8 ® BB ~ For JEE Aspirants TOPICS A". ae ' S cet De A BRA calculation of Proton,Neutron,électron 9) v PF, Lecture No.1 mm} GBS ouantitative Analysis 4. a L ABBR concentration Terms 5. MOLE CONCEPT ® i eran dy abooms FE hae the ae R23 ho 4, Na dows = RANERXE AAD vale M0 Wa uy = OE Sorc e Spm ot Na tow 23 wwo Ne ahem 9 Léyn @ = PROBLEM @ 224 ” 3? Find out the total number of molecules , atoms , nucleons , protons , . 3 = i Ca=40u, |uzt66orlo ri Kr bxis yh ) ra —_ 3 2 leculse 20048” xy | -gvrexie’ = sy = SNy w 4 OL, mlecbes > Tro A Toute’ 4 166xto => 2Nq ho = tralevubrs x abbyens th 5 2Ny x5 = ION, bo Tn om Clg eh 6 ot Tebl phous = 2u,xSD = 17OMA Sa a Teel nso = 2NX 50 ~ loo Ny. [yal codons = 26x50 ~'5P NOk qn Wako Ny equ weleow Le Jao. @ @ Q Determine mass of a molecule of NH;. (N= 14, H=1) 200 gen PRO mam 4 ome Mh eeeere i ' P1EXHOGXD t loo, lod WA AK wN JN ( pntow) (nodes) Loe ah 20 6p be Gf be ke QQ Determine the no. of molecules present in 5.6 L CO; of ®& Q How many atoms are present 490 g of H,SO, ® STP. e yqo vd 49 a stp A so, = WF. 6 moleo = 4 484 224 U eee moleadss = 5 zequu ahoma = melevdo x abomiaty mulewdo = 4XMq = SilqX7 = 45NpCalculate the number of neutrons present in 4 gm @ In a sample o(CuSO,,5H,) there are 10 moles of oxygen atoms @ of heavy water, Cre) Ym UN, twderws then find out them ‘Of H-atoms in the sample “NS if, we ano Amdo of G-atower them eomplon=| mde A iN 2a on Vande eb onal Ie” In te 8p an Be] Pitta above =] ae ” oo ” to mde.” # = - 5 imo J Weak = pxto toe @ @ AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT / MEAN ATOMIC WEIGHT @ A compound ‘X’ having 0.4% ‘S’ theidetermine minimum molecular mass of compound of ‘X’ ? S=32 om Cem La 22 wo 3200 arr ‘The weighted average of the isotopic masses of the element's naturally accuring isotopes. ‘Avg at wt=(%hof lisotope x it's atomic mass + %of 2 isotope x it's atomic mass)/100 Tritium paleudon ot@ Naturally occurring chlorine is 75% CPS which has an atomic 8 mass of 35 amu and 25% CB" y Calculate the avg atomic mass of chi @ af sa mass of 37 amu. 75X35 4 25454 _ gcc we ay obit = 13 The molar composition of polluted air is as follows: @ GAS MOLE % COMPOSITION Oxygen 16% JIusdt4 goa2dy Day Nitrogen ————— i“ 4 net Ia0 a 1h Malena st What is the vapour density of the given polluted air? wade 2. MEAN MOLECULAR WEIGHT @ The average molar magof the different substances present in the container (ornare) “4 Molar mam = SMX EMM AMX poe - = Mol wt 4 A Xt MXytMaXgon u Mol 4° tompensnt: X= male Grashin 4 hump =(0,M,4nM,+n.Mj., QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS frabpie ER @ 2h + Ab—74E 3 made 4 B comme 2b 4A [nn oe 8 ee ao hale Bnd BUC ER(A) LULe ehh A \ ken tonne | z = 2-4 {2 Yer binde Ons E mde,2. ae Rh + B+ BC——> yD Fad oppor! When dinitrogen pentoxide, N,Os, a white solid is heated, it @ ae decomposes to nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. Ifa sample of A > Santo 3nd UotedD [ 56,4 N,Os produces 1.60g O,, how many grams of NO, are 6 alo luster formed? @. a esas 2 N20s(s)—4N02(g) + 02(e) he F te Ee >-7 inde 4, 0,> ap me e = 1X4 male mle 4ND= 3%" wt 4 No, toned = ESauxt ate In a certain operation 358 g of TiCl, are reacted with 96 g of @ NX is produced by the following step of reactions @ en ealeulate % yield Of Ti if 32 gof Tis actualy obtained M+X,— MX, [Ti= 48, Mg=24]| a MX, +X, — MX, Ip) 35.38 Yo De ig aa M,X,+N,CO, —> NX + CO, + MO, (b) 66.6% yo | 25% ap ay How much M (metal) is consumed to produce 206 gm of NX. (©) 100% 2 “258 (Take at wt of M=56, N= 23, X = 80) (d) 60% 142 ono qn Sande (a) 42m (b) 56gm (©) I4gm (dd) 7gm ol Te = BEB x48CONCENTRATION TERMS @ Malad (m) @ Madasity = et ofa eS vida os inte ob clea va Ry 4% mmobe df site = Molenulg xwone 4 se” in Ht a mdlily x0 ea = ides yp site ay "— soled in LoD ene, . = a" M Ket se a mdb | Kon di nes Raeete 150, set b resleo } HSdy Dettlued in (x0 pn sol van, Ue So oe @ YK Lalelaher ® Ns dace +4 wt i sole Msdite*Medvenk 08h SA dion att \—Xvect, “Xs ax oft sri edu > 64m gee Denbed oe eo se sdohon xt =X, in ob slukon PD elo « wt silok in Gm ie aimee ae 7012 = Rlone Lene te Moyen? . dont Md] yg =lG ad x by, vf ure tddhor—> lo pr d ven diene) in tro of ul? a Ji lo < Wied shen eg, Volume 4 Seuhoria OhQuaher nde prador 4 Urea in if oie @ L yo solohen i> (So) i the hensike 9 sol = 1-1 goofons By B07 an fied ont — Lxlom _ =D Ce) Maldit, = EGE = Bo a ‘Ot pinky, SHO oF ed nxnz>pra wy epes Bhan 0% ‘ \ oa =§ u © Mlaif= Ze vy (@) Zw[o= fe = ny 77 8 MIND MAP W ....= _ FEBS vitferent Types of tonic Crystals 4. ABBY crystal Defects 5 Tae SOLID STATE |‘SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEM ab (shareaing ub @ CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT LATTICE POINT IN ONE CUBICAL UNIT CELL @ Contribut 6 Contribution from edge centered latice point (Ghared in4 identical cubes) @ [Body Centered Cubic Unit Cell <2 Aa ttectivenumberofatoms) = (0x1/8)41=2 “speens |B veR Ie TB] axe $acking Fracion= =0.68 Ceri err gSorsination Number=6 Gordinaton Number= 8 4 Se tbody centre void = 0.732" # soot edge centervold= 0.155 g ee P i Saito cacmsavoser 7 ‘{pbtanceberween nearestnighboursed / +4 piace between nearest neighbours =! 