturning
moment acting on the wall is given by
Mo 5 r(FW 3 h 1 FS 3 h/2)
5 1.0(4900 3 8 1 141 3 4)
5 39,764 lb-ft
The distance between the inside face of the end post and the centerline of the hold-down anchor rod
is 11⁄2 inches. The total distance between the end of the shear wall and the centerline of the hold-down

Chapter 5 503
anchor rod is 41⁄2 inches. The compression force may be assumed to act at the center of the double 2 3
4-inch end post, a distance of 11⁄2 inches from the end of the wall. The moment arm from anchor rod
to post center is
L9 5 L 2 4.5 in 2 1.5 in
5 11.5 ft
The service level uplift force on the hold-down is
TE 5 Mo /L9
5 39,764/11.5
5 3458 lb
The service level dead load acting on the wall is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 combination 10 as
WD 5 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(WS 1 WR)
5 (0.6 2 0.14 3 0.826)(1440 1 720)
5 1046 lb
The downward force on each hold-down is
WD /2 5 523 lb
The net service level hold-down force is given by
Tpost 5 TE 2 WD /2
5 3458 2 523
5 2935 lb
5 Cpost
End post design
The hold-down is attached to the end post with 1⁄4-inch-diameter screws. For compression force, the
gross area of the double 2 3 4-inch studs is effective and is given by
A 5 bd
5 3.5(1.5 1 1.5)
5 10.5 in2
For tension force, the net area of the double 2 3 4-inch studs is effective and is given by
A9 5 d(b 2 dscrew)
5 3(3.5 2 0.25)
5 9.75 in2

Providing double 2 3 4-inch visually graded, Douglas Fir-Larch Select Structural end posts, braced
in the weak direction, the reference design compressive, tensile, and bending values are obtained from
NDS Supplement Table 4A as
Fc 5 1700 psi
Ft 5 1000 psi
Fb 5 1500 psi
E 5 1.9 3 106 psi
Emin 5 0.69 3 106 psi
Compression effects
The actual compressive stress is
fc 5 Cpost /A
5 2935/10.5
5 280 psi
The effective unbraced length about the strong axis is
le 5 Ke l
5 1.0 3 8
5 8 ft
The corresponding slenderness ratio is
le /b 5 8 3 12/3.5
5 27.4
The critical buckling design value is given by NDS Section 3.7.1.5 as
FcE 5 0.822E9min /(le /b)2

where: E 9min 5 adjusted tabulated modulus of elasticity for column stability
5 0.69 3 106 psi
and FcE 5 0.822 3 0.69 3 106/(27.4)2
5 755 psi
From NDS Table 2.3.2
CD 5 1.6 for seismic loads

Chapter 5 505
From NDS Supplement Table 4A

CF 5 1.15 for a 43 member in compression
The column stability factor is given by NDS Section 3.7.1 as
CP 5 (1.0 1 F)/2c 2 {[(1.0 1 F)/2c]2 2 F/c}0.5
where: Fc* 5 adjusted tabulated compressive stress
5 Fc CDCF
5 1700 3 1.6 3 1.15
5 3128 psi
F 5 FcE /Fc*
5 0.241
c 5 column parameter
5 0.8 . . . for sawn lumber
and CP 5 0.228
The allowable compressive stress is obtained from NDS Table 4.3-1 as
Fc9 5 Fc CDCPCF
5 1700 3 1.6 3 0.228 3 1.15
5 713 psi
. fc . . . satisfactory
Bending effects
The distance between the face of the end post and the centerline of the hold-down anchor rod is 11⁄2
inches. The total eccentricity to the centerline of the end post is
e 5 1.5 1 1.5
5 3 in
The bending moment produced at the bottom of the end post is
M 5 Te
5 2935 3 3
5 8805 lb-in
The section modulus is
Sxx 5 bd2/6
5 3.5 3 32/6
5 5.25 in3

The actual bending stress is
fb 5 M/Sxx
5 8805/5.25
5 1677 psi
The effective length, for a value of lu /d . 14.3, is obtained from NDS Table 3.3.3 as
le 5 1.84lu
5 1.84 3 8
5 14.72 ft
The slenderness factor is given by NDS Equation (3.3-5) as
RB 5 (le d/b2)0.5
5 (14.72 3 12 3 3/3.52)0.5
5 6.6
The depth of the end post is less than its breadth and the beam stability factor is given by NDS Section
3.3.3.1 as
CL 5 1.0
From NDS Supplement Table 4A
CF 5 1.5 for a 43 member in flexure
The allowable flexural stress is
Fb9 5 FbCLCDCF
5 1500 3 1.0 3 1.6 3 1.5
5 3600 psi
. fb . . . satisfactory
Tension effects
The actual tensile stress is
ft 5 T/A9
5 2935/9.75
5 301 psi

Chapter 5 507
The allowable tensile stress is
Ft9 5 FtCDCF
5 1000 3 1.6 3 1.5
5 2400 psi
. ft . . . satisfactory
Combined tension and bending
The combined tensile and flexural stresses due to vertical load and bending about the major axis must
satisfy NDS Equation (3.9-1)
ft /Ft9 1 fb /Fb* ≤ 1.0

where: Fb* 5 FbCDCF
5 1500 3 1.6 3 1.5
5 3600 psi
The left side of the interaction equation is evaluated as
301/2400 1 1677/3600
5 0.125 1 0.466
5 0.591
In addition, slenderness effects are checked using NDS Equation (3.9-2), which is
( fb 2 ft)/Fb** ≤ 1.0
where: Fb** 5 FbCLCDCF
5 1500 3 1.0 3 1.6 3 1.5
5 3600 psi
The left side of the interaction equation is evaluated as
(1677 2 301)/3600
5 0.382
Hence, the end post is adequate.

5.4.3 Shear wall deflection
Shear wall deflection, in inches, is determined by SDPWS Equation (4.3-1), which is
Dsw 5 Dchord deflection 1 Dshear deflection 1 Ddeflection due to hold-down slip

5 8vh3/EAb 1 vh/1000Ga 1 Da h/b
where: A 5 area of cross section of end posts, in2
b 5 wall length, ft
E 5 elastic modulus of end posts, psi
Ga 5 apparent shear wall stiffness from nail slip and panel deformation, kips/in
(from SDPWS Tables 4.3A–4.3D)
h 5 wall height, ft
v 5 maximum unit wall shear due to strength level design loads, lb/ft
Da 5 vertical elongation at the hold-down, in
The first term in the expression accounts for flexural deformation of the shear wall acting as a canti-
lever, the second term for shear deformation of the sheathing, and the third for deflection due to hold-
down displacements. The expression is valid for uniformly nailed and completely blocked diaphragms.
scribed design forces.
The factors contributing to the determination of Da are:18

(i) Deformation of the hold-down
Deformation of the hold-down at the allowable service level load, including fastener slip
and anchor rod elongation, is published in manufacturers’ catalogues. These values must be
increased pro rata to obtain the deformation at the strength level load.
(ii) Wood shrinkage
Wood shrinkage may be estimated from the expression19

Sm 5 percentage change in dimension from initial moisture content to
final moisture content
5 SoDm /30
where: So 5 average of tangential and radial percentage shrinkage values for the
wood species
5 6% . . . for Douglas Fir-Larch

Chapter 5 509
Dm 5 change in member moisture content

5 9% . . . assuming a moisture content of 19 percent at installation and
a final equilibrium moisture content of 10 percent
then Sm 5 6 3 9/30
5 1.8%
(iii) Sill plate crushing at bearing surface of the compression chord
In accordance with NDS Section 4.2.6, a deformation of 0.04 inch occurs in a member loaded
perpendicular to grain when the bearing stress equals the allowable service level value. At a
bearing stress equal to 73 percent of the allowable, a deformation of 0.02 inch is produced.
Example 5-7
Determine the total inelastic deflection of the shear wall shown in Figure 5-16.
Solution
scribed design forces. The service level shear values previously determined in Example 5-6 must be
multiplied by 1.4, giving the strength level unit shear in the wall of
v 5 1.4q
5 1.4 3 420
5 588 lb/ft
The strength level uplift force acting on the hold-down is obtained from Example 5-6 as
Tu 5 1.4TE
5 1.4 3 3458
5 4841 lb
The strength level dead load acting on the wall is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 7 as
Wu 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)(WS 1 WR)

5 (0.9 2 0.2 3 0.826)(1440 1 720)
5 1587 lb

The net strength level hold-down force is given by
T 5 Tu 2 Wu /2
5 4841 2 1587/2
5 4048
Chord deflection
The chords consist of double 2 3 4-inch visually graded, Douglas Fir-Larch Select Structural end
posts, with an area of
A 5 10.5 in2
The elastic modulus of the chords is given by NDS Supplement Table 4A as
E 5 1,900,000 psi
The chord deflection is given by
Dchord deflection 5 8vh3/EAb

5 8 3 588 3 83/(1,900,000 3 10.5 3 12)
5 0.010 in
Shear deflection
For 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood with 8d nails at 4-inch spacing, the apparent shear wall stiff-
ness is obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A as
Ga 5 14 kips/in
The shear deflection is given by
Dshear deflection 5 vh/1000Ga

5 588 3 8/(14,000)
5 0.336 in
Deflection due to hold-down deformation
A suitable hold-down for a service level load of 2935 pounds is Simpson6 HDU2, which requires a
total of six 1⁄4-inch-diameter screws. The hold-down has a rated deformation of 0.088 inch at a load of
3075 pounds. At a strength level load of 4048 pounds, the deformation is
dh-down 5 0.088 3 4048/3075

5 0.116 in

Chapter 5 511
Shrinkage in the 33 sill plate is given by
dshrink 5 d 3 Sm
5 2.5 3 1.8/100
5 0.045 in
The bearing stress on the sill plate at the compression chord is
fc 5 T/A
5 4048/10.5
5 386 psi
The allowable bearing stress for a Douglas Fir-Larch Select Structural sill plate is obtained from NDS
Supplement Table 4A as
Fc 5 625 psi

since 5 fc/Fc
5 386/625
5 0.62
, 0.73Fc
the anticipated crushing deformation is given by NDS Section 4.2.6 as
dcom 5 0.020 in
The accumulated movement at the hold-down plus the sill plate crushing is
Da 5 dh-down 1 dshrink 1 dcom

5 0.116 1 0.045 1 0.020
5 0.181 in
Shear wall deflection, in inches, is determined by SDPWS Equation (4.3-1), which is
Dsw 5 Dchord deflection 1 Dshear deflection 1 Ddeflection due to hold-down slip

5 8vh3/EAb 1 vh/1000Ga 1 Dah/b
5 0.010 1 0.336 1 0.181 3 8/12
5 0.47 in

5.4.4 Design using the segmented shear wall method7
The following criteria are necessary to employ the segmented shear wall method:
• All segments must be the full height of the wall.
• The aspect ratio of all segments must comply with SDPWS Table 4.3.4.
• The stiffening effect of sheathing above and below openings is neglected.
• Where the segments are faced with the same material, the unit shear in each segment is identical.
• Hold-downs are required at both ends of each segment.
• Collectors for shear transfer are required through the full length of the shear wall line.
A typical shear wall with an opening, which may designed as two separate segments, is shown in Fig-
ure 5-17.
Segment Collector Segment
Figure 5-17 Segmented shear wall method

Chapter 5 513
Example 5-8
The wood shear wall, shown in Figure 5-18, is located in a building assigned to seismic design cat-
egory D. The vertical dead load on the wall from the roof diaphragm is 60 pounds per foot and the
weight of the shear wall is 15 pounds per square foot. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0 and the seismic
design coefficient is Cs 5 0.14. The spectral response acceleration parameter at short periods is SDS 5
0.826g. Using the segmented shear wall method, design the wall for a strength level seismic force of 7
kips using sheathing of 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood and framing of Douglas Fir-Larch.
Solution
The two segments are equal in length and each resists one-half of the applied seismic force.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of each segment is
a 5 8/4
5 2.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Section 4.3.4 for full allowable shear values

Design loads
The self-weight dead load of each segment is
WS 5 4 3 8 3 15
5 480 lb
The service level seismic load produced by the self-weight of each segment is
FS 5 0.7CsWS
5 0.7 3 0.14 3 480
5 47 lb
and this load acts at the midheight of the segment. The service level seismic unit shear produced by
the self-weight of the wall is
qS 5 FS /L
5 47/4
5 12 lb/ft
The service level seismic force applied at the top of each segment by the diaphragm is
FW 5 0.7V/2
5 0.7 3 7000/2
5 2450 lb
The service level seismic unit shear produced by the seismic force applied at the top of each segment
by the diaphragm is
qW 5 FW /L
5 2450/4
5 613 lb/ft
The total service level shear at the base of each segment is due to the self-weight of the shear wall plus
the seismic force applied at the top of the wall by the diaphragm. The total unit shear in each segment
is given by
q 5 r(qW 1 qS)
5 1.0(613 1 12)
5 625 lb/ft

Chapter 5 515
qn 5 2q
5 2 3 625
5 1250 lb/ft
Nail spacing
may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A. Using 8d nails with 13⁄8-inch penetration into Douglas Fir-
Larch vertical studs, the required nail spacing is:
Anchor bolts
The design service level shear force at the base of each segment is given by
FE 5 r(FS 1 FW)
5 1.0(47 1 2450)
5 2497 lb
Z 5 1180 lb
CD 5 1.6
Z 9 5 CD Z 
5 1.6 3 1180
5 1888 lb
Two 5⁄8-inch-diameter anchor bolts in each segment are adequate, spaced as indicated.

A steel plate washer measuring 0.229 3 3 3 3 inches is required under each nut of the anchor bolts.
Hold-down force
The vertical roof dead load acting on each segment is
WR 5 60 3 4
5 240 lb
The design service level overturning moment acting on each segment is given by
Mo 5 r(FW 3 h 1 FS 3 h/2)
5 1.0(2450 3 8 1 47 3 4)
5 19,788 lb-ft
The moment arm of the overturning moment is given by
L9 5 L 2 4.5 in 2 1.5 in
5 3.5 ft
The service level uplift force is
TE 5 Mo /L9
5 19,788/3.5
5 5654 lb
The service level dead load acting on each segment is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 combination 10 as
WD 5 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(WS 1 WR)

5 (0.6 2 0.14 3 0.826)(480 1 240)
5 349 lb-ft
The downward gravity load on each hold-down is
WD /2 5 349/2
5 175 lb
The net service level hold-down force is given by
T 5 TE 2 WD /2
5 5654 2 175
5 5479 lb

Chapter 5 517
5.4.5 Design using the perforated shear wall method16
The perforated shear wall design method is defined in SDPWS Section 2.2 as the no force transfer
around openings method. The perforated shear wall method considers the wall capacity as a percent-
age of the capacity of a solid wall. Force transfer around the openings is neglected and sheathed areas
above and below openings are not designed for moment resistance and provide only local restraint
at their ends. To determine the capacity of a perforated wall, an adjustment is applied to the capacity
of a solid wall based on the maximum unrestrained opening height and the percentage of full-height
sheathing. This method has the advantage over the segmented design method in that hold-downs are
required only at the ends of the overall shear wall. However, the capacity of a perforated shear wall is
less than that of a segmented shear wall. The following criteria are necessary to employ the perforated
shear wall method given in SDPWS Section 4.3.5.3:
• A perforated shear wall segment is a section of the shear wall, without openings, that is sheathed
for its full height.
• A segment without openings must be located at the end of the perforated shear wall.
• The aspect ratio of all segments must comply with SDPWS Table 4.3.4.
• The perforated shear wall shall have uniform top and bottom of wall elevations.
• Collectors for shear transfer shall be provided through the full length of the wall.
• The nominal unit shear in a single-sided perforated shear wall is limited to a maximum of 1740
pounds per foot for seismic or 2435 pounds for wind.
• The height of a perforated shear wall is limited to a maximum of 20 feet.
• Hold-downs are required at both ends of a perforated shear wall.
• Where out-of-plane offsets occur, portions of the wall on each side of the offset shall be con-
sidered as separate perforated shear walls.
A typical shear wall with an opening, which may be designed as a perforated shear wall, is shown
in Figure 5-19. The nominal shear capacity of a perforated shear wall is given by SDPWS Equation
(4.3‑9) as
Vn 5 vCo SLi
where: v 5 nominal unit shear capacity of a solid wall as given by SDPWS Tables
4.3A–4.3D, lb/ft
Co 5 shear capacity adjustment factor from SDPWS Table 4.3.3.5
SLi 5 sum of the lengths of perforated shear wall segments, ft
An abbreviated summary of SDPWS Table 4.3.3.5 is given in Table 5-4.

Figure 5-19 Perforated shear wall method
The equivalent service level unit shear in a perforated shear wall is obtained from SDPWS Equation
(4.3-9) as
q9 5 V/Co SLi
where: V 5 applied service level shear force, lb
In accordance with SDPWS Equation (4.3-8), the service level uplift due to lateral load at the end of a
perforated shear wall is given by
C 5T
5 Vh/Co SLi
5 q9h
Similarly, the uniformly distributed service level uplift anchorage force on the sill plate of all full-
height perforated shear wall segments between shear wall ends is given by SDPWS Section 4.3.6.4.2.1
as
t 5 q9
Anchor bolts may provide both the required shear and uplift capacity.

