Laboratory Manual for Anatomy &

Physiology (Anatomy and Physiology)

5th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
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vi Contents
Preface
S
tudents in two-semester allied health–related programs
typically encounter a fast-paced anatomy and physiology
course that leaves little time for leisurely learning. These
students are intently focused on achieving their goals, which
requires a course that includes a brief, hands-on laboratory
experience to flesh-out and clarify the lecture sessions. This
challenge is what provided the impetus for developing this
brief laboratory manual.
Basic Pedagogical Approach
The Fifth Edition offers a variety of experiments to give the
instructor the flexibility to choose which will best supplement
what is being taught in lecture. This manual is a stand-alone
resource that can complement any textbook. Because each
experiment is preceded by pertinent background information,
students will not find it necessary to carry their textbooks to
the lab.
Although length and content have been rigorously con-
trolled, the 27 exercises in this manual still provide fairly
complete coverage of the routine topics of human anatomy
and physiology.
For instructors who wish their students to have experi-
ence using a microscope, this manual also includes a com-
plete exercise on its use and care (see Appendix A).
Pedagogy and Special Features
1. A revised art program includes figures and illustrations
of exceptional detail and color, including tissue tables with
photomicrographs and realistic muscle art. Large illustra-
tions highlight and differentiate important structures and help
students recognize important relationships between structure
and function.
2. Each exercise is preceded by a list of materials needed
for conducting the laboratory.
3. Key terms appear in boldface print, and each term is
defined when introduced.
4. Learning objectives introduce each exercise to focus the
student’s attention on the important lessons to “take home”
from the exercise.
5. Selected photographs and isolated organ specimens for
student dissection supplement the diagrams.
6. Body structures are studied from simple to complex. His-
tology lessons will be facilitated by instructor-set-up slides at
demonstration areas for student viewing, so students do not
have to spend time trying to find the “right” section. These,
along with physiology experiments (written to be conducted
in limited time periods and with inexpensive, widely available
equipment and supplies) allow ample opportunity for student
observation, manipulation, and experimentation.
7. All exercises involving body fluids (blood, saliva, etc.)
incorporate current Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion guidelines for handling body fluids. A safety icon alerts
students to observe special precautions.
vi
8. An Instructor’s Guide is available to instructors upon
­request (0-321-88548-1). This Guide contains answers to
activity and review sheet questions, and information on labo-
ratory supply houses.
For information on creating a custom version of this
manual, visit www.pearsonlearningsolutions.com, or contact
your Pearson representative for details.
New to the Fifth Edition
• Streamlined exercises meet the needs of a shorter lab
­period. Without replacing important vocabulary words, diffi-
cult words have been replaced with more accessible language.
• A new student-friendly design features checklists,
easier-to-read tables and charts, and bold, easy-to-find refer-
ences to figures, tables, and charts.
• Updated terminology reflects the most recent changes
in the field and is based on Terminologia Anatomica and
Terminologia Histologica.
• Objectives now appear in one easy-to-reference list
at the beginning of each exercise for quickly identifying the
goals of each lab.
• An expanded art and photo program features new
illustrations, cadaver images, and photomicrographs.
Also Available
• The Anatomy & Physiology Coloring Workbook, Tenth
Edition by Elaine Marieb. (0-321-74305-9)
• The Anatomy Coloring Book, Fourth Edition by Wynn
Kapit and Lawrence Elson. (0-321-83201-9)
• The Physiology Coloring Book, Second Edition by Wynn
Kapit, Robert Macey, and Esmail Meisami. (0-321-03663-8)
• MasteringA&P TM for Anatomy & Physiology, Fifth
Edition is highly recommended. Mastering is the most effec-
tive and widely used online homework, tutorial, and assess-
ment system for the sciences. To learn more, ask your Pearson
representative for details or a demo.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to the Pearson Education editorial team: Serina
Beauparlant, Editor-in-Chief; Shannon Cutt, Associate Proj-
ect Editor; and Alice Fugate, Development Editor. A special
thanks goes to Laura Ritt at Burlington County College for
her expert review and input on the Fifth Edition. Kudos as
usual to Mangelli Productions and to David Novak, my pro-
duction supervisor for this project.
As always, I invite users of this edition to send me their
comments and suggestions for subsequent editions.
Elaine N. Marieb
Pearson Education, Anatomy and Physiology
1301 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94111
 1
The Language of Anatomy

E x e r c i s e
M a t e r i a l s O b j e c t i v e s

□ Human torso model (dissectible) 1. Describe the anatomical position verbally or by demonstrating it.
□ Human skeleton
2. Demonstrate proficiency in using terms describing body landmarks,
□ Scalpel directions, planes, and surfaces.
□ Demonstration area:
3. Name the body cavities, and indicate important organs in each cavity.
Station 1: Sectioned and labeled
kidneys (three separate kidneys uncut
or cut so that (a) entire, (b) transverse,
and (c) longitudinal sectional views are
visible)

W
Station 2: Gelatin-spaghetti molds
e are naturally curious about our bodies. This curiosity is particularly
evident in infants, who are fascinated with their own waving hands or
their mother’s nose. Unlike the infant, however, an anatomy student
must learn to identify body structures formally.
This exercise presents some of the most important anatomical terms you will
be using to describe the body and introduces you to gross anatomy, the study
of body structures you can see with your naked eye. As you become familiar
with this anatomical terminology, you will have a chance to examine the three-
dimensional relationships of body structures using illustrations and models.

Anatomical Position
When doctors refer to specific areas of the human body, they do so relative to a
standard position called the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the
human body is erect, with head and toes pointed forward and arms hanging at the
sides with palms facing forward (Figure 1.1a).

A c t i v i t y 1  

Demonstrating the Anatomical Position

Stand, and assume the anatomical position. Notice that it is not particularly
comfortable because you must hold your hands unnaturally forward instead of
allowing them to hang partially cupped toward your thighs. ■

Surface Anatomy
Body surfaces provide a number of visible landmarks that can be used to study
the body. Several of these are described on the following pages.

A c t i v i t y 2  

Locating Body Landmarks

Anterior Body Landmarks
Identify and use anatomical terms to correctly label the following regions in the
figure (Figure 1.1a):
Abdominal: The anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs.
Antecubital: The anterior surface of the elbow.
Axillary: The armpit.
Brachial: The arm.
Buccal: The cheek.
1
 2 Exercise 1

Thorax

Abdomen

Back (Dorsum)

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.1 Surface anatomy.