2 + Distance between next nearest neighbours = av t dence becveennen sere nighounea AP@ [Hexagonal Closed Packed Unit Cell] A> Ab AB _ @ “zy ee “7 Son oa a8 rs i a a panera Psa ges GHA i & id Fractio * Sigpot edge centre vold= 0414 ese #Setmsyenrersteostir ay + Jofrinaion numbers 12 + Diane between nearest neghbours = Distance between nextnearest neighbours =2-7* 6 werk voips & @ vos @ [7 eae coke OCTAHEDRAL TAY TETRAHEGRAL Al Z| ep bey oka SAR an ; aA ype oad ois =4 (an (rar, 4 yaroreatedntwis = aan) = smibt sendy lero + ypc eencabdnvelie Sg op a eypaesvemerrintenivatie $B aetrabebnd > 0-176 RADIUS RATIO 2. Caesium Halide Structure G a) + OF = Simple Cubic Ss" = Body centre void wa, + r= * Aifectivetons => C= 17) «cy, = 1 formula units in 1 unit cell es © Gdordination Number = & ree tree = stye 2X Meset % Density= as 54: plane OWY 8 DIFFERENT IONIC CRYSTALS| 1. Rock Salt Structure(Na£2) ‘I = FCC. Aka’ = Octahedral void Neca Bifective ions => Cl-= 4 iL Na, Cl,=4 formula uni Nat=4 % Acordination Number: Be phe ON 3. Zinc Blende Structure ‘Zy= Alternate Tetrahedral void © Effective mS } a4 ins formula units in 1 unit cell Coprdination Numb 2 ‘oprdination Number =_S* In =4 a A a 9 aw trp 2 LY 4xM, tensity = 4% Maas Nax ae5. Anti Fluoride Structure( (4, 2, ») we =Tetrahedral void ie ions=> F-=8 & _ = 4 formula units in 1 unit cell sees btipcttee Lons =O 5} Nag 0,= 4 formula units in 1 unit cell cata. Ce, Nav=8 Coopslination Number => FL=4 ap Coordination Number = 0: eA oit a ie ca 8 Nav=4 Ww R wi Shea tir =f I aa aaa 4xM, «pig (te shes = 4M Wax? CRYSTAL DEFECTS: @ (a) Schottky defect This type of defect is produced when equal number of @ le from their respective positions leaving behind Stoichiometric Impurity defects Non Stoichiometric asa whole rem: defects s neutral because the number of (Some external impurity is mixed) defects ‘Schottky Metal excess defect defect ie Ly/ Frenkel Metal A deficiency Consequences of Sche : r defect + Density of the crystal decreases + The erystal begins to conduct The presence of too many ‘v crystal, yy of small extent by ionic lower8 Ahhole or vacancy is ised, some of the sites of Na* od by Sr", Each Sr rep! 8 There are many solids which are difficult to prepare in mn and contain less amount of the metal as compared to found with a compo: range from Feg9,0 to FeO. In crystals of FeO some Fe® ci the loss of positive charge is made up by the presence of required number of Fe ionsMIND MAP 9 PERIODIC TABLE lUPAC name 5Minin st © (j peosrece (3 L B aL \,) s>soQZz)7= B>e>grmro & Brgrzree Er Brerererc op ~> Braye fl \, & 6 BORDED EE, @@ wooo Gamma 1 Hs ‘pe unseen Desi Gree ce Newkal, article, at > Mas = 1bt4KIO 4 ‘melon model, Rutherford’s Atomic Model@ Electromagnetic Radiations ———— 8 @ Waves and their characteristics g Fropogates in vacuum at constant vlcy ants volun 10m + They donot require any medium for their propagat {lecric and Magnetic fields are perpendicular to exch ‘other and also perpendicular tothe direction ofthe wave propagation. Waves and their characteristics Wavelength © ‘Wavelength 0) isthe distance between successive crests or troughs ofa wave Frequency: Frequency s defined asthe number of eles per second, and is expressed as sector Hert (He). Woreenetss) C ath isthe ditape tween sccestne rests or ough fad A Frequency: © Frequency is defined as the number of eyes per second, and i exprested & Distance traveled by wave in unittime. Yeo Velocity | Wave Number ‘© rumay be defines asthe numberof waves in unt length Particle Nature of EM Radiations ae a ® Wave nature of eleciromagnetic radiations was unable to explain % Distance travelled by wave in unit time. Wave Number + itmay be defined asthe numberof waves in unit length 1. gackbodradiatoo 2 Rooster ees — 3. Viation of at poe of solds with tempatre Velocity &_ydrogen spectrin pastes ect e= + The ideal body which emit and absorbs all the {equences i called Blok body and the radiation emitted by such body is called Black body ‘dation. + (oe xi vate Teen explained by"aes quantum theory, jms and molecules can emit or absor Particle Nature of EM Radiations {eve We wo a R= 3 [Emission Line Spectrum:Bohr’s Atomic Model : @ Dual Nature of Matter : de-Broglie Wavelength a > lo eg pop ht ter hat : Gascreernen mouse rts} | \L toa vot extala the foe seer of mat hy Pts oe hor veloc of electron: ie ut Cop 2:19 ext mes [ect ie pes Eun 13.6 X47 evjatom Cintietoen Jain doublet and triplet lines inthe : —,:" specu " ——_— Teve hewe ty, ® Quantum Mechanical Model : sachet 3 1 Based on the particle and wave nature of the election, igniicance of > Was developed by Erwin Schrodinger in 1926 > The orbital wave function, is just a mathematical function and ithas no physi significance ll the > Schrodinger wave equation: Buydy, Sys Bren(Cv)ys wy rk sinicance of 1a atin Ae a afy | cocoate be “aad eng, VisPemet bro > The region within an atom where the probabiity of H finding an electron is maximum, is known as oro Homippat Information about the electzon in an atom is stored in orbital wave funetion. 