Chapter 5 519
Table 5-4 Shear capacity adjustment factors
Maximum opening height
Wall height, h h/3 h/2 2h/3 5h/6 h
8900 wall 2980 4900 5940 6980 8900

10900 wall 3940 5900 6980 8940 10900
% full-height
sheathing Shear capacity adjustment factor
10 1.00 0.69 0.53 0.43 0.36

20 1.00 0.71 0.56 0.45 0.38
40 1.00 0.77 0.63 0.53 0.45
60 1.00 0.83 0.71 0.63 0.56
80 1.00 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71
100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Example 5-9
Using the perforated shear wall method, design the wall for a strength level seismic force of V 5 4.5
kips using sheathing of 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood and framing of Douglas Fir-Larch.
Solution
Full-height segments are placed at each end of the shear wall as required.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of each segment is
a 5 8/4
5 2.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Table 4.3.4 for full allowable shear values

Shear capacity adjustment factor
Percentage of full-height sheathing is
SLi /L 5 100(4 1 4)/12

5 67%
Maximum opening height ratio is

ho /h 5 4/8
5 0.5
From SDPWS Table 4.3.3.5 or Table 5-4, the shear capacity adjustment factor is given by
Co 5 0.86
Design loads
The service level seismic force applied at the top of each segment by the diaphragm is
FW 5 0.7V/2
5 0.7 3 4500/2
5 1575 lb

Chapter 5 521
The service level seismic unit shear produced by the seismic force applied at the top of each segment
by the diaphragm is
qW 5 FW /L1
5 1575/4
5 394 lb/ft
From Example 5-8, the service load seismic unit shear produced by the self-weight of the wall is
qS 5 12 lb/ft
The total service level unit shear in each segment is
q 5 r(qW 1 qS)
5 1.0(394 1 12)
5 406 lb/ft
The equivalent unit shear for a perforated wall is obtained from SDPWS Equation (4.3-9) as
q9 5 q/Co
5 406/0.86
5 472 lb/ft
, 1740/2 lb/ft . . . satisfactory
qn 5 2q9
5 2 3 472
5 944 lb/ft
Nail spacing
may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A. Using 10d nails with 11⁄2-inch penetration into Douglas
Fir-Larch vertical studs, the required nail spacing is:

Anchor bolts
In each segment, the shear is given by
FE 5 q9L1
5 472 3 4
5 1888 lb
Z 5 1180 lb
CD 5 1.6
Z 9 5 CD Z 
5 1.6 3 1180
5 1888 lb
Two 5⁄8-inch-diameter anchor bolts in each segment are adequate for shear.
The uniformly distributed design uplift anchorage force on the sill plate of each full-height perforated
shear wall segment between shear wall ends is given by SDPWS Section 4.3.6.4.2.1 as
t 5 q9
The vertical roof dead load acting on each segment is
WR 5 60 3 4
5 240 lb
The self-weight dead load of each segment is
WS 5 4 3 8 3 15
5 480 lb

Chapter 5 523
The net uplift force on each anchor bolt is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 load combination 10 as
ft 5 0.7rQE 2 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)D

5 4t/2 2 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(WS 1 WR)/2
5 2 3 472 2 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(480 1 240)/2
5 2 3 472 2 (0.6 2 0.14 3 0.826)720/2
5 770 lb
The allowable tensile force on an A307 grade 5⁄8-inch-diameter bolt is given by AISC Manual20 Table
7-2 as
Ft 5 6900 lb
ft /Ft 5 770/6900
5 0.11
, 0.30
Hence, combined tensile and shear force does not govern.
The allowable shear force on an A307 grade 5⁄8-inch-diameter bolt is given by AISC Manual Table 7-1 as
Fv 5 4140 lb
The anchor bolts provided are adequate for both shear and uplift.
Since the anchor bolts are designed for tension, a steel plate washer measuring 0.229 3 3 3 3 inches
is required under the nut of each bolt. The nominal unit shear capacity of the sheathing exceeds 400 lb/
ft, and the edge of the plate washer must be located within 1⁄2 inch of the sheathed side of the sill plate.
Hold-down force
In accordance with SDPWS Equation (4.3-8), the design uplift force, due to the seismic loads at the
end of a perforated shear wall, is
TE 5 q9h
5 472 3 8
5 3776 lb
The net uplift force on each hold-down is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.4.5 load combination 10 as
T 5 TE 2 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(WS 1 WR)/2

5 3776 2 (0.6 2 0.14SDS)(480 1 240)/2
5 3602 lb

5.4.6 Design using the force transfer round openings method17
The force transfer shear wall design method is specified in SDPWS Section 4.3.5.2. The force transfer
method considers the force transfer around openings and provides a higher capacity than that of a seg-
mented shear wall. This is achieved by utilizing the wall panels above and below openings as coupling
beams and developing the calculated flexure by means of steel straps and blocking. Hold-downs are
required only at the ends of the overall shear wall (see Figure 5-21).
Figure 5-21 Force transfer round openings method
The following criteria are necessary to employ the force transfer method:
• A full-height wall segment must be located at the end of the perforated shear wall.
• The length of each wall pier must not be less than 2 feet.
• The aspect ratio of all wall piers must comply with SDPWS Table 4.3.4.
• Collectors for shear transfer shall be provided through the full length of the wall.
• Hold-downs are required at both ends of the shear wall.
• Where out-of-plane offsets occur, portions of the wall on each side of the offset must be con-
sidered as separate force transfer shear walls.
• Design for force transfer must be based on a rational analysis.

Chapter 5 525
Example 5-10
Using the force transfer shear wall method, design the wall for a strength level seismic force of 7 kips
using sheathing of 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood and framing of Douglas Fir-Larch.
Solution
Because of the limited height of the wall panel above the opening, only the panel below the opening
will be designed as a coupling beam.
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of the overall wall is
a 5 8/12
5 0.67
, 2.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Table 4.3.4 for full allowable shear values

The aspect ratio of each wall pier is
a 5 3.5/4
5 0.88
, 2.0 . . . complies with SDPWS Table 4.3.4 for full allowable shear values
Design loads
From Example 5-6, the service level seismic force applied at the top of the wall by the diaphragm is
FW 5 4900 lb
The service level seismic load produced by the self-weight of the shear wall is
FS 5 141 lb
and this force acts at the center of the wall.
The equivalent total force acting at the top of the wall is given by
2F 5 FW 1 FS /2
5 4900 1 141/2
5 4970 lb
As shown in Figure 5-23, this force is divided equally between the two full-height panels to give
F 5 4970/2
5 2485 lb
Neglecting gravity loads, the design level hold-down force is given by SDPWS Equation (4.3-7) as
T 5 2Fh/L
5 4970 3 8/12
5 3313 lb
Panel forces
Because of the skew symmetry of the structure, only half of the shear wall need be analyzed. The
forces acting on the individual panels are obtained by considering the equilibrium of each panel in turn
and are given by
H12 5 (hF 2 L1 3 T)/h2 . . . from moments about a

5 (8 3 2485 2 4 3 3313)/3.5
5 1894 lb

Chapter 5 527
R2 5 2H12
5 2 3 1894
5 3788 lb
R1 5 (2F 2 R2)/2
5 (4970 2 3788)/2
5 591 lb
V1 5 (hF 2 h2 H12)/L1 . . . from moments about b
5 (8 3 2485 2 3.5 3 1894)/4
5 3313 lb
a b
3313 3313
Figure 5-23 Panel forces
Nail spacing
The unit shear in the upper portion of panels 1 and 3 is
q1 5 F/4
5 2485/4
5 621 lb/ft . . . governs for panels 1 and 3
qn1 5 2q1
5 2 3 621
5 1242 lb/ft

may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A. Using 8d nails with 13⁄8-inch penetration into 2-inch-nominal
Douglas Fir-Larch vertical studs with all panel edges backed by 2-inch-nominal blocking, the required
nail spacing is:
The unit shear in panel 2 is
q2 5 2H12 /L2
5 3788/4
5 947 lb/ft
qn2 5 2q2
5 2 3 947
5 1894 lb/ft
The nominal unit shear for 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood applied on both sides of the wall to
studs at 24 inches on center may be obtained from SDPWS Table 4.3A. Using 8d nails with 13⁄8-
inch penetration into 2-inch-nominal Douglas Fir-Larch vertical studs with all panel edges backed by
2-inch-nominal blocking, the required nail spacing is:
• nominal capacity provided 2 3 1100 lb/ft 5 2200 lb/ft
Horizontal tie straps
The force in the tie below the opening is
H12 5 1894 lb

Chapter 5 529
On each side of the panel, provide a Simpson MSTA 30 strap tie using 22-10d nails over a length of
30 inches. The allowable tension is
T12 5 2050 lb
. H12 . . . satisfactory
Install the straps over 4 3 4-inch blocking.
5.5 Wood structural panels to resist combined shear

and uplift from wind21
5.5.1 Design requirements
A continuous load path is required by SDPWS Section 4.1.1 to transfer wind uplift forces from the
roof of a structure to the foundation. Traditionally, these load paths have been provided by means of
metal connectors and straps. Similarly, a shear wall is used to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane
of the wall. However, by utilizing special detailing in wood structural panel sheathed shear walls, the
shear wall can be used to resist the combined lateral and uplift wind loads. The procedure followed
is to design the shear wall in the normal way to resist lateral loads and then provide additional nails
to the top and bottom of the panels to resist uplift forces. In this way, the uplift straps that are usually
provided are eliminated.
The following criteria are necessary to employ the combined shear and uplift method given in SDPWS
Section 4.4.1:
• Spacing of nails in any single row must not be less than 3 inches.
• Minimum panel thickness is 7⁄16 inch and panels must be installed with the strength axis parallel
to the studs.
• Horizontal joints must occur over common framing members or blocking.
• Framing anchors are required at openings in the wall to transfer the appropriate uplift loads
around the opening and into the foundation.
• The bottom edge of the sheathing must be attached to the sill plate, as shown in Figure 5-24,
with nail spacing tabulated in SDPWS Table 4.4.1.
• The top edge of the sheathing must be attached to the upper top plate with the same nail spac-
ing as required for the sill plate.
• Panels must overlap the upper top plate and the sill plate by 11⁄2 inches.

• Roof uplift connectors must be located on the sheathing side of the wall to prevent twisting of
the top plate due to eccentric loading.
• Anchors are to be spaced in accordance with SDPWS Table 4.4.1.6 and designed to resist the
combined uplift and shear forces.
• A steel plate washer measuring 0.229 3 3 3 3 inches is required under the nut of each anchor
bolt with the plate washer within 1⁄2 inch of the sheathed side of the sill plate.
• Alternative anchoring devices must be located on the sheathing side of the sill plate.
• Hold-downs are required at the ends of each shear wall segment to resist shear wall overturning.
Panel joint
S = tabulated nail spacing
3
/8″ 3
/8″
Sill plate
½″
½″
¾″ S S
S
½″
Single row of nails Double row of nails
Figure 5-24 Sill plate nailing
Example 5-11
The wood shear wall, shown in Figure 5-16, is located in a high wind area. Design the shear wall for
a combined nominal lateral unit shear of qu 5 840 pounds per foot and a service level wind uplift of u
5 500 pounds per foot using sheathing of 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood and framing of Douglas
Fir-Larch with studs at 24-inch centers. The plywood is manufactured from plies with a specific grav-
ity of 0.5.
Solution
As shown in Figure 5-16, the shear wall end posts and top plate consist of double 2 3 4-inch members
and the sill a single 3 3 4-inch member. Proprietary hold-downs are provided with a distance of 11⁄2
inches between the face of the end post and the center of the tie rod.

Chapter 5 531
From Example 5-6, the required nail spacing for the lateral load is:
• nominal capacity required 840 lb/ft
The specific gravity of the Douglas Fir-Larch framing is obtained from NDS Table 11.3.3A as
G 5 0.5
. 0.49
Hence, in accordance with SDPWS Table 4.4.1 Note 2, the nominal uplift capacity values in the table
may be multiplied by 1.08.
The plywood is manufactured from plies with a specific gravity of 0.5, and in accordance with SDPWS
Table 4.4.1 Note 3, the nominal uplift capacity values in the table need not be reduced.
Allowing for the 1.08 increased capacity, the required equivalent nominal uplift capacity is
un 5 2u/1.08
5 2 3 500/1.08
5 926 lb/ft
The nominal uplift for 15⁄32-inch Structural I grade plywood applied to studs at 24 inches on center
is obtained from SDPWS Table 4.4.1. Using 8d nails with 13⁄8-inch penetration into 2-inch nominal
Douglas Fir-Larch vertical studs with all panel edges backed by 2-inch nominal blocking, the required
nail spacing is:
• at sill and top plate 3-in double row
The required spacing of 1⁄2-inch-diameter anchor bolts is obtained from SDPWS Table 4.4.1.6:
• use bolt spacing of 16 in
• uplift capacity provided 1080 lb/ft uplift capacity required 926 lb/ft
• shear capacity provided 980 lb/ft shear capacity required 840 lb/ft

References
3. American Wood Council. National Design Specification for Wood Construction, ANSI/AWC
NDS-2018. Leesburg, VA, 2018.
4. American Wood Council. Supplement to National Design Specification for Wood Construction,
Design Values for Wood Construction. Leesburg, VA, 2018.
5. American Wood Council. Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic, ANSI/AWC SDPWS-
2015. Leesburg, VA, 2015.
6. Simpson Strong-Tie Company. Wood Construction Connectors. Catalog C-C-2017. Pleasanton,
CA, 2017.
7. American Plywood Association. Diaphragms and Shear Walls: APA Design/Construction Guide
L350. Tacoma, WA, 2007.
8. Tissell, J. R. and Elliot, J. R. Plywood Diaphragms: Research Report 138. American Plywood
Association. Tacoma, WA, 2000 (reprint).
9. American Concrete Institute. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14)
and Commentary. Farmington Hills, MI, 2014.
10. Sheedy, P. “Anchorage of concrete and masonry walls.” Building Standards, October 1983 and
April 1984. International Conference of Building Officials. Whittier, CA.
11. Lawson, J. Tilt-Up Panel Subdiaphragm Example. Structural Engineers Association of Southern
California Design Seminar. Los Angeles, CA, 1992.
12. Tissell, J. R. Wood Structural Panel Shear Walls: Research Report 154. American Plywood Asso-
ciation.Tacoma, WA, 2007.
13. Nelson, R. “Hold-down connectors and wood member end-post capacity.” Structure, 8, No. 8,
(36–41). Chicago, IL, September 2001.
14. Vilasineekul, S. “Anchorage of Wood Shear Walls to Concrete for Tension and Shear.” Structural
Engineer. Skokie, IL, August 2011.
15. Structural Engineering Association of California. “Anchor Bolts in Light-frame Construction at
Small Edge Distances.” SEAOC Blue Book: Seismic Design Recommendations. SEAOC. Sacra-
mento, CA, 2009.
16. Line, P. Perforated Shear Wall Design. American Wood Council. Leesburg, VA, 2002.
17. Thompson, D. Design of Wood Shear Walls with Openings. Structural Engineers Association of
Southern California Design Seminar. Los Angeles, CA, 2001.
18. Thompson, D. Wood Diaphragm and Shear Wall Deflections. Structural Engineers Association of
Southern California Design Seminar. Los Angeles, CA, 1999.

Chapter 5 533
19. American Institute of Timber Construction. Timber Construction Manual. John Wiley. New York,
NY, 1985.
20. American Institute of Steel Construction. Manual of Steel Construction, Fifteenth Edition. Chi-
cago, IL, 2017.
21. Coats, P. and Douglas, B. “Use of Wood Structural Panels to Resist Combined Shear and Uplift
from Wind.” Structure. Chicago, IL, June 2011.