Carpal: The wrist. Patellar: The anterior knee (kneecap) region.

Cervical: The neck region. Pelvic: The pelvis region.
Coxal: The hip. Pubic: The genital region.
Deltoid: The roundness of the shoulder caused by the under- Sternal: The region of the breastbone.
lying deltoid muscle. Tarsal: The ankle.
Digital: The fingers or toes. Thoracic: The chest.
Femoral: The thigh. Umbilical: The navel.
Fibular: The side of the leg.
Inguinal: The groin. Posterior Body Landmarks
Mammary: The breast. Identify and appropriately label the following body surface
regions in the figure (Figure 1.1b):
Manus: The hand.
Nasal: The nose. Brachial: The arm.
Oral: The mouth. Cephalic: The head.
Orbital: The bony eye socket (orbit). Cervical: The neck region.

Femoral: The thigh.
Fibular: The side of the leg.
Gluteal: The buttocks or rump.
Lumbar: The area of the back between the ribs and hips;
the loin.
Occipital: The posterior aspect of the head or base of the skull.
Popliteal: The back of the knee.
Sacral: The area between the hips.
Scapular: The scapula or shoulder blade area.
Sural: The calf or posterior surface of the leg.
Vertebral: The area of the spinal column. ■
Body Orientation and Direction
Study the terms below (refer to Figure 1.2). Notice as you
read that certain terms have a different meaning for a four-
legged animal than they do for a human.
Superior/inferior (above/below): These terms refer to the
location of a structure along the long axis of the body. Su-
perior structures appear above other structures, and inferior
structures are always below other body parts.
Anterior/posterior (front/back): In humans, the most an-
terior structures are those that are most forward—the face,
chest, and abdomen. Posterior structures are those toward the
backside of the body.
Superior
(cephalad)
Posterior
Anterior
(dorsal) (ventral)
Proximal
Inferior
(caudal)
Distal
Figure 1.2 Anatomical terminology describing body
orientation and direction in a human.
The Language of Anatomy 3
Medial/lateral (toward the midline/away from the midline
or median plane): Medial structures are closer to the body
midline (which is the spine in humans). Lateral structures are
farther away from the midline.
The terms described above assume the person is in the
anatomical position. The next four pairs of terms are more
absolute. They do not relate to a particular body position, and
they have the same meaning in all vertebrate animals.
Cephalad/caudal (toward the head/toward the tail): In humans, 1
these terms are used interchangeably with superior and infe-
rior. But in four-legged animals, they are synonyms of ante-
rior and posterior, respectively.
Dorsal/ventral (backside/belly side): Meaning “back,” the
term dorsal refers to the animal’s back or the backside of any
other structures. The term ventral, meaning “belly,” always
refers to the belly side of animals. In humans, the terms ventral
and dorsal are used interchangeably with the terms anterior
and posterior, but in four-legged animals, ventral and dorsal
are synonymous with inferior and superior, respectively.
Proximal/distal (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther
from the trunk or point of attachment): These terms locate
various areas along the body limbs or an elongated organ,
such as the intestine. For example, the fingers are distal to
the elbow; the knee is proximal to the toes. Note: The terms
proximal and distal would not be used to describe the rela-
tionship of two structures in the torso.
Superficial/deep (toward or at the body surface/away from
the body surface or more internal): These terms locate body
organs according to their relative closeness to the body surface.
For example, the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles.
A c t i v i t y 3  
Practicing Using Correct
Anatomical Terminology
Before continuing, use a human torso model, a skeleton, or
your own body to specify the relationship between the fol-
lowing structures.
1. The wrist is to the hand.
2. The trachea (windpipe) is to the spine.
3. The brain is to the spinal cord.
4. The kidneys are to the liver.
5. The nose is to the cheekbones.
6. The chest is to the abdomen. ■
Body Planes and Sections
The body is three-dimensional. So, in order to observe its
internal parts, it helps to make use of a section, or cut made
along an imaginary surface or line called a plane. There are
three planes of space (Figure 1.3), or sections, that lie at
right angles to one another.
Sagittal plane: A plane that runs lengthwise or longitudi-
nally down the length of the body, dividing it into right and
left parts, is a sagittal plane. If it divides the body into equal
parts, right down the median plane of the body, it is called a
median, or midsagittal, plane.
 4 Exercise 1

Frontal (coronal) plane

Median (midsagittal) plane

1

Transverse plane

Figure 1.3 Planes of the body.

Frontal (coronal) plane: A longitudinal plane that divides Longitudinal Transverse

the body (or an organ) into anterior and posterior parts. sections sections
Transverse plane: A plane that runs horizontally, dividing
the body into superior and inferior parts. These sections are
also commonly called cross sections.
A sagittal or frontal section of any nonspherical object,
be it a banana or a body organ, provides quite a different view
from a transverse section (Figure 1.4).

A c t i v i t y 4  
(a)
Observing Sectioned Specimens
1. Go to the demonstration area, and observe the entire
(uncut) and transversely and longitudinally cut kidneys at
station 1. Pay close attention to the different structural details
you can see in the sample.
2. After completing step 1, obtain a gelatin-spaghetti mold and
a scalpel and bring them to your laboratory bench. (Essentially, (b)
this is just cooked spaghetti added to warm gelatin that is then
allowed to gel.)
Figure 1.4 Comparison of longitudinal and transverse
sections. Sections of (a) a banana and (b) the small intestine.
 The Language of Anatomy 5

Cranial
Cranial cavity cavity
(contains brain)

Vertebral
cavity

Superior
Dorsal mediastinum 1
Thoracic
body cavity Pleural
cavity (contains cavity
heart and
lungs) Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Diaphragm Ventral body
cord) cavity
(thoracic and
Abdominal cavity abdominopelvic
(contains digestive Abdomino- cavities)
viscera) pelvic
cavity

Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
Dorsal body cavity bladder, reproductive
Ventral body cavity organs, and rectum)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Figure 1.5 Body cavities.