1 the ather Becomes less > Significant for microscopic pene,Quantum Numbers : Set of 4 numbers with the help of which we can give the complete information about an electro. 7. Principle quantum number: (07 ttis a postive integer withthe vale n= 1.23. & 2. Azimuthal quantum number: (2) Quantum Numbers : {© Alo tnown abt angisr momentum number or sbi fro s subehed, Je 4h Ph ees anne et a got — aa + indetermines the numberof prefered orientations of anelectron in subshellor the number of 4 This quanum punber exis the siting of specl nes inthe peyence of maprete fe SMsubshOD Ss Lovihy Pe th dy Soy {2 —Pethkg 7 Sein quantum number? (6) 4 Electron rotates on its own aus in clockwise or anticlockwi ection. So the spin quantum number ean have two of +4/2and 1/2. ‘© An orbital can ole maximum of two electrons with opperite ain, ISC252QPS3522fad dae donie aba ntl Rule of Bobr-Bury rule: > Higher the vate of higher the eneey. Anolis same fr two ODT TERET NEVE of 1 hanes the ene cant este & shes Se Torri carngrae econ ota: Kuctatnommnconun | | Mitacancntckcosiin aah, > epson wietomrgoss Wot onpoe sino 2. Paull Extusion Principle: 2 X| praesent Es have an dentist or the same quantum numbers (0.4, and), UJe Electronic Configuration : 1. Exchange Energy: > Energy released when two or more electrons with the Hoth} Oat 244) 3 Jord 42sar x: fio lys gy 7 MIND MAP_ eee LIQUID SOLUTIONS ee Rzrra TOPICS TO BE COVERED _ o< Bs ef Vopour Pressurg~ GBS eaour's tay “2. ye ae Ideal and Non yl Solution + BBS coligative Properties 4. BRS pvnormal Colligative Properties “B em BS Henrystaw/ “6.VAPOUR PRESSURE! Ata constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid on its surface when they (liquid and its vapours) are in equilibrium, is known as vapour pressure. Factors affecting vapour pressure : (@) Nature of liquid (b) Temperature 8 ‘Temperature of the given liquid : At higher temperature, more molecules from @ the liquid have enough KE to escape from the surface of the liquid. That will increase the saturated vapour pressure. AHis+ve Ik = vt Clausius- Clapeyron equation In, ©) - one 14 ) pi) R \Ty 7, where All,= molar enthalpy of vapourisation of ‘the given liquid, p; = vapour pressure of the liquid at T; and p, = vapour pressure ofthe liquid at T,, LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE BY A NON-VOLATILE SOLUTE | PS= Keaant? nf Where P® is the vapour pressure of the pure solvent. Since Xsauue + Xsovent = 44 Eq: 1 may be written as ® PS=(1-Xsoee)P? 2 Jp — Ps i. LEE = Xsotute (3)bens LAW rok Lguip = Liaub SauUTiON) $ ‘Kaoult's Law in Combination with Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure: Assuming that vapours of a liquid is behaving like an ideal gas. then according to Dalton's law of partial pressure the total pressure P; is given by P; = P+ Py oF * = PIX, + PRXp Ca (Ph P5)Xa+ PB AF = (PR PAK +P ‘An ideal solution should have following characteristics. \- 4 +£-—>2(A-@) 1 ys obey Raoult’s law ic. Py =X,P°, and Py = "CO oo 2@ ZAM ying = 0, Le. no heat should be absorbed or evolved during mixing 3/048, no expansion or contraction on mixing a 4 PSiny 7O 7 8 PGnn SOY Examples of Ideal solutions Ethyl chloride & ethyl bromide 2 neternesesteptne caiasic, | Benzene & Toluene. 8 Composition of the Vapour: Provided the mixture of vapours behaves as A. Positive deviation @Pa>XaPe, ©) Alta? 0 (AV 0/ 2S5m,7O7 Pa>XsP3 B. Negative deviation @ @)Pa C; then solution 1 is called hypertonic and solution 2 Is called hypotonic monn ouvearv Fore ®@ "iasbeen bere afl inthe an cated meer masse (sun etn rd of nie elaine in gente + Van't hoff factor (i) ‘lls about relationship between normal colligative properties and abnormal colligative properties. Ive properties ve properties _caleulated molecular mass “observed molecular mass x glucose, urea, sugar Ex NaCl, KCI, BaCl; Ex. CH,COOH, PRCOOH is benzene Neither dissociation nor association ; > 1 Dissociation will occur 5 + IfL<1 Association will occurcaset: ae me. @ csen: > OK y \ isi+(n-1)a \ F i aaish t=1-a. +8 = + Forstrongelectrolytes os a= degree ofassociation = Wt @=1.0r100% =9then (j=n/ n= numberof solute particles which are associated. \\_7\ t fe Nacteviets cot00n Sa = 100% Ex. K,[Fe(CN),] =91=5 for a= 100% Fora = 50% i=1+(n-1o Y is3 SOLUBILITY @ EFFECT OF PRESSURE — @ Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in liquids It is so specified amount of solvent. It depends upon the nature of solute and solvent as because solids and liquids are highly incompressible and practically remain unaffected well as temperature and pressure. Let us consider the effect of these factors in jon ofa solid or a gas ina liquid. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature changes. In ‘in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is endothermic (AH,., best relive the pressure that has been ap) > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in temperature and if it is exothermic when the gas pressure above the (AH, > 0) the solubility should decrease. decreases, more gas molecules escape out of the solution” the number of gas molecules is decreased. Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature. When dissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process of dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat is evolved in this process. As dissolution in an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.HENRY'S LAW @ @ “The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas ina liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.” This relationship is writtenas: [p=K,X) where, K, is Henry's constant, ie partial pressure of gas liquid surface, ands the mole fraction of the dissolved gas in liquid. ® Bocarietominn @ TOPICS TO BE COVERED ~ For JEE Aspirants BY ver- overtapping and Hybridisation 2 h ABBY back Bond & Bridge Bond 4. a Dipole moment & Miscellaneous 5. BPS wot 6. GB v-Bonding Tr CHEMICAL BONDING Pt ‘SHIVAM MISHRA (S.M) SirOctel Rule {Co-ordinate Bond @ @ Based on stability of noble gases + | €> Shared between two atom but Ral Hypovalent Hypervalent ' donated by only one of them Connediroky (Less than Be") : ae ey More than tu Weaker + E21) # Covalency = Ge) cee an FC(o1) + ¢- = No.ofcovalent bondsformed 36° 3° 3d) 2 by any atom TZ FC(oE): 6-2-4. Excited state bond formation | Cl-> 1 P astap? ad” 26) psg FC=1VE-NBE= SE ‘TVE =Total Valence e-* ‘ NBE = non-bonded et ' 2 Fc(oWl)* 6-4 Se Q BE = Bonded e AG oom ah @ fa a ‘}The potential energy curve for the Hy molecule as a function of imtemuctear & Yalenee Bond Theory ui Oreriapning =e Brain! distance is: [5 Sep 2020 Shi Banding - volace a - Z es 6 6! { Head on Carer re Tame : 7 ~~ > Nasame titre 1 O= bend Ti-bene i [aanaions pedasyT Bl = Rehm arian s — == attaabate ' wun® @ Hybridisation Qverlobbing St rens (i) Teen p- Ip> Ip~bp> bp- bp (Repulsion) Orbitals of almost similar energy combine to form tp < pa- dey < dt—dn hybrid orbital o GF) ’ S a AF apatite MEO eerin pane Wy Ts overlob sere vabua Soar , Sea? ae Tar 2 on fs" as-28 < as-2pe 2p A {dgeasy) en Cormeen My OARS Fm ike Par afentagonad a oe a a “cls overap is Shangest: ioe =Oh 4 Be pyramidal. 20 0 S Oda HOH BDes ERIE : j Fore) 07 SA i Apr ey A pe . ein 2° Aree. Bes) | xipiocenne Number of lone pair (s) of electrons on central atom and the shape of BrF molecule @ a pay °2 pen band Hees 8 of Ione , ange Ee | Oxoacids wt respectively, are: _ a = L wit atdie SNC reid ‘o’. ; = 2 we rer iene’A hai unto Ca @ owiansf plana. wee et cAipacamend 7 eT OS ilariens jedenge: San H - B Wehr (spd) remove % © Ow acid oP ek PEO jaar | @ rvitia Gens TH? Fee ae atsen | 2 1 Hy SDy Hy PO. Acre 10 ay 2 ee f— By resent as7A, then each a ez, ° © rvenySiape |S 10" willarry 1'-ve' else ve _ OU chargeisgiventoCA PQS” bes 4 4 pce yarn SS 4Resonance Maid + jis moe than ont Heuthun Rurrane — average ad. Bond Parameter’s Bond length + disk nob/o dor bordd ohm: 8 {2 Bondenthalry — Bnd biwok Earng, BOaNnd of og beds {om Nog ra wel, tral» bfts hay fies 1A Dhoemka ve S a es Bend reer BE de 3. Bond angles Tesi, Q Q 1 Obyb ssp» Sper oc Awe ! Walsh h LO Fypasemes Y Td iat ns t vveep tpt BAY at 10 ete Vi ' Chatty! TAs 8 ‘The compound that has the largest H - M ~ H bond angel (M- wh wena) S no wi Ke Gus Hy > NMQ> MdZGE Sis same on 4 Apt» (evn~2e) Th sary Ch dele Baa ens) Odd e- species| 2 o VSEP Count kare ya nahi 4 Oa cxtayens = neon AY a ak ee NO; croc, YY a Ee “K N96 af “Os mS a Th dil. CA 4 samy Baha 1 antrn| . Bent's Rule Jyada en wala element CA ka wo hybrid orbital se bond karenge jiska % § =cha eae dpay Johan %S-char Kamho. Sey Sep 15_Grp-16 Hydride aa 5 wThe oxide which contains an odd electron at the nitrogen atom is: @ —_isentiy type of bond UEE Main 2022] 6 N,0 NA+ Dro Or, © N,03 © N05 (50) pole Moment (vector) | wack Bonding::- = erdapiciocy QB qe cee | + Donor Atom “Acceptor atom Deny he Speed = Ip. > yacant orbital <—N\N i ote As distemer blist — >p-2,p:3 > BP ps sin Yate, th: cheese ee Atleast ék to p-2 hona hi hai Si, iM. 5) 9 » dative bond (ready bond), # Ral wee’ i : Ti- Co-ordinate | Bena pelavihy = effec of BB peel “et tA | 27 cus Ui Be Bete ata eens wl EE ca Atzo: tes Annet $0 ( Pela) S Naxieley YB es hyo Haz eceatS© fe) WW) (9 = : ' - amongst ty Ait 62 nye numberof mle es with non-zero QB. Bridge Bonding Ya, 4) ert pair effect @ oe ale ee EE Main 2022] ~>Back bond isnt possible YyScry/“t bua element (on) aroup element — c N N07 Cs fue 3 MO @) % dat yeagion ne. participate nahi karte Bef, = TA san - Mwy na | Xefa , XeFy je Bridge Bonding ro Peery Ge bps e Shapes dishwtid e- deficient 2 Ape OUebd ef Tie ae 2. Stevie Hinderane (Te ns) Molecular Orbital Theory P @ H-odom —~ dsubsutt bo bon ® y sno -Nbe=NABe™ thene-of BOS (rr) Kon pole hai ding mre Ubilizs nabs Ye _@ Mo (Gerding) ass xo NAB E =no-e AB 3 e a ty mt Py trot SPe erate Py esx GiaBMo ( Mrdalberding 4 3 Bs ee bik Pig dove not SM x x SHy Molecule e-->] MOV Atom + Ao (5, p44) ooo on send afrouds Gaet) Se iis 5 oO General ec a vo 18 Uow= The ous < ois < ong < oie Sap: as 4 = Magy < Saye ay any Rate of appearance of P=it2 Fina = une or [tne = (A = c Rate of appearance of @= 1 lay 1 lem) imal _ nate ot reaction (ies (Sat) are aga” ROR . Rate of reaction is always positive; negative sign represents decrease in concentration of reactant. ZA + BO 74 @ FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION @ uu) = Ye) — _. 