CHAPTER 6
Seismic Design of Masonry Structures
Nomenclature
a depth of equivalent rectangular stress block in
Ab effective cross-sectional area of an anchor bolt in2
Ag gross cross-sectional area of masonry in2
Amax maximum area of reinforcement in2
Anv net effective area of shear wall in2
Ao overlap of projected areas in2
Apt projected area of tensile breakout surface in2
Apv projected area of shear breakout surface in2
As area of reinforcement in2
A9s area of compression reinforcement in2
Ast area of laterally tied longitudinal reinforcement in2
Av area of shear reinforcement in2
b width of section in
b length of wall in
bau strength level tensile force on an anchor bolt lb
bvu strength level shear force on an anchor bolt lb
Ban nominal axial strength of an anchor bolt lb
Banb nominal axial strength in tension of an anchor bolt when governed by masonry lb
breakout
Bans nominal axial strength in tension of an anchor bolt governed by steel yielding lb
Bvn nominal shear strength of an anchor bolt lb
Bvnb nominal strength in shear of an anchor bolt when governed by masonry breakout lb
Bvnc nominal strength in shear of an anchor bolt when governed by masonry crushing lb
Bvnpry nominal strength in shear of an anchor bolt when governed by anchor pryout lb

536 Seismic Design of Masonry Structures
Bvns nominal strength in shear of an anchor bolt when governed by steel yielding lb
c depth of neutral axis in
Cd deflection amplification factor lb
Cm force in masonry stress block lb
Cs force in compression steel lb
Cs seismic response coefficient –
Cu coefficient for upper limit on calculated period from ASCE 7 Table 12.8-1 –
d effective depth of tension reinforcement in
dv actual depth of masonry in direction of shear in
D dead load lb
eu eccentricity of applied axial load in
E calculated seismic load on an element of a structure resulting from both horizontal lb
and vertical earthquake-induced forces
Em modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression lb/in2
Es modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement lb/in2
f m9 specified masonry compressive strength lb/in2
fr modulus of rupture of masonry lb/in2
fs stress in reinforcement lb/in2
fy yield strength of reinforcement lb/in2
h height of masonry shear wall in
Icr moment of inertia of cracked transformed section about the neutral axis in4
Ieff effective moment of inertia in4
In moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area in4
lb effective embedment depth of anchor bolt in
lbe anchor bolt edge distance measured from edge of masonry to center of the cross in
section of anchor bolt
lw length of shear wall in direction of shear force in
L live load lb
Lr roof live load lb
Mcr cracking moment lb-in
Mn nominal bending moment strength lb-in
Mser service moment at midheight of wall, including P-delta effects lb-in

Chapter 6 537
Mu factored bending moment at midheight of wall, including P-delta effects lb

Mu factored bending moment associated with Vu lb-ft
Mu0 factored moment from first-order analysis lb
n modular ratio –
P nonfactored axial load lb
Pe Euler buckling load lb
Pn nominal axial strength lb
Pu factored axial load lb
Pu sum of Puw and Puf lb
Puf factored load from tributary floor or roof loads lb
Puw factored weight of wall tributary to section considered lb
QE effect of horizontal seismic forces –
r radius of projected area in
R rain load lb
R response modification coefficient –
s spacing of reinforcement in
s bolt spacing in
S snow load lb
SDS design spectral response acceleration at a period of 0.2 second –
Sn section modulus of net wall section in3
t thickness of wall in
tsp specified thickness of member in
T force in tension steel lb
V shear force lb
Vm shear strength provided by masonry lb
Vn nominal shear strength lb
Vs shear strength provided by shear reinforcement lb
Vu factored shear force lb
W wind load lb

Symbols
γ load factor –
γ grouted shear wall factor –
γw weight of masonry wall lb
δne elastic deflection due to seismic forces in
δs deflection at midheight of wall due to service loads and including P-delta effects in
δu deflection at midheight of wall due to factored loads and including P-delta effects in
εmu maximum usable compressive strain of masonry –
εs strain in reinforcement –
εsu maximum strain in reinforcement –
εy strain at yield in tension reinforcement –
θ half the angle subtended by the chord at the intersection of overlapping projected degree
areas
ρ redundancy factor –
ρe equivalent tension reinforcement ratio, Ase /bd –
ρmax maximum reinforcement ratio –
f strength reduction factor –
ψ moment magnifier –
Ω0 overstrength factor tabulated in ASCE 7 Table 12.2-1 –
6.1 Reinforced masonry shear walls

In accordance with IBC1 Section 2108.1, the strength design of masonry members must comply with
the requirements of TMS 4022 Chapters 1 through 7 and 9 with the exception of the development
length and reinforcement splice requirements of TMS 402 Sections 6.1.5.1.1 and 6.1.6.1.1.
A shear wall is designed to resist lateral forces acting in the plane of the wall and may be either a
bearing or a nonbearing wall. Twelve types of masonry shear walls are defined in TMS 402 Table
CC-7.3.2-1, and each is assigned specific seismic design parameters in ASCE 73 Table 12.2-1 based on
its expected performance and ductility. The determination of which type of shear wall to use depends
on the seismic design category assigned to the structure. The following list describes different types
of shear wall:
• Ordinary plain (unreinforced) masonry shear walls are shear walls designed to resist lateral
forces while neglecting stresses in the reinforcement, if present. This type of wall is used only
in seismic design categories A and B. When used in a bearing wall system, the seismic parame-
ters are R 5 1.5, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 1.25. When used in a building frame system, the seismic
parameters are R 5 1.5, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 1.25.
Chapter 6 539
• Detailed plain (unreinforced) masonry shear walls are shear walls with prescriptive mini-
mum reinforcement and connection requirements that are designed to resist lateral forces with
the stresses in the reinforcement neglected. This type of wall may be used only in seismic
design categories A and B. The reinforcement requirements are specified in TMS 402 Section
7.3.2.3.1 as horizontal and vertical reinforcement of at least No. 4 bars at a maximum spacing
of 120 inches. Additional reinforcement is required at wall openings and corners. When used
in a bearing wall system, the seismic parameters are R 5 2.0, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 1.75. When
used in a building frame system, the seismic parameters are R 5 2.0, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 2.0.
• Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls are shear walls with the minimum reinforcement
specified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.3.1 that are designed to resist lateral forces while consider-
ing the stresses in the reinforcement. Because of the reinforcement, these walls are more duc-
tile and have a higher capacity than plain (unreinforced) masonry shear walls. This type of wall
may be used only in seismic design category A, B, or C. The maximum permitted height in
seismic design category C is 160 feet. When used in a bearing wall system, the seismic param-
eters are R 5 2.0, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 1.75. When used in a building frame system, the seismic
parameters are R 5 2.0, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5 2.0. When used in a dual system with intermediate
moment frames, the seismic parameters are R 5 3.0, W0 5 3.0, and Cd 5 2.5.
• Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls are shear walls with the minimum reinforcement
specified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.3.1, with the exception that the spacing of vertical rein-
forcement is limited to a maximum of 48 inches. The walls are designed to resist lateral forces
while considering the stresses in the reinforcement. This type of wall may be used only in
seismic design category A, B, or C. There is no limitation on height in seismic design category
C. When used in a bearing wall system, the seismic parameters are R 5 3.5, W0 5 2.5, and Cd
5 2.25. When used in a building frame system, the seismic parameters are R 5 4.0, W0 5 2.5,
and Cd 5 4.0. When used in a dual system with special moment frames, the seismic parameters
are R 5 4.0, W0 5 3.0, and Cd 5 3.5. When used in a dual system with intermediate moment
frames, the seismic parameters are R 5 3.5, W0 5 3.0, and Cd 5 3.0.
• Special reinforced masonry shear walls are shear walls with the minimum reinforcement spec-
ified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6 that are designed to resist lateral forces while considering the
stresses in the reinforcement. This type of wall must be used in seismic design categories D, E,
and F. When used in bearing wall or building frame systems, the maximum permitted height in
seismic design categories D and E is 160 feet and in seismic design category F, it is 100 feet.
When used in a bearing wall system, the seismic parameters are R 5 5.0, W0 5 2.5, and Cd 5
3.5. When used in a building frame system, the seismic parameters are R 5 5.5, W0 5 2.5, and
Cd 5 4.0. When used in a dual system with special moment frames, the seismic parameters are
R 5 5.5, W0 5 3.0, and Cd 5 5.0.

6.1.1 Reinforcement requirements
Special reinforced masonry shear walls in seismic design categories D through F are detailed to ensure
ductile behavior of the walls under seismic loads, and minimum reinforcement requirements are speci-
fied in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6. Walls are reinforced with both vertical and horizontal reinforcement,
uniformly distributed, with a minimum combined area of 0.2 percent of the gross cross-sectional area
of the wall. A minimum area of 0.07 percent of the gross cross-sectional area of the wall is required
in each direction for masonry laid in running bond. The minimum area of vertical reinforcement must
not be less than one-third of the required horizontal reinforcement. Stack bond masonry walls require a
minimum area of horizontal reinforcement of 0.15 percent of the gross cross-sectional area of the wall.
As specified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6, the maximum spacing of vertical reinforcement is given by
the smaller of:
• one-third the length of the wall
• one-third the height of the wall
• 48 inches for masonry walls laid in running bond
• 24 inches in stack bond masonry walls
Horizontal reinforcement required to resist in-plane shear shall be embedded in grout at a maximum
spacing given by the smaller of:
• one-third the length of the wall
• one-third the height of the wall
• 48 inches for masonry walls laid in running bond
• 24 inches in stack bond masonry walls
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6, shear reinforcement shall be anchored around vertical
reinforcement with a standard 180-degree hook. At a wall intersection, as specified in TMS 402 Sec-
tion 6.1.7.1.3, shear reinforcement is bent around the edge vertical reinforcement with a 90-degree
hook and extends horizontally into the intersecting wall a minimum distance at least equal to the
development length.
The maximum permissible size of reinforcing bars is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.1 as #9. The
area of bars placed in a cell must not exceed 4 percent of the cell area. In addition, the bar diameter
must not exceed the lesser of the following values:
• 1
⁄8 3 nominal wall thickness . . . TMS 402 Section 6.1.2.5
• 1
⁄4 3 least dimension of the cell, course, or collar joint . . . TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.1
The bundling of reinforcing bars is not permitted by TMS 402 Section 3.3.3.3.
Additional reinforcement requirements are specified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.3.1 for the top and ends
of shear walls, as illustrated in Figure 6-1.

Chapter 6 541
lw
≤ 8 in
≤ 16 in
Minimum #4 bar or
equivalent
hw
Figure 6-1 Reinforcement details
6.1.2 Design loads
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.1.2, for strength design of masonry, the load combinations
given by the legally adopted building code must be applied. In accordance with IBC Section 1605.1,
the provisions of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 may be used.
The ASCE 7 load combinations that include seismic forces are

(12.4-4a)
5 0.2SDS D
(12.4-3)
5 rQE

f1 5 1.0 for floors in garages and places of public assembly and for floor loads in
excess of 100 lb/ft2
L 5 floor live load
S 5 snow load
be written as
U 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S
U 5 (0.9 2 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE
To determine the required strength to resist the effects of gravity loads only, the load combination
given by ASCE 7 Section 2.3.1 combination 2 is applicable, which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6L 1 0.5(Lr or S or R)
6.1.3 Strength reduction factors
To determine the design strength of a member, the appropriate strength reduction factor, f, is applied
to the nominal strength of the member. A diagonal shear failure of a shear wall is undesirable as this
results in a sudden, brittle collapse of the wall. The objective in designing a shear wall is to obtain
ductile behavior with adequate warning of impending failure. This may be achieved by ensuring that
the mode of failure is initiated by yielding of the vertical tension steel. In addition, it is necessary to
prevent the nonductile failure of an over-reinforced wall with high compressive forces.
TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6.1.1 specifies that the design shear strength, fVn , of the wall shall not be
less than 1.25 times the shear corresponding to the nominal flexural strength, fMn . TMS 402 Section
9.1.4.5 specifies a shear strength reduction factor of
f 5 0.80
However, the nominal shear strength, Vn , need not exceed 2.5 times the required shear strength, Vu .
The value of the reduction factor specified in TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.4 for axial load, axial load with
flexure, and flexure is
f 5 0.90

Chapter 6 543
6.1.4 Shear capacity of a shear wall4
The nominal shear strength of a masonry shear wall is obtained by adding the shear strength of the
masonry to that of the reinforcement, and is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-17) as
Vn 5 (Vnm 1 Vns)gg
where: Vnm 5 shear strength provided by masonry
5 [4 2 1.75(Mu /Vu dv)]Anv( f m9 )0.5 1 0.25Pu . . . from TMS 402 Equation (9-20)
Vu 5 shear on the masonry section due to factored loads
Mu 5 moment associated with Vu
dv 5 length of wall in direction of shear force
5 lw
lw 5 length of shear wall
Anv 5 net cross-sectional area of masonry
Pu 5 axial force associated with Vu
Vns 5 0.5 lw fy Av /s . . . from TMS 402 Equation (9-21)
gg 5 grouted shear wall factor to account for the reduced strength of partially
grouted shear walls
5 0.75 for partially grouted shear walls
5 1.0 for fully grouted shear walls
To ensure against brittle shear failure, TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.1.2 requires that the nominal shear
strength does not exceed the value
Vn 5 [6Anv( f m9 )0.5]gg . . . for Mu /Vu dv ≤ 0.25
or Vn 5 [4Anv( f m9 )0.5]gg . . . for Mu /Vu dv ≥ 1.00
The value of Vn for Mu /Vu dv between 0.25 and 1.00 may be interpolated.
Mu /Vu dv need not be taken greater than 1.0, and for simplicity, may be taken as 1.0, in accordance with
TMS 402 Commentary Section 9.3.4.1.2.
In addition, TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6.1.1 specifies that the design shear strength of the wall, fVn , must
exceed the shear corresponding to 1.25 times the nominal flexural strength, Mn , and that the nominal
shear strength need not exceed the value given by
Vn 5 2.5Vu

As specified in TMS 402 Section 5.1.1.2.3, for in-plane bending of reinforced flanged walls, the effec-
tive flange width may not exceed six times the thickness of the flange when the flange is in compres-
sion, as shown in Figure 6-2. For flanges in tension, the effective flange width may not exceed 0.75
times the floor-to-floor wall height.
Figure 6-2 Effective flange width
Example 6-1
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond shown in Figure 6-3 is
located in a building assigned to seismic design category D. The vertical dead load on the wall from
the roof diaphragm is 400 pounds per foot and the weight of the fully grouted shear wall is 85 pounds
per square foot. The vertical live load on the wall from the roof diaphragm is 300 pounds per foot. The
masonry compressive strength is 3000 pounds per square inch and reinforcement consists of Grade 60
bars. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0; the seismic design coefficient is Cs 5 0.17; and the 5-percent
damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. Design the
wall for a strength level seismic force of 9 kips applied at the top of the wall. The design shear strength
of the wall is not less than 1.25 times the shear corresponding to the nominal flexural strength.
Solution
TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.5 specifies a shear strength reduction factor of
f 5 0.80
The weight of the wall is
Ww 5 0.085 3 6 3 16
5 8.16 kips

Chapter 6 545
wL = 300 lb/ft
wD = 400 lb/ft
Vd = 9 kips
h = 16 ft
lw = 6 ft
The specified thickness of a nominal 8-inch-thick wall is
t 5 7.63 in
The net shear area of the fully grouted wall is
Anv 5 tlw
5 7.63(6 3 12)
5 549 in2
The seismic force due to the wall self-weight is
Vw 5 CsWw
5 0.17 3 8.16
5 1.39 kips
The total in-plane seismic force is
Vu 5 Vd 1 Vw
5 9 1 1.39
5 10.39 kips
The strength level moment associated with Vu is
Mu  Vu h
5 10.39 3 16
5 166 kip-ft

The strength level axial load associated with Vu is
Pu 5 (WD 1 Ww)(1.2 1 0.2SDS)

5 (0.4 3 6 1 8.16)(1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)
5 14.42 kips
Mu /Vu dv 5 166/(10.39 3 6)
5 2.66 . . . use 1.0 maximum
The shear strength provided by the masonry is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-20) as
Vnm 5 [4 2 1.75(Mu /Vu dv)]Anv( f m9 )0.5 1 0.25Pu

5 (4 2 1.75 3 1.0)(549)(3000)0.5 1 0.25 3 14,420
5 71,262 lb
5 Vn . . . for a fully grouted shear wall with Vns 5 0
The design shear strength is
fVn 5 0.80 3 71,262

5 57,009 lb
Hence, the masonry is adequate and only nominal horizontal reinforcement is required. The minimum
allowable horizontal reinforcement area is specified in TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6 as
Av 5 0.0007Ag
5 0.0007 3 7.63 3 12
5 0.064 in2/ft
Using #3 horizontal bars at 16 inches on center provides a reinforcement area of
A9v 5 12 3 0.11/16
5 0.083 in2/ft
. Av . . . satisfactory
The maximum allowable spacing of the horizontal reinforcement is given by TMS 402 Section
1.18.3.2.6 as the lesser of
s 5 48 in
or s 5 h/3
5 16 3 12/3
5 64 in

Chapter 6 547
or s 5 lw /3
5 6 3 12/3
The spacing provided is
s9 5 16 in
Vertical reinforcement will be determined by flexural requirements in Example 6-3.
6.1.5 Axial load capacity of a shear wall
The assumptions used in determining the axial load capacity of a shear wall supporting axial load only
are shown in Figure 6-4. The stress in the masonry corresponds to its maximum usable strain of 0.0025
in concrete masonry and the stress in the reinforcement is equal to its yield stress. The nominal axial
strength of a short wall supporting axial load only is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.1 as
Po 5 0.80 f m9 (An 2 Ast) 1 fy Ast
where: An 5 net wall area 5 tlw
Ast 5 reinforcement area
To account for accidental eccentricity, the maximum axial load on the wall is limited to
Pu 5 0.8fPo
where: f 5 strength reduction factor for axial load
5 0.90 . . . from TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.4
lw
As t Wall section
ɛmu = 0.0025 Strain distribution
As fy
0.80f'mb Force on section
C
Figure 6-4 Axial load conditions