3. Cut through the gelatin-spaghetti mold along any plane, and
examine the cut surfaces. You should see spaghetti strands that
have been cut transversely (XS), longitudinally, and obliquely.
4. Draw the appearance of each of these spaghetti sections
below, and verify the accuracy of your section identifications
with your instructor.
Transverse cut   Longitudinal cut   Oblique cut ■
Body Cavities
The axial portion of the body has two main cavities
(Figure 1.5).
Dorsal Body Cavity
The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial and spinal
cavities. The cranial cavity, within the rigid skull, contains
the brain. The spinal cavity, which runs within the bony
vertebral column, protects the spinal cord. The spinal cord is
a continuation of the brain, and the cavities containing them
are continuous with each other.
Ventral Body Cavity
Like the dorsal cavity, the ventral body cavity is subdivided.
The superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of
the ventral cavity by the muscular diaphragm. The heart and
lungs, which are located in the thoracic cavity, are protected
by the bony rib cage. The thoracic cavity is further subdivided
into the lateral pleural cavities, each of which surrounds a
lung, and the medial mediastinum. The mediastinum con-
tains the pericardial cavity, which encloses the heart, and
it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus,
trachea, and others).
The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is the abdominopel-
vic cavity. Although there is no further physical separation of
this part of the ventral cavity, some describe the abdominopel-
vic cavity in terms of a superior abdominal cavity, the area
that houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and other organs,
and an inferior pelvic cavity, which is partially enclosed by
the bony pelvis and contains the reproductive organs, bladder,
and rectum. The pelvic cavity tips away from the abdominal
cavity in a posterior direction (Figure 1.5).
Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
The abdominopelvic cavity is quite large and contains many
organs, so it is helpful to divide it up into smaller areas for study.
The medical scheme divides the abdominal surface (and the
abdominopelvic cavity deep to it) into four approximately equal
regions called quadrants, named according to their relative po-
sition—that is, right upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left
 6 Exercise 1

Figure 1.6 Abdominopelvic surface and cavity. (a) The

four quadrants. (b) Nine regions delineated by four
planes. The superior horizontal plane is just inferior to
the ribs; the inferior horizontal plane is at the superior
aspect of the hip bones. The vertical planes are just
medial to the nipples. (c) Anterior view of the ventral
body cavity showing superficial organs.

Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

(a)

Liver Diaphragm
Right Left
Epigastric
hypochondriac hypochondriac Stomach
region Gallbladder
region region
Ascending colon Transverse colon
Right Left of large intestine of large intestine
lumbar Umbilical lumbar
region Small intestine Descending colon
region region of large intestine
Cecum Initial part of
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac sigmoid colon
(inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) Appendix
region region region Urinary bladder

(b) (c)

upper quadrant, and left lower quadrant (Figure 1.6a). Note: Iliac regions: Lateral to the hypogastric region and overlying
These directions refer to the patient’s left and right—not yours! the superior parts of the hip bones.
Another scheme, commonly used by anatomists, divides Lumbar regions: Between the ribs and the flaring portions
the abdominal surface and abdominopelvic cavity into nine of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region.
separate regions by four planes (Figure 1.6b). Read through
the descriptions of these nine regions below and locate Hypochondriac regions: Flanking the epigastric region lat-
them in the figure. Notice the organs they contain (refer to erally and overlying the lower ribs.
Figure 1.6c).
A c t i v i t y 5  
Umbilical region: The centermost region, which includes the
umbilicus (navel, or “belly button”). Locating Abdominal Surface Regions
Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical Locate the regions of the abdominal surface on a torso model
region; overlies most of the stomach. and on yourself before continuing. ■
Hypogastric (pubic) region: Immediately inferior to the
umbilical region; encompasses the pubic area.
Name_____________________________________

Lab Time/Date_________________________
E x e r c i s e 1
The Language of Anatomy

S h e e t
Surface Anatomy
  1. Match each of the following descriptions with a key term, and write the term in front of the description.
Key: brachial cervical patellar scapular
buccal deltoid popliteal vertebral
carpal digital

R e v i e w
1. cheek  6. anterior aspect of knee

2. referring to the fingers  7. referring to the arm

3. posterior aspect of the knee  8. your backbone, or spine

4. shoulder blade region  9. curve of shoulder

5. wrist area 10. referring to the neck

Body Orientation, Direction, Planes, and Sections

  2. Several incomplete statements are listed below. Correctly complete each statement by choosing the appropriate anatomical
term from the key. Write the key terms on the correspondingly numbered blanks below. Some terms may be used more than
once.
Key: anterior inferior posterior superior
distal lateral proximal transverse
frontal medial sagittal

In the anatomical position, the umbilicus and knees are on the 1 body surface; the calves and shoulder blades are on the
2 body surface; and the soles of the feet are the most 3 part of the body. The ears are 4 and 4 to the shoulders and
5 to the nose. The breastbone is 6 to the vertebral column (spine) and 7 to the shoulders. The elbow is 8 to the shoulder but
9 to the fingers. The thoracic cavity is 10 to the abdominopelvic cavity and 11 to the spinal cavity. In humans, the ventral
surface can also be called the 12 surface; however, in quadruped animals, the ventral surface is the 13 surface.
If an incision cuts the brain into superior and inferior parts, the section is a 14 section; but if the brain is cut so that
anterior and posterior portions result, the section is a 15 section. You are told to cut a dissection animal along two planes so
that the lungs are observable in both sections. The body plane that would not meet these criteria is 16 .

1. 6.
  12.

2. 7.
  13.

3.  8. 14.

4.  9. 15.

10. 16.

5. 11.

  3. A nurse informs you that she is about to give you a shot in the lateral femoral region. What portion of your body should you
uncover?

7
8 Review Sheet 1

  4. Correctly identify each of the body planes by inserting the appropriate term for each on the answer line below the drawing.

1. 2. 3.

Body Cavities
  5. Which body cavity would have to be opened for the following types of surgery? (Insert the key term(s) in the same-numbered
blank. More than one choice may apply.)
Key: abdominopelvic dorsal thoracic
cranial spinal ventral

1. surgery to remove a cancerous lung lobe 1.

2. gastric bypass surgery to reduce the size of the stomach 2.

3. surgery to remove a ruptured spinal disk 3.

4. appendectomy (surgical removal of the appendix) 4.

5. removal of the gallbladder 5.

  6. Correctly identify each of the described areas of the abdominal surface by inserting the appropriate term in the answer blank
preceding the description.