1. Concentration =o = Vd Roe In the case of most of the reactions, the rate of a reacti concentration of their reactants. The reason can be explained on the basis of collision theory. With the increases in the concentration of the reactants, the number of reactant molecules per unit volume increases thereby increasing the number of effective collisions. With the increase in the col frequency, the rate of reaction increases.2. Temperature In general, the rate of reaction increases with the increase in temperature. With the increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the reactant molecules increases. Therefore, more number of molecules acquires threshold energy and this result in more effective col 4, Surface area of the reactants For a reaction involving a solid reactant or catalyst, the smaller is the particle size, ie., greater is the surface area, the faster is the reaction. 5. Presence of light Hz + Cl; —>2HC1 ‘Some reactions do not take place in the dark but take place in the presence of light as given above Such reactions are called “Photochemical reactions. @ 3. Catalyst & A. ‘A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a reaction without undergoing any net change in its composition. A catalyst alters the rate of reaction by making the reaction to take place in an alternative pathway. Generally, most of the catalysts reduce the activation energy of the reaction. Since the alternative reaction path is associated with lower activation energy, more number of effective collision take place and hence greater is the rate of reaction. In most of the reactions, catalysts (e.g. magnetite ore (Fe;0,)) increase the rate of reactions. These are called positive catalyst. There are few reactions in which catalysts decrease the rate of reaction. There are called negative catalysts. Glycerin, urea, acetanilide, sodium pyrophosphate decrease the rate of the decomposition of H,0, and hence act as stabilizers for H,0,. ‘Though it is possible to increase the rate of reaction by increasing the temperature, the use of catalyst has a lot of significance in the industrial process. This is because carrying out a process at a lower temperature in the presence of catalyst reduces the cost of production to a large extent. Increasing the temperature is not feasible in the case of some reactions. RATE LAW The experimental expression of rate of reaction in terms of concentration of reactants is known as rate law. In this expression the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of molar concentration of reactants with each term raised to the power or exponent that has to be found experimentally. aA + bB — Product Rate =K[A} [BP Where kis a proportionality constant known as rate constant. Ina chemical reactionORDER OF REACTION ‘The sum of powers of concentration of reactants in rate law expression is known as order of reaction. Forthereaction (ah (0B —+ Product Rate law is Rate = ka), Here (*}- order of reaction with respect to A (ye order of reaction with respect to B ey =n (overall order of reaction) + Order of reaction may be zero, positive, negative or fraction. + Order of reaction is an experimental quantity. ZERO ORDER REACTION( tde=k |)” @ Reaction in which rate of reaction remains independent of concentration of the reactant are said to be zero order reactions. © Zero order reactions are relatively uncommon but they occur under special conditions. Some enzyme catalyzed reactions and reactions which occur on metal ‘surfaces are a few examples of zero order reactions. Example: fa H(g) + Cly(g)—"—» 2H1CI(g) m AB) 2NH13(e) — Na(a) + 3H12(8) Seaton between Acetone and Bromine. issociation of Hl on gold surface. ] Adsorption of gases on metal surface At low F, rate of adsorption is «he proportional tsurtace area covered whichis proportoal oor concentration of gas hence order is 1 whereas at high P, complete surface gets covered by gas & rate becomes independent of P & concentration hence orderis 0. \A +1 — eroded [suse sep eet] @ ade = {(a) le)! | Uelecare = odor A+ 1a prdod [ rok hamid J dk =k aP lar AthoR od +4) b+rEe &4 Calculate time taken for completion of reaction. @ site. 15 Order Reaction peti @ = Cy- kt ¢ when reaction is completed G = 0, k= 22 t0g @, Ce ~ dill =ktAy! Tem =] & Calculate halflife of reacton tz = G-K G0 & q whent=ty,=9C,=2 t lune Sor tyne Celt tmefor tak for completion oan Q@ oe. @ Ans. Since rate exponentially decreases it will take infinite time for completion Let there be a first-order reaction of the type, A ——~ B + C. Let us assume that all t= thooy