Secondary effects in a tall wall are compensated for by multiplying the nominal axial strength of a
short wall by the reduction factors
S 5 1 2 (h/140r)2 . . . for h/r ≤ 99

or S 5 (70r/h)2 . . . for h/r . 99
where: r 5 radius of gyration
h 5 effective height of wall
The axial design strength of the wall is thus limited by TMS 402 Equations (9-15) and (9-16) to
fPn 5 0.80 3 0.90[0.80 f m9 (An 2 Ast) 1 fy Ast][1 2 (h/140r)2] . . . for h/r ≤ 99

or fPn 5 0.80 3 0.90[0.80 f m9 (An 2 Ast) 1 fy Ast](70r/h)2 . . . for h/r . 99
The longitudinal reinforcement in a shear wall is usually not laterally restrained. Hence, in accordance
with TMS 402 Section 9.3.2(e), the longitudinal reinforcement cannot contribute to the axial strength
of the wall. Then, the axial design strength of the wall is given by TMS 402 Equations (9-11) and
(9‑12), which are
fPn 5 0.80 3 0.90 3 0.80 f m9 An[1 2 (h/140r)2] . . . for h/r ≤ 99

fPn 5 0.80 3 0.90 3 0.80 f m9 An(70r/h)2 . . . for h/r . 99
Example 6-2
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond shown in Figure 6-3 is
bars. Determine if the wall is adequate to support the gravity loads.
Solution
Gravity loads
The total weight of the wall is
Ww 5 0.085 3 6 3 16
5 8.16 kips
The service level axial load due to dead load is
D 5 WD 1 Ww
5 0.4 3 6 1 8.16
5 10.56 kips
Chapter 6 549
The service level axial load due to roof live load is
Lr 5 0.3 3 6.0
5 1.80 kips
Load combinations
For dead load and roof live load, the applicable load combination is given by ASCE 7 Section 2.3.1
combination 3, which is
U 5 1.2D 1 1.6(Lr or S or R) 1 (L or 0.5W)
The factored axial load for dead and live load is then
Pu 5 1.2 3 10.56 1 1.6 3 1.8

5 15.55 kips
Axial load capacity
Net wall area is
An 5 tlw
5 7.63(6 3 12)
5 549 in2
The radius of gyration of the wall is
r 5 0.289t
5 0.289 3 7.63
5 2.21 in
The slenderness ratio is
h/r 5 16 3 12/2.21
5 87
, 99 . . . TMS 402 Equation (9-11) applies
The axial design strength is given by
fPn 5 0.80 3 0.90 3 0.80 f m9 An[1 2 (h/140r)2] . . . for h/r ≤ 99

5 0.80 3 0.90 3 0.80 3 3 3 549[1 2 (87/140)2]
5 582 kips

6.1.6 Flexural capacity of a shear wall
The required strength is determined from the factored load combinations of ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6. The
design assumptions used in the determination of the nominal flexural strength are defined in TMS 402
Section 9.3.2 and are illustrated in Figure 6-5. The following assumptions apply:
• Extreme compressive fiber strains are 0.0025 for concrete masonry or 0.0035 for clay masonry.
• Strain in the reinforcement and masonry is directly proportional to distance from the neutral
axis.
• Stress in reinforcement below the yield strength is taken as Es times strain and above the yield
strength is taken as fy .
• Tensile strength of masonry walls is neglected in calculating axial and flexural strength.
• The relationship between masonry compressive stress and masonry strain is rectangular.
• The strength of the masonry compression zone is calculated as 80 percent of f m9 times 80 per-
cent of the area of the compression zone.
In addition, the compressive resistance of steel reinforcement is neglected unless lateral tie reinforce-
ment is provided. However, in determining the maximum permitted area of tension reinforcement,
TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1(e) allows the compressive resistance of reinforcement to be included even
where lateral support is not provided to the compression reinforcement.
d
Wall section
As1 As2 t
ɛmu = 0.0025
Strain distribution
c
T1 Pu C2
0.80f'mt
Mu
Cm
Forces on section
a = 0.80c
Figure 6-5 Design assumptions

Chapter 6 551
The flexural capacity of the wall must exceed the cracking moment of the section in order to avoid
a sudden, brittle failure. The derivation of the cracking moment is shown in Figure 6-6. A minimum
amount of flexural reinforcement is required in order to exceed the cracking moment by an adequate
margin, which is ensured by TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.2.2.2 specifying a minimum nominal flexural
strength of
Mn 5 1.3Mcr
where: Mcr 5 nominal cracking moment strength
5 Sn fr
Sn 5 section modulus of the net wall section
5 tlw2 /6
fr 5 modulus of rupture given in TMS 402 Section 9.1.9.2
lw
Wall section
Sn = tl w /6
t
fr compression
Stress on section
fr tension
Mcr = Snfr
Figure 6-6 Cracking moment condition
Similarly, the amount of tensile reinforcement must be limited to prevent a sudden, nonductile com-
pression failure. For special reinforced shear walls with Mu /Vu dv ≥ 1.0, TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1
and Section 9.3.3.2.3 effectively provide this limitation by prescribing the required strain distribution
under the factored loads. As shown in Figure 6-7, the method is applicable provided that:
• extreme compressive fiber strain is 0.0025 for concrete masonry or 0.0035 for clay masonry
• strain in the extreme tension reinforcement is four times the strain associated with the rein-
forcement yield stress, fy , for walls subject to in-plane forces
• the strength of the compression zone is calculated as 80 percent of f m9 times 80 percent of the
area of the compressive zone
• stress in reinforcement in the compression zone with or without lateral tie reinforcement is
based on a linear strain distribution

t Wall section
Strain distribution
s max
t
Forces on section
Figure 6-7 Maximum reinforcement requirements for in-plane forces for special reinforced shear walls
• axial loads are included in the analysis and are given by the loading combination P 5 D 1
0.75L 1 0.525QE
• stress in the tension reinforcement is taken as fs 5 es Es ≤ fy
For intermediate reinforced shear walls where Mu /Vu dv ≥ 1.0, TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.2 requires the
strain in the extreme tension reinforcement to be three times the strain associated with the reinforce-
ment yield stress, fy , for walls subject to in-plane forces.
The limit on the maximum tensile reinforcement ratio for shear walls is waived if special boundary
elements are provided to the shear wall in compliance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.
For masonry members where Mu /Vu dv ≤ 1.0 and the response modification coefficient is R ≥ 1.5,
TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.4 requires the strain in the extreme tension reinforcement to be 1.5 times the
strain associated with the reinforcement yield stress, fy .
For masonry members where Mu /Vu dv ≤ 1.0 and the response modification coefficient is R ≤ 1.5,
TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.4 waives the limit on maximum tensile reinforcement ratio.
For walls subject to out-of-plane forces, TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1 requires the strain in the extreme
tension reinforcement to be 1.5 times the strain associated with the reinforcement yield stress, fy .
For a long special reinforced shear wall with uniformly distributed and closely spaced longitudinal
reinforcement, the maximum allowable reinforcement ratio is given by
rmax 5 Amax /td

Chapter 6 553
where: Amax 5 maximum allowable reinforcement area

d 5 distance from compressive face of concrete to tension reinforcement closest
to tensile face
t 5 wall thickness
The area of reinforcement on the compression side of the neutral axis is
Asc 5 rmax ct
where: c 5 depth to neutral axis
5 d 3 emu /[emu 1 4( fy /Es)]
5 0.232d . . . for fy 5 60 ksi
The total force in this reinforcement is
SCs  0.5Asc emu Es
5 0.5rmax ctemu Es
The area of reinforcement on the tension side of the neutral axis is
Ast 5 rmax(d 2 c)t
The total force in this reinforcement, assuming all bars have yielded, is
ST 5 As fy
5 fy rmax(d 2 c)t
5 fyrmax(4cey /emu)t
5 4fy tcrmaxey /emu
Ignoring the concrete displaced by the reinforcing bars on the compression side of the neutral axis, the
force in the rectangular stress block is
Cm 5 0.64tcf m9
Equating compressive and tensile forces on the section gives
Cm 2 P 5 ST 2 SCs
0.64tcf m9 2 P 5 rmax(4fy tcey /emu 2 0.5ctemu Es)
0.148tdf m9 2 P 5 rmax(0.928fy tdey /emu 2 0.116tdemu Es)
rmax 5 (0.148 f m9 2 P/td)/(0.928fyey /emu 2 0.116emu Es)
5 (0.148 f m9 2 P/td)/(0.768fy 2 8.41)
5 (0.148 f m9 2 P/td)/(46.08 2 8.41)
5 (0.148 f m9 2 P/td)/37.67

where: P 5 axial force specified in TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1, kips

5 D 1 0.75L 1 0.525QE
QE 5 effects of horizontal seismic force
f m9 5 specified compressive strength of masonry, ksi
Example 6-3
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond, shown in Figure 6-3, is
bars. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0; the seismic design coefficient is Cs 5 0.17; and the 5-percent
damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. Determine
the vertical reinforcement requirements for the applied loads indicated.
Solution
Provide vertical reinforcement of five #4 bars at 16-inch centers, as shown in Figure 6-8. Then, the
total area of vertical reinforcement is
As 5 5 3 0.20
5 1.00 in2
The vertical reinforcement ratio is
rf 5 0.20 3 12 3 100/(16 3 7.63 3 12)
5 0.164%
. 0.07% . . . satisfies TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6 for a special reinforced
masonry shear wall
From Example 6-1, the horizontal reinforcement ratio is
rv 5 A9v 3 100(t 3 12)
rv 5 0.083 3 100/(7.63 3 12)
5 0.091%
The sum of the cross-sectional area of horizontal and vertical reinforcement is
rf 1 rv 5 0.164 1 0.091
5 0.255%
. 0.20% . . . satisfies TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6

Chapter 6 555
t Wall
section
e = 63.60 in 47.60 in 31.60 in 15.60 in 0.40 in
c = 4.40 in Strain
distribution
Force
diagram
a = 3.52
Gravity loads
The total weight of the wall is
Ww 5 8.16 kips
The service level axial load due to dead load is
D 5 WD 1 Ww
5 10.56 kips
The service level axial load due to roof live load is
Lr 5 1.80 kips

The design seismic force due to the wall self-weight is
Vw 5 CsWw
5 0.17 3 8.16
5 1.39 kips
The total in-plane design seismic force at the base of the wall is
VE 5 Vd 1 Vw
5 9 1 1.39
5 10.39 kips
The total in-plane bending moment at the base of the wall is
ME 5 hVd 1 hVw /2
5 16 3 9 1 16 3 1.39/2
5 155 kip-ft
Load combinations
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 6 as
U 5 1.2D 1 Ev 1 Eh 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S
The factored wall axial load is
Pu 5 D(1.2 1 0.2SDS)
5 10.56(1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)
5 14.42 kips
The corresponding factored wall moment is
Mu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rME 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 155 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 155 kip-ft
The corresponding factored shear force is
Vu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rVE 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826) 3 0 1 1.0 3 10.39 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 10.39 kips

Chapter 6 557
Strength reduction factor for flexure
The strength reduction factor for flexure is given by TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.4 as
f 5 0.90
Cracking moment
The modulus of rupture for tensile stress normal to the bed joints for a fully grouted masonry wall is
given by TMS 402 Table 9.1.9.2 as
fr 5 163 psi . . . for Type S cement-lime mortar
For seismic design, in accordance with TMS 402 Section 7.4.4.2.2, partially grouted walls must be
grouted with Type S or Type M cement-lime mortar. Fully grouted walls may also use cement-lime
mortar.
The section modulus of the net wall section is
Sn 5 tl 2w /6
5 7.63 3 722/6
5 6592 in3
The nominal cracking moment strength is given by
Mcr 5 Sn fr
5 6592 3 163
5 1,074,496 lb-in
5 89.54 kip-ft
The factored applied wall moment is
Mu 5 155 kip-ft
The required nominal moment is
Mn 5 Mu /f
5 155/0.90
5 172 kip-ft
Mn/Mcr 5 172/89.54
5 1.92
. 1.3 . . . the nominal flexural strength is adequate
Hence, the section complies with TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.2.2.2.

Design moment capacity
Under combined flexure and axial load, the ultimate compressive strain in the masonry is specified in
TMS 402 Section 9.3.2 as
emu 5 0.0025
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.2, strain in reinforcement and masonry is assumed to be
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, and assuming the depth to the neutral axis
is given by c 5 4.40 inches, the strain produced in a reinforcing bar is
es 5 eemu /c
5 e 3 0.0025/4.40
5 0.000568e
F 5 es As Es
5 0.000568 3 0.20 3 29,000e
5 3.29e kips
where: As 5 area of one reinforcing bar
5 0.20 in2
5 29,000 ksi
The strain producing yield in the reinforcement is
ey 5 fy /Es
5 60/29,000
5 0.00207
The maximum force is then produced in the reinforcement and is given by
Fmax 5 60As
5 60 3 0.20
5 12.0 kips

Chapter 6 559
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.2, the depth of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress
block is
a 5 c 3 0.80
5 4.40 3 0.80
5 3.52 in
The strain distribution across the section and the forces developed are shown in Figure 6-8.
All bars from 1 through 4 are in tension and are stressed to the yield stress.
ST 5 4 3 12.0
5 48 kips
Bar 5 is in compression and, in accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.2, must be neglected since tie
reinforcement is not provided.
The force in the masonry stress block is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.2 as
Cm 5 0.80 f m9 (at 2 A9)
s
5 0.80 3 3(3.52 3 7.63 2 0.20)

5 63.98 kips
Pn 5 Cm 2 ST
5 63.98 2 48
5 15.98 kips
fPn 5 0.9 3 15.98
5 14.38 kips
 Pu . . . satisfactory
Hence, the assumed depth to the neutral axis of c 5 4.40 inches is satisfactory.
The nominal moment capacity for this neutral axis depth is obtained by summing moments about the
middepth of the section, which is given by
Mn 5 32T1 1 16(T2 2 T4) 1 0.0 3 T3 1 Cm(lw /2 2 a/2)
5 32 3 12.0 1 16(12.0 2 12.0) 1 63.98(72/2 2 3.52/2)
5 2575 kip-in
5 215 kip-ft

The design moment strength is given by
fMn 5 0.90 3 215

5 194 kip-ft
. Mu . . . satisfactory
Hence, the wall is adequate with the assumed depth to the neutral axis of c 5 4.40 inches.
The shear force corresponding to the nominal flexural strength is
Vn9 5 Vu 3 Mn /Mu
5 10.39 3 215/155
5 14.41 kips
From Example 6-1
1.25fVn 5 1.25 3 57.05

5 71 kips
. Vn9 . . . satisfies TMS 402 Section 7.3.2.6.1.1
Hence, the assumption used in Example 6-1 is correct.
Maximum reinforcement limit
For a short wall with only five vertical reinforcing bars, the general expression for the limiting rein-
forcement ratio is not applicable and it is necessary to analyze the wall using basic principles.
The strain distribution specified in TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1 is shown in Figure 6-9 and the depth to
the neutral axis is given by
c 5 d 3 emu /[emu 1 4(fy /Es)]

5 d 3 0.232 . . . for fy 5 60 ksi
5 68 3 0.232
5 15.78 in
The strain produced in a reinforcing bar is
es 5 eemu /c
5 e 3 0.0025/15.78
5 0.000158e

Chapter 6 561
Centerline
x x
d = 68 in
4 in 16 in 16 in 16 in 16 in 4 in
As1 As2 As3 As4 As5 t
Wall section
x= 32 in 16 in 0 16 in 32 in
e = 52.22 in 36.22 in 20.22 in 4.22 in 11.78 in
mu = 0.0025
c = 15.78 in
Strain
4 y = 0.0083 e e distribution
T1 T2 T3 T4 C5 Force diagram
0.85f m t
Cm
a = 12.62 in
Figure 6-9 Maximum reinforcement for Example 6-3
F 5 es As Es
5 0.000158 3 0.20 3 29,000e
5 0.916e kips
Bar 5 is in compression and when considering the maximum reinforcement limit, compressive force is
permitted in the bar when it is located in a member with or without lateral tie reinforcement by TMS
402 Section 9.3.3.2.1. The force in bar 5 is
C5 5 0.916 3 11.78
5 10.79 kips

Bars 1 through 3 are in tension and are stressed to the yield stress. The force in each bar is
T1 5 As 3 fy
5 0.20 3 60
5 12 kips
5 T2
5 T3
Bar 4 is in tension and the force in bar 4 is
T4 5 0.916 3 4.22
5 3.87 kips
ST 5 3 3 12 1 3.87
5 39.87 kips
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.2, the depth of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress
block is
a 5 c 3 0.80
5 15.78 3 0.80
5 12.62 in
The force in the masonry stress block is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.2 as
Cm 5 0.80 f m9 (at 2 A9)

s
5 0.80 3 3(12.62 3 7.63 2 0.2)