1. overlies the lateral aspects of the lower ribs

2. surrounds the “belly button”

3. encompasses the pubic area

4. medial region overlying the stomach

  7. What are the bony landmarks of the abdominopelvic cavity?

  8. Which body cavity affords the least protection to its internal structures?
 2
Organ Systems Overview

E x e r c i s e
M a t e r i a l s O b j e c t i v e s

□ Freshly killed or predissected rat 1. Identify several organs of the various organ systems on a dissected rat.
(if available)
2. Identify several organs on a dissectible human torso model, and, given a
□ Probes list of organs, assign each to the correct organ system.
□ Forceps
□ Scissors
□ Dissecting pins or twine
□ Dissecting trays
□ Disposable plastic gloves

T
□ Human torso model (dissectible) he building block of all living things is the cell. Cells fall into four differ-
ent groups according to their structures and functions. Each of these cor-
responds to one of the four tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and
connective. An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that
performs a specific function for the body. For example, the small intestine, which
digests and absorbs nutrients, contains all four tissue types.
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to perform a particu-
lar body function. For example, digestive system organs work together to break
down foods moving through the digestive system and absorb the end products
into the bloodstream to provide nutrients for all the body’s cells.
An important concept in your study of anatomy and physiology is homeo-
stasis, which can be defined as a state of body equilibrium or a stable internal
environment of the body. Keep this concept in mind as you study the organ sys-
tems (listed in Table 2.1) and begin to think about how each of these important
systems works to maintain homeostasis in the human body.

A c t i v i t y 1  

Studying the Organ Systems

of the Body and Their Functions
In all, there are 11 organ systems (Table 2.1). Read through this summary before
beginning the rat dissection. ■

Dissection
Rat Dissection and/or Observation
Many of the external and internal structures of the rat are quite similar in structure
and function to those of the human, so a study of the gross anatomy of the rat
should help you understand your own physical structure.
The following instructions complement and direct your dissection and obser-
vation of a rat. In addition, you can easily adapt the general instructions for ob-
serving external structures to observing a human cadaver, if cadavers are available.
Note that four organ systems—integumentary, skeletal, muscular, and
nervous—will not be studied at this time, because they require microscopic study
or more detailed dissection. ■

A c t i v i t y 2  

Observing External Structures

1. If your instructor has provided a predissected rat, go to the demonstration area
to make your observations. Alternatively, if you and/or members of your group
will be dissecting the specimen, obtain a preserved or freshly killed rat (one for
every two to four students), a dissecting tray, dissecting pins, scissors, forceps,
and disposable gloves. Bring these items to your laboratory bench.
9
 10 Exercise 2
Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body
Organ system Major component organs
Integumentary Skin, nails, and hair; cutaneous
sense organs and glands
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, tendons,
2 ligaments, and joints
Muscular Muscles attached to the skeleton
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
special sense organs
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenal, and pineal glands; ovaries,
testes, and pancreas
Cardiovascular Heart, blood vessels, and blood
Lymphatic/immune Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, thymus, and tonsils
Respiratory Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
Digestive Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines, and accessory
structures (teeth, salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas)
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra
Reproductive Male: testes, scrotum, penis, and
duct system, which carries sperm
to the body exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina
Function
• Protects deeper organs from injury due to bumps, chemicals, bacteria,
and dehydration (drying out)
• Excretes salts and urea
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Supports and protects internal organs
• Provides levers for muscular action
• Stores minerals (calcium and others)
• Cavities provide a site for blood cell formation
• Skeletal muscles contract, or shorten; in doing so, they move bones to
allow motion (running, walking, etc.), grasping and manipulating the
environment, and facial expression
• Generates heat
• Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment
and to respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or
glands
• Helps maintain short-term homeostasis of the body by rapidly
transmitting electrical signals
• Promotes growth and development; produces chemical “messengers”
(hormones) that travel in the blood to exert their effect(s) on various
“target organs” of the body
• Plays a role in regulating long-term homeostasis
• Carries blood containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions,
hormones, and other substances to and from the cells where exchanges
are made; pumping action of the heart propels blood through the blood
vessels.
• Protects body with blood clots, antibodies, and other protein molecules
in the blood
• Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
• Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
• Houses cells (lymphocytes and others) that act in the immune response
to protect the body from foreign substances (antigens)
• Keeps the blood continuously supplied with oxygen while removing
carbon dioxide
• Contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood via its carbonic acid/
bicarbonate buffer system
• Breaks down ingested foods to tiny particles, which can be absorbed into
the blood for delivery to the body’s cells
• Undigested residue leaves the body as feces
• Filters the blood and then rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes
(urea, uric acid, and ammonia) that result from the breakdown of
proteins and nucleic acids by the body’s cells.
• Maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
• Produces germ cells (sperm) for producing offspring
• Produces germ cells (eggs); the female uterus houses a developing fetus
until birth
 Organ Systems Overview 11

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2.1 Rat dissection: Securing for dissection and the initial incision. (a) Securing
the rat to the dissection tray with dissecting pins. (b) Using scissors to make the
incision on the median line of the abdominal region. (c) Completed incision from
the pelvic region to the lower jaw. (d) Reflecting (folding back) the skin to expose the
underlying muscles.