C,=0, Soltiooy 2 the three species are gases. We are required to calculate the value of rate constant based on the following data. Calculate time for taken for half (fifty percent) completion of rxn. (conser) = [Ryaot dependent on initial cone Time taken fora completion, sé =to(;282,)case- Q ox-n. Let there bea first-order reaction, A —+ B + €. Let us assume all he three are A(e) — Ble) +(e) ca re gases. We are required to calculate the value of rate constant based on the following data. free Bobet RP case-w: Q 2-1 0ver7imporamy @ A(e) — Ble) +(e) Let the reaction be unknown, there is only one reactant and it is a gas, some or all products are gases.CASE Vite (Anneveien Ga super} @ _Parattet (or simultaneous) Reactions @ Now, let us assume that A, B and C are optically active compounds, which rotate the kak = Sk plane polarized light in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction. orc Kap = key - ‘A(Goln.) —»B (soln) + C{soln) neem all (kak) 1) ae Ach, aletat Ag hy = cansemad on u,- a} , SEQUENTIAL OR CONSECUTIVE REACTION @ EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON REACTION RATE @ Reactions In whlch a reactant gives product, which further goes to give another ‘Temperature coefficient isthe ratio of rate constants ofa chemical reaction at two product, are call ial or consecutive reactjon temperature differing by 10°C. The value of temperature coeffi 7 x elke ~ls eka au = klnj-ble)| Lila) reactions lies between two and three. a lt vit ie: okay 9" at) y ‘The actual dependence of rate constant on temperature is fepresented by the ‘Arrhenius equation, k= Ae“Felit 0 ‘According to this equation, the rate constant increases exponentially with {c= ae tha(a— eh) = y(1—e-*4)] temperature. The constant A is frequently referred to as the Arrhenius constant, Pe pre-exponential factor or frequency factor. E, : The constant E, in equation (1) is known as the energy of activation. Its significance may be explained as follows:1 oon - DETERMINATION OF ACTIVATION ENERGY fe Method: aa a , thresh This is nothing but equation of strai ey ems ST | te ine is obtained, se the slope of which is given by - (#4) 7 L metnoat: ais iq Sl) 1 If log k is plotted against &, a strai a eae MECHANISM VERIFICATION @ CS SZ (fasteq.step) (+0, — +20, (slow) u from R.D.S rate = k3[0;@ @ MIND MAP il ~ For JEE Aspirants TOPICS 4 mss : — = TOBE ay COVERED | 2. Gaslaws “yy d BD ssesicas Equation Real Gas and Deviation from ideal gas Liquifaction of Gases rmdir te nat) @ @eastaws > S Boyle's Law: (ipa), Pipe) Vv PY sk, Clanshet) * xa] 7 alae stoknus(charle’s law: —s Graphical Representation: e Wao Tm We? TT (e¢ Grater fond VekT v he Constet) Ideal Gas : 1 None ofthe gas is perfectly ideal. = = a i : ~ ture ignery Rem] Temas — Gest Ris Universal Gay Gnstend 3 Lapeer depen onredn ef sl Purser + Bam Tet = RGN tml \" 1 OorztedmL ot eee) wohDalton’s Law of Partial Pressure Graham’s Law of Diffusion : @ Paral pressure lnterms of mole facion The rate of difson or effusion ofa ge isiovereey + According to this lw, the total pressure of 2 ——— > bition merce emg 9 Proportional tothe square root ofits maar mats fae a-Pr Ka more ges without ay el fo = %a- Fr HetNHete ae) Ve (Mt fied Tomd ) fre} [Be festeetr | es EE OL ® ea MERE —T — Wp ate pera > “tae of dfs maybe defined asthe numberof telervlume ous diluted nunt tine. [S28] E ion of molecular Speeds 8 oes BRE = ae «PE Cx Cook Tee Vs R sok ean equa wei Tm mann of & Gea melee! | wreag ct A nee ga redone ( : > fom «fer (or )ne 2m Deh AHH FE nt Wo fRE = ERS |Ee ; om ext] > = Most probable Velocity (et) w \nps (SRE = (AR = (eRe * ee Rotor Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds eta anes 8 @ Maxwell- Boltzman Distributi Vere) vgn) foot Mean Square veloc nC? Kinetic Gas Equation 38 Pree. re ieete = 2 er woahDeviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour a XE) |5--reual vure of te meee nelle ncoarion D (Kinetic Theory of Gas Behaviour of Real Gas? prs lonst This deviation was observed because of wo faty ‘oe empy space between em (9) ® 1, Pressure Correction (I Is due tothe presence of| |. Volume Correction ( ft ls due to the volume of g3s| “Tatrmolecar forces between gas molecules) ‘molecules 2r4.( Ho fee) ZL. [1 bere interenei ck fae Pigs = Prd +O va Zot (wt ker bea pene ). con Qeyordey was! conspuh 7 (Qe lars fea* bivonder used Goel VO. SSS box reenter sing ee Ped (va) het reeLiquifaction of Gases: > Ligufaction of Gases can be done under the | TOPICS a Introduction TO BE COVERED OP orptcn yy ) e catalysis a “4 Colloids a ck a EmulsionsIntroduction : Adsorption : Za Types of Adsorption : ‘© The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be therm, x [Adsorption tom Solan Phase Bale ( 7 ¥ «gt@ catalysis)~toTR, warp fplerhic (ne tae) Purification of Colloids ; C robe Preparation of Colloids : dispersion medium The intense heat produced metal which en condensed 0 form Specialy prepared filters Which are penneable To Subsianees excep tie colloidal panicles.Coagulation reipation: OO “_Smaller the coagulating vale, higher the coagula ower and vice versa — > The proces of sett of colloidal parties is called af > bet > ya? ah - Fecone foe Ca as 7% 7 SOx aN EE | ) Cs Aing action of soaps and detergent by micelles formation. @ ae Introduction @ 7 ~ For JEE Aspirants BS equilibrium constant 2. eto CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM ez PS sererogeneous Equilibrium 5. BS sirmutancous Equilibrium Le chatelier’s Principleof forward reaction INTRODUCTION @ teewyorum inate; Equilibrium is a state in which there are no observable changes as time goe: sr time and there are no visible changes tthe molecular level because cules while product molecules reactant molecules. This dynamic situation is the subject of this we will discuss different types of equilibrium reactions, the meaning. of the equilibrium constant and its relationship to the rate constant and factors, that can effect a system at eqi inthe Pele ramera eanls me ome EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (1) A =f, (ale) 2 @ RELATION BETWEEN K, AND * Rae @ Ale) +2B(e) = 3c(g) + 401 ile), tele |)! ‘Where An = number of moles of gaseous products - number of moles of gaseous reactants. : ) ‘Now +!0ry <== 2NOwy Hyg + yy <= Hy + Kcand Ky are unit less in this case. we z _ (oP ()* key Le be K. c= TAB = We kai ‘@acentration of a gas can be expressed as P/RT as shown below:ee g we 2, yes fan) @ |PCIsiy IPC) + [Clie C 2Nllyg "Nay + 3Hayy 2 ( €] Ky (atm)? 2 ov = : te! e Be C ea Naw + 38g > 2Nyy Ke moll4 ye} Kenatet , PClyyy + Clay => PCs) Ke-+ mors Ky ->atm! SPECIAL POINT: Oo @ Factors arrectine THe EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT @ on tt =} chen by =Car) 0 Rrat {a) The mode of representation of the reaction : Consider the reversible chemical equilibrium reaction A+B===C+D 1\"" ae one d Equilibrium constant Ke Kp = Ke (1)8 = Ifthe reaction is reversed C+D ——> A+B Kp = Ke For any value of Ang Equilibrium constant Ke ‘The equilibrium constant KC’ is actually the reciprocal of KC(b) Multi step reaction : Ifa reaction can be expressed as the sum of two or more reactions then overall K- will be equal to the product of the individual equilibrium constants of the reactions. Example: $0;(@)+30:(€) => S0s() Ki 1 NOg(g) = NO(E) +3 0.(8) ~ Ky $044) + N03) —==504(e) + NO) -(W) Y then, So, K=K, xk; (@)__ Temperature : The value of equilibrium constant changes with the change ® of temperature. If K, and K, be the equilibrium of a reaction at absolute temperatures T, and T, and AH is the change in enthalpy then ant fs | Jor toes - took, = (© Whenalt= ove (endathermicreaction) 2?7T 5 ke >ky Beno ask (i) When Alt =-ve (exothermic reaction) TT yest T, > k, @ (©) Stoichiometry of the reaction : When a reversible reaction is multiplied or divided by a coefficient then the value of equilibrium constant will be numerically different in these cases. (Knew = (Ke nulrttng Factor cee ae [v= k REACTION QUOTIENT (Q) ‘At each point in a reaction, we can write a ratio of concentration terms having the same forms as the equilibrium constant expression. The ratio is called the reaction quotient denoted by symbol in predicting the direction ofa reaction. rae mart Jeanne during reaction is called reaction quotient ahabb= Kreaction will proceed in backward direction unt rium in reached. GeritgcK reaction will proceed in forward direction unt equibrum established Sit itQ = Kreaction is at equilibrium ®Q For the reaction NOBr (g) == NO (g) 2) K, = 0.15 atm’? at 90°C. If @ DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION! @ ra ' OBS NO. ond Br are munog it ti compe aving partial pressure 0.5 athy Degree of dissociation is the fraction of a mole of the reactant that underwent 0.4 alt & 2.0 respectively, will Br, be consumed or formed? dlcgociationIt is represented by R= = Pao Po for, = _R0-0f moles of the reactant dissociated ~ fo. of moles of the reactant present initially Oy p= 2N& vo ey a @ ‘THERMAL DISSOCIATION OF PCL ‘THERMAL DISSOCIATION OF NO, oO 2 Oy, =u, + co 8 = Ng = | p= Pe oe Mgt xp = 2@Fr ob u Pome aif an | ok P= ' we tp Pras-Far. t Si Q Atsome temperature and under a pressure of 4 atm, PCI; is 10% dissociated. @ Q. PCI, dissociates according to the following reaction @ PCI; == PCI; + Cl, Calculate the pressure at which PCI, will be 20% dissociated, temperature rium all the species have two moles each. Find the moles of Cl, Ateq brium so that at new equilibrium at constant_ temperature and pressure volume of the container is doubled. “EIOZ] testes 4HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIUM @ Decomposition of solid CaCO; into solid CaO and gaseous CO, sao = aol) + cOfe) > G2 alm, K,=[C0,] f Hons Dissociation of ammonium hydrogen sulfide @ NIiguS(s) = Nua) +Hhsi@) 2, 2 ~ REP prem at G Per mre Ke = [NH3][H2S] f c2ak Co, Kp = Putty X Pays Reaction of solid phosphorous with gaseous Cl, to form liquid PCI, P,(s) + 6Cl(g) == 4PC1,() 1 Ke = Tene DL 1 “Pel o Kp ‘SIMULTANEOUS EQUILIBRIA Ame Ce —= aaa 6 =p =P Coss) + C(5) 2018) ay by 4 ASE + Feo ans ef 