5 230.62 kips
P 5 Cm 1 C5 2 ST
5 230.62 1 10.79 2 39.87
5 201.54 kips

Chapter 6 563
The required axial force specified in TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1, as obtained in Example 6-2, is
P 5 D 1 0.75L 1 0.525QE
5 10.56 1 0 1 0
5 10.56 kips
,P
Hence, the reinforcement provided is within the limits specified by TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1, the
section is a ductile section, and boundary elements are not required.
6.1.7 Boundary elements
Where the flexural reinforcement ratio in a shear wall is limited, as specified in TMS 402 Section
9.3.3.2, compressive strain does not exceed 0.0025, a ductile failure mode is produced, and boundary
elements are not required. As an alternative to this design technique, the method specified in TMS 402
Section 9.3.6.6 may be used. In this method, boundary elements with confinement reinforcement are
provided to increase the strain capacity of the compressive stress block.
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.1, boundary elements are not required, provided that the
following conditions are met:
• The factored axial load does not exceed the value
Pu 5 0.10Ag f m9 . . . for symmetrical wall sections

Pu 5 0.05Ag f m9 . . . for unsymmetrical wall sections
• In addition, one of the following conditions must apply
Mu/Vudv ≤ 1.0
or Vu ≤ 3An( f m9 )0.5 and Mu /Vu dv ≤ 3.0
For walls bent in single curvature, TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.3(a) requires boundary elements to be
provided where the depth of the neutral axis is
c ≥ hlw /600Cd dne

where: c 5 neutral axis depth calculated using ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 strength level
load combination 6
dne 5 elastic deflection due to code-prescribed seismic forces

The minimum height of the special confinement reinforcement is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.3(b)
as the larger of lw or Mu /4Vu . The minimum length of the special confinement reinforcement is given
by TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.5(a) as the larger of c 2 0.1lw or c/2.
Example 6-4
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond, shown in Figures 6-3 and
6-8, is located in a building assigned to seismic design category D. The vertical dead load on the wall
from the roof diaphragm is 400 pounds per foot and the weight of the fully grouted shear wall is 85
pounds per square foot. The vertical live load on the wall from the roof diaphragm is 300 pounds per
foot. The masonry compressive strength is 3000 pounds per square inch and reinforcement consists of
Grade 60 bars. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0; the seismic design coefficient is Cs 5 0.17; and the
5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g.
Determine if the wall satisfies the requirements of TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.1.
Solution
From Example 6-3, the factored axial load on the wall is
Pu 5 14.42 kips
The gross area of the cross section is
Ag 5 tlw
Ag 5 7.63 3 72
5 549 in2
The masonry strength is
f m9 5 3 ksi
Hence, 0.10Ag f m9 5 0.10 3 549 3 3

5 165 kips
From Example 6-1,
Mu /Vu dv 5 2.66

Chapter 6 565
3An( f m9 )0.5 5 3 3 549 3 30000.5/1000

5 90 kips
Hence, the wall complies with TMS 402 Section 9.3.6.6.1, and special boundary elements are not
required.
6.1.8 Deflections
Shear wall deflections may be calculated by assuming a constant effective moment of inertia over the
whole height of the wall. Deflections may be computed, as shown in Figure 6-10, using the effective
moment of inertia given by
Ieff 5 In(Mcr /Ma)3 1 Icr[1 2 (Mcr /Ma)3]

≤ In
where: In 5 moment of inertia of the net masonry section, neglecting reinforcement
5 tl 3w /12 . . . for a fully grouted section
Icr 5 moment of inertia of cracked transformed section about the neutral axis
5 tc3/3 1 SnAs e2
c 5 depth to neutral axis
n 5 modular ratio
5 Es /Em
e 5 distance of a reinforcing bar from the neutral axis
As 5 area of one reinforcing bar
Mcr 5 nominal cracking moment strength of the section
5 Sn fr
Sn 5 section modulus of the net wall section
5 tl 2w /6 . . . for a fully grouted section
fr 5 modulus of rupture as given by TMS 402 Section 9.1.9.2
Ma 5 maximum moment in the member due to the applied loads at the stage that
deflection is required

lw
As1 As2 As3 t Wall section
e2
e3
e1
Strain distribution
c
t Transformed section
nAs1 nAs2 nAs3
Neutral axis
Figure 6-10 Calculation of deflection
The moment of inertia of the cracked section is calculated about the neutral axis of the cracked section
using the transformed area of the reinforcement given by
At 5 nAs
Example 6-5
Determine the deflection under strength level loads of the masonry shear wall shown in Figure 6-3.
The seismic importance factor is Ie 5 1.0 and the structure is a bearing wall system.
Solution
The relevant details are obtained from Examples 6-1 and 6-3.
Forces acting on the wall
The lateral seismic force from the diaphragm is
Vd 5 9 kips

Chapter 6 567
The lateral force due to the wall self-weight is
Vw 5 1.39 kips
For the purpose of obtaining the in-plane deflection of the wall, 50 percent of Vw may be assumed as
acting at the top of the wall. The equivalent force acting at the top of the wall is
V 5 Vd 1 Vw /2
5 9 1 1.39/2
5 9.70 kips
Section properties
The modulus of elasticity of concrete masonry is given by TMS 402 Section 4.2.2 as
Em 5 900 f m9 . . . for concrete masonry
The modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement is given by TMS 402 Section 4.2.2 as
Es 5 29,000 ksi
The modular ratio is
n 5 Es /Em
5 29,000/(900 3 3)
5 10.74
The neutral axis depth is obtained from Example 6-3 as
c 5 4.40 in
The moment of inertia of the cracked transformed section about the neutral axis
Icr 5 tc3/3 1 SnAs e2

5 7.63 3 4.403/3 1 10.74 3 0.20(63.602 1 47.602 1 31.602 1 15.602 1 0.402)
5 16,440 in4
The moment of inertia of the net masonry section, neglecting reinforcement, is
In 5 tl 3w /12
5 7.63 3 723/12
5 237,324 in4
The nominal cracking moment strength of the section is obtained from Example 6-3 as
Mcr 5 89.54 kip-ft

The maximum moment in the member due to the applied loads is obtained from Example 6-3 as
Ma 5 155 kip-ft
For this bending moment, the effective moment of inertia is
Ieff 5 In(Mcr /Ma)3 1 Icr[1 2 (Mcr /Ma)3]

5 237,324 3 0.5783 1 16,440(1 2 0.5783)
5 59,093 in4
Shear wall deflection
The deflection of a cantilever masonry wall is derived as the sum of the deflections due to flexure and
shear. This deflection is given by
dxe 5 dF 1 dS
where: dF 5 deflection due to flexure
5 Vh3/3Em Ieff
5 1.2h/GA
5 3Vh/EmA . . . for G 5 0.4Em from TMS 402 Section 4.2.2
h 5 height of wall
5 16 ft
G 5 modulus of rigidity of masonry
A 5 area of wall
5 lw 3 t
lw 5 length of wall
5 6 ft
t 5 nominal wall thickness
5 7.63 in
Em 5 elastic modulus of the masonry
5 2700 ksi . . . for f m9 5 3000 psi
and dF 5 Vh3/3Em Ieff
5 9.70(16 3 12)3/(3 3 2700 3 59,093)
5 0.143 in

Chapter 6 569
dS 5 3Vh/Em A
5 3 3 9.70 3 16 3 12/(2700 3 7.63 3 72)
5 0.004 in
The total deflection of the shear wall is
dxe 5 dF 1 dS
5 0.143 1 0.004
5 0.147 in
The total inelastic displacement is given by ASCE 7 Equation (12.8-15) as
dx 5 Cd dxe /Ie
5 3.5 3 0.147/1.0
5 0.52 in
The allowable story drift is obtained from ASCE 7 Table 12.12-1 as
Da 5 0.010hsx
5 0.01 3 16 3 12
5 1.92 in
. dx . . . satisfactory
6.1.9 Sliding shear and shear friction
Squat shear walls with an aspect ratio less than one and with low axial compressive load are vulnerable
to sliding shear at the base. A low-rise structure with long shear walls will usually exhibit considerable
overstrength in flexure and shear with base sliding as the governing failure mechanism. Resistance to
sliding is provided by friction at the interface, dowel action of reinforcement crossing the interface,
and the shear strength of the reinforcement.
For values of Mu /Vu dv ≤ 0.5, TMS 402 Equation (9-33) gives the value of the nominal shear-friction
strength as
Vnf 5 m(Asp fy 1 Pu) ≥ 0

For values of Mu /Vu dv ≥ 1.0, TMS 402 Equation (9-34) gives the value of the nominal shear-friction
strength as
Vnf 5 0.42 f m9 Anc

where: m 5 coefficient of friction
5 1.0 for masonry on concrete with an unfinished surface, or concrete with a
surface that has been intentionally roughened
5 0.70 for all other situations
Asp 5 area of vertical reinforcement crossing the shear plane
Pu 5 strength level axial load, negative when tensile
Anc 5 net cross-sectional area between the neutral axis of bending and the fiber of
maximum compressive strain calculated at the nominal moment Mn
For values of Mu /Vu dv between 0.5 and 1.0, the value of Vnf is linearly interpolated between the values
given by TMS 402 Equations (9-33) and (9-34).
Example 6-6
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond, shown in Figures 6-3 and
6-8, is located in a building assigned to seismic design category D. The vertical dead load on the wall
from the roof diaphragm is 400 pounds per foot and the weight of the fully grouted shear wall is 85
pounds per square foot. The vertical live load on the wall from the roof diaphragm is 300 pounds per
foot. The masonry compressive strength is 3000 pounds per square inch and reinforcement consists of
Grade 60 bars. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0; the seismic design coefficient is Cs 5 0.17; and the
5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g.
The shear wall is laid on a concrete foundation with an unfinished surface. Five #4 vertical dowel bars
are provided and are anchored above and below the slip plane to develop the yield strength of the bars.
Determine if the sliding shear capacity is adequate.
Solution
From Example 6-3,
Mu 5 155 kip-ft
Vu 5 10.39 kips
D 5 10.56 kips
Then, Mu/Vudv 5 155/(10.39 × 72)
5 0.21
, 0.5 . . . TMS 402 Equation (9-33) is applicable

Chapter 6 571
The area of dowel reinforcement crossing the slip plane is
Asp 5 5 × 0.2
5 1.0 in2
For masonry on concrete with an unfinished surface, the coefficient of friction is given by TMS 402
Section 9.3.6.5 as
m 5 1.0
From IBC Equation (16-7), the appropriate strength level axial load is
Pu 5 0.9(D 1 F) 1 1.0E 1 1.6H

5 0.9D
5 0.9 × 10.56
5 9.5 kips
From TMS 402 Equation (9-33), the design shear-friction strength is
fVnf 5 fm(Asp fy 1 Pu)

5 0.8 × 1.0(1.0 × 60 1 9.5)
5 55.6 kips
. Vu
The sliding shear capacity is adequate.
6.2 Walls with out-of-plane loading

The design of slender masonry walls with a ductile failure mode5, 6 is detailed in TMS 402 Section
9.3.5. The following criteria are specified:
• Design of the wall is by strength design procedures as detailed in TMS 402 Section 9.3.2.
• To ensure adequate ductility and prevent a brittle compression failure in a wall subject to out-
of-plane forces, the amount of tensile reinforcement is limited by TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1.
This requires the strain in the extreme tension reinforcement to be 1.5 times the strain associ-
ated with the reinforcement yield stress, fy , under the applied loads.
• The P-delta effect caused by gravity loads and lateral deflection of the wall is considered in the
analysis. The resulting magnified moment may be determined either by the iteration procedure
of TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.2 or by the moment magnifier procedure of TMS 402 Section
9.3.5.4.3.

• In order to minimize residual deflections, the maximum allowable deflection of the wall due to
service loads is limited by TMS 402 Equation (9-32) to
ds 5 0.007h
• To minimize P-delta effects, limits are imposed by TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.2 on the factored
axial stress fa 5 Pu/Ag and the iteration procedure of TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.2 is permitted
where
h/t . 30 and fa ≤ 0.05f m9

or h/t ≤ 30 and fa ≤ 0.20f m9
For fa . 0.2f m9 , a second order analysis or the moment magnifier method of TMS 402 Section
9.3.5.4.3 must be used.
• The generally accepted minimum load-bearing wall thickness is given by TMS 402 Section
A.6.2 as
tmin 5 6 in for one-story buildings

tmin 5 8 in for buildings of more than one story
tmin 5 8 in for shear walls
6.2.1 Strength reduction factors
The value of the reduction factor specified in TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.4 for axial load, axial load with
flexure, and flexure is
f 5 0.90
The value of the reduction factor specified in TMS 402 Section 9.1.4.5 for shear is
f 5 0.80
6.2.2 Shear capacity
It is impractical to provide shear reinforcement for shear caused by out-of-plane loading and the nom-
inal shear strength provided by the masonry is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-20) as
Vnm 5 [4 2 1.75(Mu /Vudv)]Anv( f m9 )0.5 1 0.25Pu

Chapter 6 573
where: Mu 5 moment associated with Vu

Vu 5 shear on the masonry section due to factored loads
Mu 5 moment associated with Vu
dv 5 length of wall in direction of shear force
Anv 5 net cross-sectional area of masonry
Pu 5 axial force associated with Vu
Mu /Vu dv need not be taken greater than 1.0.
Example 6-7
The nominal 8-inch concrete masonry unit shear wall laid in running bond, shown in Figures 6-3, 6-8,
and 6-11, is located in a building assigned to seismic design category D. The vertical dead load on the
wall from the roof diaphragm is 400 pounds per foot and the weight of the fully grouted shear wall
is 85 pounds per square foot. The vertical live load on the wall from the flexible roof diaphragm is
300 pounds per foot. The masonry compressive strength is 3000 pounds per square inch and vertical
reinforcement consists of five #4, Grade 60 bars. The redundancy factor is r 5 1.0; the seismic design
coefficient is Cs 5 0.17; and the 5-percent damped, design spectral response acceleration for a period
of 0.2 second is SDS 5 0.826g. Determine the out-of-plane shear capacity of the wall.
eu = 7 in
Pu
h = 16 ft Fp
8 in nominal

Solution
The out-of-plane seismic force on walls is specified in ASCE 7 Section 12.11.1 and is given by
Fp 5 0.40Ie SDSww
where: Ie 5 importance factor
5 1.0
0.2 second
5 0.826g
ww 5 weight of the wall
5 85 lb/ft2
and Fp 5 0.40 3 1.0 3 0.826 3 85
5 28.08 lb/ft2
The wall is hinged at the top and bottom and the strength level design shear at the top of the wall is
given by
Vu 5 Fp hlw /2
5 28.08 3 16 3 6/2
5 1348 lb
The corresponding strength level vertical force at the top of the wall is
Pu 5 wD lw(1.2 1 0.2SDS)
5 400 3 6(1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)
5 3276 lb
The corresponding strength level bending moment at the top of the wall, caused by the eccentricity of
the vertical force, is
Mu 5 Pue
5 3276 3 7
5 22,932 lb-in
Mu /Vu dv 5 22,932/(1348 3 7.63)
5 2.23 . . . use 1.0 maximum

Chapter 6 575
The nominal shear strength provided by the masonry is given by TMS 402 Equation (9.20) as
Vnm 5 [4 2 1.75(Mu /Vu dv)]Anv( f m9 )0.5 1 0.25Pu

5 (4 2 1.75 3 1.0)(7.63 3 72)(3000)0.5 1 0.25 3 3276
5 68,521 lb
The design shear strength is
fVnm 5 0.80 3 68,521

5 54,817 lb
6.2.3 Flexural demand on a slender wall with one layer of centered reinforcement
Two design methods are given in TMS 402. These are the P-delta iterative method of TMS 402 Sec-
tion 9.3.5.4.2 and the moment magnifier method of TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.3.
TMS 402 Iterative Method
The factored design moment, Mu, at the midheight of the wall must include the effects of the factored
axial loads and eccentricities, the factored lateral load, and the P-delta effect. The factored moment is
TMS 402 Equation (9-23), which is derived from the free-body diagram in Figure 6-12 to give
Mu 5 Mlateral load 1 Meccentricity 1 MP-delta

5 wu h2/8 1 Puf eu/2 1 Pudu
where: wu 5 factored lateral load
h 5 wall height between supports
Puf 5 factored load from tributary floor or roof loads
Pu 5 Puw 1 Puf . . . from TMS 402 Equation (9-24)
Puw 5 half of the factored weight of the wall
eu 5 eccentricity of applied axial load
du 5 deflection at midheight of wall due to factored loads and including P-delta
effects from TMS 402 Equations (9-26) and (9-25)
5 5Mcr h2/48Em In 1 5h2(Mu 2 Mcr)/48Em Icr . . . for Mcr ≤ Mu ≤ Mn
5 5Muh2/48Em In . . . for Mu , Mcr

Mcr 5 cracking moment

5 Sn fr 1 SnPu /An . . . including applied axial force
Icr 5 moment of inertia of cracked transformed section about the neutral axis
5 bc3/3 1 n(As 1 Pu /fy)(d 2 c)2 . . . from TMS 402 Equation (9-30) for
centered reinforcement
n 5 modular ratio
5 Es/Em
(d 2 c) 5 distance of reinforcing bar from the neutral axis
d 5 effective depth
c 5 depth to neutral axis from TMS 402 Equation (9-31)
5 (As fy 1 Pu)/0.64 f m9 b
In 5 moment of inertia of net wall section
5 bt3/12 . . . for a fully grouted section
Sn 5 section modulus of net wall section
5 bt2/6 . . . for a fully grouted section
t 5 effective thickness of wall
fr 5 modulus of rupture of masonry given by TMS 402 Table 9.1.9.2
5 163 psi for tension normal to the bed joints for fully grouted concrete block
masonry with Type S cement-lime mortar
5 29,000 ksi . . . from TMS 402 Section 4.2.2
Em 5 modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression
5 900f m9 . . . from TMS 402 Section 4.2.2
b 5 length of wall
The iteration process to determine the flexural demand on the wall is initiated by assuming a value for
du . This value is inserted in TMS 402 Equation (9-23) and a value for Mu is obtained. This value of Mu
is inserted in TMS 402 Equation (9-25) or Equation (9-26), as appropriate, and a new value for du is
obtained. If this new value of du is identical with the initial assumed value, the process is complete and
the factored bending moment at midheight of the wall, including P-delta effects, has been obtained.
If the values are not identical, another value for du is assumed and the procedure is repeated until the
values for Mu and du converge.