! 2. Don the gloves before beginning your observa-

tions. This precaution is particularly important when
you are handling freshly killed animals, which may harbor
internal parasites.
3. Observe the major divisions of the animal’s body—head,
trunk, and extremities. Compare these divisions to those of
humans. ■
A c t i v i t y 3   1. Pin the animal to the wax of the dissecting tray by plac-
Examining the Mouth (Oral Cavity)
Examine the structures of the mouth or oral cavity, the most
superior part of the digestive system. Identify the teeth and
tongue. Observe the hard palate (the part supported by bone)
and the soft palate (immediately posterior to the hard palate
and with no bony support). Notice that the posterior end of
the oral cavity leads into the throat, or pharynx, a passageway
used by both the digestive and respiratory systems. ■
A c t i v i t y 4  
Opening the Ventral Body Cavity
ing its dorsal side down and securing its extremities to wax
(Figure 2.1a).
2. Lift the abdominal skin with a forceps, and cut through it
with the scissors (Figure 2.1b). Close the scissor blades and
insert them under the cut skin. Moving in a cephalad direction,
 12 Exercise 2
2 divides into two branches—these are the bronchi.
Figure 2.2 Rat dissection: Opening the ventral body
cavity. Making lateral cuts at the base of the rib cage.
open and close the blades to loosen the skin from the underly-
ing connective tissue and muscle. Once you have completed
this skin-freeing procedure, cut the skin along the body mid-
line, from the pubic region to the lower jaw (Figure 2.1c).
Make a lateral cut about halfway down the ventral surface of
each limb. Complete the job of freeing the skin with the scis-
sor tips, and pin the flaps to the tray (Figure 2.1d). The under-
lying tissue that is now exposed is the skeletal musculature of
the body wall and limbs. It allows voluntary body movement.
Notice that the muscles are packaged in sheets of pearly white
connective tissue (fascia), which protect the muscles and bind
them together.
3. Carefully cut through the muscles of the abdominal wall
in the pubic region, avoiding the underlying organs. Remem-
ber, to dissect means “to separate”—not mutilate! Now, hold
and lift the muscle layer with a forceps and cut through the
muscle layer from the pubic region to the bottom of the rib
cage. Make two lateral cuts through the rib cage (Figure 2.2).
You should easily see a thin membrane attached to the inferior
boundary of the rib cage: this is the diaphragm, which sepa-
rates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Cut the diaphragm
away to loosen the rib cage. You can now lift the ribs to view
the contents of the thoracic cavity. ■
A c t i v i t y 5   Now lift the small intestine with the forceps to view the
Examining the Ventral Body Cavity
1. Examine the structures of the thoracic cavity, starting with
the most superficial structures and working deeper. As you
work, refer to the figure that shows the superficial thoracic
organs (Figure 2.3).
Thymus: An irregular mass of glandular tissue overlying the
heart.
With a probe, push the thymus to the side to view the heart.
Heart: Medial oval structure that lies between the lungs.
Lungs: Multilobed organs flanking the heart on either side.
Now observe the throat region to identify the trachea.
Trachea: Tubelike “windpipe” running medially down the
throat; part of the respiratory system.
Follow the trachea into the thoracic cavity. Notice where it
Bronchi: Two passageways that plunge laterally into the tis-
sue of the two lungs.
To expose the esophagus, push the trachea to one side.
Esophagus: A food chute; the part of the digestive sys-
tem that transports food from the pharynx (throat) to the
stomach.
Diaphragm: A thin muscular membrane attached to the in-
ferior boundary of the rib cage; separates the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
Follow the esophagus through the diaphragm to its junction
with the stomach.
Stomach: A C-shaped organ important in food digestion and
temporary food storage.
2. Examine the superficial structures of the abdominopelvic
cavity. Lift the greater omentum, an apronlike membrane
fold that covers the abdominal organs. Continuing from the
stomach, trace the rest of the digestive tract (Figure 2.3b).
Small intestine: A long coiled tube connected to the stomach
and ending just before the saclike cecum.
Large intestine: A large muscular tube coiled within the
abdomen.
Follow the course of the large intestine, which begins at the
saclike cecum, frames the small intestine, and ends at the rec-
tum. Notice that it is partially covered by the urinary bladder.
Rectum: Terminal part of the large intestine; continuous with
the anal canal.
Anus: The opening of the digestive tract (anal canal) to the
exterior.
mesentery.
Mesentery: A delicate membrane; suspends the small intes-
tine in the abdominal cavity. Notice that it is heavily invested
with blood vessels.
Locate the remaining abdominal structures.
Pancreas: A diffuse gland; rests posterior to and between the
first portion of the small intestine and the stomach. You will
need to lift the stomach to view the pancreas.
 Organ Systems Overview 13

Trachea

Thymus

Heart
Lung
Diaphragm

(a)

Liver

Stomach

Spleen

Small intestine

Large intestine

Urinary bladder

(b)

Figure 2.3 Rat dissection: Superficial organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
(a) Thoracic cavity. (b) Abdominal cavity.
 14 Exercise 2

Inferior vena cava Descending aorta

Adrenal gland
Kidney

Ureter Ureter
2

Urinary bladder

Seminal vesicle
Prostate

Bulbourethral gland

Ductus (vas) deferens Penis

Testis
Rectum
Scrotum
Anus

(a)

Adrenal gland
Kidney

Descending aorta
Ureter

Ovary

Uterine horns

Uterus
Urinary bladder
Vagina

Urethral opening
Vaginal orifice
Anus

(b)

Figure 2.4 Rat dissection: Deeper organs of the abdominal cavity and the
reproductive structures. (a) Male. (b) Female.
 Organ Systems Overview 15

Spleen: A dark red organ curving around the left lateral side
of the stomach; considered part of the lymphatic system.
Liver: Large and brownish red; the most superior organ in the
abdominal cavity, directly inferior to the diaphragm.
3. To locate the deeper structures of the abdominopelvic
cavity, move the stomach and the intestines to one side with
the probe. (Refer to Figure 2.4 as you work.)
Examine the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity to
locate the two kidneys.
Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs; secured to the posterior wall
of the body trunk.
Adrenal glands: Small glands that sit on the superior margin
of each kidney; considered part of the endocrine system.
Carefully strip away part of the membrane covering a kidney
with forceps. Attempt to follow the course of one of the ure-
ters to the bladder.
undivided part of the rat uterus is continuous with the vagina,
which leads to the body exterior. Identify the vaginal orifice
(external vaginal opening). ■
A c t i v i t y 6  
Examining the Human Torso Model
1. Examine a human torso model to identify the organs listed
below. If a torso model is not available, refer to the figure
(Figure 2.5) for part of this exercise. You’ll need to remove 2
some organs on the model to see deeper organs.
Dorsal body cavity: Brain, spinal cord
Thoracic cavity: Heart, lungs, bronchi, trachea, esophagus,
diaphragm, thyroid gland
Abdominopelvic cavity: Liver, gall bladder, stomach, pan-
creas, spleen, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, kidneys,
ureters, bladder, adrenal gland, uterus, descending aorta, in-
ferior vena cava

Ureter: Tube running from the indented region of a kidney to

the urinary bladder (see also Figure 2.4b).
Urinary bladder: The sac in the pelvis that serves as a res-
ervoir for urine.