2 f, oyRELATION BETWEEN VAPOUR DENSITY AND DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION pene ee Bear tt tin = Mas) “@-pd Sf DMs Where ‘n' represents the number of moles of gaseous product given by 1 mole Aha 45 12, of the gaseous reactant. we 2 aS 8 LE CHATELIER PRINCIPLE Ifa system at equilibrium is subjected to a change of pressure, temperature, or the number of moles ofa substance, there will be a tendency fora net reaction in the direction that tends to reduce the effect of this change. ‘A_ Beef OF CHANGEIN CONCENTRATION 1. Whe the concentration of reactar increased, the system tries to reduce their ion. increased, the system tries to reduce their ‘concentration by favoring the forwat fhen the concentration of produ epncentration by favoring the backward reaction. ‘When the concentration of reactant(s) is decreased, the system tries to Increase thelr concentration by favoring the backward reaction. 4fiven the concentration of product(s) is decreased, the system tries to increase their concentration by favoring the forward reaction. B._ EFFECT OF CHANGE IN PRESSURE 1. When the partial pressure of any of the gaseous reactants or of the products is Increased, the position of equilibrium is shifted so as to decrease its partial pressure. ‘This is usually achieved by favoring the reaction in which there is decrease in the number of moles of gaseous components. any of the gaseous reactants or of the products is decreased, the position of equilibrium Is shifted so as to increase its partial pressure. ‘This can be achieved by favoring that reaction in which there is increase in the number ‘of moles of gaseous components. ®= eas a oe 8 ADDITION OF INERT Gas @ 28), _ ke(! eemenaee z e In that direction where the sum of stoichiometric coefficient of gaseous components is P ‘ vl al T Bedoud sreater perecrorcrnner @ x crrecrorcumcenvrenrenarune @ ‘Acatalysthas no effect on the postion ofthe equllbrium sice it increases not only the rate of forward reaction but also the rate of backward reaction. However it does help the system Ondo TT ES f forward to reach the equilrium faster. to TL KL Badoud er ofa ak fraud to TT Rb babaForan endothermic reaction: 4A(g) + Bu(g) —==2A,B(e) a, wo Cc c Column 1 Column tl a: rey) (P) Increasing temperature “ iG i Y [= ay a : oy) (Q) Increasing. pressure - @ be ae AST eo of A,B at = ret BR © is ca a mn of inert gas at “cess (T) Increase in volume RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AG” AND K ‘One must understand that AG" is not the free energy change at equilibrium. It is the free energy change when all the reactants and products are at a concentration of 1 mole/L. AG" is related to K (equilibrium constant) by the relation, AG? =-RTInK NOTE: For heterogeneous physical equi equilibrium shifts in the direction of phy rium, with the increase of pressure, state having higher det means that for the equilibrium, H,0(s) == more ice would melt on increasing the pressure of the system as density of water is more than ice. T H A N K ®MIND MAP @ .. ....... fom ee = OBE BP oc BY pi calculations (aoe) COVERED 2 d ae Hydrolysis v 4 = ee & Buffer Solution IONIC EQUILIBRIUM Sz a GP sousiny sats JARRHENIUS ACIDS @ BRONSTED - LOWRY CONCEPT (THE PROTON - DONOR - ACCEPTOR CONCEPT) | @ ‘The ionization of an acid HA in its aqueous solution can be represented by the ‘According to Bronsted -Lowry theory, an acid is a substance that is capable of a easton” ic donating hydrogen ion H* and bases are substances capable of acceptinga eg — ye +4 (aq) hydrogen ion, H’. In short, acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. HA(aq) + H,0(1)— 0" (aq) + A (aq) 7 => — aci at 25°C only retool pH>7orpOH<7 => basic 6 3 auhe te25e palo sc popeee Ita= isa “tt inthis (u'] te jes+ K, increases with temperature @ PH.CALCULATIONS, l | 2! ‘ulko x) @ - A (a) Strongacid solution: / LB ) Temperature(c) 0 12 20 [25| 30 40 so YAH" Tomstrongaca iS Breater than 10-6 (itlyaa Ce" (yy, K, («104 o1 02 06 |10| 14 29 54 {in this case, H* ions coming from water can be neglected. So, [H*] = Molarity of strong acid solution x number of H' ions per acid oe x molecul Gi) if In trom strong cia iS less than 10-6 M ‘case, H* ions coming from water cannot be neglected. So, [H*] = [H*] from strong acid + [H*] coming from water in presence of this strong acid. Q. Calculate pH of 10-8 M HCI solution at 25°C. (Take log 1.05 =0.02) @FOR MONO BASIC WE; Q (HA) FOR MONO ACIDIC WEAK ACID (BOH) @ Pe CALCULAT) FOR K PS ) [eee — te)» (ts) Ii =Co? = 1. Ky=Ca? cas «) Gata) [OH-] = Ca = /K,xC 3. pOH=-log [OH] = EpK, — Flog c Or pOH =3pk, —Flog¢ 2.) = Ca = JK XC, Zs an “pile // Y @n '044(1.- 2) 8 [H']Jy= co + c04 a2 sf, So - 1 “() Approximation : = cA, (da) px : ald 4 = ley hax | For diprotic acids, Kg, < Ka, and a, would be even smaller than a. Thus, equation (i) can be reduced to. ea (estan = “ This is an expression similar to the expression for a weak monoprotic a Fa polyprotic acid) the [H*] can be calculated froi dissociation equilibrium. v 1-a,s1andita,«1