Chapter 6 577
eu eu eu δu
Puf Puf Puf
H H = wuh/2 + 4Puwδu /3h – Pufeu /h
Puw wu Puw
wu wu
h Mu = Puf(eu + δu) + Puwδu /3
2Puw 2δu /3 – wuh2/8 + Hh/2
Puf + Puw
Puw
Assuming the wall deforms in the shape
t of a parabola, Puw is located a distance
of 2δu /3 from the supports.
δu
Figure 6-12 Forces on a slender wall
TMS 402 Moment Magnifier Method
The moment magnifier method is an alternative method for determining the factored bending moment
at midheight of the wall, including P-delta effects. The first-order strength level moment at midheight
of the wall is first obtained from TMS 402 Equation (9-23) by omitting the P-delta component to give
Mu,0 5 wu h2/8 1 Puf eu /2
The second-order moment is now obtained by multiplying the first-order moment by the moment mul-
tiplier, y, as shown by TMS 402 Equation (9-27) as
Mu 5 yMu,0
where: y 5 moment magnifier given by TMS 402 Equation (9-28)
5 1/(1 2 Pu /Pe) . . . Pu /Pe ≤ 1.0
Pu 5 total strength level gravity load at midheight of wall
Pe 5 Euler buckling load given by TMS 402 Equation (9-29)
5 p2Em Ieff /h2
Ieff 5 effective moment of inertia
5 0.75In . . . for Mu , Mcr
5 Icr . . . for Mu ≥ Mcr

6.2.4 Flexural capacity of a slender wall with one layer of centered reinforcement
In accordance with TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.2, the nominal flexural and axial strength of a slender wall
for out-of-plane loads must be determined by the strength design method. The strength level moment
on the wall is given by TMS 402 Section 9.1.3 as
Mu ≤ fMn
where: Mn 5 nominal bending moment strength determined by adding the factored axial
load to the force in the reinforcement and using the assumptions shown in
Figure 6-13
5 (Pu /f 1 As fy)(d 2 a/2) . . . from TMS 402 Commentary Section 9.3.5.2 for
centered reinforcement
a 5 depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block defined in TMS 402 Section
9.3.2
5 (Pu /f 1 As fy)/0.80 f m9 b . . . from TMS 402 Commentary Section 9.3.5.2
f 5 strength-reduction factor
5 0.90
t/2 t/2
Length of wall = b Wall section
As d
ɛsu ≥ ɛsy
c
Strain distribution
ɛmu = 0.0025
Pu/φ
a = 0.80c
Mu
fm= 0.80f'm Forces on section
Ts= Asf y
Cm= 0.80f'mab
d – a/2
Figure 6-13 Slender wall design assumptions

Chapter 6 579
The flexural capacity of the wall must exceed the cracking moment of the section in order to avoid
a sudden, brittle failure. The derivation of the cracking moment is shown in Figure 6-6. A minimum
amount of flexural reinforcement is required in order to exceed the cracking moment by an adequate
margin, and this is ensured by TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.2.2.2 specifying a minimum nominal flexural
strength of
Mn 5 1.3Mcr
Similarly, the amount of tensile reinforcement must be limited to prevent a sudden, nonductile com-
pression failure. TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1 effectively provides this limitation by prescribing the
required strain distribution under the factored loads. The strain in the tension reinforcement is limited
to 1.5 times the strain associated with the reinforcement yield stress. A value for the limiting reinforce-
ment ratio may be derived for a single layer of reinforcement in the center of the wall, to give
rmax 5 (0.64 f m9 a 2 P/bd)/fy
where: a 5 c/d
5 0.446 . . . for maximum strain in the masonry
P 5 D 1 0.75L 1 0.525QE
Example 6-8
For out-of-plane seismic loading, determine if the vertical reinforcement provided in the slender wall
of Example 6-7 and shown in Figure 6-14 is adequate for the flexural demand.
Figure 6-14 Reinforcement details for Example 6-8

Solution
The wall is hinged at the top and bottom and the maximum moment may be assumed equal to the
moment at midheight.
Service level loads
The weight of the wall tributary to the midheight of the wall is
Pw 5 ww lw h/2
5 0.085 3 6 3 16/2
5 4.08 kips
The dead load from the roof is
Pf 5 wD lw
5 0.40 3 6
5 2.4 kips
The specified load combination for gravity load at the midheight of the wall for determining the max-
imum reinforcement limit is
P 5 D 1 0.75L 1 0.525QE
5 Pw 1 Pf
5 6.48 kips
Strength level loads
ASCE 7 Section 2.3.6 combination 6, which is
U 5 1.2D 1 Ev 1 Eh 1 f1L 1 02S

5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)D 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S
The strength level dead load from the roof is
Puf 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)Pf 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)2.4 1 1.0 3 0 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 3.28 kips

Chapter 6 581
The total strength level gravity load at the midheight of the wall is
Pu 5 (1.2 1 0.2SDS)P 1 rQE 1 f1L 1 0.2S

5 (1.2 1 0.2 3 0.826)6.48 1 1.0 3 0 1 0.5 3 0 1 0
5 8.85 kips
The strength level out-of-plane seismic force on the wall is obtained from Example 6-7 as
wu 5 Fp
5 28.08 lb/ft2
Factored axial load stress
The factored axial load stress at the location of the maximum moment is given by
Pu /Ag 5 8.85/(7.63 3 72)

5 0.0161 ksi
The allowable stress is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.2 as
fA 5 0.20 f m9 . . . for slenderness ratio ≤ 30

5 0.20 3 3
5 0.60 ksi
. Pu /Ag . . . iterative design method is permitted
Design moment capacity
The reinforcement area in the wall is
As 5 1.00 in2
The depth of the rectangular stress block is given by TMS 402 Commentary Section 9.3.5.2 as
a 5 (Pu /f 1 As fy)/0.80 f m9 lw
5 (8.85/0.90 1 1.00 3 60)/(0.80 3 3.00 3 72)
5 0.404 in
The nominal moment strength is
Mn 5 (Pu /f 1 As fy)(d 2 a/2)

5 69.83 3 (7.63/2 2 0.404/2)
5 252 kip-in
5 21.0 kip-ft

The design moment strength is
fMn 5 0.90 3 21.0

5 18.9 kip-ft
Cracking moment
The modulus of rupture for tension normal to the bed joints for a fully grouted masonry wall is given
by TMS 402 Table 9.1.9.2 as
fr 5 163 psi . . . for Type S cement-lime mortar
The section modulus of the net wall section is
Sn 5 lw t2/6
5 7.632 3 72/6
5 699 in3
The nominal cracking moment strength, including the applied axial force as specified by TMS 402
Commentary Section 9.3.5.4.4, is given by
Mcr 5 Sn( fr 1 Pu /Ag)

5 699 3 (163 1 16.1)
5 125,191 lb-in
5 10.43 kip-ft
The nominal wall moment is
Mn 5 21.0 kip-ft
Mn /Mcr 5 21.0/10.43
5 2.01
. 1.3 . . . the nominal flexural strength is adequate
Hence, the section complies with TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.2.2.2.
Maximum reinforcement ratio
For walls subject to out-of-plane forces, TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1 requires the strain in the ten-
sion reinforcement to be not less than 1.5 times the yield strain when the masonry attains its max-
imum usable strain. This limits the amount of tension reinforcement that can be placed in the wall
and ensures large deflections and adequate warning of impending failure should overload occur. For

Chapter 6 583
concrete masonry, the maximum useable compressive strain is emu 5 0.0025. The yield strain for
Grade 60 reinforcement is ey 5 0.00207. Then, the depth of the neutral axis is obtained from the strain
distribution diagram shown in Figure 6-15 as
c 5 demu /(emu 1 1.5ey)

5 0.446d
Length of the wall = l w Wall section
As d
ɛsu = 1.5ɛsy
c
= 0.00311 Strain distribution
ɛmu = 0.0025
Pu /φ
a = 0.80c
Mu
fm= 0.80f'm Forces on section
Tu= Asf y
Cm= 0.80f'malw
d – a/2
Figure 6-15 Slender wall maximum reinforcement ratio
The depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block is given by TMS 402 Section 9.3.2 as
a 5 0.8c
5 0.357d
Equating total compressive force to the total tensile force on the section gives the maximum permitted
reinforcement area as
Amax 5 0.8alw f m9 /fy

5 0.286lw df m9 /fy
The maximum permitted reinforcement ratio is
rmax 5 Amax/lw d
5 0.286f m9 /fy
5 0.286 3 3/60
5 0.014

The actual reinforcement ratio provided is
r 5 As /bd
5 1.00/(72 3 7.63/2)
5 0.0036
, rmax . . . satisfactory
Hence, the section complies with TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2.1.
Applied factored moment
Solution using the Iterative Method of TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.2
Assume a deflection at midheight due to factored loads of

du1 5 0.041 in
The applied strength level moment at the midheight of the wall is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-23) as
Mu1 5 wu h2/8 1 Puf eu /2 1 Pu du1

5 (0.02808 3 6)162 3 12/8 1 3.28 3 7.0/2 1 8.85 3 0.041
5 64.70 1 11.48 1 0.36
5 76.54 kip-in
5 6.38 kip-ft
Deflection corresponding to factored moment
The moment of inertia of the net wall section is
In 5 lw t 3/12
5 72 3 7.633/12
5 2665 in4
Since Mu1 , Mcr , the midheight deflection corresponding to the factored moment is
du 5 5Mu1h2/48Em In
5 5 3 76.54(16 3 12)2/(48 3 2700 3 2665)
5 0.041 in
5 du1 . . . satisfactory

Chapter 6 585
Hence, the original assumption is correct, no iteration is necessary, and the factored applied moment is
Mu1 5 6.38 kip-ft

, fMn . . . satisfactory
Hence, the flexural capacity is adequate.
Solution using the Moment Magnifier Method of TMS 402 Section 9.3.5.4.3
The first-order strength level moment at midheight of the wall is
Mu,0 5 wuh2/8 1 Pufeu/2

5 (0.02808 3 6)162 3 12/8 1 3.28 3 7.0/2
5 64.70 1 11.48
5 76.18 kip-in
5 6.35 kip-ft
The moment of inertia of the net wall section is
In 5 2665 in4
Mu,0 is less than Mcr , so the effective moment of inertia is
Ieff 5 0.75In
5 0.75 3 2665
5 1999 in4
The Euler buckling load is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-29) as
Pe 5 p2Em Ieff /h2

5 3.142 3 2700 3 1999/(16 3 12)2
5 1444 kips
The total strength level gravity load at the midheight of the wall is
Pu 5 8.85 kips
The moment magnifier is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-28) as
y 5 1/(1 2 Pu /Pe) . . . Pu /Pe ≥ 1.0

5 1/(1 2 8.85/1444)
5 1.006

The second-order moment is now obtained by multiplying the first-order moment by the moment
multiplier to give
Mu 5 yMu,0
5 1.006 3 6.35
5 6.39 kip-ft
, fMn . . . satisfactory
The flexural capacity is adequate.
6.2.5 Deflection under service loads
The maximum permissible deflection at the midheight of the wall due to service level vertical and
lateral loads, and including P-delta effects, is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-32) as
ds 5 0.007h
Where the applied service moment, Mser , exceeds the cracking moment, Mcr , the service deflection is
given by modified TMS 402 Equation (9-26) as
ds 5 5Mcr h2/48Em In 1 5h2(Mser 2 Mcr)/48Em Icr
where: Mser 5 service moment at midheight of wall, including P-delta effects
5 wh2/8 1 Pf e/2 1 Pds
w 5 service level lateral load
P 5 Pf 1 Pw
Pf 5 service level load from tributary floor and roof loads
Pw 5 service level weight of wall tributary to the section considered
Icr 5 cracked moment of inertia of the wall section, assuming the stress in the
masonry is essentially elastic
5 bc3/3 1 n(As 1 P/fy)(d 2 c)2
c 5 depth to neutral axis at service loads
5 (As fy 1 P)/0.64 f m9 lw
n 5 Es /Em

Chapter 6 587
Where the applied service moment is less than the cracking moment, the service deflection is given by
modified TMS 402 Equation (9-25) as
ds 5 5Mser h2/48Em In
An iterative process is required until the values for ds and the values for Mser converge.
Example 6-9
Determine if the midheight deflection of the slender wall in Example 6-8, under service level loads, is
within the permissible limits.
Solution
The maximum permissible deflection at the midheight of the wall due to service level vertical and
lateral loads, and including P-delta effects, is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-32) as
ds 5 0.007h
5 0.007 3 16 3 12
5 1.34 in
From Example 6-8, the midheight deflection produced by the strength level loads is
du 5 0.041 in
, ds
Hence, the deflection under service loads is less than the permissible deflection.
6.3 Headed anchor bolts

6.3.1 Headed anchor bolt installation
Typical details of a headed anchor bolt installed in a concrete masonry wall are shown in Figure 6-16.
The following requirements are for installing headed bolts as specified in TMS 602 Section 3.4 D:
• Anchor bolts larger than 1⁄4-inch diameter must be placed in grout.

• Anchor bolts 1⁄4-inch diameter or less are permitted to be placed in grout or in mortar bed joints
with a thickness of at least 1⁄2 inch.

db
lb
½ in minimum coarse grout
¼ in minimum fine grout
Figure 6-16 Headed anchor bolt installation
• For an anchor bolt placed in the top of grouted cells or bond beams, the clear distance between
the bolt and the face of the masonry unit must be at least 1⁄2 inch where using coarse grout or
1
⁄4 inch where using fine grout.
• An anchor bolt placed through the face shell of a hollow masonry unit must either be installed
in a tight-fitting hole in the shell or have minimum clear distance around the bolt of at least 1⁄2
inch where using coarse grout or 1⁄4 inch where using fine grout.
• For the portion of the bolt that is within the grouted cell, the clear distance between the bolt
shank and the face of the masonry unit and the bolt head and the formed surface of the grout
must be at least 1⁄2 inch where using coarse grout or 1⁄4 inch where using fine grout.
• The clear distance between parallel anchor bolts must not be less than the nominal diameter of
the anchor bolt nor less than 1 inch.
The development of a cast-in headed anchor bolt in masonry is determined by the methods given in
TMS 402 Section 916. Embedment failure modes in the masonry that must be considered are masonry
tensile breakout, shear breakout, shear crushing, and shear pryout. Failure modes in the anchor bolt are
tensile failure and shear failure.