4. In the midline of the body cavity lying between the kid-

neys are the two principal abdominal blood vessels. Identify
each.

Inferior vena cava: The large vein that returns blood to the
heart from the lower regions of the body.
Descending aorta: Deep to the inferior vena cava; the largest
artery of the body; carries blood away from the heart down
the midline of the body.

5. You will do only a cursory examination of reproduc-

tive organs. First determine whether the animal is a male or
female. Observe the ventral body surface beneath the tail. If
a saclike scrotum and a single body opening are visible, the
animal is a male. If three body openings are present, it is a
female. (See Figure 2.4.)

Male Animal Make a shallow incision into the scrotum.

Loosen and lift out the oval testis. Pull very gently on the
testis to identify the slender ductus deferens, or sperm duct,
which carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the ab-
dominal cavity and joins with the urethra. The urethra runs
through the penis of the male and carries both urine and sperm
out of the body. Identify the penis, extending from the blad-
der to the ventral body wall. You may see other glands of the
male reproductive system (Figure 2.4a), but you don’t need to
identify them at this time.

Female Animal Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the

Y-shaped uterus lying against the dorsal body wall and be-
neath the bladder (Figure 2.4b). Follow one of the uterine
horns superiorly to identify an ovary, a small oval structure
at the end of the uterine horn. (The rat uterus is quite different
from the uterus of a human female, which is a single-cham-
bered organ about the size and shape of a pear.) The inferior Figure 2.5 Human torso model.
 16 Exercise 2

2. Before continuing, identify each organ with a leader line Endocrine:

in the figure (Figure 2.5).
3. Assign all of the structures listed above to one of the fol-
lowing organ system categories.
Reproductive:
Digestive:
Respiratory:

2
Lymphatic:
Urinary:
Nervous: ■

Cardiovascular:
Name

Lab Time/Date
E x e r c i s e 2
Organ Systems Overview

S h e e t
  1. Using the key, indicate which body system matches each of the following descriptions. Then, circle the organ systems
(in the key) that are present in all subdivisions of the ventral body cavity.
Key: cardiovascular integumentary nervous skeletal
digestive lymphatic reproductive urinary
endocrine muscular respiratory

R e v i e w
1. rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes

2. is affected by removal of the adrenal gland

3. protects and supports body organs; provides a framework for muscular action

4. includes arteries and veins

5. composed of glands that secrete hormones

6. external body covering

7. houses cells involved in the body’s immune response

8. breaks down ingested food into its absorbable units

9. loads oxygen into the blood

10. uses blood as a transport vehicle

11. generates body heat and provides for movement of the body as a whole

12. regulates water and acid-base balance of the blood

and 13. necessary for childbearing

14. is damaged when you fall and scrape your knee

  2. Using the above key, choose the organ system to which each of the following sets of organs or body structures belongs:

1. lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels 4. trachea, bronchi, lungs

2. bones, cartilages, ligaments 5. uterus, ovaries, vagina

3. thyroid, pancreas, pituitary 6. arteries, veins, heart

17
18 Review Sheet 2

  3. Using the key below, place the following organs in their proper body cavity. Some responses may be used more than once.
Key: abdominopelvic     cranial     spinal     thoracic

1. stomach 6. urinary bladder

2. esophagus 7. heart

3. large intestine 8. trachea

4. liver 9. brain

5. spinal cord 10. rectum

  4. Using the organs listed in item 3 above, record, by number, which would be found in the following abdominal regions:

1. hypogastric region 4. epigastric region

2. right lumbar region 5. left iliac region

3. umbilical region 6. left hypochondriac region

  5. The five levels of organization of a living body, beginning with the cell, are as follows: cell, ,

, , and organism.

  6. Define organ:

  7. Using the terms provided, correctly identify all of the body organs provided with leader lines in the drawings below. Then
name the organ systems by entering the name of each on the answer blank below each drawing.
Key: blood vessels heart nerves spinal cord urethra
brain kidney special sense organ ureter urinary bladder

1. 2. 3.

M a t e r i a l s
□ Three-dimensional model of the
“composite” animal cell or laboratory
chart of cell anatomy
□ Pipe cleaners and chalk
□ Three-dimensional models of mitotic
stages
□ Mitosis and Meiosis video (23 min)
available from United Learning
□ Demonstration area:
Station 1: Compound microscopes set
up and focused on slides of four tis-
sue samples for student observation
(simple squamous epithelium [AgNO3
stain], teased smooth muscle, human
blood cell smear, and sperm)
Station 2: Compound microscopes
set up and focused with pointers on
whitefish blastula cells exhibiting the
major phases of mitosis (prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)
3
The Cell—Anatomy
E x e r c i s e
and Division
O b j e c t i v e s
1. Name, identify, and list the major function(s) of the various cell
structures.
2. Compare and contrast specialized cells to the generalized cells.
3. Define interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis, and identify and describe
the stages of mitosis.
T
he cell, the structural and functional unit of all living things, is very com-
plex. Differences in size, shape, and internal makeup of the cells of the
human body reflect their specific roles in the body. Nonetheless, cells do
have many common features and functions. For example, all cells maintain their
boundaries, metabolize and digest nutrients, dispose of wastes, grow and repro-
duce, move, and respond to a stimulus. Most of these functions are considered
in detail in later exercises. This exercise focuses on structural similarities typical
of the “composite,” or “generalized,” cell and considers only the function of cell
reproduction (cell division). (Exercise 4 covers transport mechanisms.)
Anatomy of the Composite Cell
All cells have three major regions: nucleus, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm.
The nucleus is typically a round or oval structure near the center of the cell. It
is surrounded by cytoplasm, which in turn is enclosed by the plasma membrane.
Within the cytoplasm, even smaller cell structures—organelles—have been iden-
tified. (Figure 3.1 is a diagram of the internal structure of the composite cell.)
Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and is necessary for cell reproduction.
The nucleus is the site of the “genes,” or genetic material—DNA—and when the
cell is not dividing, that genetic material is in a threadlike form called chromatin.
When a cell is dividing to form daughter cells, the chromatin coils and condenses
to form darkly staining rodlike bodies called chromosomes—much in the way a
stretched spring becomes shorter and thicker when it is released. (We discuss cell
division later in this exercise.)
The nucleus also contains one or more small round bodies, called nucleoli.
The nucleoli are assembly sites for ribosomes (particularly abundant in the cyto-
plasm), which are the actual protein-synthesizing “factories.”
The nucleus is bound by a double-layered porous membrane, the nuclear
envelope. The nuclear envelope is similar to other cellular membranes, but it has
particularly large nuclear pores, which permit large molecules like protein and
RNA molecules to pass easily.
A c t i v i t y 1  
Identifying Parts of a Cell
Locate the nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleoli, and nuclear pores in the figure
(Figure 3.1). ■
19
 20     Exercise 3

