Flow Net

20.1 Introduction
The flow lines indicate the direction of flow and equipotential
lines are the lines joining the points with same total potential or
elevation head. From upstream to downstream, total head
steadily decreases along the flow line. A network of selected
flow lines and equipotential lines is called flow net (as shown in
Figure 20.1)

Fig.20.1. Flow net.

From the flow net, the quantity of seepage (Q) is calculated as:
\[Q=k{h_L}{{{N_f}} \over {{N_d}}}\] (20.1)
where k is the coefficient of permeability of soil, hL is head loss
from upstream to downstream, Nf is number of flow channels
per unit length normal to the plane (in the Figure 20.2, Nf =
2), Nd is the number of equipotential drops (in the Figure
20.2, Nd = 7). If hL is the total head loss during the flow and Nd is
the number of equipotential drops, then Δh = hL / Nd (as shown
in Figure 20.2).
Total head at a point X = hL - number of drops from upstream ×
Δh (20.2)
Elevation head = -z
(20.3)
Pressure head = Total head – Elevation head
(20.4)
It is not necessary to make all the filed elementary squares in a
flow net, but a/b ratio (as shown in Figure 20.2) should be same
for all the filed elements. If a/b = n, then Eq. (20.1) can be
written as:
\[Q=k{h_L}{{{N_f}} \over
{{N_d}}}n\] (20.5)
At the downstream, near the dam (as shown in Figure 20.3), the
exit hydraulic gradient (iexit) can be determined as:
\[{i_{exit}} = {{\Delta h} \over {\Delta
L}}\] (20.6)
If iexit is greater than the critical hydraulic gradient (ic), the soil
grains at exit get washed away. This phenomenon progresses
towards the upstream and forming a free passage of water. This
is called Piping in granular soils. The safety factor against
piping can be determined as:
\[{F_{piping}}={{{i_c}} \over
{{i_{exit}}}}\] (20.7)
The typical range of Fpiping is 5 to 6.

Fig. 20.2. Use of flow net.

 Fig. 20.3 Piping in granular soil.
20.2 Seepage in Anisotropic soil
The Laplace equation presented in previous lesson (lesson 19) is
valid for isotropic soil. If soil is anisotropic and coefficient of
permeability in x and z direction is not same, the Laplace
equation is modified as:
\[{k_x}{{{\partial ^2}h} \over {\partial {x^2}}} + {k_z}{{{\
partial ^2}h} \over {\partial {z^2}}}=0\]
(20.8)
where kx and kz are the coefficient of permeability
in x and z direction, respectively. The Eq. (20.8) can be written
as:
\[\frac{{{\partial ^2}h}}{{\frac{{{k_z}}}{{{k_x}}}\
partial{x^2}}}+\frac{{{\partial^2}h}}{{\partial {z^2}}}=0\]
(20.9)
Convert the x a new coordinate system x' such that
\[x'=x\sqrt {{{{k_z}} \over {{k_x}}}}\] (20.10)
and \[\partial {x'^2}=\partial {x^2}{{{k_z}} \over {{k_x}}}\] ,
Thus, Eq.(20.9) can be written as:
\[{{{\partial ^2}h} \over {\partial {{x'}^2}}} + {{{\partial
^2}h} \over {\partial {z^2}}}=0\] (20.11)
The Eq.(20.11) is Laplace equation for isotropic soil
w.r.t x' and z coordinates. Here x coordinate is transformed
to x' coordinate [as per Eq. (20.10)] for converting anisotropic
soil medium into a fictitious isotropic medium (by
keeping z coordinate unchanged). Thus, during the coordinate
transformation horizontal dimension (x dimension) is multiplied
by \[\sqrt {{{{k_z}} \over {{k_x}}}}\] . The value of
coefficient of permeability for transformed section is taken as:
\[k'=\sqrt {{k_x}{k_z}}\] (20.12)
Thus, in this case the quantity of seepage (Q) is calculated as:
\[Q=\sqrt {{k_x}{k_z}} {h_L}{{{N_f}} \over
{{N_d}}}\] (20.13)
20.3 Seepage in Non-Homogeneous Section
Figure 20.4 shows the Change in direction of flow lines at
intersection of two soil layers with different permeability. In
such situation, the condition is:
\[{{{k_1}} \over {{k_2}}}={{\tan {\alpha _1}} \over {\tan {\
alpha _2}}}\] (20.14)
If k1 > k2, the flow lines get defected towards the normal after
the intersection (i.e. a1 > a2). Similarly, If k1 < k2, the flow lines
get defected away from the normal after the intersection (i.e.
a1 < a2). If the permeability of one layer is 10 times more than
the permeability of other layer, then it is assumed that no
resistance for lowing of water is offered from more pervious
layer, thus, no deflection correction is necessary.

Fig.20.4. Change in direction of flow lines at intersection of

two soil layers
with different permeability.

References
Ranjan, G. and Rao, A.S.R. (2000). Basic and Applied Soil
Mechanics. New Age International Publisher, New Delhi, India.
PPT of Professor N. Sivakugan, JCU, Australia.
Suggested Readings
 Ranjan, G. and Rao, A.S.R. (2000) Basic and Applied Soil
Mechanics. New Age International Publisher, New Delhi,
India.
 Arora, K.R. (2003) Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. Standard Publishers Distributors, New Delhi,
India.
 Murthy V.N.S (1996) A Text Book of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, UBS Publishers’ Distributors Ltd.
New Delhi, India.
 PPT of Professor N. Sivakugan, JCU, Australia
(www.geoengineer.org/files/permy-Sivakugan.pps).