Chapter 6 589
6.3.2 Seismic design requirements
In accordance with IBC Section 2106.1, seismic design requirements for masonry structures and com-
ponents must comply with the provisions of TMS 402 Chapter 7.
TMS 402 Section 7.2.3 requires that the provisions of ASCE 7 are followed where the legally adopted
building code does not prescribe anchorage design forces.
ASCE 7 Section 13.4.2.2 requires the design of masonry anchors to preclude brittle failure in the
masonry. To ensure this, any one of the following three design approaches may be adopted:
• The strength of the connection must be governed by the tensile or shear strength of a ductile
steel element.
• The strength of the connection must be governed by the ductile yielding of the support or com-
ponent that the anchor is connecting to the structure.
• The connection must be designed to resist the load combinations of ASCE 7 Section 12.4.3,
including the overstrength factor W0.
6.3.3 Headed anchor bolts in tension7
Headed anchor bolts may fail under axial tensile load by:
• tensile yielding of the steel anchor
• masonry tensile breakout
Masonry breakout in tension
In accordance with TMS 402 Commentary Section 6.3.2, the breakout surface in masonry of a single
headed anchor bolt in tension is a cone radiating from the center of the bearing surface of the bolt
head at an angle of 45 degrees. As shown in Figure 6-17, the projection of this failure surface on the
masonry outer surface is a circle with a radius equal to the embedment length of the bolt, with an area
given by TMS 402 Equation (6-5) of
Apt 5 projected area of the tensile breakout surface

5 pl 2b
where: lb 5 effective embedment depth of the anchor bolt measured from the surface of
the masonry to the bearing surface of the bolt head

The design axial tensile strength of an anchor bolt when governed by masonry breakout is given by
TMS 402 Equation (9-1) as
fBanb 5 f(4Apt)( f m9 )0 5
where: f 5 strength reduction factor for masonry breakout given in TMS 402 Section
9.1.4.1
5 0.50
The minimum effective embedment length is specified by TMS 402 Section 6.3.6 as the greater of:
• four bar diameters
• 2 inches
Figure 6-17 Failure surface for a single anchor in tension

Chapter 6 591
Where the projected areas of adjacent anchor bolts overlap, TMS 402 Section 6.3.2 requires the com-
bined projected area to be reduced by the overlapping area. As shown in Figure 6-18, the overlapping
area is given by
Ao 5 (p2q/180 2 sin 2q)r2

where: r 5 radius of the projected area
2q 5 angle subtended at the center of the projected area by the chord of the
intersecting circles, degrees
5 2cos21(s/2lb)
Similarly, that portion of the projected area falling in an open cell or outside the masonry member must
be deducted from the calculated area.
s < 2lb
● ●
r = lb
Figure 6-18 Overlap of projected areas
Bolt tensile failure
The design strength of the anchor bolt in axial tension, where governed by yielding of the effective
stress area, is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-2) as
fBans 5 fAb fy
where: Ab 5 effective tensile stress area of the bolt
fy 5 bolt yield stress
f 5 strength reduction factor for bolt tensile failure
5 0.90

6.3.4 Headed anchor bolts in shear
Anchor bolts may fail under shear forces by:
• shear yielding of the steel anchor
• masonry shear breakout
• masonry shear crushing
• anchor bolt shear pryout
The four modes of failure are shown in Figure 6-19.
Anchor yielding Masonry breakout Bolt pryout Masonry crushing

Figure 6-19 Shear failure loads
Masonry shear breakout
In accordance with TMS 402 Commentary Section 6.3.3, the breakout surface in masonry of a single
headed anchor bolt in shear is a half circular cone radiating from the center of the bolt shank at an
angle of 45 degrees. As shown in Figure 6-20, the projection of this failure surface on the masonry
outer surface is a semicircle with a radius equal to the anchor bolt edge distance, with an area given
by TMS 402 Equation (6-6) as
Apv 5 projected area of shear breakout surface

5 pl 2be /2
where: lbe 5 anchor bolt edge distance
5 the least distance measured from edge of masonry to center of anchor bolt
Where the projected areas of adjacent anchor bolts overlap, the combined projected area is reduced by
the overlapping area. Similarly, that portion of the projected area falling in an open cell or outside the
masonry member shall be deducted from the calculated area.

Chapter 6 593
Figure 6-20 Failure surface for a single anchor in shear
The masonry breakout design capacity in shear is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-6) as
fBvnb 5 f(4Apv)( f m9 )0.5

where: f 5 strength reduction factor for masonry shear breakout, crushing, and pryout
5 0.50
The minimum effective embedment length is specified by TMS 402 Section 6.3.6 as the greater of:
• four bar diameters
• 2 inches
Bolt yielding
The design strength of the anchor bolt in shear, where governed by steel yielding, is given by TMS
402 Equation (9-9) as
fBvns 5 f0.6Ab fy
where: Ab 5 effective tensile stress area of the anchor bolt, assuming threads lie in the
shear plane
fy 5 bolt yield stress
f 5 strength reduction factor for bolt shear failure given by TMS 402 Section
9.1.4.1
5 0.90

Masonry shear crushing
For shear strength governed by masonry shear crushing, the nominal strength is governed by TMS 402
Equation (9-7) as
Bvnc 5 1750( f m9 Ab)0.25
Masonry bolt pryout
For shear strength governed by masonry bolt pryout, the nominal strength is governed by TMS 402
Equation (9-8) as
Bvnpry 5 8Apt( f m9 )0.5

5 2Banb
Combined axial tension and shear
The design axial capacity, fBan , is the smallest value given by TMS 402 Equations (9-1) and (9-2).
The design shear capacity, fBvn , is the smallest value given by TMS 402 Equations (9-6), (9-7), (9-8),
and (9-9).
For combined tension and shear, TMS 402 Equation (9-10) must be satisfied
(bau/φBan)5/3 1 (bvu /φBvn)5/3 ≤ 1

where: fBan 5 design axial capacity of an anchor bolt
fBvn 5 design shear capacity of an anchor bolt
bau 5 factored tensile load on an anchor bolt
bvu 5 factored shear load on an anchor bolt
In addition, the design capacity in shear and tension shall each exceed the factored applied loads.
Example 6-10
Design the wall anchorage of the masonry structure shown in Figure 6-21. The masonry compressive
strength is 3000 pounds per square inch and the building is assigned to seismic design category D.
Anchor rods are 5⁄8-inch-diameter ASTM A307 Type C with a minimum specified yield strength of 36
kips per square inch. The design seismic force on the anchorage is 7 kips.

Chapter 6 595
s = 10 in
Solution
Shear on the attachment is negligible and the full design strength in tension is permitted.
Applied loads on the anchor
The tensile force on the wall anchor is given as
Fp 5 7 kips
Masonry breakout strength in tension
The projected area of the tensile breakout surface for a single anchor on the masonry outer surface is
given by TMS 402 Equation (6-5) as
Apt 5 pl 2b
5 p 3 5.52
5 95.00 in2
The spacing of the bolts is
s 5 10 in
, 2lb
Hence, the projected areas of the bolts overlap. The angle subtended at the center of the projected area
by the chord of the intersecting circles is
2q 5 2cos21(s/2r)
5 2cos21(10/11)
5 49.24°

For the two anchor bolts, the overlapping area is
Ao 5 (p2q/180° 2 sin 2q)r2

5 (3.14 3 49.24°/180° 2 sin 49.24°)5.52
5 3.07 in2
The reduced projected area for the two bolts is
A9pt 5 2Apt 2 Ao
5 2 3 95.00 2 3.07
5 187 in2
For tensile strength governed by masonry breakout, the allowable strength of the two bolts is given by
TMS 402 Equation (9-1) as
fBanb 5 f(4A9pt ( f m9 )0.5

5 0.50 3 4 3 187(3000)0.5/1000
5 20.48 kips
Strength of anchor rods in tension
The steel strength is based on the effective area of the threaded rod. For a 5⁄8-inch-diameter threaded
rod, the effective area is
A 5 0.226 in2
The design strength of the two 5⁄8-inch-diameter anchor rods is given by TMS 402 Equation (9-2) as
fBans 5 fAb fy
5 0.9 3 2 3 0.226 3 36
5 14.6 kips
The connection complies with ASCE 7 Section 13.4.2.2 since the strength is governed by the tensile
strength of the ductile steel bolts.

Chapter 6 597
References
2. The Masonry Society. Building Code Requirements and Specification for Masonry Structures:
TMS 402/602-16. Longmont, CO, 2016.
4. Ekwueme, C. K. Masonry Updates and Other Design Issues in the 2010 CBC. Structural Engi-
neers Association of Southern California Design Seminar. Los Angeles, CA, 2010.
5. American Concrete Institute and Structural Engineers Association of Southern California. Report
of the Task Committee on Slender Walls. Los Angeles, CA, 1982.
6. Huang, H. and Ekwueme, C. K. “Effects of Axial Load on the Strength Design of Slender Out-
of-Plane Masonry Walls.” Masonry Chronicles. Concrete Masonry Association of California and
Nevada. Citrus Heights, CA, Summer 2007.
7. Ekwueme, C. K. “Design of Anchor Bolts in Concrete Masonry.” Masonry Chronicles. Concrete
Masonry Association of California and Nevada. Citrus Heights, CA, Winter 2009–2010.

Index
A interaction of tensile and shear forces 594
seismic requirements 589
Acceleration
shear requirements 589–594
adjusted response 15–16
tensile requirements 589–591
ground 8
to flexible diaphragms 112–114
maximum considered 5, 8–16, 21–23, 27, 31–32,
to rigid diaphragms 114–117
53, 57, 59
overturning 497
parameters, design spectral response 20–25,
wood shear wall 497–498
27, 31–32, 52, 57, 59, 66–67, 96, 101–116,
121–129, 145, 161–162, 258, 379, 386, 403, ASCE 7 design wind pressure on components and
424, 437, 455 cladding 221–247
spectral response 6, 11–13 analytical directional design method (ASCE 7
Section 30.5) 222, 236–241
Accidental eccentricity 90, 93, 136, 138–140
analytical envelope design method (ASCE 7
Accidental torsion 136
Section 30.3) 222, 223–231
Adjusted earthquake response accelerations 15–16 simplified directional design method (ASCE 7
Adjustment factors, height and exposure 204, 206, 216, Section 30.6) 223, 241–247
220, 232–234, 242, 244–245 simplified envelope design method (ASCE 7
Agricultural facilities 6, 177 Section 30.4) 222, 231–236
Allowable story drift, maximum 74, 78 ASCE 7 design wind pressure on MWFRS 172–220
Allowable stress design (ASD) method 256 analytical directional design method (ASCE 7
Allowable stress design special load combinations 259 Section 27.3) 172, 184–201
Allowable stress load combinations 256, 259 analytical envelope design method (ASCE 7
Amplification factor Section 28.3) 172, 208–214
acceleration based 13 simplified directional design method (ASCE 7
Section 27.5) 172, 201–208
deflection 50, 74–75
simplified envelope design method (ASCE 7
long period 13
Section 28.5) 172, 215–220
short period 13
ASD. See allowable stress design method
velocity based 13
Aspect ratio
Analysis, properly substantiated 19
diaphragm 467
Anchor rods 443–452
shear wall 494
Anchorage
Assembly facility 26
in concrete 445–459
design strength 446–447
interaction of tensile and shear forces 455
B
seismic requirements 446 Base shear 1, 50–51
shear requirements 452–454 seismic 4, 54–55
steel track requirements 447 simplified determination of 55–60
tensile requirements 448–451 simplified vertical distribution of 63–64
wood sill plate requirements 446 vertical distribution of 60–63
in masonry 587–596 Basic wind speed 175, 177
design 594–596 Batter piles 99–100
installation requirements 487–488 Bearing wall system 33–36

600 Index
Boundary member dual 33–34, 38–39

concrete 420–433 moment-resisting frame 33–34, 38
masonry 563–566 shear wall-frame interactive 33–34, 40
Brace Building types 74, 180–182
buckling 276–277 class 1 171–172, 182
connections 264–267, 272–287, 293, 321, class 2 171–172, 182
360–361 low-rise 180
design 265–269, 271–275, 320–322, 354–360 regular 180
local buckling 253–254 rigid 181
slenderness ratio 261–262, 268–269 simple diaphragm 172, 181
Braced frame Buildings exempt from seismic design requirements
buckling-restrained 351–364 28–30
eccentrically 255–256, 298–327
ordinary concentrically 256, 260–269 C
special concentrically 256, 269–298 California earthquakes 9
Bracing Cantilever column structure 40–41
chevron 259–263, 268, 275, 286–292 Capacity design 255–256, 270–271
diagonal 261–262, 264, 267, 269, 271–285 Category
K 259–260 I, risk 26, 30–32
Zipper 259–260 II, risk 26, 30–32
Buckling-restrained braced frame 351–364 III, risk 26, 30–32
applications of 353–354 IV, risk 26, 30–32
beam design 361–363 exposure 173–175
brace connection design 360–361 seismic design 27–32, 141–143, 146–148
brace design 354–360 Center
brace details 351–353 of mass 133–140
column design 363–364 of rigidity 134–138
Building Characteristic polynomial 153
cladding 125–127 Chevron bracing 253, 259–260, 262–263, 266–269
class 1 171–172, 182
Chord force 120, 466, 476–477, 486–487
class 2 171–172, 182
Circular frequency 154
components 120–125
enclosed 170, 172, 180, 182 Cladding, building 125–130
envelope 183 Class 1 building 171–172, 183
flexible 181–182 Class 2 building 171–172, 183
frame system 33–37 Coefficient
low-rise 172, 180–181 external pressure 193–199, 210–212
open 172, 183 external pressure, for cladding 227–231,
openings 180–183 239–241
partially enclosed 172, 183 internal wind pressure 192–193, 210
regular 180 internal wind pressure, for cladding 225–226,
rigid 181 238
separation 82–84 modal seismic response 158–161
simple diaphragm 172, 181 response modification 33, 41–49
Building systems seismic response 52–54
bearing wall 33–36 site 13–15
building frame 33–34, 36–37 stability 73–74, 79–82
cantilever column 33–34, 40–41 upper limit on building period 20
velocity pressure exposure 178

Index 601
velocity pressure exposure, for cladding 224– Degrees of freedom 60, 150, 152
225, 237 Demand critical welds 256–257
Collector 98–99, 487–491 Design
Complete quadratic combination 159 category 27–31, 141–143, 146–148
Components and cladding 221–247 earthquake 5
definition 171 wind load cases 186–187, 212
design parameters 224, 232, 237, 241–242 wind loads, minimum 185
design prerequisites 221–223 Design spectral response acceleration parameters 21–23
effective wind area 221 Diagonal bracing 261–262, 269–270, 271–272
external pressure 227–231 Diaphragm
external pressure coefficients 227–231 action 466
internal pressure 225–226, 238 aspect ratio 467, 470, 484–485
internal pressure coefficients 225–226, 238 blocked 467
load determination 221–223 chord 466, 476–477, 486–487
net pressures 233, 242–244 concrete 71
velocity pressure 224–225, 237 crossties 118–120, 484–486
velocity pressure exposure coefficient 178, deflection 477–479
224–225, 237 flexible 112–114, 180, 480–483
Components supported by structures high load 467–470
amplification factor 121–124 lateral load transfer by horizontal diaphragm 112
design force 121–125 loads 71–73
exemptions to requirements 121 nailing 467–470, 474–476
importance factor 120–122 nonflexible 56
response modification factor 121–125 plywood 466
types of 120, 123–124 proportions 467, 484–485
Concentrically braced frames rigid 114–115, 130, 133–136, 180, 480–481
chevron braced 259–260, 262–263 strength 467–470
diagonal braced 259–260, 264–266 subdiaphragm 118–120, 484–487
K braced 259–260, 272 Diaphragm building, simple 172–173
ordinary 37, 260–269 Diaphragms 111–118. See also Flexible diaphragms,
special 37, 253, 269–298 Rigid diaphragms
two-story X braced 259–260 Directional procedure 172
X braced 259–260 Directionality factor 180
zipper column braced 259–260
Distribution exponent factor 61, 77
Connections
Doubler plate 343–345
nailed 463–465
Drag force 204, 487–491
strength requirements 105–107
Drag struts. See Collectors drift
welded 256–257, 279–280, 349–351
inelastic 73–75
Continuity plate 345–351
maximum allowable 73–75
Crack control 390–391
simplified determination of 78
Crossties 118–120, 484, 486–487 story 73–78
Dual system 33–34, 38–39
D Dual systems with intermediate moment frames seismic
Damping system 10 design category 39
Deflection as seismic-force-resisting system 33
amplification factor 50, 74 Dual systems with special moment-resisting frames
inelastic 73–77 seismic design category 38–39
limits 74 as seismic-force-resisting system 33

602 Index
Ductile steel members 253–254

Ductility 43, 253
F
Fault 4
Dynamic analysis methods (seismic loads) 140, 142, 148,
Flexible building 181
150–166. See also Equivalent lateral force procedure
Flexible diaphragms 111–114
Dynamic analysis procedure 150–166
definition 112
modal response technique 158
drag force calculation with 155–156
scaling factors 158, 161–162
seismic loads and 111–114, 118–120
time-history technique 158
separation of, from supporting walls 111
E Force
wall anchor forces for 112–114
Earthquake
procedure, simplified lateral 55–60
characteristic 10
seismic, vertical distribution of 60–64
design 5
Foundation design 68–69
maximum considered 5, 9–10
response spectra 9–10 Frame
braced 33
Eccentrically braced frame 253, 298–327
buckling-restrained braced 351–364
beam design 314–320
building 33–37
brace connections 321
eccentrically braced 44, 253–254, 298–327
brace design 320–322
moment 33–34, 38–39, 44, 327–351
column design 323–327
moment, dual system 33–34, 38–39, 44–45
link design 299–313
shear wall interactive 33, 40
structural fuse in 253, 255
special concrete 378
Effective
steel ordinary concentrically braced 37, 260–269
modal gravity load 155–158
steel special concentrically braced 44, 253,
seismic weight 50–52
269–298
wind area 221
Frequency
Eigenvalue 152–155
circular natural 154
Eigenvector 152–155 determinant 153–154
Element of a structure, seismic load on 29 Fundamental mode 152, 161
ELF procedure. See Equivalent lateral force procedure Fundamental natural frequency 172, 181
Enclosed building 172–173 Fundamental period 10, 16–17, 151, 161, 354
Enclosure classifications 182–184 Fundamental period of vibration. See Fundamental period
enclosed building 182
open building 183
partially enclosed building 183
G
General procedure 10
Envelope procedure 171
Gradient height 175–176
Equivalent lateral force 4
Ground elevation factor 184
Equivalent lateral force (ELF) procedure 4, 144, 142, 148,
Ground motion 5, 8–13, 21–22
150–166
Ground motion parameters 21–22
Essential facility 26, 120
Gusset plate 276–285
Expected tensile strength 255
Gust effect factor 182
Expected yield strength 255
Exposure category 173–175
External pressure 193–201, 210–212, 227–231, 239–241
H
Harmonics 152
External pressure coefficients 193–201, 210–212,
227–231, 239–241 Hazard analysis 10, 13

Index 603
Hazardous facility 26 Load

Height and exposure adjustment factors 216–217 combinations
Hold-down anchor 496–497, 502–503 allowable stress method 102–105, 258–259
Horizontal diaphragm, lateral load transfer by 112 strength design method 95–102, 258, 379–380
Hysteresis 42 factored 95–96
landscaping 50
I partition 50
path 463–468
IBC (International Building Code) 4
seismic, on element of structure 28–29
Importance factor 26, 176
service 50
Interaction equation 292 snow 50
Internal pressure 192–193, 210, 225–226, 238 special 98–102
Internal pressure coefficients 192–193, 210, 225–226, 238 storage 50
International Building Code. See IBC Load and resistance factor design method. See LRFD
Inverted pendulum system 41 method
Irregularities, structural 141–150 Load combinations 95–105
additional design requirements 142–143, 148 allowable stress design special load
horizontal 141–145 combinations 104–105, 258–259
vertical 146–150 allowable stress load combinations 102–104, 258
strength design load combinations 95–98
K strength design special load combinations
K bracing 259–260 98–102
Kaiser bolted bracket 328, 331 Load factor 95
Local buckling 253–254
L Local turbulence 171
Lateral design force Low-hazard facility 26
on parapets 109–111 Low-rise building 172
on structural walls 107–109 LRFD (load and resistance factor design) method 256
Lateral force
analysis procedure selection 150–151 M
combined resisting system 45–49 Main windforce-resisting system (MWFRS) 171–172
minimum notional 28–30 definition of 171, 178
on parapets 109–111 Mass
on walls 107–109 irregularity 146–148
resisting systems 33–42, 463–468 lumped 152
simplified procedure for base shear 55–60 matrix 152–155
simplified vertical distribution 63–64 participating 156
transfer 464–465 structural 156
vertical distribution of 60–63 Matrix
Lateral load transfer mass 152, 154
by horizontal diaphragm 112 stiffness 152
Lateral load-resisting systems 33–49 Maximum considered earthquake (MCE)
Lateral loads, notional 28–29 adjusted 15–16
Light-frame construction 4, 446–447 general procedure for determination of 11
Link beam 252–254, 298–327 probabilistic 9, 12
Liquefiable soil 10 risk-targeted 5, 9–12, 21
site-specific procedure for determination of
11–12

604 Index
Modal design principles 331–333

acceleration 159 doubler plate 343–345
analysis 140, 150–166 Kaiser bolted bracket 328, 331
base shear 158–161 panel zone design 343–351
forces, vertical distribution of 164–166 plastic hinges 331–333
frequency 152 reduced beam section 329, 333, 335–340
gravity load 155–158 SidePlate connection 328, 330
mass 152 slotted web connection 328, 330
maximum 159 strong column-weak beam 334–339
participation factor 155–158 Moment magnifier 577, 585–586
response 158 Motion law, second 4, 54
response coefficient 159–160 Multiple-degree-of-freedom system 60
scaling factor for base shear 161–163 Multistory shear building 152
shape 152–155 MWFRS. See Main windforce-resisting system
Mode
fundamental 61, 152
higher 61, 152
N
Nail
mode shape component 60, 164
box 492
of vibration 60–61, 152
common 492
shape 60–61, 152, 155
penetration 467–468, 492
Modular ratio 565–568, 586–587 spacing 467–470, 475, 492–493
Modulus of rupture 551, 557, 565 type 467–468, 492
Moment zones 475, 479
cracking 551–552, 557, 565 Nailing diagram 475, 479
frame types 33–34, 38 Net pressure 206, 242
plastic 331–333
Newton’s law 4, 54
primary 79–82
Nominal strength, concrete member 380
probable 384–385
secondary 79–82 Nonstructural components 120–125
Moment frame Notional lateral loads 28–30
concrete 373–459
beam design 384–397 O
beam details 381–384 Occupancy
beam-to-column joint 414–418 types of 26
column design 400–413 Occupancy category. See Risk categories
column details 397–400 Open building 172, 183
confinement reinforcement 381–383, 398–400, Openings, building 182–183
411–413 Ordinary concentrically braced frame 260–269
load combinations 379–380 beam design 262–263
plastic hinges 382–383 brace design 260–262
seismic properties 378 column design 264
strong column-weak beam 401–402, 407–408 connection design 264–269
steel 327–351 load combinations 258–259
beam design 340–341 Overstrength factor 49, 98–102
beam-to-column connections 327–331 Overturning
column design 341–342 moment 65–68
continuity plates 345–351 reduction factor 69

Index 605
P Procedure to determine maximum considered earthquake

general 11
Panel zone 343–351
site-specific 11–13
Parameters
Protected zones 257
design spectral response 21–22
Parapet
ground motion 21
R
Rayleigh procedure 19–21, 75–76
component amplification factor 109–110
Reduced beam section 328–329, 333, 335–339
component importance factor 109–110
component response modification factor 109–110 Redundancy 109
design force 109–110 Redundancy factor 84–95
Partially enclosed building 172, 183 Reentrant corner 141–142
Participating mass 156 Region, wind-borne debris 183
Participation factor 155–158 Reinforcement
P-delta effect 73, 79–80, 435–436, 440–441 concrete
beam 381–384
Pendulum system, inverted 41
chord 476–477
Perforated shear wall 517–523
column 397–400
Period of vibration
confinement, beam 383–384
approximate 17–18
confinement, column 398–400
calculation of
crack control 390–391
by general approximate method 17–18
curtailment, beam 394–395
for moment-resisting frames 18
limiting ratio, beam 382
by rational method 19–21
limiting ratio, column 397
fundamental 16–21
longitudinal, beam 388–390
natural 16
longitudinal, column 397–398
Piles 99–100 probable flexural strength 384–385
Plastic hinge 331–333, 382–383, 401 splices, beam 382, 396
Plasticity index 10 splices, column 397–398
Plywood sheathed shear wall 492, 499–507 transverse, beam 382, 384, 391–393
Power law, wind speed 175 transverse, column 398
Prescriptive design provisions, wind 173 masonry
Pressure limiting ratio 538–539, 551–554, 560–563,
defined 178 579
external 193–201, 210–212, 227–231, 239–241 Response
external, coefficients 193–201, 210–212, acceleration 8–14, 21–25
227–231, 239–241 coefficient, seismic 52–54
internal 192–193, 210, 225–226 damped 22
internal, coefficients 192–193, 210, 225–226 design spectral 21–25
negative (suction) 170 modification coefficient 42–49
net, adjustment of 216, 242 parameters 13, 22
positive 170 spectra 9–13, 21–25, 158
wall 202–204 Rigid building 181
wind velocity 188–191 Rigid diaphragms
wind, velocity exposure coefficient 178 loads on vertical seismic force-resisting elements
Primary moment 79–82 with 130–140
Probable flexural strength 384–385 wall anchor forces for 114–117

606 Index
Rigidity 130 Seismically isolated structures 10

Risk categories 26, 30–32 Seismic-force-resisting systems 33–49
Risk category I structures 26, 30–31 Separation, building 82–84
importance factor 26 Shear wall
wind speed map 175–177 concrete
Risk category II structures 26, 30–32 applications 418–419
importance factor 26 boundary elements 420–433
wind speed map 175–177 confinement reinforcement 422–424
Risk category III structures 26, 30–31 deflection 421, 482–483
importance factor 26 design 428–431
wind speed map 175–177 load combinations 425–426
Risk category IV structures 26, 30–31 shear capacity 419–420
importance factor 26 shear reinforcement 426–427
wind speed map 175–177 -frame interactive system 33, 40
Roof joist, wind load on 228–231, 233–236, 244–247 masonry
axial load capacity 547–549
S boundary elements 563–565
cracking moment 551, 557
Scaling factor 161–163
deflection 565–569
Second law of motion (Newton) 4, 54
design 544–547
Secondary moment 79–82
design loads 541–542
Seismic detailed plain 539
base shear, See base shear flexural capacity 550–560
design category 27–32, 141–143, 146–148 intermediate reinforced 539, 552
effective weight 50–52 load combinations 541–542
response coefficient 52–54 maximum reinforcement limit 552–554,
Seismic design requirements, buildings exempt from 560–563
28–30 ordinary plain 538
Seismic loads ordinary reinforced 539
adjusted earthquake response accelerations reinforcement requirements 540–541
15–16 shear capacity 543–547
design response acceleration parameters 21–22 shear friction 569–571
diaphragm loads 71–73 sliding shear 569–571
dynamic analysis methods 140, 142–143, 148, special reinforced 539
150–166 special reinforced, laid in running bond 540
earthquakes and 4 strength reduction factors 542
effective seismic weight 50–52 unreinforced 539
ELF procedure 4, 140, 142–143, 148, 150–151 rigidity of 131–133
flexible diaphragms and 111–114, 118–120 steel special plate
fundamental period of vibration 16–17 details 365–366
ground motion parameters 21 stiffness 123–125
response modification coefficient 42–49 strip methodology 369–370
risk categories 26, 30–32 web design 366–368
seismic design categories 27–32, 141–143, wood
146–148
anchor bolts 497–498, 502
seismic response coefficient 52–54
aspect ratio 494
site classification characteristics 8–9, 13–14
blocked 492
site coefficients 13–15
combined shear and uplift 529–531
vertical seismic force distribution 60–63,
deflection 508–511
164–166

Index 607
design 500–507 P-delta effect 572

details 492, 494–496 reinforcement limits 578–579, 582–583
end post 503–507 shear capacity 572–575
force transfer design method 524–529 strength reduction factors 572
framing members 495–496 Slotted web connection 328, 330–331
hold-down force 502–503 Soft story 146–148
nailing 495–496, 501–502 Soil
openings 498–499 classification 8
overturning 496–497 profile 8–9
perforated 517–523 type 8
plywood sheathed 492, 499–507 Special concentrically braced frame 253–254, 269–298
segmented 512–516 beam design 286–292
shear capacity 492–495, 499 brace connection design 275–285
sill plate 496 brace design 271–275
supporting concrete or masonry walls 496 capacity design 270–271
unblocked 493–494 column design 293–298
Shear wave velocity 8 load combinations 258–259
SidePlate connection 328, 330–331 Spectrum
Simple diaphragm building 172 design 21–25
Simple harmonic motion 152 general procedure for determination of 11
Simplified site-specific procedure for determination of
determination of base shear 55–60 11–13
determination of drift 78 Square-root-of-the-sum-of-the-squares 159, 161, 166
distribution of base shear 63–64 Stability coefficient 74, 79–82
lateral force procedure 55–60 Standard occupancy structure 26
Single-degree-of-freedom system 152 Steel special plate shear walls 365–370
Site details 365–366
classification 8–9, 13–14 strip methodology 369–370
coefficients 13–15 web design 366–368
response analysis 13 Steel systems
specific procedure 11–13 not detailed for seismic resistance 41
Slender wall Stiffener plate 345
concrete Stiffness, wall
axial stress 441–442 definition of 131
cracking moment 443 determination of 131–133
deflections 443–445 Story
design 442 drift 73–78
general requirements 434–435 drift, maximum allowable 73–74
P-delta effect 435–436, 440–441 moment in, primary 79–82
required strength 435–436 moment in, secondary 79–82
masonry
Strength reduction factor 380, 542
cracking moment 578–579
Strong column-weak beam 334–339, 401–402
criteria required 571–572
Structural element 105
deflections 586–587
design 578–586 Subdiaphragm 118–120, 484–487
flexural capacity 578–586 Subdiaphragms and crossties 118–120, 484–487
iterative method 577, 584 Surface roughness category 173–175
moment magnifier method 577, 585

608 Index
System
bearing wall 33–36
W
Wall
building frame 33–36
anchorage
cantilever column 33, 40–41
component amplification factor 111–115,
dual with intermediate moment frames 33, 39
120–124
dual with special moment-resisting frames 33,
component importance factor 120–122
38–39
component response modification factor
moment-resisting frame 33–34, 38
120–124
shear wall-frame interactive 33, 40
design force 111–117
steel, not specifically detailed for seismic
to flexible diaphragm 111–114
resistance 33, 41
to rigid diaphragm 114–117
T cladding 125–130
concrete with out-of-plane loading 433–445
Ties
lateral design force 127–130
continuous 118–120
masonry with out-of-plane loading 571–587
cross 118–120
panel 127–130
Time-history analysis 158–159 slender. See Slender wall
Topographic Wall cladding
factor, applicability of 172 design forces 127–130
factor parameters 180 displacements 125–127
Torsion 130 Weak story 146–148
accidental 136
Web stiffener 304–306, 311–313
amplification factor 136, 139–140
Whitmore section 277
irregularity 136, 139
Width-to-thickness ratio 235–254
moment 130, 134–135, 138–140
Wind
Turbulence 170–171
basic, speed 175
U -borne debris region 183–184
design load cases 186–187, 212
Uniform force method 276
design procedure. See ASCE 7 design wind
pressure on components and cladding, ASCE 7
V design pressure on MWFRS
Velocity pressure, wind 188–191 directionality factor 180
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient 178 effect of topography 173–175
defined 178 effects 170
Vertical distribution of base shear exposure category 173–175
modal forces 164–166 external pressure 193–201, 227–231, 239–241
simplified procedure 63–64 external pressure coefficients 193–201, 227–231,
standard procedure 60–63 239–241
Vertical seismic force distribution 60–64, 164–166 general design requirements 173
Vertical seismic load 65, 69–71 gradient height 175–176, 178
Vertical seismic-force-resisting elements, loads on, gust effect factor 182
flexible diaphragms 112 height and exposure adjustment factors 216–217
Vibration importance factor 176
free 16–17 internal pressure 192–193, 209, 225–226, 238
fundamental period of 16–21 internal pressure coefficients 192–193, 209,
225–226, 238
mode of 16–17

Index 609
loads 161–249. See also Analytical directional turbulence 221

design method, Components and cladding, velocity pressure. See Velocity pressure
Envelope design method velocity pressure exposure coefficient. See
analysis procedures 172–173 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient
ASCE design methods 172–220 Wind speed maps
main windforce-resisting system determination ASCE 7 (Fig. 26.5-1A) 175–177
of 184–187 ASCE 7 (Fig. 26.5-1B) 175–177
on roof joist 228–231, 233–236, 244–247 ASCE 7 (Fig. 26.5-1C) 175–177
wind tunnel procedure 173 Wind stagnation pressure 79–81
minimum design loads 185 Wind tunnel procedure 173
negative pressure (suction) 170
Wind-borne debris region 183–184
net pressure 216, 242
positive pressure 170
pressure effects 171
X
X bracing 259–260
site exposure 173–175
speed 175
speed power law 175 Z
surface roughness category 173–175 Zipper column bracing 259–260
tunnel procedure 173

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100911389

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Publications Manager: Mary Lou Luif

Errata on various ICC publications may be available at www.iccsafe.org/errata.

First Printing: December 2018

PRINTED IN THE USA

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples iii

iv Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples v

vi Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples vii

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples ix

• design of concrete structures

• design of wood structures

• design of masonry structures

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples xi

500 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Birmingham, AL • Chicago, IL • Los Angeles, CA

Telephone: 1-888-422-7233 (ICC SAFE)

xii Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

hx height above the base to level x ft

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Tr fundamental period of vibration determined by the Rayleigh procedure sec

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

1.1 Seismic loads

At the onset of an earthquake, the ground displacement produces a corresponding displacement of

Conventional light-frame construction is defined in IBC Section 202 as:

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Base shear Equivalent frame

Figure 1-1 Equivalent lateral force procedure

• avoid loss of function in critical facilities

• minimize structural and nonstructural repair costs where practical

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

In IBC Table 1604.5, risk categories are listed as:

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

• agricultural storage structures intended only for incidental human occupancy

1.2 Design procedures

• site classification characteristics

• risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations

• adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations

• fundamental period of vibration of the structure

• design spectral response accelerations

• importance factors and risk category

• seismic design category

• response modification coefficient

• deflection amplification factor

• effective seismic weight

• seismic response coefficient

• seismic base shear

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

1.3 Site classification characteristics

Table 1-1 Site classification definitions

Site Soil profile Shear wave velocity,

A Hard rock . 5000

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Figure 1-2 Details for Example 1-1

1.4 Earthquake response spectra

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

1.4.1 General procedure

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples iii

iv Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples v

vi Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples vii

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples ix

Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples xi

xii Seismic and Wind Forces: Structural Design Examples

1.6 Adjusted maximum considered earthquake spectral response