Nucleus
Chromatin Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus
Nuclear pore

Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum
3
Cytosol

Mitochondrion

Lysosome

Centrioles

Rough
Centrosome endoplasmic
matrix reticulum

Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus
Microvilli

Secretion being released

from cell by exocytosis
Microfilament

Microtubule

Cytoskeletal Peroxisome
Intermediate
elements
filaments

Figure 3.1 Structure of a composite cell.

Plasma Membrane A c t i v i t y 2  

The plasma membrane separates cell contents from the
surrounding environment. Essentially, the membrane has
a double-layered lipid structure that the protein molecules
(some with attached sugar groups) float in (Figure 3.2).
Cholesterol molecules scattered here and there in the fluid
phospholipid bilayer help to stabilize it.
Besides protecting the cell, the plasma membrane de-
termines which substances may enter or leave the cell and in
what quantity. In some cells the membrane has microvilli,
minute fingerlike projections that greatly increase the surface
area of the cell.
Identifying Components of a Plasma Membrane
Identify the phospholipid and protein parts of the plasma
membrane (Figure 3.2). Also locate the sugar side chains and
cholesterol molecules. Identify the microvilli in the figure of
the composite cell (Figure 3.1). ■
Cytoplasm and Organelles
The cytoplasm is the cell contents outside the nucleus and
is the major site of most activities carried out by the cell.
 The Cell—Anatomy and Division     21

the cell, organized to carry out specific activities for the cell
as a whole.
The cell cytoplasm contains various other substances
Sugar
and structures, including stored foods (glycogen granules and
lipid droplets), pigment granules, crystals of various types,
water vacuoles, and ingested foreign materials. But these are
not part of the active metabolic machinery of the cell and are
therefore called inclusions.

A c t i v i t y 3   3

Locating Organelles
Read about the organelles and their structure and function
(Table 3.1), and then be sure you can locate the organelles in
Proteins the figure depicting the composite cell (Figure 3.1). ■
Phospholipid Cholesterol Filaments of
bilayer cytoskeleton
A c t i v i t y 4  
Cell Interior
Examining the Cell Model
Once you have located all of the structures in the figure
Figure 3.2 Structure of the plasma membrane.
of the composite cell (Figure 3.1), examine the cell model
(or cell chart) to repeat and reinforce your identifications.
Suspended in the cytosol, the fluid part of the cytoplasm, are Try not to look at the figure as you make your identifica-
tiny structures called organelles (literally, “small organs”). tions. ■
The organelles (Table 3.1) are the metabolic machinery of

Table 3.1 Cytoplasmic Organelles

Organelle Location and function

Ribosomes Tiny spherical bodies (actually made up of two subunits) consisting of RNA and protein; actual sites
of protein synthesis; seen floating free or attached to a membranous structure (the rough ER) in the
cytoplasm

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Membranous system of tubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm; two varieties: (1) rough ER—
studded with ribosomes (tubules of the rough ER provide an area for proteins made on the ribosomes
to be transported to other cell areas; external face synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol) and
(2) smooth ER—a site of steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification (no
protein synthesis–related function)

Golgi apparatus Stack of flattened sacs with swollen ends and associated small vesicles; found close to the nucleus;
plays a role in packaging proteins or other substances that will be exported from the cell or
incorporated into the plasma membrane and in packaging lysosomal enzymes

Lysosomes Various-sized membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases); digest worn-out
cell organelles and foreign substances that enter the cell; if ruptured, they have the capacity to totally
destroy the cell

Peroxisomes Small lysosome-like membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen
peroxide, and other harmful chemicals

Mitochondria Generally rod-shaped bodies with a double-membrane wall; inner membrane is thrown into folds, or
cristae; contain enzymes that oxidize foodstuffs to produce cellular energy (ATP); often referred to as
“powerhouses of the cell”

Centrioles Paired, cylindrical bodies lie at right angles to each other, close to the nucleus; direct the formation of
the mitotic spindle during cell division

Cytoskeletal elements: microtubules, Provide cellular support; function in intracellular transport; microtubules form the internal structure
intermediate filaments, and of the centrioles and help determine cell shape; intermediate filaments, which are stable elements
microfilaments made up of a variety of proteins, resist mechanical forces acting on cells; microfilaments (formed
largely of actin, a contractile protein) are important in cell mobility (particularly in muscle cells)
 22 Exercise 3
A c t i v i t y 5   Which cells have visible projections?
Observing Differences and Similarities
in Cell Structure
1. Go to station 1 of the demonstration area, and examine the
slides of simple squamous epithelium, sperm, human blood,
and teased smooth muscle cells.
2. Observe each slide under the microscope carefully, noting
similarities and differences in the four kinds of cells. Notice
3
the cell shape and position of the nucleus in each case. When
you look at the human blood smear, direct your attention to
the red blood cells, the pink-stained cells that are most numer-
ous. Sketch your observations in the circles below.
3. How do these four cell types differ in shape?
How might cell shape affect cell function?
Simple squamous
epithelium
Sperm cells
How do these projections relate to the function of these cells?
Do any of these cells lack a cell membrane?
A nucleus?
Were you able to observe any of the organelles in these cells?
Why or why not?
Cell Division: Mitosis
and Cytokinesis
A cell’s life cycle is the series of changes it goes through from
the time it is formed until it reproduces itself. It includes two
stages—interphase, the longer period when the DNA and
centrioles duplicate and the cell grows and carries out its
usual activities (Figure 3.3a), and cell division, when the
cell reproduces itself by dividing (Figure 3.3b–f ).
Cell division in all cells other than bacteria consists of
a series of events collectively called mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is nuclear division; cytokinesis is the division of the
cytoplasm, which begins after mitosis is nearly complete. Al-
though mitosis is usually accompanied by cytokinesis, some-
times the cytoplasm does not divide. This results in cells that
are binucleate (two nuclei) or multinucleate (more than two
Human red
blood cells
Teased smooth
muscle cells
 (a) Interphase (b) Early Prophase (c) Late Prophase

Plasma Early mitotic Spindle pole

membrane spindle Fragments
of nuclear
envelope

Nucleolus Chromatin Centromere

Chromosome
Nuclear consisting of two
envelope sister chromatids

(d) Metaphase (e) Anaphase (f) Telophase Cytokinesis

Nuclear Nucleolus forming Cleavage

envelope furrow
Spindle forming

Metaphase Daughter
plate chromosomes

Figure 3.3 The interphase cell and the stages of mitosis. The cells shown are
from dividing lung cells from a newt. Photomicrographs are above; corresponding
diagrams are below.
 24 Exercise 3
nuclei). This is relatively common in the human liver and dur-
ing embryonic development of skeletal muscle cells.
The products of mitosis are two daughter nuclei that are
genetically identical to the mother nucleus. The function of
mitotic cell division in the body is to increase the number of
cells for growth and repair. (Figure 3.3 illustrates the stages
of cell division.)
Prophase (Figure 3.3b and c): As cell division begins, the
chromatin threads coil and shorten to form densely staining,
3 short, barlike chromosomes. By the middle of prophase, the
chromosomes are obviously double-stranded structures (each
strand is a chromatid) connected by a buttonlike body called
a centromere. The centrioles separate from one another and
direct the assembly of a system of microtubules called the
mitotic spindle between them. The spindle acts as a scaffold-
ing the chromosomes attach to and are moved along during
later mitotic stages. Meanwhile, the nuclear envelope and the
nucleolus break down and disappear.
Metaphase (Figure 3.3d): In this brief stage, the chromosomes
align along the metaphase plate, or equator of the spindle.
Anaphase (Figure 3.3e): During anaphase, the centromeres
split, and the chromatids (now called chromosomes again)
separate from one another and move slowly toward opposite
ends of the cell with their “arms” dangling behind them. Ana-
phase is complete when poleward movement ceases.
Telophase (Figure 3.3f): Events of prophase are reversed.
The chromosomes uncoil and resume the chromatin form,
the spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear envelope
forms around each chromatin mass, and nucleoli appear in
the daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis typically begins during telophase (Figure 3.3f)
and provides a good clue for where to look for the mitotic
structures visible in telophase. In animal cells, a cleavage
furrow begins to form approximately over the equator of the
spindle and eventually pinches the original cytoplasmic mass
into two parts. Once formed, the daughter cells grow and
carry out the normal spectrum of metabolic processes until it
is their turn to divide.
A c t i v i t y 6  
Identifying the Mitotic Stages
1. Use the three-dimensional models of dividing cells to
identify each of the mitotic states.
2. Go to station 2 of the demonstration area, where slides
of whitefish blastulae are set up for your microscopic study
of mitosis. The cells of each blastula (a stage of embryonic
development consisting of a hollow ball of cells) are at ap-
proximately the same mitotic stage, so it is necessary to
observe more than one blastula to view all the mitotic stages.
You can think of a blastula as a soccer ball in which each of
the multisided leather pieces making up the ball’s surface
represents an embryonic cell.
Examine the slides carefully, identifying the four mi-
totic stages and the process of cytokinesis. Compare your
observations with the figure that illustrates these processes
(Figure 3.3). ■
A c t i v i t y 7  
Creating Mitotic Figures
1. Obtain a packet of pipe cleaners and a piece of chalk from
the supply area, and bring them to your bench.
2. Using the chalk, draw three representations of mitotic
spindles on the bench top. Then bend pipe cleaners as neces-
sary to create the typical appearance and location of chromo-
somes in (1) prophase, (2) metaphase, and (3) anaphase by
placing them on your spindle drawings.
3. Have your instructor check your mitotic figures before
cleaning up your bench top. ■
Name_____________________________________

Lab Time/Date_________________________
E x e r c i s e 3
The Cell–Anatomy

S h e e t
and Division
Anatomy of the Composite Cell
  1. Define the following:

R e v i e w
Organelle:

Cell:

  2. Identify the following cell parts:

 1. external boundary of cell; regulates flow of materials into and out of the cell

 2. contains digestive enzymes of many varieties; “suicide sac” of the cell

 3. scattered throughout the cell; major site of ATP synthesis

 4. slender extensions of the plasma membrane that increase its surface area

 5. stored glycogen granules, crystals, pigments, and so on

 6. membranous system consisting of flattened sacs and vesicles; packages proteins for export

 7. control center of the cell; necessary for cell division and cell life

 8. two rod-shaped bodies near the nucleus

 9. dense, darkly staining nuclear body; packaging site for ribosomes

10. contractile elements of the cytoskeleton

11. membranous system that has “rough” and “smooth” varieties

12. attached to membrane systems or scattered in the cytoplasm; synthesize proteins

13. threadlike structures in the nucleus; contain genetic material (DNA)

14. site where harmful chemicals are detoxified

25
26 Review Sheet 3

  3. In the following diagram, label all parts provided with a leader line.

Differences and Similarities in Cell Structure

  4. For each of the following cell types, on line (a) list one important structural characteristic you observed in the laboratory.
On line (b), write the function that the structure complements or ensures.

squamous epithelium a.  

b.  

sperm a.  

b.  

smooth muscle a.  

b.  

red blood cells a.  

b.  
 Review Sheet 3 27

Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

  5. Identify the three phases of mitosis shown in the following photomicrographs, and select the events from the key that
correctly identify each phase. On the appropriate answer line, write the letters that correspond to these events.
Key:
a.  Chromatin coils and condenses, forming
chromosomes.
b. The chromosomes (chromatids) are V-shaped.
c. The nuclear envelope re-forms.
d. Chromosomes stop moving toward the poles.
e. Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
f. The nuclear envelope fragments.
g. The mitotic spindle forms.
h. DNA replication occurs.
i. Chromosomes first appear to be double.
j. Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers.
k. The nuclear envelope is absent.

1. Phase: 2. Phase: 3. Phase:

Events: Events: Events:

  6. What is the importance of mitotic cell division?

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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN