To The Strongest! Medieval Army List Ebook 5923

Updated 5/09/2023
Page 1 TtS! Medieval Army Lists August 2023 Return to Contents
Philippe Bernard (Order #32496754)

Contents Tibetan Empire ............................................................... 67
Tang, Ten Kingdoms or Five Dynasties Chinese ...... 68
Contents ................................................................... 2 Ritsuryo Japanese ............................................................ 70
Introduction.............................................................. 5 Nanzhao ........................................................................... 72
Version Control ........................................................ 6 Khitan or Liao Dynasty ................................................. 74
I The Medieval Balkans ........................................... 7 Khmer Empire ................................................................ 75
Early Bulgar ........................................................................ 7 Heian Japanese ................................................................ 76
South Slav ........................................................................... 9 Hsi-Hsia ............................................................................ 78
Magyar ............................................................................... 11 Medieval Vietnamese ...................................................... 79
Feudal Hungarian ............................................................ 12 Sung Chinese ................................................................... 80
Bulgarian ........................................................................... 14 Jurchen or Kin Dynasty ................................................. 82
Eastern Latin .................................................................... 15 Kamakura Samurai.......................................................... 84
Venice Abroad ................................................................. 16 Mongol Conquest ........................................................... 86
Serbian ............................................................................... 18 Later Muslim Indian ....................................................... 89
Albanian ............................................................................ 20 Thai (Siamese).................................................................. 91
Ottoman............................................................................ 22 Yuan Chinese ................................................................... 92
Catalan Company ............................................................ 24 Muromachi Samurai ....................................................... 95
Later Medieval Hungarian.............................................. 25 Yi Korean ......................................................................... 97
Bosnian.............................................................................. 27 Sengoku Samurai ............................................................. 99
Wallachian and Moldavan .............................................. 29 Ikko-Ikki ......................................................................... 101
II Medieval Central Europe ................................... 31 IV Medieval Northern and Eastern Europe ......... 102
West Slav........................................................................... 31 Viking .............................................................................. 102
Avar ................................................................................... 33 Scandinavian Leidang ................................................... 104
Moravian ........................................................................... 35 Rus’ .................................................................................. 106
Early Polish ...................................................................... 37 Old Prussian................................................................... 108
Eastern Frankish.............................................................. 39 Early Lithuanian or Samogitian .................................. 110
Feudal German ................................................................ 40 Feudal Russian ............................................................... 112
Feudal Polish .................................................................... 42 Teutonic Order.............................................................. 114
Early Swiss ........................................................................ 44 Post-Mongol Russian ................................................... 116
Later Medieval German.................................................. 46 Medieval Scandinavian ................................................. 118
Later Medieval Polish ..................................................... 48 Later Lithuanian or Samogitian .................................. 121
Hussite............................................................................... 51 V Medieval Southern Europe and North Africa ... 123
Later Swiss ........................................................................ 53 Early Lombard............................................................... 123
Swabian League ............................................................... 55 Berber ............................................................................. 124
German Peasants’ War ................................................... 57 Later Lombard............................................................... 126
III Medieval Eastern Asia ...................................... 59 Al Andalus...................................................................... 127
Emishi ............................................................................... 59 Italian Marches .............................................................. 128
Burmese ............................................................................ 60 Early Feudal Spanish .................................................... 129
Later Hindu Indian ......................................................... 62 Fatimid Egyptian ........................................................... 131
Sui Chinese ....................................................................... 64 Italo-Norman ................................................................. 134
Champa ............................................................................. 66

Almoravid Berber ..........................................................136 Ilkhanid Mongol ............................................................ 212
Communal and Papal Italian .......................................137 Timurid ........................................................................... 213
Feudal Spanish ...............................................................139 VII Medieval Western Europe.............................. 216
Ayyubid Egyptian ..........................................................141 Middle Frankish ............................................................ 216
Medieval Cypriot ...........................................................143 English Kingdoms ........................................................ 217
Granadine .......................................................................145 Breton ............................................................................. 219
Mamluk Egyptian ..........................................................146 Carolingian Frankish .................................................... 220
Early Italian Condotta ..................................................147 Norse Irish ..................................................................... 222
Navarrese ........................................................................150 Pre-Feudal Scottish ....................................................... 224
Later Medieval Spanish.................................................152 Western Frankish .......................................................... 226
Later Medieval Portuguese...........................................154 Norman .......................................................................... 227
Later Italian Condotta ..................................................156 Scots Isles and Highlands ............................................ 229
VI Medieval Western Asia .................................... 158 Feudal French ................................................................ 232
Early Byzantine ..............................................................158 Anglo-Norman .............................................................. 234
Central Asian City States ..............................................161 Medieval Welsh ............................................................. 236
Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms ....................................163 Frisian Free Canton ...................................................... 238
Arab Conquest ...............................................................165 Feudal Scottish .............................................................. 240
Khazar .............................................................................167 Early Feudal English .................................................... 243
Rshtuni Armenian .........................................................169 Anglo-Irish ..................................................................... 245
Thematic Byzantine.......................................................171 Later Feudal English..................................................... 247
Umayyad Caliphate........................................................173 Low Countries ............................................................... 250
Abbasid Caliphate .........................................................175 Medieval Irish ................................................................ 252
Pecheneg .........................................................................177 Hundred Years’ War French ....................................... 254
Tulunid and Iqshidid.....................................................178 Hundred Years’ War English (Continental) ............. 258
Zanj Revolt .....................................................................179 Hundred Years’ War English (Home) ....................... 262
Bagratid Armenian ........................................................181 Free Companies ............................................................ 264
Daylamite Dynasties .....................................................183 Valois-Burgundian ........................................................ 267
Ghaznavid.......................................................................185 French Ordonnance ..................................................... 269
Nikephorian Byzantine .................................................187 Wars of the Roses ......................................................... 271
Seljuq Turk .....................................................................190 Burgundian Ordonnance ............................................. 274
Cuman (or Kipchak) .....................................................192 Hapsburg-Burgundian Netherlands ........................... 276
Komnenon Byzantine ...................................................194 Prayer Book Rebellion – Loyalists ............................. 278
Cilician Armenian ..........................................................197 Prayer Book Rebellion – Rebels ................................. 279
Sultanate of Rûm ...........................................................199 VIII Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa ....................... 281
Syrian City States ...........................................................201 East African ................................................................... 281
Early Crusader ...............................................................203 Christian Nubian ........................................................... 283
Khwarazmian .................................................................205 Waqwaq Madagascan.................................................... 285
Later Crusader................................................................206 West African Forest Kingdoms .................................. 286
Later Byzantine ..............................................................208 West Sudanese ............................................................... 287
Golden Horde ................................................................210 Tuareg ............................................................................. 290

Zanj City States ..............................................................291
Mossi ...............................................................................293

Introduction
These army lists have been written for use with the To the Strongest! wargames rules at www.bigredbatshop.co.uk, where
the rules are also sold.
The book is large and has useful hyperlinks for navigation, so is best viewed electronically. If you click on the name of any
list in the Table of Contents, it will take you straight to the relevant army list. There is a link back to the Contents at the
bottom of each page.
Permission is granted to print any, or all of it, for personal use. That said, the book is a work in progress, and I will be
updating it roughly every three months, adding new content and new lists as they become available, so it is probably best to
save trees by not printing it out. When a revised version of the book is ready, you will receive a copy or download link.
The army lists are designed to produce armies in the 100 to 160-point range for use on a table 12 boxes by 8 or 9 boxes
deep. If you are using a larger or smaller table, then you may wish to increase or decrease the points, accordingly. A few lists
do not yet include a list of allies and others may have incomplete lists of allies or refer to ally army lists that have not yet
been written, or just state TBC (“To Be Confirmed”). Please be patient – I am slowly licking these into shape.
I am in the process of adding historical background sections to every army list. If you can help by writing such a background,
or even an entirely new army list, I would be most grateful. Please contact me at simonmiller60@gmail.com, and I can help.
Many thanks to Bevan Marchand who suggested this new format, to Michael “Millsy” Mills who refined it, Max Miller, who
helped with editing and to everyone who has contributed to the lists. Thanks to Sid Bennett and Harry Miller for their
extensive editing, and to Tim Thompson for checking the new lists.
© Simon Miller, 2023
Cover Illustration
The stunning photo on the cover was taken by Simon Chick and features miniatures by the Bodkins (Simon Chick, David
Imrie, Matt Bickley and Dave Andrews) from their superb Crécy game at the Partizan show.

Version Control
I will add a brief summary, here, of the major changes in each release.
Date Changes
31/08/2023 Added new Rshtuni Armenian, Bagratid Armenian, Tulunid/Iqshidid Egyptian and Daylamite Dynasties
lists. Moved Early Bulgar and Early Byzantine here from the Ancient Book. Significant edits to the Early
Bulgar and Fatimid lists. Edits to Valois and Hapsburg-Burgundian lists. Added standards to various
Norman and other lists. Reduced the price of longbowmen from 9 to 8 points, throughout. Edited
Daylamite mercenaries across numerous lists. Minor edits to other lists.
31/05/2023 Added a new Emishi list and two lists for the Prayer Book Rebellion. Significant edits to the Arab Conquest
list. Minor edits to Emishi in the Ritsuryo list. Added infantry generals to some Spanish lists. Added an
historical background to the Early Swiss.
28/02/2023 Added new German Peasants’ War and Medieval Cypriot lists. Replaced the Early Heian list with a revised
Heian list. Edits to the Swabian League, Sui Chinese, Feudal German, Feudal Spanish, Low Countries,
Later Feudal English and Feudal Scottish lists. Increased the cost of deep later knights to 21 points.
30/11/2022 Added new Central Asian City States, Cilician Armenian, Ritsuryo Japanese and Early Heian Japanese lists.
Moved three lists over from the Ancient Army List eBooks- Burmese, Sui Chinese and Turkish Tribes and
Kingdoms. Edited the Later Medieval Polish list.
31/08/2022 Formed a new Sub-Saharan chapter. Added new Moravian and Yuan Chinese lists. Significant edits to the
Timurid list, Pre-Mongol Russian (renamed Feudal Russian) Post Mongol Russian and Cumans. Moved
Pechenegs from the Northern and Eastern Europe chapter to Western Asia.
31/05/2022 Added new Later Lithuanian or Samogitian and Frisian Free Canton lists. Significant edits to the Breton
list and Bretons in other lists. Edits to Western Franks, Pre and Post Mongol Russians, Nikephorian,
Thematic Byzantines and Teutonic Knights lists.
28/02/2022 Added new West Slav, Old Prussian, Early Lithuanian and Samogitian, Early and Later Feudal English and
Yi Korean lists. Moved the Later Hindu Indian, Early Lombard and Avar lists here, from the Ancient List
eBook. Changes to highlanders, islemen and gallóglaigh across several lists.
29/10/2021 Added a new Navarrese list. Significant edits to the Free Companies, Swiss, Muromachi and Sengoku
Samurai, Pre and Post Mongol Russian lists. Minor edits to the Almoravid Berber and Feudal Scots lists.
31/05/2021 Added new Golden Horde, Hundred Years War English (Home) and Zanj Revolt lists. Edits to Later
Medieval Polish, Sengoku Samurai, Feudal English, Hundred Years’ War English (Continental), Later
Swiss, Mongol Conquest, Ilkhanid Mongol and Later Byzantines.
26/02/2021 Added new Khazar and Feudal Spanish lists. Edits to the Early and Later Crusader lists, Early Feudal and
Later Medieval Spanish lists, Hundred Year’s War English and French and Later Medieval Portuguese lists.
16/11/2020 Added new Feudal Polish and Medieval Scandinavian lists. Major edits to Later Polish, Wars of the Roses
and the Japanese lists, minor edits to most lists. Added historical background information to many lists.
28/09/2020 Added entirely new lists for Nanzhao, Kamakura Samurai and Muromachi Samurai.
31/08/2020 Reorganised the lists into chapters on a regional basis.

I The Medieval Balkans
This chapter contains the army lists of the Medieval Balkans.
Early Bulgar
This list covers the Bulgars from the first mention of them as Byzantine allies in 480 CE until the destruction of their
kingdom by the Byzantine Emperor Basil in 1018.
Unit Description Number Save Cost
Attached, mounted general 2–4 2+ 5
Upgrade to heroic 0–3 3+ –
Generals Upgrade to senior 0–1 – +1
Upgrade an attached, mounted, heroic senior general
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Khan Krum
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Bulgar nobles Cavalry, bow, veteran 1–3 6+ 11
Bulgar boyars Cavalry, bow 3–6 7+ 9
4–6**, 1–
Bulgar horse archers Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
2***/****
Javelinmen, raw 2–5*** 8+ 5
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Slavs subjects
Light infantry, javelin 7+ 4
1–3***
Light infantry other, bow 8+ 4
Spearmen, raw 2–5**** 8+ 5
Slav and Bulgars Upgrade spearman, raw to spearmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Light infantry other, bow 1–2**** 8+ 4
Wagon defenders Mobs, deep, raw 0–1** 8+ 4
Camp Camps 1–3 – 1
Wagon laager Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only 803–814, representing Khan Krum, who doubled the size of the Bulgar kingdom and drank wine from a cup
made from the skull of a Byzantine Emperor. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** Only before 679.
*** Only 679–852.
*** Only after 852.
Allies
Pecheneg, Early Byzantine.
Historical Background
The Onogur Bulgars originated on the Steppes around the Sea of Azov. Bulgarian tradition says the ruling family (House of
Dulo) was descended from Attila the Hun. They revolted against the Avars in 635 but were then attacked by the Khazars,
forcing them to split. One group, under Asparukh or Isperikh, crossed the Danube, subjugating the Slavs. They defeated an
attack from the Byzantines and were recognised by them in 681. The Bulgars formed a noble elite, with the Slavs sending
tribute and providing infantry. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Bulgars and Slavs assimilated, living in joint settlements for
the first time and speaking a version of Slavic.
In the c. 8th, the Bulgarians sometimes allied with the Byzantines and came to their rescue when Constantinople was besieged
by the Arabs in 717. Later in the century, civil war weakened the Bulgars, and the Byzantines gained the upper hand. Bulgaria's
high point came in the c. 9th under Khan Krum, who defeated the Avars. Emperor Nicephorus invaded Bulgaria in 811, and
after sacking the Bulgarian capital, he was trapped by a Bulgarian army and destroyed. Krum then invaded Thrace, capturing

Adrianople and reaching Constantinople, although he could not take the city. He returned in 814 with Slav and Greek allies
but died from a heart attack on the journey.
Krum’s son Omurtag had generally peaceful relations with Byzantium, and his grandson Boris converted to Christianity in
864. However, he wanted a link with the Franks, which led to another Byzantine invasion, pushing them into the Orthodox
tradition. Religious accommodation didn’t stop intermittent wars with Bulgaria under Symeon, including major victories at
Bulgarophygon and Anchialos. However, the walls of Constantinople saved the Byzantines again. There were also wars with
Serbia, Croatia and the Magyars, who had settled in what is now Hungary.
After Symeon’s death in 927, the c. 10th was relatively peaceful until 967, when a Byzantine-inspired Russian invasion
devastated Bulgaria. This drew the Russians and Byzantines into a lengthy war, which enabled a Bulgarian state to re-emerge
under Samuel, albeit one centred in Macedonia. This empire ended in 1018 after defeat by Basil (the Bulgar Slayer) in a 17-
year war, ending with the Byzantines' annexation of Bulgaria.
Army Notes
The Bulgars fought mainly on the defensive and preferred to drag the Byzantines into the mountains. They extensively used
fortifications, both temporary palisades to block off passes and more permanent border fortifications. These would have to
be manned by infantry, and they would have been reluctant to rely entirely on subject Slavs, although by 852, the difference
between the Bulgars and Slavs was, in any case, blurred by intermarriage.
Thanks to Robert Tison for writing the first draft of this list.

South Slav
This list covers the South Slavs who infiltrated into the Balkans after 600 CE. They became an important element of the
Bulgar state and established their own territories in Croatia and Serbia. It ends with the Croat union with Hungary and the
establishment of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1180 CE.
Attached general (on foot) 2–4 2+ 4
Upgrade to mounted 0–2 – +1
Generals
Upgrade to senior 0–1 – +1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Cavalry, lance 1–2*, 2–4** 7+ 9
Noble cavalry
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Up to half 6+ 11
Javelinmen, raw 8–12* 8+ 5
Slav warriors Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen 0–6 7+ 7
Upgrade javelinmen to mounted infantry 0–6 – +1
Spearmen, raw 6–10** 8+ 5
Slav foot
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen Up to half 7+ 7
Croat javelinmen Javelinmen 0–3*** 7+ 7
Serb archers Bowmen 2–4*** 8+ 7
Light infantry, javelin 0–2 7+ 4
Slav skirmishers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 9+ 4
Upgrade light infantry other, bow to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5
Wagon defenders Mobs, deep, raw 0–2 9+ 4
Camp Camp 1–3 – 1
* Before 850.
** After 850.
*** After 680, armies must be either Croat or Serb. Croat armies may not include Serbs, or vice versa.
Allies
None
The Slavs are made up of several ethnic groups who spoke a similar language and are today the largest ethnolinguistic group
in Europe with around 268 million people. They probably originated in Eurasia and migrated westwards. The South Slavs
appeared in the written records during the sixth century. They edged their way into the Balkans, either around the Carpathian
Mountains or along the coast, venturing as far south as the Peloponnese.
Unlike the sudden irruptions of nomads from the Steppes, such as the Avars or the Huns, the Slavs steadily infiltrated into
the Balkans over a long period of time. They started by raiding the usual manner, but then occupied lands that were
underpopulated due to the weakness of the Byzantine Empire. Their disunity and lack of a state structure, together with
their tendency to settle in the harsher environments of the Balkans, made it challenging for the Byzantines to deal with them.
The Croats and the Serbs are related Iranian/Slavic tribes that pushed into the north-east Balkans in the seventh century,
assimilating into the existing Slav culture and establishing loose tribal confederations. The Franks occupied Croat territory
after defeating the Avars in the 790s. The Croats rebelled in 875 and established an independent state. The territory of this
state changed considerably over the next two centuries as they first came under pressure from the Byzantines, then on the
Dalmatian coast from the Venetians and finally from the Magyars to the north. This ended in 1102 with a controversial deal,
in which the Croat notables accepted a dynastic union with Hungary.
The area occupied by the Serbian princes is less clear but included large swathes of the central Balkans and the southern
Dalmatian coast. After accepting Christianity, the state became known as Raska, although this and other regional names died

out in the eleventh century. It was mainly ruled by the Vlastmirovic dynasty until 960. There were several wars against
Bulgaria in the ninth and early tenth century, the last of which devasted the country and led to the restoration of Byzantine
rule. This off-on relationship ended ca. 1180, with the establishment of the Serbian kingdom under Stefan Nemanja.
Army Notes
The early Slavs occupied forest areas and were skilled in the use of ambush, using rivers to communicate and concentrate
forces. They were lightly armoured, equipped with spear, shield and wooden bows. They did use horses, even if primarily as
mounted infantry, with elites as conventional cavalry. They also circled wagons during a battle. Unlike the East and West
Slavs, they made little use of strongholds, reflecting the terrain they occupied. Later states developed conventional armies of
the period, with cavalry operating around a base of spearmen. The Serbs could field significant numbers of bowmen.
Many thanks to Dave Watson who wrote this list!

Magyar
This list covers the Hungarians from the confederation of the seven Magyar tribes ca. 830 CE, until our estimated date of
1080 for when the Magyar nobles started to fight as knights.
Attached mounted general 2–4 2+ 5
Generals Upgrade to heroic 2–4 3+ –
Heroes 3–6 – 1
Magyar nobles Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–3 6+ 13
Kabar Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–2* 6+ 13
10–15, 7–
Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
12**
Magyar horse archers Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/3 7+ 6
veteran
Upgrade light cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow 1–4** 7+ 11
Slav javelinmen Javelinmen, raw 1–3**/*** 8+ 5
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Slav archers 1–2**/***
Light infantry other, bow, raw 9+ 3
Slav peasants Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
* From 881 onwards.
** From 895 onwards.
*** The minima apply only if any Slavs, other than mobs, are taken.
Allies
South Slavs
Around 830 CE, seven Central-Asian/South-Siberian tribes combined to form a confederation called the Hétmagyar ("Seven
Magyars"). Initially subordinate to the Khazars, they broke away after 860 and were joined, around 830, by three tribes of
Khazar exiles referred to as the Kabar. The joining of the three tribes to the previous seven created the On-ogur ("Ten
Arrows"), a possible origin of "Hungarian".
From 895 onwards the Magyars, led by Árpád who was either the confederation's kende (sacred ruler), or gyula (military
leader), settled in the Carpathian Basin. Here they conquered and ruled over a population of Slavs and raided widely
throughout Western Europe.
Army Notes
In war, the Kabar formed the confederation's vanguard and rear guard. The proportion of formed cavalry is likely to have
increased after the Magyar settled in the Carpathian Basin, and this permits the numerous lancers mentioned by Leo.
The Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise wrote in his Tactica (c. 895–908 CE) that the Magyars "are armed with swords,
body armour, bows and lances. Thus, in battles most of them bear double arms, carrying the lances high on their shoulders
and holding the bows in their hands. They make use of both as need requires, but when pursued they use their bows to great
advantage. Not only do they wear armour themselves, but the horses of their illustrious men are covered in front with iron
or quilted material. They devote a great deal of attention and training to archery on horseback. A huge herd of horses, ponies
and mares, follows them, to provide both food and milk and, at the same time, to give the impression of a multitude."

Feudal Hungarian
This list covers the Hungarian armies of the Arpad dynasty from our estimated date for the introduction of knights (1080
CE) through the Mongol invasion and the catastrophic Hungarian defeat at Mohi in 1241. After this the dynasty entered a
period of decline until the abdication of King Otto in 1308.

Attached general on foot 2–4 2+ 4
Upgrade to mounted 2–4 2+ +1
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Dene's standard on a Carroccio 1VP standard 0–1* – 2
Knights, lance 1–4 6+ 11
Hungarian nobles Downgrade nobles to gentry – cavalry lance, extra 1/2 or
7+ 11
bow more**
Hungarian gentry Cavalry lance, extra bow 2–4 7+ 11
"Saxon" knights Knights, lance, veteran 0–1 5+ 13
Croat cavalry Knights, lance 0–1 6+ 11

Bosnian nobles Knights, lance 0–1 6+ 11
Light cavalry, bow 6–10 8+ 5
Hungarian skirmishers Upgrade light cavalry, bow, to light cavalry, javelin,
0–3 7+ 6
extra bow as Szeklers
Cumans Light cavalry, bow 0–4 8+ 5
Hungarian infantry Shieldwall 0–4 7+ 7
Serb or Vlach javelinmen Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Serb archers Bowmen 0–3 8+ 7
Slav archers Light infantry other, bow, veteran 0–2 7+ 5
Hungarian archers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
* Only in 1167. This standard is that of the Nadorispan (a senior general, similar in rank to a Duke) Dene who led the
army at the battle of Semlin in 1167.
** After 1196.
Allies
Cumans, Medieval Germans, Polish (1017–1116)
The reorganisation of the Hungarian state was led by King Stephen I (later canonised as St Stephen) of the Arpad dynasty.
When he died in 1038, there followed a period of internal conflict with external interventions including an invasion by the
Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV in 1063 and regular raids from the Pechenegs. Ladislaus I (1077–1095) consolidated the
state and, in 1091, expanded it into modern Croatia. King Coloman conquered Dalmatia (1105–8), and Hungary became a
leading power in central Europe. German knights not only strengthened the army, but they were also given lands and some
limited roles in government.
Hungary was divided into counties led by Counts (Ispans), although many of the new castles were under royal authority. A
class of castle warriors developed who became hereditary land-owning nobles who had obligations of military service, unlike
the rest of the nobility. Foot soldiers came from the Castle Folk who became hereditary military servants.

In the c. 12th, King Geza II (1141–62) engaged in wars in the Empire and six invasions of Russia. This led to the collapse of
internal order and the emergence of the nobility as both a class and an active political force leading to the ‘Golden Bull’ (not
unlike the Magna Carta) revolt of 1222. King Emeric (1196–1204) led attacks into the Balkans with Papal support and
enjoyed some military success in Bosnia.
In 1241 the Mongols invaded and inflicted a disastrous defeat of the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohi. King Béla IV first
fled the battlefield, and then the country. Fortunately, the Mongols returned to the east in April 1242, but the damage to
Hungary was very severe, with an estimated 20-50% of the population having perished during the short period of Mongol
occupation.
In the aftermath of the invasion, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications to help
defend against possible future Mongol invasions. A later Mongol invasion of 1286 was, indeed, thwarted by the newly built
fortifications and a reformed Hungarian army which included a higher proportion of heavily armed knights. The invading
Mongol force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV and destroyed during the subsequent retreat.
The decline of central power continued until the Arpadian dynasty died out in 1301.
Army Notes
The introduction of Christianity around 1000 turned the Magyars into a more recognisable western European state with a
feudal organisation. Western knights arrived as mercenaries, and much of the nobility converted to fight in a similar manner.
However, the lesser nobility retained the lighter form of cavalry, and the settlement of the Cumans and Szeklers within
Hungary from 1239 onwards, gave their armies access to significant numbers of horse archers. After the first Mongol
invasion, King Béla IV increased the number of heavily armoured, well-trained knights of the western type.
The infantry consisted of spear armed infantry supported by archers with some border foot.
Many thanks to Philip Garton who wrote this list, and to Dave Watson who added the historical background.

Bulgarian
This list covers the armies of Bulgaria from the development of the Second Empire, after 1204, until its annexation by the
Ottomans in 1395 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Army Standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 2–5 7+ 11
Boyars (nobles)
Upgrade cavalry, lance extra bow to veteran 0–2 – +2
Greek cavalry Cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 9
Horse archers Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Vlachs Light cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 5
Spearmen, raw 2–4 8+ 5
Bulgarian infantry
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Ichirgu (Bulgarian and other Bowmen 2–6 8+ 7
archers) Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5
Kontaritoi (Greek spearmen) Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Allies
Tartars, Serbia, Byzantine (no artillery).
After the sack of Constantinople in 1204, the creation of a Latin Empire enabled the restoration of a Bulgarian state. In
1205, the Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan defeated the Latins at Adrianople and captured Emperor Baldwin. Following the death of
Ivan II Asen in 1241, internal dissension weakened the state which became a vassal of the Tartars. In 1261, a restored
Byzantine Empire increased pressure from the south. By the end of the c. 13th, Bulgaria had fought wars against the Latin
Empire, Tartars, Epiros, Byzantines, Serbia and Hungary, not to mention civil wars and peasant revolts, with Tsars coming
and going at regular intervals. In 1323, Tsar Mikhail Shishman defeated the Serbs and Byzantines and restored some stability
until his death at the Battle of Kyustendil in 1330 at the hands of the Serbs. Tsar Ivan Aleksandar led a modest recovery
from 1331, but his 40-year rule was increasingly focused on the Ottoman incursions from the 1350s. His army was destroyed
at Plovdiv in 1364 and Bulgaria became an Ottoman vassal in 1372. In 1395, after Bulgarian nobles had supported several
Balkan crusades, the Ottomans annexed Bulgaria.
Army Notes
Bulgarian organisation largely held to the Byzantine model during this period. Noble cavalrymen were supported by large
numbers of horse archers, both Bulgarian and mercenaries. Greek fiefs in the south provided cavalry and reliable infantry.
Native peasant foot was of variable quality and consisted of spearmen and archers. Bulgarian tactics involved harassment by
horse archers to draw an enemy onto troops concealed in ambush.

Eastern Latin
This list covers the Eastern Latin Empire created after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. It quickly disintegrated into
squabbling petty states, which were whittled away by the Byzantines and finally conquered by the Ottomans (ca. 1400 CE).
Attached mounted, heroic general 2–4 3+ 5
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Knights and sergeants
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to half 5+ 13
Cavalry, lance 1–2 7+ 9
Greek cavalry
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 7
Turkish or Bulgar horse
archers
Shieldwall 2–4 7+ 7
Frankish spearmen Downgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 5
Upgrade shieldwall with extra bow or crossbow Any – +2
Greek javelinmen Light infantry, javelin 0–4 7+ 4
Crossbowmen 1–2 8+ 7
Crossbowmen
Upgrade crossbowmen to crossbowmen, veteran 0–1 7+ 9
Bowmen 7
Greek archers 2–8 8+
Light infantry other, bow 4
Wagon laager or ditch Fortifications 0–5 – 1
Allies
Catalan Company in 1310, Venice
After the sack of Constantinople by the infamous Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Latins divided up the Byzantine territories in
the Balkans they could grab, primarily the Principality of Achaia (roughly the modern Greek Peloponnese) and the Duchy
of Athens. These survived the recovery of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1261. In 1312, the Duchy of Athens was
captured by the Catalan Company after a dispute over pay. Achaia struggled on and won an important victory at Manolada
in 1316. However, after an abortive expedition to recover Athens in 1332, the remaining elements of the principality were
chipped away by Byzantine forces and finally conquered by the Ottomans. The classic Alfred Duggan novel ‘Lord Geoffrey’s
Fancy’ is a good introduction to these states.
Army Notes
The Eastern Latins were typical Crusader armies, heavily reliant on the charge of their Frankish knights. They also included
local Greek troops, both cavalry and foot, as well some mercenaries.

Venice Abroad
This list covers the Venetian Empire's overseas territories in the Balkans from the sack of Constantinople (1204 CE) to their
terrible defeat at the battle of Agnadello (1509 CE) when, in one day, the Venetians "lost what it had taken them eight
hundred years' exertion to conquer." (Machiavelli, The Prince).
Upgrade to detached 0–4 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Lanze spezzate ("broken Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to half 5+ 13
lances"), elmetto ("helmets") or Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Any* 6+ 14
vero armigero – men–at–arms
Upgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance,
0–1 5+ 16
veteran
Balestrieri montati (mounted
Light cavalry other, crossbow 2–3 8+ 5
crossbowmen)
Light cavalry, lance, veteran 1–4** 6
Stradiotti or Cappelletti (Greek or
Upgrade light cavalry, lance, veteran with extra bow 6+
Albanian mercenaries) Up to half 7
or crossbow
Lancieri (spearmen)
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen as professionals 0–2 7+ 7
Alabardieri (halberdiers) Billmen 0–1* 7+ 7
Balestrieri (mercenary
crossbowmen)
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises Any – +1
Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 2–6 9+ 3
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow, raw to
0–2 9+ 5
crossbowmen, raw
Balestrieri delle ordinanze (civic
militia crossbowmen) Upgrade light infantry crossbow, raw to
0–3 8+ 7
crossbowmen as provisionati (professionals)
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw or crossbowmen with
Any – +1
pavises
Peasant levy Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Light infantry, javelin, raw 8+ 3
Venetian, Albanian or Cretan 0–2
infantry
Upgrade light infantry other, bow to bowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Armati di schioppo (hand
Light infantry other, handgun 2–4*** 8+ 4
gunners)
Bombarde (artillery) Artillery (cannon) 0–1* 7+ 7
* After 1360.

** After 1463.
*** After 1400.
Allies
Eastern Latins, Albania after 1360.
The fall of Constantinople in 1204 led to Venice becoming a major power in the eastern Mediterranean. The Venetians
acquired several Byzantine ports to use as naval bases to protect their trade routes and their huge merchant fleet, which
numbered over 3,000 ships by the mid c. 15th. The new territories were administered by governors, apart from Crete, which
developed a local Venetian nobility.
There were numerous revolts against Venetian rule and the towns became more Italianized, while the small areas of
surrounding land were inhabited by Slavs and other locals – Venice was not interested in acquiring large inland territories.
They fought wars against Hungary and Genoa in the Balkans, losing Negroponte (1350) and Pola (1379) to the Genoese. As
the Ottomans expanded into the Balkans, most of Venice’s possessions came under pressure. Venetian counterattacks
tapered off towards the end of our period with an offensive in the Peloponnese failing in 1464. Venice lost much of its
Italian Terra Firma after the Battle of Agnadello in 1509 and thereafter went onto the defensive.
Stradiotti – Perry miniatures, painted by Shaun Watson.

Army Notes
All Venetian males aged 17–60 were registered for the army. Mostly as foot, while richer men registered as cavalry. In the
medieval period, war galleys were manned by oarsmen from Venice and from its possessions in Dalmatia and Greece. There
were no galley slaves in this period, so sailors often fought on sea and on land. Mercenaries were used but, unlike other
Italian states, the Venetians initially preferred to use their own citizens as professional and part-time troops. Crossbowmen
were the most numerous on land and sea and they trained regularly. Venetian forces stationed overseas were better quality
professional troops, occupying often isolated or hazardous outposts. Mercenaries became a larger element of armies towards
the end of our period.

Serbian
This list covers the armies of Serbia from the establishment of the kingdom in 1217 CE, until the last parts of the state
succumbed to the Ottomans in 1496. It includes the high point of the empire under Stefan Dusan, who conquered most of
the western Balkans.
Upgrade from foot to mounted 0–4 – +1
Generals
Upgrade a senior mounted heroic general to great
0–1***** 3+ 10
leader as Stefan Dušan
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Royal Standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Cavalry, lance 3–6* 7+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Up to 1/2* 6+ 11
Vlastella (nobles) or Pronijar Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–2* – +2
(fief–holders) Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance 2–6*** 6+ 11
Up to
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 5+ 13
1/2***
1–2**, 1–
Mercenary men–at–arms Knights, lance 6+ 11
4***
Mercenary cavalry Cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 9
Mercenary light cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Serbian light horse Light cavalry, lance 1–2 7+ 5
Spearmen, veteran 0–2 6+ 9
Voynuks ("soldiers")
Replace spearmen, veteran with billmen, veteran All*** 6+ 9
Bowmen 3–6 8+ 7
Serbian foot
Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5
Border foot Javelinmen, raw 0–2 8+ 5
Levies Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Mercenary crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Serbian skirmishers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2**** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon)**** 0–1**** 7+ 7
Light guns Artillery (organ guns)**** 0–1**** 7+ 7
* Only before 1320.
** Only between 1280 and 1320.
*** Only after 1320.
**** Only after 1390.
***** Between 1329 and 1355. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger Supplement.
Allies
Before 1320, Byzantines and Bulgarians. After 1320 Wallachians, Bulgarians, Bosnians and Albanians. After 1372 Ottomans.

The Serbs broke away from the Byzantine Empire in the c. 12th but remained hemmed in by the Hungarians to the north
and the Bulgarians to the east. Stefan Milutin began the southwards expansion of Serbia in the late c. 13th and early c. 14th.
Stefan Decanski defeated the Bulgarians and Byzantines in 1330, expanding the state eastwards.
The pinnacle of the Serbian Empire (1346) came during the reign of Stefan Uros IV Dušan, known as Dušan the Mighty,
who deposed his father in 1331 to become King of Serbia. He had already gained a military reputation leading his father’s
armies in the expansion of the Serbian state. As King, he forged a new Serbian army using the mineral wealth of Serbia to
import western technology and create a cavalry-based force. He expanded the Empire from the Danube in the north to the
Aegean in the south, gaining the title ‘Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks’ and later adding ‘Bulgars and Albanians.’ He
died in 1355 without achieving his aim of capturing the Byzantine throne. Nevertheless, this was the golden age of Serbia.
After Stefan Dušan's death in 1355, however, the Ottoman Turks infiltrated the Balkans, defeating the Serbs at Maritisa
(1371) and Kosovo (1389). The last Serbian territories had been annexed by 1496.
Army Notes
Early Serbian armies would have resembled contemporary Byzantine forces. However, the Serbs were quick to adopt the
armoured knight and made extensive use of mercenaries, financed by their silver mines. Bowmen were the primary local
foot type but played a subordinate role to the knights.

Albanian
This list covers the armies of Albania from their revolt against Angevin rule in 1286 CE, until they were finally subdued by
the Ottomans ca. 1479. It includes the legendary George Castriotes, better known as Skanderbeg.
Generals
Upgrade a senior mounted heroic general to great
0–1*** 3+ 10
leader as Skanderbeg
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Standard 1 VP standard 0–1* – 2
Light cavalry, lance, extra bow or crossbow 3–8 7+ 6
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
Stradioti
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin, extra bow or crossbow 2–4
to light cavalry, javelin, extra bow or crossbow, 6+ 7
veteran
Mercenary men–at–arms Knights, lance 0–2** 6+ 11
Milici (town militia) Billmen 0–2 7+ 7
Bowmen 2–6 8+ 7
Harketar (archers)
Light infantry other, bow 2–6 8+ 4
Qites (highlanders & brigands) Light infantry, javelin 1–4 7+ 4
Fshataresi (Levy) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun** 0–1** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon)* 0–1* 7+ 7
Light guns Artillery (organ guns)* 0–1* 7+ 7
* Only after 1377.
** Only after 1440.
*** Between 1443 and 1468. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement
Allies
Naples, Venice, Byzantine (until 1340), Ottomans for internal factions after 1380.
At the start of our period, Albania, which has also included parts of modern-day Montenegro and Greece, was part of the
Byzantine Empire. As that empire declined, the Angevins took control of the coast, and the highland tribes increasingly
asserted their independence. In 1286 they successfully revolted against the Angevins, who later recaptured the coastal strip,
but conceded autonomy to the inland areas. Stefan Dušan (1343–1355) brought most of Albania into the Serbian Empire,
although the Byzantine Despot of Epirus retained parts of the south. In the 1380s, the Ottomans started their drive into
Albania and the Venetians took over the coast in return for aid. The Ottomans operated a successful divide and rule policy
with the Albanian tribes, and it became an Ottoman province in 1430.
Djerdj Kastrioti, known as Skanderbeg, was born ca. 1402. Like Vlad the Impaler, he was sent to the Ottoman court as a
hostage. After the death of his father, he assembled a force of three hundred Albanians in Ottoman service and took over
the fortress of Kruje. He led the League of Lezhe in revolt against the Ottomans and defeated them at the Battle of Torviolli.
He continued to defeat Ottoman armies thrown against him, using guerrilla tactics and the mountainous terrain against them.
However, he failed to join up with Hunyadi at the second Battle of Kosovo in 1448. Murad brought a huge army to besiege

Kruje but was forced to withdraw. In 1461, Skanderbeg was strong enough to go to Italy in support of his ally, the King of
Naples.
Sadly, after his death in 1468, the league fell apart, even with Venetian aid, and a treaty in 1479 left the Venetians with three
ports whilst the interior returned to Ottoman rule. However, Skanderbeg had given his small country its first taste of
independence. A beacon of resistance against the Ottomans, he was the Pope’s other ‘Athlete of Christ.’
Albanians from the collection of Liam Entwhistle

Army Notes
The principal Albanian troop type was the light horse known as stradiots (“soldiers”), who performed a range of roles from
acting as skirmishers to shock cavalry. They would be supported by light infantry archers and javelinmen. The coastal towns
provided some heavy foot and crossbowmen. A range of mercenaries served in Albanian armies, particularly those recruited
from Naples during the Skanderbeg period. These included men-at-arms, handgunners, archers and artillery. Albanian tactics
relied on utilising the mountainous terrain to harass and ambush invaders.

Ottoman
This list covers the Ottomans from the establishment of the Ottoman principality in 1299 CE, through the defeat of the
remnants of the Byzantine Empire and up until the accession of Selim I in 1512.
Generals
Upgrade a senior, mounted, heroic, general to great
0–1^ 3+ 10
leader as Mehmet II "The Conqueror".
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Army standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Cavalry, bow, veteran 1** 7+ 11
Qapukulu ("door slaves" –
household cavalry) Upgrade cavalry, bow, veteran to cavalry lance, extra
Any 6+ 13
bow, veteran
1–2* 8+
Sipahi ("soldiers" – heavy Cavalry, bow 9
3–6** 8+
cavalry)
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry lance, extra bow Up to half 7+ 11
Vassal Serbian knights Knights 0–3*** 6+ 11
Light cavalry, bow 5–8* 8+ 5
Ghazis ("raiders")
Light cavalry, javelin 2–3* 7+ 5
Akinji ("warriors") Light cavalry, bow 2–6** 8+ 5
Delis ("mad heads") Light cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–1** 7+ 6
Turkomen or Tatars Light cavalry, bow 0–2** 8+ 5
Bowmen, veteran 7+ 9
Janissaries 1–3**
Auxiliaries, veteran, extra bow 5+ 12
Light infantry other, sling or crossbow, veteran 0–1 8+ 5
Janissary skirmishers Replace light infantry other, sling or crossbow,
Any**** 8+ 5
veteran with light infantry other, handgun, veteran
Other qapu khalqi ("men of the Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
gate") infantry Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Gonulluyan (volunteers) or
Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
derbetci (pass or fortress guards)
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
2–3
Azabs ("the bachelors" – Light infantry other, bow or sling, raw 9+ 3
peasant militia) Upgrade light infantry other, bow, raw to light
0–1**** 9+ 3
infantry other, handgun, raw
Voynuks (Christian Serbian
Javelinmen, extra 2HCCW 0–1** 7+ 8
"soldiers")
Iaylars (religious fanatics) Warriors, deep, fanatics 0–1** 8+ 10
Bombards Artillery (cannon), extra stakes 0–2***** 7+ 8
War wagons War wagons (artillery) 0–1**** 7+ 13

^ Between 1443 to 1446 and 1451 to 1481. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
* Before 1362.
** After 1362.
*** From 1386 to 1458. May not dismount.
**** After 1440.
***** After 1394.
Allies
Albanians (only before 1479), Tartars (only after 1475), Turkomans, Wallachians (only after 1418)
The Ottomans grew from a small Turkish tribe to a vast empire in a short period of time. The father of the empire, Osman
I, was well placed to take advantage of the collapse of the Seljuk Empire and the weakness of the Byzantines in the c. 13th.
The Byzantines, even after their recovery in 1261, were too weak to halt the Ottoman domination of Anatolia and lost to
the Ottomans at Koyunhisar 1301 and Bursa 1326. The Byzantines increasingly relied on Turkish troops in the Balkans and,
in 1352, the Ottomans took advantage of a Byzantine civil war to occupy Gallipoli. From that base they captured Adrianople
in 1361, destroying a Bulgarian army and expanding into Thrace.
In 1371, a combined Hungarian, Serbian, Bulgarian and Wallachian army was defeated at the Marica River. This was the
decisive battle in the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, which was sealed at Kosovo in 1389. Setbacks were inflicted by
Tamerlane at Ankara in 1402 and during the subsequent succession crisis. But the Ottomans recovered, defeating the Varna
Crusade in 1444 and at Second Kosovo in 1448.
Mehmet II "The Conqueror" was Sultan on three occasions because his father (Murad II) retired and then came back to
power. After his father's death in 1451, Mehmet planned the ultimate campaign, the siege of Constantinople and the
destruction of the Byzantine Empire. This was achieved in 1453, not least because of his brilliant plan to transport the fleet
overland. He then consolidated and expanded the Empire in the Balkans, although not without setbacks. He was defeated
at Belgrade by Hunyadi and Vaslui by Stefan, but these proved to be tactical setbacks only.
Army Notes
Early Ottoman armies were primarily composed of horse archers with a core of heavy cavalry. Murad I started the
development of the later Ottoman armies, built around the Janissary corps and Kapikulu guard cavalry. The bulk of the
heavy cavalry (Sipahis) were provided by Timariots based on non-hereditary land grants. Akinjis (raiders) light horse were
based on the borders, supplemented by Turcoman and Balkan light horse known as Delis (“mad heads”). Huge numbers of
infantry Azabs were recruited for each campaign, mostly as archers.
Janissaries were well drilled and could be very well armoured, so I have given them the option of upgrading their veteran
bowmen to auxilia, veteran, extra bow. This makes them fearsome in combat and relatively easy to rally, albeit with a reduced
missile capability.
Ottoman artillery pieces were chained together to provide protection against attack. I have therefore given them "stakes"
positioned along their front edge, which should help to protect them against mounted charges.
Many thanks to Mark Emms who wrote the first draft of this list, and to Dave Watson for adding the historical background and edits.

Catalan Company
The Catalan Company, or the Great Catalan Company, was a company of mercenaries that conquered and controlled Greece
through much of the c. 13th, waging war with great enthusiasm against Byzantines, Ottomans, Franks and locals alike. This
list covers them from their arrival in Byzantium in 1303 CE until they were defeated by the Navarrese Company and the
Florentine troops of Nerio I Acciaioli of Corinth.
Generals Attached general (on foot) 2–4 2+ 4
Upgrade to mounted Any – +1
Heroes 3–6 – 1
Knights and sergeants Knights, lance, veteran 1 6+ 11
Aragonese cavalry
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Up to half 6+ 11
Turkish or other horse archers Light cavalry, bow 0–6* 8+ 5
Cavalry, lance, veteran 0–2 6+ 11
Albanian Stradiots Light cavalry, javelin, veteran with extra bow or
0–2** 6+ 7
crossbow
Javelinmen, special*** 5–12 7+ 7
Upgrade javelinmen, special*** to javelinmen,
Almughavars Up to half 6+ 9
special***, veteran
Light infantry, javelin, veteran 0–4 6+ 5
Crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw 5
Greek archers 0–6 9+
Light infantry other, bow, raw 3
* After 1305.
** After 1380.
*** Almughavars replace one of their javelins with a shock missile.
Allies
Byzantines and Alans (before 1305).
The Catalan Grand Company was founded by a former Templar and pirate, Roger de Flor, in 1302. They had been fighting
against the Angevins in Sicily and were hired by the Byzantines to fight the Turks. The company initially consisted of around
1,500 horse and 4,000 Almughavar infantry. They defeated the Turks in Anatolia and were recalled to the Balkans to defeat
the Bulgarians. After they were reinforced from Spain, the Emperor became concerned about their power, and he arranged
for Roger de Flor to be assassinated. The remaining troops were attacked by the Byzantines, but the Catalans regrouped and
defeated them at Apros in 1305. The company then devasted Thrace and Macedonia in what became known as the Catalan
Vengeance. Next, they were hired by the Duchy of Athens who failed to pay them, so they attacked and defeated the Duchy
at Kephissos in 1311. They held and expanded the Duchy of Athens until defeated by the Florentines in 1388.
Army Notes
This army is built around a core of Almughavars. Originally Aragonese hillmen from the Pyrenees, by our period they would
have included veterans from many different peoples across Spain and the Balkans. They were particularly effective at utilising
difficult terrain. They were supported by knights, allied light horse and Greek archers.

Later Medieval Hungarian
This list covers the Hungarian armies from the accession of the first Angevin King in 1308 CE, Charles I, and includes the
armies of Janos Hunyadi and his son Matthias Corvinus. The list ends with the death of Matthias in 1490.
Generals
Upgrade a senior, mounted, heroic attached general
0–1**** 3+ 11
to great leader, as Janos Hunyadi.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Hungarian nobles Knights, lance 1–3 6+ 11
Royal banderium Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–1*** 5+ 13
"Saxon" knights Knights, lance 1–2 6+ 11
Knights, lance, deep 0–2*, 0–3** 6+ 16.5
German or Bohemian knights
Downgrade knights, lance, deep to cavalry, lance Any* 7+ 9
Mercenary crossbow Cavalry, crossbow 0–1** 8+ 9
Hungarians, Cumans, or
Ruthenians
Szekelers Light cavalry, javelin, extra bow 0–3 7+ 6
Serbian hussars Light cavalry, lance 0–2** 7+ 5
Downgrade spearmen, raw to mobs, deep 1/2 to all* 8+ 7
Hungarian spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, pavise as
1/2 to all** 7+ 8
Clipeati
Upgrade spearmen, raw to mercenary spearmen 0–2* 7+ 7
Armati Billmen, veteran 0–2** 6+ 9
Croatian or Transylvanian Bowmen 7
2–3 8+
archers Light infantry other, bow 4
Militia crossbowmen Crossbowmen, raw with pavise 0–4* 9+ 6
Mercenary crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–2** 8+ 7
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2*, 0–4** 8+ 4
Crossbowmen Light infantry other, crossbow 0–4 8+ 4
War wagons War wagons (handguns) 0–2** 7+ 13
Artillery Artillery (cannon) 0–2** 7+ 7
Camp 1–3 – 1
Wagon laager for camp Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only after 1395.
** Only after 1435.
*** Only if the king is the senior general.
**** Between 1438 and 1456 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger Supplement.
Allies
Wallachians, Crusaders, only in the Crusade of Nicopolis (1396 CE).

The Magyar tribes had been forged into a powerful state by the Arpad dynasty. The end of the dynasty in 1301 resulted in
civil war, which was ended by the accession of the Angevins in 1308. Hungary became the shield of Europe as the Ottomans
began their expansion into the Balkans. Sigismund came to the throne in 1387, and despite being defeated by the Ottomans
at Nicopolis in 1396, he created fortifications and armies that largely held the borders. The Hussite wars divided the country’s
efforts in the early c. 15th, but Janos Hunyadi took control of the border and defeated the Ottomans, most notably at the
Iron gates in 1443 (see below). After his death in 1456, there was a further period of civil war until Matthias Corvinus came
to the throne in 1458. He consolidated the border but after his death in 1490, the army was weakened and then destroyed
by the Ottomans at Mohacs in 1526.
The Hungarian warlord Janos Hunyadi was arguably the best commander the Christian states produced to oppose the
Ottoman Turks. The Pope described him as ‘Christ’s own athlete.’ He was born in the frontier state of Transylvania in 1386
and learned his trade and obtained some wealth in Italy, which he traded for land upon returning home, becoming a major
landowner. From 1437, he was constantly at war with the Ottomans, forcing the advantageous Treaty of Szeged upon them
in 1444. However, King Ulaszlo broke the treaty, leading to the disaster of the Varna Crusade and defeat at the Second
Battle of Kosovo in 1448. Hunyadi's final act was the successful defence of Belgrade in 1456, halting Mehmet the
Conqueror's expansion after his capture of Constantinople. His son, Matthias Corvinus, became King of Hungary in 1458.
Army Notes
The core of the Hungarian army was its body of heavily armoured knights equipped in western fashion. These were gradually
replaced by mercenary units recruited from Germany or Bohemia. Matthias created possibly the most formidable mercenary
army of the time. Cumans and other ethnic groups appear to have fought in their own tribal units.
Armati were armoured men. Clipeati, however, seem to have been reliant on large pavises for protection from missiles. The
foot archers were drawn from the poorer elements of the various regions. Any wealthier bowmen would have been mounted
archers. Janos Hunyadi began to use war wagons in a tactically similar manner to the Hussites; possibly influenced by the
many former Hussites he employed as mercenaries.
Many thanks to Philip Garton who wrote this list, with notes added by Dave Watson.

Bosnian
This list covers the armies of Bosnia from the autonomous rule of Ban Stjepan Kotromanic in 1322 until the Ottoman
conquest of 1463 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Royal standard 1 VP standard 0–1* – 2
Knez (nobles and retinue)
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 13
Mercenary men–at–arms Knights, lance 0–2 6+ 11
Mercenary light cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Vlachs Light cavalry, lance 1–2 7+ 5
Vojnici
Bowmen 3–6 8+ 7
Bosnian foot
Krajisnici
Zamanitchka Voysa (Levy) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun** 0–1** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon)* 0–1** 7+ 7
Light guns Artillery (organ guns)* 0–1** 7+ 7
Other Camp 1–3 – 1
* Only after 1377.
** Only after 1390.
Allies
Serbian, Hungarian and Albanian. Ottomans after 1372.
Medieval Bosnia consisted largely of the central and northern area of the modern state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It
bordered Croatia and Slavonia (mostly under Hungarian control) to the north and Serbia to the east. Venice held possessions
on the Dalmatian coast, as did the city state of Dubrovnik (Ragusa). In 1238, Hungary successfully invaded Bosnia, although
its control was largely nominal. Ban Stjepan Kotromanic (1322–1353) developed Bosnia’s autonomy and economy. He
defeated an invasion by the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan in 1350 and expanded Bosnia to include most of modern-day
Herzegovina, then known as Hum.
Probably the one leader most readers will not have heard of, Stephen Tvrtko was Bosnia’s first king and greatest medieval
ruler. He became the Ban of Bosnia in 1353 and, after some early setbacks, he gained considerable autonomy from his
Hungarian overlord and expanded the state. In 1373, he conquered parts of Serbia and had himself crowned as King of
Bosnia and Serbia. He then expanded into parts of modern Croatia and controlled most of the Dalmatian coast as far south
as Kotor in modern Montenegro. After the Battle of Kosovo 1389, he lost most of the Serbian lands to the Ottomans but
succeeded in fighting off Ottoman attacks on Bosnia. His death in 1391 began a period of decline and eventual subjugation
by the Ottomans. Bosnia was one of the last states to fall to the Ottomans, not least because of the difficult terrain.
Army Notes

Unfortunately, we know relatively little about how Bosnian armies were constituted and equipped. The army would be made
up largely from the contingents of the nobility, regionally led by Zupans, with Veomoze (senior nobles) and Knez (barons).
These would be supplemented by mercenaries, funded by Bosnia’s mineral wealth. From the Bosnian stecaki (gravestones),
royal seals and the limited exhibits in the National Museum, it appears that they were organised and equipped in a similar
manner to the Serbs, although with Hungarian and even Italian influences (via Dubrovnik) in armour. Essentially, the
Bosnian army is a lighter version of their Serbian and Hungarian neighbours, reflecting their mountainous terrain.

Wallachian and Moldavan
This list covers the armies of Wallachia and Moldavia from their first independence from Hungary in 1330, until both states
were absorbed into the Ottoman Empire (1538 CE).
Upgrade a senior, mounted, heroic general to great
leader as Vlad the Impaler (1456 to 1462) or Stefan 0–1 3+ 10
the Great (1457 to 1504)
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–2 6+ 11
Viteji (household nobles). Boieri
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–4 – +2
(general nobility)
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance* 0–2 6+ 11
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran* Any 5+ 13
Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Calarasi (light cavalry) 0–2 7+ 6
veteran
Light cavalry, lance 2–4 7+ 5
Spearmen, veteran 1–4 6+ 9
Lefegii (mercenary foot)
Replace spearmen, veteran with billmen, veteran All*** 6+ 9
Bowmen 2–6 8+ 7
Arcasi (archers)
Pedestrasi (peasant foot)
Razesi or Plaiesi (border troops) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon)** 0–1*** 7+ 7
Other Camps 1–3 – 1
* After 1400.
** After 1430.
*** After 1464.
Allies
Hungarians, Polish (only Moldavia), Ottomans, Serbians and Bulgarians (1330–1396), and each other.
Wallachia (the land of the Vlachs) emerged from Hungarian control under Voivode Basarab early in the c. 14th. Moldavia
emerged somewhat later, under Voivode Bogdan, by 1365. Independence from Hungary and Poland to the north was always
precarious, although they were useful buffer states against incursions from the Steppes and later the Ottomans. Alexandru,
King of Moldavia and Mircea the Old, King of Wallachia developed their respective states despite a generally anarchic
nobility. They also resisted early Ottoman incursions. After their deaths, both states deteriorated into anarchy under a rapid
succession of rulers.

No history of this period is complete without covering Vlad III Basarab, also known as Vlad Dracul, Vlad Tepes or Vlad
"The Impaler". Born in 1431, his father, Vlad "the Devil’, Voievod of Wallachia, was forced to hand over his two sons to
the Ottomans as hostages. Vlad and his brother Radu fought for Ottomans, who installed him as Voievod in 1448. Janos
Hunyadi deposed him in a Hungarian invasion, but later supported him as a useful buffer state. Vlad built up an efficient
army and state while building a reputation for violence and terror.
When Mehmet II invaded Wallachia in 1462, Vlad harassed the enemy, culminating in the famous night attack on the
Ottoman camp. When the Turks reached Tirgoviste, they were greeted by a forest of impaled bodies. This was the final
straw for the battered Ottomans, and they withdrew. However, the Boyars placed Radu on the throne and Vlad fled to
Hungary. He had one further spell on the Wallachian throne before being yet again betrayed by the Boyars. The saying ‘live
by the sword, die by the sword’ could have been written for Vlad. However, he was a man of his time, an extraordinary
leader, who ultimately failed to achieve his aims. At the time of his death in 1504, Moldavia was a major power in the region
but by 1538 his successors had been fully absorbed into the Ottoman sphere of influence.
Stefan III of Moldavia was a cousin of Vlad the Impaler but despite being much less well known, he achieved far more as
ruler. He ruled Moldavia for 47 years, defeating Hungarian, Polish, Wallachian and Ottoman attempts to destroy him. His
diplomatic skills enabled him to fight one enemy at a time. He defeated a Hungarian invasion led by Hunyadi in 1467. He
then turned his attention to the Ottomans defeating their Tartar allies in 1470 and intervening in Wallachia. This led to a
massive Ottoman invasion and probably his greatest victory at Vaslui in 1474. Mehmet II returned in 1476 and an isolated
Stefan was forced to withdraw to the mountains before a Hungarian relief army arrived. His final act was the defeat of a
Polish invasion in 1497, establishing a strong state that survived his death in 1504.
Army Notes
The armies of Wallachia and Moldavia were similar, usually based on the Small Host consisting of the nobility and
professional soldiers. In times of invasion, the Voivode (Prince) could call up every able-bodied man, known as the Great
Host. A typical defensive campaign involved harassing the enemy and using scorched earth tactics, together with holding
fortresses. The Small Host undertook the offensive campaigns in the form of major raids or supporting allies.

II Medieval Central Europe
This includes the armies of the areas corresponding to modern Germany, Poland, the Swiss, Austria, Czechoslovakia and
Hungary.
West Slav
This list covers the West Slavs from their emergence in the mid c. 6th until the emergence of Greater Moravia at the beginning
of the c. 9th. It includes Samo’s Slavic Empire from ca. 623–658 CE.

Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, javelin 1–3 7+ 9
Replace cavalry, javelin with cavalry, lance, extra bow 1–2*** 7+ 11
Slavic noble cavalry and/or
their Avar sons Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–1*** 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Avar sons skirmishing Light cavalry, bow 0–2*** 8+ 5
Javelinmen, raw 9–18 8+ 5
1/4 to 1/2*,
Slav foot Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen 7+ 7
1/2 to 3/4**
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to shieldwall, deep Up to 1/4** 7+ 10
Slav skirmishers
Elderly, women, young Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
* Only before 623 CE.
** Only 623–658 CE.
*** Only 580–658 CE.
Allies
Avars (after 658).
The West Slavs consisted of several ethnic groups who spoke a similar language and who separated from the common Slavic
group in the c. 6th. They settled in Central Europe between the Baltic Sea in the north and the Sudetes and Carpathian
Mountains in the south. At around the same time, the Avars penetrated the Hungarian plains and became the dominant
power in the region. By 568 the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea and
subjugated the Slavs.
Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with
them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who
were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns
and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion. When now the Wendish army went against the Huns, the [aforementioned] merchant Samo
accompanied the same. And so the Samo's bravery proved itself in wonderful ways and a huge mass of Huns fell to the sword of the Wends.
— Chronicle of Fredegar, Book IV, Section 48, written c. 642

The Merovingian Franks, whose eastern border was threatened by the Avars, encouraged the Slavs to revolt and supported
them with weapons and by instructing them in Frankish military drill. Around 623, a Frankish arms merchant named Samo
united the Slav groups against the Avars, and, after a string of victories, became their king. The Avars lost face when they
failed to conquer Constantinople in 626, and sometime between then and 631, the first Slavic confederation emerged – this
became known as Samo’s Kingdom or Empire. Archaeological findings indicate that it was located in present-day Moravia,
Lower Austria and Slovakia, and included the Wends, Sorbs, Czechs and sundry other West Slavic tribes.
In 631 or 632 the Franks, led by King Dagobert I, accompanied by their allies the Alemanni, Burgundi, Bavarians and
Lombards tried to take the fortified Slavic stronghold of Wogastisburg. Samo was victorious and the Frankish royal army
suffered terrible losses.
Samo's died in 658 or 659 and the fate of the tribal union after is unknown; it is generally assumed that it fell apart. However,
in its aftermath, the Slavic tribes reached some sort of accommodation with the Avars and lived alongside them in what has
been described as a symbiotic relationship. Around eight hundred the Avars Khaganate, under pressure from Charlemagne’s
Franks and from renewed Slavic attacks, collapsed and a new West Slav state, Greater Moravia, emerged.
Army Notes
According to a contemporary writer, the Slavs lived amongst nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes and were
(perhaps not unsurprisingly) mostly infantry. They fought with spears, javelins, axes and bows and protected themselves
with small round shields. It seems most appropriate to class them as javelinmen.
Initially a high proportion of the Slavs are rated raw because they were poorly equipped with weapons. During the period
of Samo’s Empire (ca. 623–658) some Slavs adopted Frankish weapons and tactics and may therefore be upgraded to
shieldwall, deep. The Avar sons represent the bastard sons of the Avars. I have assumed that they had been assimilated into
the general West Slav population by the end of Samo’s Empire. After this Avar allies become available since relations with
the Avars seem to have improved.
Further Reading
There is a page about Samo’s Empire on Wikipedia at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samo623-658
With thanks to Jiří Gajdorus, who suggested and wrote the first draft of this list and the background.

Avar
This list covers the Avars from their arrival in Europe in 553 CE until they vanished from history after 822.
Upgrade an attached, mounted, heroic, senior general
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Khagan Bayan I
Heroes 2–4 – 1
3–12**, 5–
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 7+ 11
12***
Avar nobles
Up to 1/2 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Avar horse archers Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Any 7+ 6
veteran
Cavalry, javelin or lance 0–2 7+ 9
Gepid subjects Upgrade cavalry, javelin or lance to cavalry, javelin or
Up to 1/2 6+ 11
lance, veteran
Light cavalry, bow 2–8** 8+ 5
Bulgar subjects Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Javelinmen, raw 3–6** 8+ 5
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Light infantry, javelin 0–2** 7+ 4
Slav subjects
Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–4** 3
Upgrade light infantry other, bow, raw to bowmen, 9+
0–2 5
raw
Camps 1–3 – 1
Other
Fortifications 0–1 – 1
* Only 562–602. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** Only from 558–631.
*** Only dates other than from 558–631.
Allies
Bulgar from 675 to 805 CE, Lombards in 567 CE only.
Notes
Upgraded Avar nobles represent better-quality units composed of the most important Avars with frontal horse armour.
The Avars were a tribe of East Asian origin. In 557, whilst living in the Caucasus mountains (where some Avars still remain)
they were hired to fight the foes of Byzantines on the Pontic coast. They proved extraordinarily successful in this endeavour,
defeating the Sabirs, Utigurs, Kutrigurs and Saragurs and by 562 they controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes
north of the Black Sea.
Bayan I, Khagan of the Avars from 562 to 602, sought defensible lands for a kingdom of their own, and his eye turned to
the Carpathian basin, to the north. In 567 he formed an alliance with the Lombards to destroy the Gepid Kingdom that
controlled it. Victorious, Bayan sent a cup, made from the skull of his defeated Gepid enemy Cunimund, to his ally Alboin,

the Lombard king. The Avars then persuaded the Lombards to move into northern Italy. By 580, the Avars had established
supremacy over most of the Slavic, Bulgar and Germanic tribes in the region, leaving them in control of the steppes north
of the Danube from the Black Sea to the River Elbe.
From 580 onwards the Avars began raiding the Byzantine Empire. They seized regions and successfully demanded subsidies.
The Avar khaganate reached a highpoint in 617 when they were able to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople, seizing 270,000
captives, but they failed to capture the city itself.
In 626, the Avars cooperated with the Sasanians in a second attempt to take Constantinople, but when their siege was
unsuccessful, they lost face with their Bulgar and Slav subjects. The Slavs revolted and formed an Empire under the
leadership of a Frankish merchant names Samo. The Bulgars also revolted in 631. A series of Frankish campaigns, beginning
in 788 relentlessly harried them, and the Bulgars conquered the eastern and central portions of their kingdom between 804
and 829. The Avars vanished from history in the early c. 9th, absorbed into the local populations, and their kingdom became
a frontier march of the Frankish Empire.
Thanks to Paul Caspall for suggesting and writing this list.

Moravian
This list covers the Slavic Principality of Moravia from its first mention in 822 CE until its destruction in 907, including the
brief period when it formed the heart of the Kingdom of Greater Moravia.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Moravian družina (cavalry)
Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran 1–3 6+ 11
Moravian občina Cavalry, javelin, raw 1–3 8+ 7
Frankish knights Cavalry, lance, extra javelin, veteran 0–1 6+ 12
Slav foot
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen 1/2 to 3/4 7+ 7
Slav skirmishers Light infantry, javelin 0–3 7+ 4
Slav archers
Upgrade light infantry other, bow, to bowmen, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 5
Allies
Magyar, Pecheneg, Carolingian Frankish before 888, Western Frankish thereafter.
Moravia is the region where the Amber Road crosses the Carpathian Mountains. This trade route used to bring slaves and
fur from as far north as the Baltic coast to the Adriatic. The Morava River gave its name to the kingdom. The Moravian
tribe was described by the Bavarian Geographer as being situated between the tribes of the Bohemians and the Bulgarians.
Like other Slavs, the Moravian Slavs originally practised a polytheistic religion with an ancestor cult but in the early c. 8th the
Moravians were introduced to Christianity by Frankish and Byzantine missionaries.
After the Avars were defeated by Charlemagne between 792 and 796, he rewarded the Moravians for their help by giving
them a part of the Avar realm, which they held as a fief, becoming loosely tributary to him for all their lands. The first
mention of the Moravian Principality is in the Annales Regni Francorum in 822 CE. Their first named Duke of Moravia was
Mojmir, who may have been of Alanian origin, and who ruled from 830–846. In 833 Mojmir’s men conquered the
neighbouring Principality of Nitra located in modern-day Slovakia. In the 840’s, Mojmir took advantage of a civil war within
the Carolingian Empire to attempt to throw off the yoke of Frankish overlordship. He was, however, unsuccessful and was
deposed by Louis the German, the King of East Francia in 846. The Franks placed Mojmir’s relative Rastislav on the throne
in his place. This latter ruler expanded the Moravian borders and was, by 855, strong enough to repel a series of Frankish
attacks.
In 863, the Byzantine Emperor Michael III despatched the missionaries Cyril and Methodius to Moravia. They brought with
them the Slavic liturgy and the Cyrillic script. By adopting closer ties with Constantinople, Rastislav hoped to gain support
against a Frankish-Bulgarian alliance against Moravia.
In 870, Rastislav was deposed by Svatopluk I of Moravia (later “Svatopluk the Great”), who fought the Franks until
concluding a peace treaty at Forchhein in 874. After this, Svatopluk was able to expand his territories and Moravia reached
its maximum territorial extent during the last years of his reign, when in 855 King Arnulf of East Francia "gave the command
of the Bohemians to King Svatopluk of the Moravian Slavs." After this, Svatopluk styled himself King of Great Moravia
and was recognised by the Pope as King of the Slavs. At its largest extent, Greater Moravia included Moravia, Bohemia and
Wislania, and possibly parts of Silesia, Lusatia, Transtheissia and Pannonia.

After Svatopluk's death in 894, the Bohemians broke away from the Moravian Empire, becoming direct subjects of King
Arnulf, instead, and a period of sharp decline followed. King Arnulf intervened in a Moravian civil war, invading in 898 and
899. In 900 a large Magyar army invaded and ravaged Moravia and the kingdom fell sometime between 902 and 907 CE.
Army Notes
The structure of the Moravian army was based on an early feudal conception of military service, performed primarily by the
ruling elites. A Moravian army was led by the prince or, in his absence, by a commander-in-chief called a voivode. Subordinate
clan chieftains were called zupans. The maximum size of the Moravian army is estimated at 20,000–30,000 men.
The core of the Great Moravian army was a princely retinue named the družina, comprising professional warriors, who were
responsible for collecting tribute and punishing wrongdoers. The družina consisted of members of the aristocracy ("older
retinue") and members of the princely military groups ("younger retinue"). Some of its members formed a permanent armed
guard for the prince, while the rest were garrisoned at forts or at other strategic points.
The heavier Moravian cavalry emulated the contemporary Frankish predecessors of knights, with the expensive equipment
that only the highest social strata could afford. Cavalry were armed with a spear, javelins and a sword with only the wealthiest
having access to armour. The overall size of the družina is estimated at 3,000–5,000 men. In the case of larger mobilisations,
cavalry was reinforced by additional smaller units known as občina, recruited from the retinues of local magnates and from
traditional communities. Frankish knights are also mentioned as being present in the court of Svatopluk I and Svatopluk II.
The second element of the army (pohotovosť) consisted of lower classes of free citizens who were not, in most cases,
professional warriors. However, thanks to their large numbers and familiarity with weapons, they represented a serious
military force. They were utilised mainly in the defence of Greater Moravian territory, rather than in wars of expansion. The
most characteristic weapon of a foot soldier was a single-handed hatchet with a short shaft of a specific shape, called a
bradatica. Other weapons could include a spear, 2–3 javelins and a round or rectangular shield. Archers formed an important
element of the infantry.
Sources
Armies of the Dark Ages 600-1066 by Ian Heath, a Wargames Research Group Publication
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moravia
Great Moravia, Statehood and Archaeology The ‘Decline and Fall’ of One Early Medieval Polity, by Ivo Štefan

Early Polish
This list covers armies of Pre-Christian Poland (c.900–966), the Duchy of Poland under Mieszko I and Boleslaw Chrobry
(966–1025) and the Kingdom of Poland under Boleslaw Chrobry and Mieszko II (1025–1038) up to the Peasant Uprising
and Brzetyslaw's (Prince of Bohemia) atttack on Poland (1040 CE).
Generals
Heroes 3–6 – 1
Pancerni (cavalry of the Drużyna)
Light cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
0–1 7+ 6
veteran
Tarczownicy (Drużyna infantry) Shieldwall, deep, veteran, extra 2HCCW 1–3 6+ 14
Shieldwall, deep, raw 4–10 8+ 7
Peasant infantry
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, raw with extra bow Any 7+ 9
Archers Light infantry other, bow, raw 1–3 9+ 3
Allies
Pechenegs, Vikings, Bohemians, Hungarians, Kiev Rus’.
We know almost nothing about the first Piast rulers. They were rulers of a small tribe called the Polanie, whose land was in
central Greater Poland, around Poznan, Gniezno and Giecz. During the first half of the c. 10th, they managed to conquer
the whole of Greater Poland, Kujawy and possibly Pommerania and Masovia. The first leader that we know anything was
Mieszko I. In 966, he accepted Christianity as the main religion of his country. During his reign, he managed to halt the
Germans at the Oder River and conquered Western Pomerania, Lesser Poland and Silesia. Mieszko died in 992.
His son Bolesław succeeded him as the new ruler of Poland. Initially, he pursued a friendly policy towards the Holy Roman
Empire but after the death of Otto III relations deteriorated and a long war broke out (1002–1018). Boleslaw conquered
Saxony, Moravia, Slovakia, the Cherven cities and, briefly, Bohemia. In 1018 he captured Kiev, setting up his son-in-law
Światopełek I on the Rus’ throne. Just before his death (1025), he was crowned the first king of Poland.
After him, Mieszko II (his son) became the king of Poland. He probably banished his brothers (Brzetysław and Otto) from
the country at the beginning of his rule and tried to continue his father’s policies. Continuous wars, an increase in the size
and cost of the Druzyna led to a crisis of the state during the second part of Mieszko II’s reign. Poland’s neighbours
(Bohemia, Kiev Rus’ and the Holy Roman Empire) joined the counterattack. Mieszko II lost the crown for a short period
of time to his brother Bezprym, who was supported by Jaroslaw the Wise (the Prince of Rus’). He managed to take back the
throne after Bezprym was assassinated, but the Holy Roman Emperor prepared for war against Mieszko. Deprived of an
alternative, Mieszko surrendered the crown and agreed to divide the country between three claimants: himself, Otto and
Dytryk, who was the son of one of Bolesław I’s brothers. Mieszko II died in 1034, leaving the country considerably
weakened.
Kazimierz I, son of Mieszko II, became the new ruler of Poland. He tried to strengthen the royal power, which was met
with opposition by the magnates. The prince was banished to Hungary, from whence he later left for Germany. Chaos
reigned in the country. Lack of central power resulted in arbitrariness and even the creation of an independent state within
its territory (Miecław in Mazovia). In 1038, Poland was at the end of its existence for the first time. A peasant uprising broke
out and the Czech prince Brzetyslaw invaded the country, ruining it completely. In 1040, Kazimierz returned to Poland,
supported by German and Rus’ knights. Instead of maintaining a permanent Druzyna, he began the custom of giving land
to knights in exchange for military service.
Army Notes

The army of the first Piasts consisted of two elements, the professional army and levies. The Drużyna (professional army)
itself consisted of two elements: Pancerni (cavalry) and Tarczownicy (infantry). Pancerni were typical cavalry of that period,
but well equipped and trained. They fought mounted, armed with spears, swords, axes and long shields. Tarczownicy were
heavy infantry. Those units were supported by archers both mounted and on foot. The Drużyna were mostly professional
soldiers or mercenaries, typically Vikings, Kiev Rus’ or Pechenegs. These warriors were exclusively dependent on the prince,
who provided their armaments, livelihoods and paid their wages. The Drużyna was garrisoned in key locations around the
country, except for the elite which accompanied the ruler and consisted of the Starsza, the most important noblemen forming
the ruler's war council, and the Młodsza who were younger men, the best soldiers in the country.
The levy army was mostly of peasants on foot, with some cavalry.
With many thanks to Bartosz Żynda who wrote this list!

Eastern Frankish
This list covers the Eastern Franks of the Ottonian dynasty from 912 BCE, when Henry the Fowler became Duke of Saxony,
until the death of the childless Henry II (1024 CE).
Generals Attached, mounted general 2–4 2+ 5
Heroes 2–4 – 1
3–6*, 6–
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
10**
Frankish milites (soldiers) Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry lance, veteran 0–2 6+ 11
Upgrade cavalry, lance or lance, veteran with one
Any – +1
extra javelin
Light cavalry, javelin 1–3 7+ 5
Thuringian milites Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
0–1 6+ 6
veteran
Bohemian or Lotharingian Cavalry, lance 0–3** 7+ 9
milites Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw Any 8+ 7
Swabians Shieldwall, deep, 2HCCW 0–2** 7+ 11
Mercenaries Shieldwall, deep 0–4** 7+ 10
Shieldwall, deep, raw 4–8*, 0–4** 8+ 7
Heerbann (militia)
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, raw with extra bow Any 8+ 9
Citizen levy Mobs, deep 0–3* 8+ 7
Archers Bowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Skirmishers
* Before 940.
** After 940, when Lotharingia had been absorbed into the Ottonian territories, giving the army greater resources.
Allies
Bohemians, German Marches, Italian Marches, Later Lombards.
Henry the Fowler became Duke of Saxony in 912 CE and was crowned King Henry I of East Francia in 919. He was
supported by the Franconian, Bavarian, Swabian and Lotharingian dukes, and led a German army to victory over the
Hungarians at the Battle of Riade in 933.
Henry's son, Otto I ("the Great"), was crowned in 936. He greatly extended the kingdom, taking control of much of central
and southern Europe. His armies achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, which brought
an end to the Hungarian invasions of Europe, in recognition of which he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope
in 962. Otho's successors, Otto II and III, both died relatively young. Henry II, the last of the Ottonian dynasty, became
king in 1002, campaigned in Poland and Italy and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1014. After his death in 1024,
without a successor, the rule of kingdom passed to the Salian Frankish dynasty.
Army Notes
At the start of the period, the forces available to Henry looked much the same as those in the Carolingian armies at the end
of their empire. In the early period, infantry gained an increased importance. The Magyars were a continual major threat and
had to be paid tribute lest they raid the kingdom. Ultimately, to counter these raiders, the kingdom's military emphasis
switched back to the use of heavy cavalry. It was such an army won the great victory over the Magyars at Lechfeld in 955.
Many thanks to Philip Garton who wrote this list!

Feudal German
This list covers the armies of the various German kings and nobles, starting with the accession of the first Salian Emperor,
Conrad II, in 1024 CE. It ends with the death of Henry VII of Luxembourg in 1313, which marked a significant decline in
Imperial aspirations in the Italian peninsula.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
1VP standard – 2
Standard 0–1^
2VP standard (Emperor's standard) – 3
Household knights
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Any** 5+ 13
Feudal knights
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, deep Up to 1/2** 6+ 16
Ministeriales, burghers
Knights, lance, deep 1–4** 6+ 16
Knights, lance 0–3*** 6+ 11
Mercenary men–at–arms
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 13
Mounted crossbows Light cavalry, crossbow 0–2 8+ 5
Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran Up to 1/2** 6+ 9
Mercenary infantry Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, veteran with extra
Any** – +2
crossbow
Shieldwall, deep with 2HCCW 0–2 7+ 11
Feudal spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen Up to 1/2 7
7+
Upgrade spearmen with extra crossbow Any 9
Spearmen, raw 0–6 5
8+
Upgrade spearmen, raw with extra crossbow Any 7
City militia spearmen
Upgrade spearmen, raw with extra hero (representing
0–3 8+ 6
Low Countries spearmen armed with plançon à picot)
Shieldwall, deep, raw 0–2 8+ 7
Heerbann (militia)
Downgrade shieldwall, raw to mob, deep Any*** 8+ 7
Crossbowmen, raw 0–4 9+ 5
Crossbowmen Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen 0–2** 8+ 7
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavise Any*** – 8
Skirmishers
Light infantry other, crossbow 0–2 8+ 4
Camp Camp 1–3 8+ 1
Wagenberg (wagon laager) Camp fortifications 0–5*** – 1
^ If the Emperor is present, then a standard must be carried by his bodyguard unit.
* Before 1150.
** After 1150.
*** After 1250.

Allies
TBC.
Notes
During the attempted siege of Damascus, the German knights dismount to take the river shore “as is their habit” (William
of Tyre) so it seems reasonable that at least some German knights in the same period should also be able to dismount.
Accordingly, up to two units of knights may dismount as Knights, 2HCCW.
Initially, the German kings were dependent on their feudal retinues, which were relatively small, and the forces of the various
cities and bishops' territories within their domains. The bishops and nobles often saw themselves as relatively independent
of the crown and did not always provide the forces requested. Flanders was an example of a territory that resented the
imperial demands, and its forces were not always willing to engage in campaigning. The failure of Henry the Lion, of Bavaria,
to send troops to support Frederick's campaign in Italy is given as one reason for his defeat at Legnano in 1176. During this
period, the old feudal structures for the maintenance of militias went into decline and the quality of the forces provided by
the nobles and bishops was eroded. Slowly but surely, the emperors moved toward a reliance on increasing numbers of
mercenary troops.
Army Notes
Low Countries spearmen also carried the goedendag (Dutch for "good day"), a baseball bat-like shaft with a mace head
including an embedded steel spike, which proved highly effective against armoured opponents.
Feudal knights might owe allegiance to a bishop, a noble or the reigning monarch. Their allegiances often shifted depending
upon the prevailing politics at the time. Ministeriales were richer citizens that had the wealth to adopt the equipment and
trappings of knighthood but without the title.
As the proficiency of the feudal troops declined it was noted that German knights began to manoeuvre in large masses. This
decline is best represented by making their units deep rather than less effective in combat. Those veterans and mercenaries
that made a living from war did not suffer the same loss of efficiency.
Many thanks to Philip Garton who wrote this list!

Feudal Polish
This list covers the Polish armies from the introduction of Feudalism, around 1040 CE, until the coronation of Wladyslaw
I the Elbow-High in 1320.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Royal Banner 1VP standard 0–1 – +2
Cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1 7+ 11
Chorągiew przyboczna ("the main
banner") Upgrade cavalry, javelin, veteran to knights, lance,
All* 6+ 13
veteran
Pospolite ruszenie ("grand Cavalry, javelin 2–4 7+ 9
muster") cavalry or knights Upgrade cavalry, javelin to knights, lance All* 6+ 11
Russian cavalry Cavalry, lance 0–1** 7+ 11
Lithuanians Light cavalry, javelin 0–1** 7+ 5
Hungarians or Cumans Light cavalry, bow 0–1** 8+ 5
Spearmen, deep, extra bow or crossbow*** 2–5 7+ 12
Piechota zaciężna (mercenary Upgrade spearmen, deep, extra bow or crossbow***
foot) or household foot to spearmen, deep, extra bow or crossbow***, 0–1 6+ 15
veteran
Town militia Spearmen, deep, raw, extra bow or crossbow*** 1–3 7+ 9
Strzelcy "shooters" Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry 0–1***, 1–
8+ 4
other, crossbow 2**
* After 1200
** After 1242
*** After 1150
Allies
Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, Pomeranians, Teutonic Order.
Notes
Knights may not dismount.
Poland barely survived the disaster of the first Piast dynasty, anti-Christian uprising, and the devastating invasion of the
Bohemian prince Bretislav I (1038). However, a power vacuum did not suit either of Poland’s two strong neighbours, the
Holy Roman Empire and Kievan Rus, so both countries helped Kazimierz the Restorer to restore order in the country.
After a quick campaign, he regained Lesser and Greater Poland. Since Greater Poland was completely devastated, he chose
Krakow in Lesser Poland as the new capital. After that, he started a war with Bohemia over Silesia, which ended in 1054
with the return of Silesia to Poland, in exchange for an annual tribute. In 1047, with the help of Kievan Rus he regained
Masovia.
After the death of Kazimierz, Bolesław II the Bold became the ruler of Poland. In 1060 he broke the treaty with Bohemia
and started a new war in Kievan Russ and Hungary, where he installed friendly rulers. A Saxon uprising in Germany, and
the conflict between Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII, allowed Bolesław to become independent from Imperial
control. He supported the Pope, and in return, was crowned king in 1076. Bolesław's run of successes, however, was halted

by a conflict with Stanislaw of Szczepanowo, Bishop of Cracow. The bishop’s martyrdom at Boleslaw’s own hands led to a
revolt of the nobles which forced Bolesław to flee to Hungary, where he died, most likely murdered, in 1081.
Władysław I Herman, Bolesław’s brother, became the new ruler. He settled the dispute with Bohemia by paying the tribute
for Silesia and made peace with the emperor. During his reign, the real power in the country was in the hands of his palatine
(senior official), Sieciech. In 1092 Władysław stopped paying tribute to Bohemia, resulting in a new conflict. Bretislav II of
Bohemia attacked Silesia at the same time as Wladyslaw’s oldest son Zbigniew started a rebellion against his father and
Sieciech. The civil war finished in 1096. Zbigniew received Greater Poland, Bolesław III the Wrymouth (the younger son)
received Silesia and Władysław kept Lesser Poland and Mazovia for himself. Płock became the administrative centre of the
country.
The peace was short and soon, both sons again opposed Sieciech. The fighting lasted until 1101 and ended in his overthrow.
Władysław died a year later. Bolesław and Zbigniew divided the country again. The former took Greater Poland and Masovia,
and the latter Silesia and Lesser Poland. Both were equal and maintained their own contradictory foreign policies, eventually
leading to a further conflict. A war between them in 1103-1106 ended with Bolesław as victor. He became the sole ruler,
whilst Zbigniew became a dependent prince and was later forced to flee the country. Bolesław decided to cooperate closely
with Hungary and oppose the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1109, Imperial troops attacked Poland. As the German forces were
much stronger than the Poles, Bolesław resorted to guerrilla warfare, attacking the supply lines and isolated units. In 1111
Bolesław achieved peace with Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, allowing him to concentrate all his efforts on
Pomerania. He conquered Gdansk Pomerania in 1019, and, in 1021, Western Pomerania. In 1031 he failed to intervene in
Hungary, which forced him to seek support from the German emperor. In 1030 he supported the Antipope Anicetus II,
which turned out to be a serious mistake as he later had to pay tribute to the emperor to regain the independence of the
Polish church (1035).
Bolesław died in 1138. In his will, he divided the country between all his sons, leading to what has become known as the
Fragmentation Period. In the division, each of the sons received his own district and the oldest of them also received the
so-called senior district, becoming the senior duke who was to rule over the others. Unfortunately, over time, the idea of
princypat (the rule of the senior duke) was abandoned. The fragmentation of Poland's lands gradually increased, as did the
separatism of the district principalities. There were no supra-district offices or laws. By the middle of the c. 13th, Poland
consisted of a dozen or so principalities, without any central authority. The fragmentation period was a period of internal
struggles for power and territory between rival princes.
In the period between 1227 and 1320, two important events occurred that influenced the future of Poland. The first was the
Tartar invasion in 1241, which ended in the defeat of the Christian army near Legnica. This decreased the strength of the
Silesian princes and delayed the unification of Poland by perhaps 80 years. The second was the 1226 invitation of the
Teutonic Order to Poland, to defend the northern borders against the invasions of pagan Prussians and Yotvingians. In less
than one hundred years, the Order would become the archenemy of the Kingdom of Poland.
Army Notes
As we move into the feudal period, the Drużyna of the previous period was abandoned. However, the ruler, whether a
prince, dux or king, still retained the best knights by his side in the chorągiew przyboczna (“main banner'). Land was now
divided between the nobles, who were obliged to respond to their ruler's call in a pospolite ruszenie (“grand muster”). The
ratio of heavy cavalry to infantry increased during this period.
Each banner included both heavily and more lightly equipped knights, with the former in the front ranks and the latter,
behind. Knights were responsible for their own equipment, leading to wide variations in the quality of their protective gear,
which could be western or eastern in style. Plate armour did not become common until after the end of the period covered
by this list.
There were two kinds of infantry units; melee infantry armed with spears and shields, and shooters, organised in separate
units of archers and, increasingly from the mid c. 12th onwards, crossbowmen.
Sources
Osprey Medieval Polish 966–1500

Early Swiss
This list covers the Swiss from their revolt against Count Rudolf of Hapsburg (1240 CE) until they reduced their dependence
on halberds in favour of the pike, after their defeat at Arbedo in 1422 CE.
Attached, heroic general on foot 2–4 3+ 4
Swiss generals
Upgrade to senior 0-1 – +1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Swiss mounted crossbowmen Light cavalry other, crossbow 0–1 8+ 5
Billmen 0–2 7+ 7
Upgrade billmen to billmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Billmen, extra deep 4–8 7+ 14
Swiss halberdiers
Upgrade billmen, extra deep to billmen, extra deep,
Up to half 6+ 18
veteran
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any* – +1
Swiss "enfants perdus" Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–2 8+ 3
Swiss skirmishers Light infantry other, crossbow 2–4 8+ 4
* Swiss pike were not usually mounted, however classing them as such models the disciplined forced march to the
battlefield that often enabled the Swiss to surprise their sleeping opponents.
Notes
Swiss armies were led by a committee, which we treat as senior general.
The Swiss adopted the unusually deep "Keil" formation – these are described under Field Squares in the Even Stronger
supplement.
The Old Swiss Confederacy, also known as the Swiss Confederation, was a loose confederation of independent states in
Central Europe that existed from the late Middle Ages until the 19th century. The foundation and history of the Old Swiss
Confederacy up to 1430 can be traced back to several key events and developments that shaped the political, social, and
economic landscape of the region.
The origins of the Old Swiss Confederacy can be traced back to the 13th century, when various Swiss towns and regions
formed alliances for mutual protection and trade. The earliest of these alliances was the League of the Ten Jurisdictions,
which was formed in 1291 by the towns of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. The League was based on a mutual defence pact,
and its members pledged to support each other in times of war. It laid the groundwork for further alliances and cooperation
among Swiss towns and regions.
At Morgarten in 1315 a small force of Swiss Confederates ambushed a much larger force of Austrians led by Duke Leopold
who were marching along a narrow track between a steep slope and a swamp. The Austrians were unable to deploy and
perhaps 1,500–2,000 were killed for the loss of only a handful of Swiss. The victory cemented the independence and
autonomy of the Swiss regions, and it helped to establish the Confederacy as a major player in Central European politics.
Between 1332 and 1353 Lucerne, followed by Zurich (1351), Glarus and Zug (1352) and Bern (1353) joined the
confederation, completing the Bund der Acht Orte or "Confederacy of the Eight Cantons.”
In 1386 an Old Swiss Confederacy force consisting of contingents from Lucerne, Uri, Schweiz and Unterwalden met a rather
larger Austrian army led by Duke Leopold III at the Battle of Sempech. The Austrian men-at-arms dismounted to fight but
after hard fighting were overcome by the Swiss halberdiers. The duke and many nobles were killed in the fighting and
subsequent rout.
By the early c. 15th, the Old Swiss Confederacy had expanded to include 13 member states. These states were largely
independent, but they were united by a common commitment to mutual defence and cooperation.
At the Battle of Arbedo in 1422 the Swiss encountered a large Milanese army led by the condottieri Carmagnola. After an
initial mounted charge was repulsed by the Swiss, the Italian knights dismounted to attack on foot, supported by
crossbowmen, and using the knights’ lances as improvised pikes. The outnumbered Swiss were pushed back. Luckily for

them, the return of a group of Swiss foragers distracted the Italians for just long enough to enable them to retreat from the
battlefield.
Army Notes
During this period, the Swiss were predominately armed with simple but brutally effective short-poled halberds. In the
aftermath of the Battle of Arbedo, however, the Swiss increased the proportion of pikemen in their army relative to the
halberdiers. This army is modelled in the Later Swiss list.
The Swiss are not an army for the fainthearted! A true son of the cantons will maximise the number of heroes, force march and use group moves
to try win the battle before he is, inevitably, outflanked.

Later Medieval German
This list covers the armies of the Holy Roman Empire from the election of Louis IV, Duke of Bavaria as Holy Roman
Emperor in 1314, until the replacement of Feudal men-at-arms by lighter cavalry and the introduction of pikemen (c. 1450).
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
1VP standard – 2
Standard 0–1
2VP Emperor's standard – 3
Knights, lance, deep*** 1–3 6+ 16
Ritter and ministeriales (knights) Up to

Upgrade knights, lance, deep to later knights, lance,
1/2****, 1/2 6+ 21
deep***
or more^
Mercenary men–at–arms Up to
Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 1/2****, 1/2 6+ 14
or more^
Diener (retainers) Cavalry, crossbow 1–2 8+ 9
Hungarians Light cavalry, bow 0–2** 8+ 5
1–5****, 0–
Spearmen 7+ 7
3^
Mercenary spearmen Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran Up to 1/2 6+ 9
Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, veteran with extra
Any – +2
crossbow
2–5****, 2–
Spearmen, raw 8+ 5
3^
City militia spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen, raw or spearmen with extra
Any – +2
crossbow
Low Countries spearmen Spearmen 0–3 7+ 7
Halberdiers Billmen 0–1 7+ 7
Crossbowmen 8+ 7
0–6
Light infantry other, crossbow 8+ 4
Crossbowmen
Upgrade crossbowmen to veteran 0–2 7+ 9
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavise Any – +1
Archers Bowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Light infantry other, bow
Skirmishers 1–3 8+ 4
Light infantry other, handgun*
Heerbann (militia) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Carrocchio War wagons (crossbows) 0–1**** 7+ 13
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–1* 7+ 7
Light guns Artillery (organ guns) 0–1 7+ 7
Wagenberg (wagon laager) Fortifications 0–5 – 1

* Only after 1375.
*** German feudal knights fought in unusually deep formations with the better armoured knights on the outside edges
and the lesser armoured in the centre. In TtS! they have three hits, and the usual deep unit restrictions apply.
**** Only before 1350.
^ Only after 1351.
Allies
Hungarian**, Swiss
Notes
Knights may choose to start a dismounted, in which case they replace their lances with 2HCCW. Should knights (deep)
dismount then their cost is reduced to 11 and their hits to two, and should later knights (deep) dismount, their cost is reduced
to 14 points and their hits to 2. In either case, they are no longer deep. Generals must be attached to units of men-at-arms.
If the Emperor is present, his standard must be with his unit.
The carrocchio represents the wagons with religious standards that were sometimes brought onto the battlefield; it must be
manned with crossbowmen.
I am grateful to Bevan Marchand who provided the first version of this list.

Later Medieval Polish
This list covers the armies of the Kingdom of Poland from the coronation of Wladyslaw I the Elbow-High in 1320 CE,
through to the battle of Konitz in 1454, including the first campaign of the Thirteen Years' War with the Teutonic Knights.
Upgrade to senior 0–1 2+ 6
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Royal Banner 2VP standard 0–1 – +3
Knights, lance, extra crossbow, deep, veteran 1–2 21
Knights of either the Krakow,
Upgrade knights, lance, extra crossbow, deep, veteran 5+
Gończa or Przyboczna banners 0–1**** 25
to later knights, lance, extra crossbow, deep, veteran
Knights of Greater and Lesser Knights, lance, extra crossbow 2–6 13
Poland, Kujawy and Upgrade knights, lance, extra crossbow to later 6+
mercenaries 0–1**** 16
knights, lance, extra crossbow
Knights of Masovia and Knights, lance, extra crossbow, raw 1–4 11
Ruthenia and Lithuanians from Upgrade knights, lance, extra crossbow, raw to later 7+
Troki and Vilna. 0–1**** 14
knights, lance, extra crossbow, raw
Lithuanians (not from Troki
and Vilna), Tartars or Light cavalry, bow 0–2 8+ 5
Moldavians
Spearmen, extra crossbow 0–3 7+ 9
Upgrade spearmen, extra crossbow to spearmen,
0–1 6+ 11
extra crossbow, veteran
Piechota zaciężna (mercenary
infantry) Replace spearmen, extra crossbow with billmen, extra
0–1 7+ 9
crossbow as Bohemians or Moravians
Replace spearmen, extra crossbow with billmen,
0–1** 7+ 9
deep, extra handgun
Spearmen, extra crossbow, raw 0–2 8+ 7
Town militiamen Upgrade spearmen, extra crossbow, raw to spearmen,
0–1 7+ 9
extra crossbow
Tabor (wagon–fortress) War wagons, deep 0–2*** 7+ 13
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1** 8+ 4
Wagenberg (wagon laager) Camp fortifications 0–5 – 1
* From 1385 onwards.
*** From 1430 onwards.
**** From 1425 onwards
Allies
Hungarians (except 1387–1412, when the Hungarian King Sigismund of Luxembourg supported the Teutonic Knights and
1420–1440, when the Poles supported the Hussites), Lithuanians (except 1340–1385, when Poland warred with Lithuania
over Ruthenia), Hussites (1420–1434).
Notes

There must be at least two mounted Polish units for each Polish infantry unit. Should the Royal standard be taken, it must
be carried by the most senior mounted unit (for game purposes, the most expensive!). It was usually carried by the knights
of the Krakow banner.
By the end of the c. 13th, the strongest Polish warlords started efforts to unite the broken regions into a single state.
Unification was finally achieved by Władysław I the Elbow-High who managed to join the two major parts of Poland:
Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) and Lesser Poland (Małopolska). Danzig Pomerania was lost to the Teutonic Knights in
1309. Masovia and Silesia were divided into many duchies, some of which remained loyal to the Bohemian king. After
Wenceslaus II, the Bohemian kings considered themselves to be the legitimate kings of Poland. That, alongside the aggressive
Teutonic Order, left Poland with two strong and dangerous neighbours. Władysław therefore sought an ally and married his
daughter to the King of Hungary. In 1320 he was crowned as king of Poland, however neither the Bohemians nor the
Teutonic Order recognised him, instead referring to him as the king of Cracow. In 1327, Władysław started a war against
Masovia which led to war against Bohemia and the Teutons. That war ended with an armistice in 1332 with Poland
surrendering Kujawy and Ziemia Dobrzyńska to the Teutonic Order.
In 1333, Władysław died and was succeeded by his only surviving son, Kazimierz III. The country was devastated – most
of the regions had their own laws and there was now a lack of unity. Kazimierz (later known as Kazimierz the Great) first
normalised relations with the Kingdom of Bohemia. He bought the title of King of Poland from the Bohemian King and
renounced his rights to Silesia. Next, he signed a peace treaty with the Teutonic Order to recover Kujawy and Ziemia
Dobrzyńska, although Danzig Pomerania was left with the Order as 'perpetual alms.’
A peaceful Poland finally had time for reforms. In just few years, Kazimierz managed to reform the army, laws and achieve
national unity. This provoked nervousness in the Kingdom of Bohemia, which saw a strong Poland as a threat. Relations
were not helped when Kazimierz made diplomatic overtures to Louis IV of the Holy Roman Empire, a rival to King John
of Bohemia. The consequence was a war with Bohemia (1345–1348), which was won by Polish knights with Hungarian
support. However, Kazimierz expected support from Louis that never materialised, which pushed him to leave Wittelsbach
and approach the Luxembourgs. That finally brought peace to the southern Polish border.
After taking control of the duchies of Masovia, Kazimierz decided to also take over Ruthenia, which brought him into
conflict with Lithuania. There was an agreement between Poland and Hungary that if Kazimierz died with no male heir, the
king of Hungary would become the new king of Poland, but there was no such close alliance with Lithuania. The Grand
Duchy of Lithuania had control over most of the Ruthenian duchies and controlled the current territories of Lithuania,
Belarus and most of the Ukraine. They had plundered Polish duchies many times in the past. Władysław tried to bring this
conflict to an end by marrying Aldona Anna (daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania) in 1325. Relative peace
existed whilst Aldona Anna lived, but after her death in 1339, the situation began to deteriorate and in 1340 the first of
several wars began. With Hungarian assistance, Poland conquered Volhynia and Podolia, which became part of the state for
many years.
In 1370, Kazimierz died in a hunting accident and Louis I of Hungary became the new king of Poland. He ruled Poland
personally through regents, initially his mother Elżbieta (sister to Kazimierz the Great) and later through a group of three
nobles: the bishop of Krakow, the castellan of Krakow and the voivode of Kalisz. During his rule there were several civil
wars between nobles, the most famous of which was fought between the families of Grzymalici and Nałęcza. Fortunately,
since the Teutonic Order busy was fighting against Lithuania, these internal conflicts were not exploited by Poland’s enemies.
Louis I died in 1382 and, because he did not have a son, was succeeded by his daughter Jadwiga in 1384. She was crowned
King (rather than Queen) of Poland, because according to Polish law a queen could not rule the country. The Polish nobles
sought a husband for her. They chose Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. During this time Poland had still two enemies:
Bohemia and the Teutonic Order. While the former was kept in check by an alliance with Hungary, the latter presented a
grave threat to Poland. The Teutonic Order dug into Pomerania and Prussia and became the main player on the Baltic Sea
region. The obvious ally for Poland against the Order was Lithuania.
In 1385 Poland and Lithuania agreed a union in Krewo and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, became the King of
Poland when he married Jadwiga (who now became Queen of Poland). He was also baptised and took Władysław as his
Christian name. This union was the first step in the creation of the future Commonwealth. However, it did not start easily.
As Jogaila became the King of Poland, the problem of who would rule Lithuania as regent presented itself. Jogaila appointed
his brother Skirgaila, but that was met with resistance by Vytautas. This led to civil war in Lithuania from 1389–1392, which
ended with the agreement that Vytautas would become the Grand Duke of Lithuania, but Jogaila would be his overlord.
Vytautas conducted independent internal and foreign affairs but cooperated with Jogaila. This was confirmed by further
agreements in 1401 in Radom and in 1413 in Horodlo. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained its sovereignty.
The alliance with Lithuania presented a grave threat to the Order, which became even more serious when an anti-Teutonic
uprising broke out in Samogitia in 1409. King Władysław, together with Vytautas, caused the uprising to provoke the Order

to declare war on Poland and Lithuania. Thanks to Władysław’s clever diplomatic manoeuvring, the Order declared war in
1409 and Poland and Lithuania were prepared to defend against them. The main campaign of that war started during the
summer of 1410. Poland and Lithuania decisively won the Battle of Grunwald (1410), however Polish forces were unable to
capture the Order’s capital of Marienburg. The war ended in a status quo with Lithuania getting the Samogitia back.
Władysław had several subsequent wars with the Order, but each time the Polish forces entered the Order’s territory, the
Teutonic Knights withdrew to their castles, which Władysław could not capture due to his lack of infantry. Even the help
of the Hussites during the war of 1431–1435 did not change the situation. Only unimportant castles were conquered, whilst
the principal strongholds remained in the hands of the Order.
When Władysław died in 1343, his son, also called Władysław (later known as Władysław III of Varna) succeeded him. At
the beginning of his reign, he actively supported the Hussites against the Luxembourgians and Habsburgs to seize the
Bohemian throne. The Hussites had first proposed the Bohemian throne to Władysław Jogaila, but he refused, and their
second choice, Vytautas, died in 1430. In 1440 Władysław III was elected King of Hungary by the Hungarian parliament to
ensure Poland's help in defending against the threat from the Ottoman Empire. The subsequent war with the Ottomans
(1443–1444) ended disastrously at the Battle of Varna (1444), where Władysław perished.
After a three-year interregnum, Kazimierz (the youngest brother of Władysław III, and Grand Duke of Lithuania since 1440)
was elected as the new King of Poland. Conflict with the Teutonic Order began to flare up again. The Teutonic Knights
imposed high duties on Polish goods and restricted trade with the Pomeranian cities. Polish foreign trade and cities lying on
the Vistula and Baltic Sea suffered from these policies the most. In response, the cities of Pomerania and Prussia formed a
union called the Prussian Confederation and attempted to negotiate tariff rates with the Grand Master. When this failed,
they turned to the King of Poland for protection. When the king assented, war broke out between supporters of the Prussian
Confederation, backed by Poland, and the Teutonic Order. In the first year of the Thirteen Years’ War (1454–1466) the
Polish army was defeated by a Teutonic Order mercenary army at the Battle of Chojnice (or Konitz). This marked the end
of the Polish military system created by Kazimierz the Great. During the long war, the Polish army evolved into an early
Renaissance army that eventually proved victorious and Danzig Pomerania was, at last, recovered by Poland.
Army Notes
Until the beginning of the c. 14th, Polish military tactics resembled German tactics, except that Polish armies fielded a higher
ratio of cavalry to infantry than their Holy Roman equivalents. Poland was less urbanised than many western countries and
produced more cavalry as a result.
By the c. 14th, some infantry (most notably from Bohemia) had begun to adopt heavier weapons to better deal with
increasingly heavier armoured knights. This paved the way for Hussites' famous use of heavy flails and all sorts of nasty
polearms. The legendary Hussite leader Jan Žižka served as mercenary in Polish army for several years.
Based on “Polish Banners at Grunwald” (Klein, Sekunda and Czernielewski) it does not appear that there were any Polish
foot at Grunwald, so I’ve removed the compulsory foot from this list. In addition, they write that all of the Polish Banners
were all on the same frontage, meaning that the larger banners must have been deep due to the number of men in the unit,
so I have made the banners of Krakow etc, deep units.
This list, and the accompanying historical background, was written by Bartosz Żynda– many thanks! It was edited by Mateusz Staszek, Simon
and Harry Miller.

Hussite
This list covers the Hussite armies from the beginning of the Hussite (or Bohemian) Wars (1419 CE) until their end in 1434.
Upgrade to heroic 2-4 3+ –
Upgrade a senior, heroic, attached foot general to
great leader as Jan Žižka ("John the one–eyed") only
0–1^^ 3+ 9
between 1419 and 1424 or as Prokop Veliký ("Prokop
the Great") only between 1426 and 1434
Heroes Heroes 3–5 – 1
Army standard 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Knights, lance 0–2^ 6+ 11
Bohemian knights
Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Any or all 6+ 14
Cavalry, lance, raw 1–2 8+ 7
Hussite cavalry
Upgrade cavalry, lance, raw to cavalry, lance Any or all* 7+ 9
Light cavalry, lance, raw 1–2 8+ 4
Light cavalry
Upgrade light cavalry, lance, raw to light cavalry, lance Any or all* 7+ 5
Light cavalry, crossbow, raw 0–2 9+ 4
Mounted crossbows Upgrade light cavalry, crossbow, raw to light cavalry,
Any or all* 8+ 5
crossbow
War wagons, deep, raw 5–10*** 8+ 10
War wagons Upgrade war wagons, deep, raw to war wagons, deep Any or all* 7+ 13
Upgrade war wagons, deep to war wagons, deep,
Up to 1/2** 6+ 16
veteran
Billmen, raw 1–4 8+ 5
Upgrade billmen, raw to billmen Any or all* 7+ 8
Hussite footmen Up to 1/2**,
Upgrade billmen to billmen, veteran 6+ 10
^
Upgrade any billmen to fanatics Any or all^^ –1 –
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen Any or all* 8+ 7
Hussite crossbowmen
Equip with pavises Any or all – 1
Replace crossbows with handguns Up to 1/3 – –
Light infantry, raw, crossbow or handguns 0–3 9+ 3
Hussite light infantry Upgrade light infantry, raw, crossbow or handguns to
Any or all* 8+ 4
light infantry, crossbow or handguns
Artillery (cannon) 7+ 7
Organ guns 0–2
Artillery (organ guns) 7+ 7
Camp Camp 1–3 8+ 1
Wagenberg (wagon laager) Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only from 1421.
** Only from 1424 or after.
*** Less than half of the war wagons may be armed with artillery (cannons) or (organ guns), and the remainder must be
armed with crossbows or handguns, with more crossbows than handguns.
^ Only the Ultraquist faction.
^^ Only the Taborite (radical) faction.

Allies
Polish, Lithuanian, Moravian
In 1415, the reforming Bohemian theologian, Jan Hus, was burned at the stake for heresy by the Catholic church, despite
having been given a safe conduct by the King of the Romans (not yet crowned Holy Roman Emperor), Sigismund of
Hungary. Religious, class and ethnic (Czech vs German) divisions in Bohemia came to a head with the “First Defenestration
of Prague” in 1419, when supporters of the (Catholic) King of Bohemia were thrown to their deaths from the windows of
the Town Hall. The King died shortly thereafter “of shock” and the Pope declared the first of what would ultimately be five
successive crusades against the followers of Hus.
There were many factions among the Hussite rebels, but the two chief ones were the more moderate Ultraquists and the
radical Taborites. The Hussite movement enjoyed support from much of the Czech nobility, but that was largely limited to
the Ultraquist faction. The key demands of the combined Hussite factions were summarized in the “Four Articles of Prague,”
prominent among them being the insistence that the laity receive communion “in both kinds,” the bread and the wine, “sub
utraque specie.” It is from this that the characteristic emblem of the Hussites, the chalice, derived. Their other common
emblem was the goose, a play on words based upon Huss and the Czech word for “goose.”
The bulk of the Hussite supporters and troops in both factions were townspeople and peasants. Lacking the armour and, at
least early on, the training of the Catholic crusaders, they could not hope to stand in the open field against them. The great
Hussite leader of the Taborites, Jan Zizka, devised a system of warfare where they could fight from the protection of
modified peasant carts, which could be quickly drawn up into a wagenburg fortress.
1st Crusade (1420): The battle of Sudomer was the first victory for the new wagenburg tactics. Ziska established a line of
wagons along a dam on a narrow causeway between fishponds and swamps. Unable to break through the line, and with the
Catholic flanking attacks literally bogging down in the mire, both sides suffered heavy losses, but it was the attackers who
ultimately broke. There were also battles at Battles of Vitkov Hill (1420), and of Vysehrad. These did not all involve
wagenburg tactics. The Hussites also proved quite successful at siege warfare.
The 2nd Crusade (1421–1422) was defeated by a decisive Hussite victory at Německý Brod. The Ultraquists and Taborites
then fell to fighting among themselves. At the battle of Hořice (1423), the Taborites under Ziska, now completely blind,
established their wagenburg in a strategic position atop a steep hill. The hill prevented the enemy artillery from firing uphill
at the formation, and the steepness prevented the Ultraquist knights from ascending it. After repeated attacks by dismounted
knights failed, Ziska unleashed his counterattack and swept the enemy from the field.
In the 3rd Crusade (1423–1424), the Hussites prevailed in several smaller conflicts whilst the German/Polish/
Lithuanian/Danish coalition against them fell apart. The Hussites invaded Moravia, where they had many sympathizers, but
ultimately the internal divisions of the Hussite factions prevented any lasting results. Ziska died in October 1424 and
ultimately Prokop the Great became the principal military leader of the Taborites.
At the battle of Aussig, during the 4th Crusade (1426–1427), the crusader knights are said to have used great axes and
hammers to break the chains binding the wagons. They were then, however, held by pavisers forming a second line of
defence, and the Hussite cavalry issued forth and struck the attackers in the rear, routing them. At the battle of Tachov
(1427) the crusaders first attempted to use their own war wagons but proved less proficient at this than the Hussites. The
Hussite leader Prokop the Great launched many “beautiful rides” into the German and other territories that had supplied
the preceding invasion forces, including Silesia, Saxony, Hungary, Lusatia, and Meissen, devastating the countryside. These
raids were designed to discourage further offensives against the Hussites, but no effort was made to take and hold territory.
The battle of Domalice, during the 5th Crusade (1431), resulted in the complete rout of the Catholic invasion army, who are
said to have fled as soon as they saw the Hussites advancing, singing their War Hymn, "Ye who are the Warriors of God".
The Hussites were undefeated until the Ultraquists and Taborites fell to fighting among themselves, and the latter were
crushed at the battle of Lipany in 1434. The Ultraquists then sought, and obtained, an accommodation (“compact”) with
the Catholic church, based upon the Four Articles of Prague, bringing the Hussite Wars to a close.
Army Notes
War wagons were reinforced on the outside and pierced with slits to facilitate shooting and had a drop-down ramp on the
other side, to permit the rotation/replacement of the fighting men. Each war wagon had a garrison of 16–22 soldiers: 4–8
crossbowmen, two handgunners, 6–8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails, two pavisers and two drivers. The favoured
melee weapon of the Hussites was the flail, which was familiar to the peasants from threshing and highly effective against
armoured foes. The Hussites were early adapters of both handguns and cannons, which were also particularly effective
against armour.
With many thanks to Peter Anderson, who wrote this list.

Later Swiss
This list covers the Swiss from their adoption of the pike in 1422 CE, until the beginning of the Italian Wars in 1494.
Swiss generals Attached heroic general on foot 2–4 3+ 4
Replace a heroic general on foot with a heroic
René II, Duke of Lorraine 0–1* 3+ 5
mounted general
Upgrade a general to senior 0–1 – +1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Lorrainer knights Later knights, lance, deep 0–2* 6+ 21
Swiss mounted crossbowmen Light cavalry, crossbow 0–1 8+ 5
Billmen, extra deep, veteran 3–8 17
At least 6+
Replace billmen, extra deep, veteran with pike, extra
1/2**, at 21
deep, veteran
least 3/4***
Swiss halberdiers and pikemen Replace billmen, extra deep, veteran with billmen,
Any**, all*** 6+ 9
veteran
Replace billmen or pike, veteran with billmen or pike,
0–1 7+ –
veteran, fanatics
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any**** – +1
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow to light 0–1**, 1-
8+ 4
Swiss skirmishers infantry other, handgun 2***
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow or handgun,
0–2 – +1
with extra 2HCCW
Captured Burgundian artillery Artillery (organ guns), raw 0–1*** 8+ 6
* Only from 1476–77. Lorrainer knights may not dismount and must be in a command led by René II, Duke of
Lorraine, whose command may only otherwise include Swiss mounted crossbowmen.
** Before 1476.
**** Classing Swiss infantry as mounted infantry models the disciplined forced march to the battlefield that so often
enabled the Swiss to surprise their sleeping opponents.
Allies
None
Notes
The Swiss fought in a deep keil formation, which is modelled by the Field Square rule in the Even Stronger supplement.
Swiss armies were led by a committee, which we treat as senior general, or sometimes by René II of Lorraine (battle of
Nancy).
A single unit of Swiss may be upgrades to fanatics- this represents a force such as the 1500 Swiss who fought to the death
at the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs in 1444, sometimes referred to as the “Swiss Thermopylae.”
Some Swiss skirmishers carried a polearm called a mordaxt, a short halberd with a spike, which we have modelled as 2HCCW-
possibly the only skirmishers so armed in these lists.
During the period covered by this list, the Confederacy of eight Swiss cantons (the Eidgenossenschaft) enlarged their territory
at the expense of local counts, either by buying judicial rights or by force of arms.

In 1444, just after the end of the Hundred Years War, Charles V11 of France sent a vast army of surplus mercenaries, known
as the Armagnacs, to assist a Hapsburg invasion of the Swiss Confederacy. Near St. Jakob an der Birs, an advance guard of
1.500 young Swiss, mostly Bernese, rashly attacked the 30,000-strong Armagnac army. Although initially successful against
the Armagnac knights, the Swiss were eventually forced to retreat to a small hospital where they fought to the death.
However, during their last stand, they inflicted so many casualties on the French that the latter gave up their attempt to
capture Zurich. Reports of Swiss heroism quickly spread throughout Europe - a reputation that, along with their policy of
not taking prisoners, made them feared foes and much sought-after mercenaries.
In 1474, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, attempted to expand his dukedom triggering the Burgundian Wars. The Swiss
Confederacy agreed a truce with Charles's enemy Louis X1 of France who had agreed to finance them. In a series of four
battles (briefly described in the Burgundian Ordonnance list), the Swiss, along with their allies from the Duchy of Lorraine,
were successful in defeating the armies of Burgundy and Savoy. Charles the Bold was killed in the final battle.
Army Notes
After the battle of Arbedo in 1422 CE, the Swiss progressively increased the proportion of pike in their keils, until, eventually,
most of their soldiers carried pikes. They still retained a core of halberdiers who would defend the standards if the pikes
were breached. Sometimes these halberdiers would sally forth from the keil for outflanking manoeuvres.
Author’s thoughts: The Swiss are not an army for the fainthearted! A bold Switzer player will maximise the number of generals, heroes and
scouting points, force march on one flank and use general replays to win the battle, quickly, before he is, inevitably, outflanked. The author can
report some personal success with this tactic, although in one case it took him over four hours to achieve victory!
Many thanks to Dave Soutar, who wrote most of the historical background! The Uri canton Swiss were beautifully painted by David Imrie.

Swabian League
This list covers the armies of the Swabian League from its formation in 1488 CE right up to its dissolution in 1534.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Later knights, lance, deep 1–6*, 1–4** 6+ 21
German knights, nobles and
men–at–arms. Upgrade later knights, lance, deep to later knights,
0–1 5+ 24
lance, veteran, deep
Rennefahne (lancers or lightly
equipped men–at–arms)
Armoured crossbowmen Cavalry, crossbow 1–2*, 0–2** 8+ 9
Mounted crossbowmen Light cavalry, crossbow 0–2 8+ 5
Landsknecht pike Pikemen, extra deep 1–4*, 2–5** 7+ 17
City militia
Upgrade to billmen, raw to pikemen, raw, deep 0–1 8+ 10
Crossbowmen 1–3*, 0–1** 8+ 7
Crossbowmen Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises Any – +1
Light infantry other, crossbow 1–4*, 0–2** 8+ 4
Arquebusiers Light infantry other, arquebus 1–2*, 4–6** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–2* 7+ 7
Light and organ guns Artillery (organ guns) 0–3 7+ 7
Field guns Artillery (cannon) 0–3 7+ 7
Field fortifications or gabions Upgrade artillery with stakes Any – 1
Wagon laager or palisade Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only before and during 1499.
** After 1499.
Allies
None
Notes
This list covers the change in Swabian armies evolving from the early period, when they relied mainly upon knights, to the
adoption of lighter cavalry and more modern pike and shot formations after the Swabian War of 1499.
Knights must be in a command led by a mounted general (representing a noble) which may not include landsknechts.
Furthermore, up to and during 1499, the commanding general must be a mounted noble.
Landsknecht units must be in a command led by a foot landsknecht general, which may not include knights. Before 1500, a
landsknecht general may not be commander-in-chief. This is to model the fractured nature of Swabian armies, within which
knights and landsknechts distrusted each other and often failed to cooperate. Noble commanding generals were more
common before and during 1499 and mercenary commanding generals were more common thereafter.
Extra deep landsknecht pikemen may use the Field Square rule in Even Stronger.
Knights may choose to start a dismounted, in which case they replace their lances with 2HCCW, and their hits are reduced
from 3 to 2. Their cost is reduced to 14 points (or 16 if veteran).

The Swabian League was a mutual defence and peace keeping association founded in 1488 by Emperor Fredrick III in the
region of Swabia, in what is now southern Germany. It was intended to curb the power of the Bavarian dukes from the
House of Wittelsbach and also the revolutionary threat from the expansionist Swiss Confederacy to the south. The league
consisted of a number of cities and territories in Swabia. It held regular meetings and maintained a force of 12,000
infantrymen and 1200 cavalry.
The early years of the Swabian League were marked by conflict with the Swiss Confederacy. In 1499, the Swiss army invaded
Swabia, and the Swabian League responded by mobilizing its own army. However, the Swabian League and Imperial troops
were defeated by the Swiss in a number of battles culminating in a major defeat at the Battle of Dornach, following which
Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emperor, was forced to recognise the independence of the Swiss cantons.
Over the next few decades, the Swabian League continued to play an important role in the politics and military affairs of the
Holy Roman Empire. It supported the Habsburgs in their efforts to maintain their position as Holy Roman Emperors, drove
Duke Ulrich from Württemberg in 1519, defeated an alliance of robber barons in the Franconian War in 1523 and played a
key role in the suppression of the German Peasants' War in 1525. After this, however, the Swabian League faced a new
threat in the form of the Protestant Reformation. Many of its member cities and territories embraced the new religious ideas,
which put them at odds with the Catholic Habsburgs. These divisions led to the dissolution of the League in 1534.
Army Notes
The forces of the Swabian League were contributed by its component cities, each contributing a number of foot and mounted
men, as dictated by the League’s war council.
Swabian League forces were built a core of heavy mounted knights of the nobility. These were accompanied by a force of
lighter cavalry, the “Rennefahne”, who formed a vanguard identified by its standard of a pair of red crossed swords on a black
and white background. These were often recruited from the less generously equipped lower nobility.
Infantry forces were mostly mercenary landsknechts. This caused a problem at the beginning of the Peasants’ War in 1525,
since most of the landsknechts were away fighting in Italy, whilst others had been hired by Ulrich, the exiled Duke of
Württemberg or had joined the revolting peasants (indeed the landsknechts sympathised with the latter and on one occasion
mutinied when ordered to attack them). The League had to play for time until more mercenaries returned to Italy after Pavia.
In 1525 the League were well equipped with artillery, which played an important role in the suppression of the Peasant
Revolt, breaching wagons forts and generally being superior to the peasants’ own artillery.
Further Reading
See the list for the German Peasants’ War, below.
With many thanks to Matthew Hotston, who wrote this list, to which I added the background.

German Peasants’ War
This list covers the armies of German peasants who revolted between 1524 and 1526.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Rainbow banner, Bundschuh or
1VP standard 0–1 – 2
similar standard
Knights Later knights 1–2* 6+ 14
Scouts Light cavalry, crossbow, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Mobs, deep 5–10, 2–5* 8+ 7
Any, all*,
Bulk of the revolting peasants Downgrade mobs, deep to mobs, deep, raw 9+ 4
all**
Upgrade with stakes Any – +1
Billmen 1–2, 0–1* 7+ 7
Better-equipped peasants,
Spearmen 1–2, 0–1* 7+ 7
leavened with landsknechts
Replace spearmen with pikemen, deep 0–1 7+ 13
Landsknechte mercenaries Pikemen, extra deep 0–2** 7+ 17
Swiss mercenaries Pikemen, extra deep, veteran 1–2* 6+ 21
Crossbowmen and
Light infantry other, crossbow or handgun 3–6*** 8+ 4
arquebusiers
Artillery (cannon) 1–2* 7+ 7
Ulrich's artillery
Artillery (organ guns) 0–2* 7+ 7
Artillery (cannon), raw 0–2 8+ 6
Peasant-crewed artillery with
Artillery (organ guns), raw 0–3 8+ 6
mercenary gunners
Upgrade with stakes Any – +1
* Only Duke Ulrich in February 1525, in which case the maximum number of revolting peasants that may be taken is
reduced to 2-5, all of whom must be downgraded to raw.
** Should any landsknechte mercenaries be taken, then all revolting peasants must be downgraded to raw.
*** The number of handgun-armed units must equal or exceed by one the number of crossbow-armed units.
Allies
None
The German Peasants' War, also known as the Great Peasants' Revolt, was a widespread popular uprising that took place in
Germany in 1524–1525, by a mixture of urban artisans and rural peasants who were seeking to gain greater rights, higher
wages, and an end to feudal oppression.
The conflict started in the southwestern region of Germany and quickly spread to other parts of the country. Bands of
peasants gathered under Bundschuh standards – a simple peasant shoe held aloft on a pole – symbolising egality and unity.
They seized castles and cities and sacked convents and monasteries, engaging in battles with local nobles and their armies.
A mixture of local peasant leaders, preachers and military men led their armies. These included Thomas Müntzer, a
charismatic radical preacher, and Michel Gruber who raised and led an army of miners and peasants in the Salzburg area.
The exiled Duke Ulrich of Württemberg, who himself had previous form as a repressor of peasant revolts, saw in the revolt
an opportunity to regain his dukedom. Styling himself “Ulrich the peasant" he invaded Württemberg in February 1525 with
an army of 6,000 foot and 300 horse raised in France and Switzerland. Unfortunately his Swiss mercenaries were soon
recalled following the French defeat at Pavia, and before the peasantry were able to give him any serious support, the rest
of his army broke up for lack of pay.

After the defeat of Duke Ulrich, the army of the Swabian league led by Georg Truchsess (governor) von Waldburg (see the
Swabian League list) was free to concentrate on the peasants. His army defeated peasant armies at the battles of Leipheim
(April 1525), Böblingen (May 1525) and Königshofen (June 1525), whilst another army led by Duke Georg of Saxony
defeated the peasants at Frankenhausen (May 1525). This broke the back of the revolt, although it persisted in the Austrian
Alps as late as the summer of 1526.
Despite their bravery and determination, the peasants had ultimately been defeated by the better-equipped and more
professional League armies. Many of its leaders and perhaps 70,000–100,000 peasants were killed. Moreover, the mercenaries
hired by the nobles devastated the countryside, and taxes on the surviving peasants were subsequently raised to pay for the
cost of the war.
Army Notes
The peasants organised themselves into Fähnlein (companies) of around 500 men, led by an elected captain and including a
standard bearer lieutenants and squad leaders. The companies were grouped into Haufen (territorial bands) led by an Oberster
Fieldhauptmann (supreme commander) and Leutinger (lieutenants) with various other officers responsible for watches, the
artillery, the wagon fort and so forth. A Haufen might consist of between 4,000 and 18,000 men.
Many peasants were poorly equipped with only a boar spear or farm implement, although some, previously serving in militias,
might have owned a sword, breastplate and polearm. Other peasants would have access to a crossbow either for hunting or
for militia duty. From one village, Aichstetten, 113 men marched to the muster, 12 of whom carried pikes, 23 boar spears
and 22 halberds. 15 men had half body armour and 4 more, breastplates. 9 had handguns and 4 had crossbows. Presumably
the remainder would have been equipped with improvised weapons, such as flails, rakes or scythes. Additional weapons
could be seized from castles or donated from the arsenals of sympathetic towns.
Some Landsknechts joined the peasant bands at the outset, and later others after returning from the wars in Italy, after the
Battle of Pavia. The areas of the revolt often coincided with landsknechte recruiting areas, and landsknechts might have
fought out of sympathy with the peasants, or in the hope of gaining loot. Thomas Müntzer ordered 300 pikes for his band,
and the troops so-equipped presumably fought in a similar manner to (and perhaps alongside) the landsknechts (hence I
have included an option to upgrade some better-equipped peasants with pikes). As the war went on, and the peasants
appreciated their own tactical limitations, landsknechts and Swiss from the northern cantons were sometimes hired as
mercenaries.
The peasants began their revolt with no artillery but quickly acquired it as loot or by negotiation with towns or nobles. Their
artillery trains grew to considerable size- one such included six cannon, four culverins and thirteen falconets. Smaller hook
guns and light guns were also common (I have rolled these in with the organ guns). Sometimes, though, the peasants
struggled to source sufficient shot, powder or the money required to hire the mercenary gunners that served them (for these
reasons I have rated their artillery as raw).
The peasants made extensive use of barricades of overturned wagons (represented in the lists by stakes) and wagon-forts
(represented by fortifications). Light artillery were sometimes mounted in these forts. Unfortunately, the wagon forts proved
vulnerable to the superior Swabian League artillery.
Peasant armies were extremely weak in the cavalry arm, indeed in all the accounts of the war there is only a single mention
of a peasant cavalry detachment. The lack of an effective mounted arm tended to force the peasant armies onto the defensive
where they proved vulnerable to mounted flank attacks.
Further Reading
Armies of the German Peasants’ War 1524-26 by Douglas Miller/Angus McBride Osprey Men-at-Arms 384 Osprey
Publishing
The Army of the Swabian League 1525 by Douglas Miller Helion Publishing
The German Peasants' War 1524-26 by Douglas Miller Helion Publishing (available from spring 2023)
I was inspired to write this list by the arrival of the tempting new 28mm miniatures range from Steel Fist. This is a must unusual army, which
provides an asymmetric opponent for the Swabian League list. This list will eventually move into the projected Renaissance list eBook.

III Medieval Eastern Asia
This chapter includes the Medieval army lists of eastern and south-eastern Asia.
Emishi
This list represents the ancient Emishi peoples of Japan from their first mention in literature (478 CE) until the end of the
Japanese pacification campaigns in 811 CE.
Generals Upgrade to heroic 2–4 3+ -
Heroes 3–5 – 1
1/3 to 1/2 7+ 6
Mounted archers veteran
Upgrade light cavalry bow, veteran to cavalry, bow,
0–2 7+ 11
veteran
Bowmen, raw, pavise 9+ 6
Foot archers 2–6*
* Minima applies only if any foot archers are taken.
Allies
None
The Emishi people that inhabited Northern Honshu consisted of several tribes who united in order to resist the expansion
of the Yamato Empire. The are likely to have included Ainu (the Aboriginal Japanese peoples), non-Yamato Japanese, and
admixed peoples.
The Emishi were hunter-gatherers who also cultivated millet, barley and rice. They were known to the Chinese as máorén
("hairy people"). Emishi translates in Japanese to “shrimp barbarians”, perhaps referring to their facial hair.
During the c. 8th, the Japanese devoted a great deal of energy to subjugate the Emishi but were, at first, largely unsuccessful.
Using horse archery and hit-and-run tactics, the Emishi were usually able to outmanoeuvre and sometimes defeat the larger
and slower Japanese infantry armies.
In 773 CE the Emishi attacked the Japanese border regions, beginning what would become known as the Thirty-Eight Years'
War. The Emishi destroyed forts and burned villages, evading the Japanese forces sent to crush them. In the 789 CE Battle
of Koromo River a 4,000-stroing Japanese army under the shōgun Ki no Kosami Seito was defeated by 1,000 Isawa Emishi
under their general Aterui. To counter the Emishi, the Japanese made alliances with some Emishi clans, hired Emishi
mercenaries and themselves adopted mounted archery tactics. By these means they were eventually able to contain the rebel
Emishi, and the war ended in 811 with the final subjugation of the Emishi.
Army Notes
The Emishi wore fur and were often tattooed. They fought with bows, carrying arrows in the topknots of their hair, and
sometimes swords. A ninth-century Japanese chronicler wrote that the Emishi were fiercely courageous and extraordinarily
skilful mounted archers. He wrote “horse and bow warfare is learned from birth by the barbarians; ten of our subjects cannot
equal one of them.” The Japanese adoption of Emishi horseback archery tactics contributed to the rise of the Japanese
Samurai class.
Further Reading
Pushing beyond the Pale: The Yamato Conquest of the Emishi and Northern Japan https://www.jstor.org/stable/133122

Burmese
This list covers Burmese armies from the foundation of the Pyu city states around 500 CE through the period of the Pagan
Empire and up to King Bayinnaung of Taungoo's conquest of the Kingdom of Ava in 1555 CE.
Generals
Upgrade a senior, heroic, attached mounted general
0–1 3+ 10
to great leader as Kyansittha from 1057–1084 CE.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, javelin, raw 2–5 8+ 7
Cavalry Upgrade cavalry, javelin, raw to cavalry, javelin 0–1* 7+ 9
Cavalry, crossbow 0–2 8+ 9
3–6****, 1–
Spearmen 7+ 7
6^
Standing army Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran as guards 0–1* 6+ 9
Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade any spearmen with extra bow or crossbow Any** – +2
3–6****, 1–
Spearmen, raw 8+ 5
Militia 6^
Downgrade spearmen, raw, to mobs, deep Any 8+ 7
Thai mercenaries Spearmen, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 9
Bowmen, raw 2–5** 9+ 5
Archers
Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Crossbowmen, raw 0–2** 9+ 5
Crossbowmen
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen 0–1* 8+ 7
0–1****, 2–
Elephants Indian elephants, escorted, deep 6+ 12
5^
Skirmishers Light infantry, javelin 0–1 7+ 4
* After 1173, when King Narapatisithu established a guard.
** The total number of bowmen units, crossbowmen units or "extra bow" upgrades may not exceed seven.
*** After 900.
**** Before 1043.
^ From 1043 onwards.
Allies
Thais (after 1238 CE), Yuan Chinese.
Notes
King Anawrarhta introduced massed elephants from 1044 CE. Although there is some doubt about whether they had
howdahs or carried racks of archers, they were clearly generously escorted. King Anawrartha's son was called Kyansittha;
his name allegedly means "last man standing" and refers to his knack for surviving the battlefield and other dangers. He
survived to become emperor. A heroic general, he will doubtless need the two saves against injury that come with being a
great leader!
In the earlier part of the period covered by this list Burmese civilisation was centred around the Pyu city states in upper
Burma which gradually spread southwards. In the mid c. 9th CE however, the Pyu cities were overthrown by the southwestern

Chinese Kingdom of Nanzhou, and it was only in the 1060s that a new power emerged, the Pagan Empire, which survived
until fragmented by Mongol invasions from 1277. After this, Burma was divided into smaller states.
Many thanks to Marco Cardano who wrote the first draft of this list, which I edited.

Later Hindu Indian
This list covers the Hindu states of India from the fall of the Gupta Empire (550 CE) through to the final collapse of the
Vijayanaga Empire (1646 CE).
Generals
Upgrade a senior, heroic, mounted general to great
0–1* – 10
leader as Bukka Raya I of Vijayanaga
Heroes 2–4 – 1
2–4^, 1–
Cavalry, javelin, raw 8+ 7
2^^^
Upgrade cavalry, javelin, raw to cavalry, javelin 0–1 7+ 9
Hindu cavalry Upgrade cavalry, javelin, raw to cavalry, lance Any 7+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1** 6+ 11
Upgrade cavalry, javelin, raw to cavalry, lance,
All^^ 7+ 11
veteran, fanatic
Muslim mamluk mercenaries Cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–1*** 7+ 11
Light cavalry, javelin 7+ 5
Hindu light cavalry 0–1
Javelinmen 7+ 7
2–4
Hindu javelinmen and Light infantry, javelin 7+ 4
swordsmen Upgrade javelinmen with extra 2HCCW Any 7+ 8
Replace javelinmen with shieldwall Any** 7+ 7
Bowmen, raw 5–10 9+ 5
Hindu bowmen Downgrade bowmen, raw to light infantry other,
Up to 1/2 9+ 3
bow, raw
2–4^, 3–
Elephants (Indian), deep 6+ 8
6^^^
Elephants
Upgrade elephants (Indian), deep to elephants
0–2 5+ +3
(Indian), deep, veteran
Camp followers Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Arquebusiers Light infantry other, handgun 0–1***** 8+ 4
Manjaniq and arrada (trebuchets
Artillery (ballista) 0–1 8+ 7
and ballistae)
Field artillery Artillery (cannon) 0–1**** 8+ 7
Takhsh–andaz (rocketeers) Artillery (organ guns) 0–2** 8+ 7
Palisade Fortifications 0–5 – 1
^ Northern Hindu Indian armies only, including Rajputi armies (747–1300).
^^ Rajputi Northern Indian Hindu armies only (747 –1300).
^^^ Southern Hindu Indian armies only, including Vijayanagara armies (1336–1646).
* Vijayanaga Empire only (1356 to 1377).
** Vijayanagara Empire, only, after 1336. Some Vijayanagar Empire cavalry rode armoured horses.
*** Vijayanagara Empire, only, after 1406.

**** Vijayanagara Empire, only, after 1470.
***** Vijayanagar after 1510, or any state after 1550.
Allies:
Armies must be either Northern Indian Hindu, Rajputi Northern Indian Hindu, or Southern Indian Hindu.
Northern Indian Hindu armies may include Hephthalite Allies (before 600 CE), Tibetans allies (between 620 and 860 CE),
Rajputi allies (after 847 CE), Later Muslim Indian allies (after 1206 CE) or Arab Indian allies. Rajputi Northern Indian armies
may only include Northern Indian Hindu allies.
Southern Indian armies, other than those of the Chola or Vijayanagara Empires, may include North Hindu Indian or Rajputi
Northern Hindu Indian allies.
At the start of the period covered by this list, the kingdoms of India were predominately ruled by Hindus. During the period
covered by this list, the Hindu states were conquered or turned into vassals by the Muslims of the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal
Empire and other kingdoms, until only the Vijayanagara Empire in southern India, remained.
The Rajput (from rajaputra, literally "son of a king") kingdoms emerged in north-western India in the c. 8th. They were
fanatical warriors who dressed in yellow and who preferred death in a suicidal charge to defeat and dishonour. The Rajput
Kingdoms were, however, relatively small and politically divided, and fought each other as often as they fought anyone else.
The long-lived Chola dynasties of southern India and Sri Lanka were succeeded by the Pandya dynasties and the Vijayanagara
Empire, from 1336 CE onwards, which fought many wars against the encroaching Muslim kingdoms to the north.
Army Notes
Hindu armies depended largely upon their foot archers and war elephants. Northern Indian Hindu armies tended to include
more cavalry than southern Indian armies which had problems with horse breeding and needed to import large numbers of
horses at great expense. Southern Indian armies compensated for their lack of cavalry by including more war elephants.
The Vijayanagarans were enthusiastic early adopters of gunpowder weapons, including bombards, fireworks, rockets and
arquebuses.
Sources
Ian Heath's Armies of the Middle Ages, Part 2

Sui Chinese
This list covers the short-lived empire created when Yang Chien re-established a unified China through the conquest of rival
dynasties between 581 and 618 CE.
Generals Upgrade to detached 0–4 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cataphracts Cataphracts, lance 1–3 6+ 11
Cavalry Cavalry, bow 1–2 8+ 9
Light cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Billmen 0–3 7+ 7
Halberdiers/swordsmen Upgrade billmen to billmen, extra bow Any* 7+ 9
Downgrade billmen to raw Any** 8+ 5
Spearmen 3–8 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 9
Spearmen
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, deep Any 7+ 10
Upgrade spearmen with extra bow Any* 7+ +2
Tribal foot Warriors, deep 0–3 7+ 10
Bowmen 2–5* 8+ 7
Bowmen
Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw as tribals 0–2 9+ 5
Crossbowmen 1–4* 8+ 7
Crossbowmen Downgrade crossbowmen to crossbowmen, raw as
0–2 9+ 5
tribals
Skirmishers Light infantry other, bow 0–4 8+ 4
Artillery Artillery (catapults) 0–1 7+ 7
Fortifications Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* The total number of bowmen, crossbowmen and halberdiers/spearmen upgraded with extra bows cannot exceed
eight. The number of crossbowmen cannot exceed the number of bowmen. Tribal bowmen/crossbowmen are not
included in this total.
** Raw halberdiers/swordsmen cannot be upgraded with extra bows.
*** Spearmen upgraded to veteran cannot also be upgraded to deep.
For over three hundred years, after the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty, China was divided into various feuding
smaller states, kingdoms and dynasties. Then, in 577 CE, the Northern Zhou reunified northern China, by the
conquest of the Northern Qi. Shortly afterwards, Yang Jian usurped the throne of the Northern Zhou from the
child Emperor Jang and in 581 CE declared himself Emperor Wen of Sui, although initially his rule was only
in Northern China.

To the south the Chen Dynasty was in power, and Emperor Wen built up a large river fleet, and a massive
army to attack them. The Chen were not strong enough to resist, and by 589 had been wholly defeated and
their capital of Jiankang raised to the ground. The Sui Dynasty of Emperor Wen thereby ruled a unified China.
The Sui sought to expand their empire, first at the expense of the Turkic Khaganates (see Turkish Tribes and
Kingdoms list) to the north and west. Rather than extensive military campaigns, Emperor Wen sought to use
the internal divisions of the Turkish tribes to avoid major conflict. The Great Wall was expanded around this
time. Then, his son Emperor Yang sent invasions (602–605 CE) into Vietnam, taking the Hanoi area and
fighting the Champa further south (see the Champa list). The Sui forces were severely affected by disease,
however, and Champa retained its independence.
The Sui’s most ambitious attempt at conquest was an invasion of Korea in 612 CE, under Emperor Yang. In
the preceding years, another massive army was established, said to number a million men, and a northern
branch of the Grand Canal was completed to bring supplies for that army. The invasion of 612 CE failed, the
Koreans making defensive use of the terrain and climate to resist the much larger Chinese army until lack of
supplies forced it to retreat. There were three more invasions in subsequent years and although some progress
was made, including capture of the Korean capital Pyong-Yang, the Koreans were never completely defeated.
The cost of these invasions, due to the size of the armies and the associated construction works, bankrupted
the Sui state and triggered rebellions that led to the fall of the Sui in 617 CE, and the rise of the Tang Dynasty.
Roger Calderbank wrote this list and the accompanying background – thanks Roger!

Champa
This list covers the Cham from the invasion of Champa by a Sui Chinese expedition in 605 CE, until much of the kingdom
was conquered by the Vietnamese in 1471.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cham cavalry
Cavalry, crossbow 0–1* 8+ 9
Javelinmen 6–10 7+ 7
Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, veteran 0–2 6+ 9
Cham with long shields
Downgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade any javelinmen with extra bow Any** – +2
Cham with round shields Light infantry, javelin 1–4 7+ 4
Light infantry other, bow 2–6** 8+ 4
Archers 1/2 or
Upgrade light infantry other, bow to bowmen, pavise 8+ 8
fewer**
Indian elephants, deep, raw 1–3 7+ 5
Elephants Upgrade Indian elephants, deep, raw to Indian
Any 7+ 9
elephants, escorted, deep. raw
Wheeled "double crossbows" Artillery (carroballista) 0–1* 7+ 7
Cham trebuchets Artillery (catapult) 0–1* 7+ 7
* Only after 1170.
** The total number of archer units or "extra bow" upgrades may not exceed six.
Allies
Khmer, Vietnamese
Notes
Elephants are raw because they lacked howdahs. I have discounted chariots following a recent Slingshot article which
suggests they were not used in warfare. Players may choose to depict foot generals in chariots, however, for purely aesthetic
purposes.
Champa was a Hindu kingdom built from several independent Cham city-states in an area corresponding to the southern
part of modern Vietnam. They were eventually overwhelmed by the Vietnamese kingdom to their north. The Cham and
Khmer struggled for dominance in the region throughout their history.
With thanks to Marco Cardano who produced the first draft of this list.

Tibetan Empire
This list begins with the supposed 618 CE regnal date of the first, great Tibetan emperor, Songtsen Gampo, and ends with
the collapse of the Empire ca. 840 CE.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Tibetan lancers Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran or Half or
6+ 11
cataphracts more
Cavalry, lance 0–2 9
7+
Nomad allies Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow Any 11
1–4*, 3–
4****
Cavalry, lance 0–2* 9
7+
Nepalese cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow Any 11
Tibetan spearmen Spearmen, raw 0–2 8+ 5
Bowmen, raw 5
Tibetan archers 0–2*** 9+
Bowmen, raw 5
Nepalese archers 0–2*/*** 9+
Himalayan mountain tribesmen Javelinmen 1–2 7+ 7
* Only from 640 to 710.
** Only from 660 to 848.
***May be taken either as bowmen or light infantry other, bow but not both.
**** Only before or after 640 to 710.
Allies
Nanzhao, Khotanese, Türgesh, Qarluq, Ferghanan or other Turkic allies (use the Turkish tribes and Kingdoms list)**.
Notes
Tibetan cavalry is described as having fought completely mailed; I have therefore given the option of fielding them as
cataphracts or armoured lancers.
Around 630 CE, King Songtsen Gampo unified the Tibetan clans and founded an empire which, over the next two centuries,
fought expansionist wars.
With thanks to Marco Cardano.

Tang, Ten Kingdoms or Five Dynasties Chinese
This list covers the dynasty established by Li Yuan in 618 CE, after deposing the Sui emperor. The Tang empire saw China
at its largest extent. After the collapse of the Tang empire, the north of China was ruled by the Five Dynasties whilst the
south was divided among the warlords of the Ten Kingdoms. The list ends in 960 CE.
Upgrade a mounted, attached, senior, heroic general
0–1**** – 10
to great leader representing Li Shimin from 626–649.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, bow 2–6*** 8+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–3*** 7+ 11
Cavalry 0–2*** 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Replace cavalry, bow with cataphracts, lance 0–2**** 6+ 11
Cavalry, bow 1–2^ 8+ 9
Light cavalry, bow 3–8*** 8+ 5
Light cavalry Up to half 7+ 6
veteran
Light cavalry, bow 0–2^ 8+ 5
Billmen 0–3 7+ 7
Halberdiers/swordsmen Upgrade billmen to billmen, extra bow Any* 7+ 9
Downgrade billmen to billmen, raw Any** 8+ 5
Spearmen 4–8 7
Spearmen Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, deep Any 7+ 10
Upgrade spearmen with extra bow or crossbow Any* +2
0–3***, 1–
Tribal foot Warriors 7+ 10
3^
Bowmen Bowmen 0–2* 8+ 7
0–6***, 2–
Tribal bowmen Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
6^
Crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–2* 8+ 7
0–4***, 1–
Tribal crossbowmen Crossbowmen, raw 9+ 5
4^
Peasants Mobs, deep, raw 0–4 9+ 4
* The total number of bowmen, crossbowmen and upgraded halberdiers/swordsmen and spearmen may not exceed
eight. Tribal bowmen/crossbowmen are not included in this total.
** Raw halberdiers/swordsmen cannot be upgraded with extra bows.
*** Tang and Five Dynasties only. Much of the cavalry would be Turkic.
**** Tang only.

^ Ten Kingdoms only.
The Sui had reunified China, but by 617 their state was close to economic collapse. The Sui emperor Yang-ti was assassinated
in 618, and Li Yuan, ‘duke’ of Tang took the opportunity to seize power, by alliance with Turkik forces. Li Yuan became
Emperor Gaozu, and a series of campaigns were fought to establish Tang domination. Li Yuan’s second son, Li Shimin, was
a notable leader of the Tang armies, winning a series of victories that, by 624, had established Tang rule throughout China.
Li Shimin forced his father to abdicate and ruled as Emperor T’ai-tsung from 626.
Subsequently, the Tang expanded their rule into Central Asia. Their Empire reached its greatest extent by about 660 but,
thereafter, a prolonged war against Tibet weakened the Tang. During that war, in 751, Tang forces clashed with Muslim
forces at the Talas River, the only major battle between China and the expanding Muslim world. Defeats inflicted by Tibet
saw the rise of local military leaders and a weakening of Tang control. Despite Tang efforts, a series of rebellions from about
780 caused the area of Tang rule to contract, and, by 884, the Tang emperor was little more than a puppet. The last Tang
emperor was deposed in 907.
After the fall of the Tang, northern China was ruled by a series of short-lived dynasties, known as the Five Dynasties, whilst
southern China was divided into various independent principalities, known as the Ten Kingdoms. During this period,
without any dominant ruler, there was frequent conflict between the various states. The scene was set for the rise of the
Sung.
This list was written by Roger Calderbank– thanks Roger!

Ritsuryo Japanese
This list commences with the introduction of the ritsuryo codes in 646 CE and ends with the final defeat of the Emishi in
811 CE.
Upgrade to mounted 2–4 – 5
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Heishi or other mounted Cavalry, bow 1–2* 8+ 9
archers, sakimori (border
guards) or eji fu (capital guards) Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1 7+ 11
Kondei ("strong fellows") Cavalry, bow 1–3^ 8+ 9
Emishi cavalry Cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1 7+ 11
Heishi spearmen Spearmen 1–4 7+ 7
Bowmen 6–14 8+ 7
Up to 1/2*,
Heishi (militia) or sakimori Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw 1/2 or 9+ 5
(border guards) or chinpei (anti- more**
Emishi) archers
All*, 1/2 or
Upgrade bowmen, raw or bowmen with pavises – +1
more**
Emishi archers Light infantry other, bow 0–1 8+ 4
O-Yumi crossbow artillery Artillery (catapults) 0–1 7+ 7
Camp fortifications Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Before 792.
** After 792.
Allies
Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla Korean, Emishi.
This list models the Japanese army during the attempt by the Japanese imperial house, beginning in 646, to remodel Japanese
society along Chinese lines with the establishment of a series of legal codes called ritsuryo. These reforms differed somewhat
from the Chinese codes (for example, rejecting the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” and confirming that station in
Japanese society was based on birthright), but significantly for this book, also changed the way in which Japanese armies
were organized. It corresponds to the latter part of the Asuka period and the Nara periods of Japanese history.
The Taiho code divided Japan into a set of provinces, each administered by governors appointed by the centralized
administration. This ambitious project was only completed in the early c. 8th.
The Japanese Imperial Court moved to the city of Heinan-kyo (modern day Kyoto) in 794 CE and power was consolidated
in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, despite the emperor’s nominal overlordship of the kingdom. Although the Ritsuryo period
officially ended in 794, for reasons of convenience we end this list with the conclusion of the Thirty-Eight Years' War against
the Emishi in 811 CE.
Army Notes
As part of the Taiho reorganization, military service was standardized, and “regiments” were recruited from the populace.
All able-bodied men between the ages of 21 to 60, slaves excepted, were liable for military conscription. These heishi
conscripts were organized into gundan (provincial regiments) and were mostly bowmen also some were spearmen. Most heishi
served in the infantry with the cavalry being recruited from the wealthier classes outside of the conscription system. Some

heishi were selected for service as sakimori, protecting south-western Japan against potential Chinese or Korean invasions,
others became chinpei in the north-east, fighting against the Emishi, and others still became eji fu (“capital guards”).
The Taiho experiment proved to be relatively short-lived. In 792, conscription was abolished in most provinces, leading to
a reduction in the quality of forces raised, thereafter. New cavalry troops called kondei (“strong lads” or perhaps “stalwart
youth”) replaced the former cavalry. They might be assisted by Emishi captives, resettled within Japanese provinces. The
number of horsemen tended to increase during the period covered by this list.
Tower shields remained common, with one issued per squad of five heishi. Crossbow artillery was used, and it is also possible
that stone throwers were used on occasion as well, possibly torsion models.
With many thanks to Marc Lauterbach who wrote this list.

Nanzhao
This list covers the Nanzhao kingdom from its foundation in 707 to its demise in 937 CE.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, bow** or cavalry, bow or crossbow*** 3–6 8+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, bow or crossbow to cavalry, lance,
0–4 7+ 11
Nanzhao cavalry extra bow or crossbow
Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow or crossbow to
1–2 6+ 13
cavalry, lance, extra bow or crossbow, veteran
Wangxiezi or other light
cavalry
Nanzhao Fupai ("shield Spearmen, veteran 1–2 6+ 9
bearers") Upgrade spearmen with extra bow or crossbow Any +2
Spearmen 3–7 7
Nanzhao spearmen Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw At least half 7+ 5
Upgrade spearmen with extra bow or crossbow Any* +2
Tribal foot Warriors, deep 0–2 7+ 10
Bowmen 1–2 8+ 7
Nanzhao bowmen
Upgrade bowmen with pavise Any +1
Tribal bowmen Bowmen, raw 0–2 9+ 5
0–1**, 0–
Crossbowmen 8+ 7
Nanzhao crossbowmen 2***
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavise Any*** – +1
Tribal skirmishers Light infantry other, bow 0–1 8+ 4
Elephants Indian elephants, deep 0–1*** 7+ 9
* Raw spearmen may not be upgraded.
** Before 794.
*** From 794 onwards, after Tang technicians increased the availability of crossbows.
Allies
Tang Chinese***, Tibetan Empire**
The Kingdom of Nanzhao was established in 737 CE, centred on what is, now, Yunnan. It had previously been a vassal of
the Tibetan Empire, and before that a vassal of the Tang Dynasty of China. Conflicts and alliances between the Nanzhao
and either the Tibetans or the Tang form a major part of the military history of the Nanzhao kingdom. The mountainous
nature of the terrain made the kingdom relatively defensible.
The first attempt at expansion was from 750, with an attack on adjacent Tang territory. Retaliatory Tang invasions were
defeated, although the defeats seem to have been as much due to disease and the difficulties of the terrain as Nanzhao
military prowess. From 754 to 794, presumably as a response to the Tang threat, the Nanzhao allied themselves with the

Tibetans. However, after 794, roles were reversed, and the Nanzhao allied with the Tang against the Tibetans. As part of
that alliance, craftsmen were apparently sent from China to increase the availability of crossbows.
Although the Nanzhao seem to have formed alliances with the kingdoms to the south (hence the appearance of elephants
in the list from 794), it appears military expansion into what is now Myanmar did not start until 816. The Nanzhao eventually
conquered the Pyu city-states of Upper Burma. By 846, the Nanzhao were again in conflict with the Tang. An invasion of
the Tang Sichuan province in 869 was eventually repulsed, and by 873 the Nanzhao had been driven back to the mountains
of Yunnan. The kingdom never recovered from this setback, and it finally collapsed in 937, being replaced by the Kingdom
of Dali.
Thanks to Roger Calderbank for his assistance with this list.

Khitan or Liao Dynasty
This list covers the nomadic Khitans from their collision with the Tang dynasty ca. 800 CE until their defeat in 1125 CE.
This list does not cover the Western Liao, or Qara Khitan kingdom founded in central Asia by refugees from the Jurchen.
Generals
Heroes 1–4 – 1
Cavalry, bow 2–5 8+ 9
Khitan Ordo foragers
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, javelin, extra bow Any 7+ 11
Khitan Ordo soldiers Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance, Up to two
6+ +2
extra bow, veteran thirds
Khitan Ordo orderlies, Light cavalry, bow 5–12 8+ 5
Mongols, Jurchen or similar Cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 9
Billmen or spearmen 2–4* 7+ 7
Crossbowmen or bowmen 2–4* 8+ 7
Trained Chinese
Artillery (catapults) 0–1 7+ 7
Downgrade any trained Chinese to raw Any or all +1 –2
Chinese or P'o–Hai militia Mobs, deep 0–4 8+ 7
"The old and the young" Mobs, deep, raw, special** 0–2 9+ 4
Khitan tribesmen, Mongols,
Jurchen or similar auxiliaries
Palisades Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Minimum applies only if any trained Chinese units are used.
** On occasion, the Khitan forced civilians as human shields to be driven towards the enemy. Being numerous and
scared they will fight desperately to escape from their cruel captors. They are treated as special version of raw mobs.
They have three hits and hit on eight but have no javelins. Heroes cannot be attached to "the old and the young", nor
can they march. They do not contribute victory points to their command's or army's total and no medals are
surrendered when they are lost.
Allies
Jurchen Kin (before 1110 CE), Tang Chinese (before 980 CE), Sung Chinese (after 1000 CE), Hsi-Hsia, Mongols
Notes
Attached generals must be assigned to "soldier" units.
Exploiting the chaos in China following the collapse of the Tang, the Khitans, under Yeh-lu A-pao-chi, set up an empire
based in Manchuria, Mongolia and Northern China, including Beijing. This Liao dynasty was eventually toppled by rebellious
Jurchen tribes from Northern Manchuria. The Khitans interfered in late Tang and Five Dynasties China and were both rivals
and allies of the Sung, Hsia and Mongols.
Army Notes
There is some debate about how the Khitan "ordo" or horde formation operated. Accounts suggests a first line of
unarmoured orderlies, a second line of armoured foragers with bow, followed by the most heavily armed soldiers with bow
and lance, possibly riding armoured horses. Ordo troops used controlled steady shooting to wear the enemy down. The ordo
was supported by Chinese and P'o-Hai (Manchurian) levies, and Mongol, Jurchen or Khitan tribal cavalry.
With many thanks to Nicholas Stock who wrote and Roger Calderbank who helped with editing!

Khmer Empire
This list covers the Khmer from 802 CE when King Jayavarman II had himself declared Chakravartin ("king of the world")
and ends with the 1431 abandonment of Angkor, due to military pressure from the Thais and, perhaps, an ecological crisis.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, extra
Any** 7+ 11
crossbow
Javelinmen, extra 2HCCW 1–2 7+ 8
Ph'kak (axemen)
Upgrade javelinmen, extra 2HCCW with extra bow 0–1* 7+ 10
Maiden guard infantry Javelinmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Khmer with long shields
Downgrade javelinmen to javelimen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade any javelinmen with extra bow Any* – +2
Thai mercenaries Spearmen, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 9
Khmer with round shields Light infantry, javelin 1–4 7+ 4
Light infantry other, bow 0–6* 8+ 4
Archers 1/2 or
Upgrade light infantry other, bow to bowmen, pavise 8+ 8
fewer*
Indian elephants, deep, raw 1–3 7+ 5
Elephants Upgrade Indian elephants, deep, raw to Indian
Any 7+ 9
elephants, escorted, deep. Raw
Wheeled "double crossbows" Artillery (carroballista) 0–1** 7+ 7
* The total number of archer units or "extra bow" upgrades may not exceed six.
** Only after 1170.
*** After 900.
Allies
Champa, Burmese, Thais (after 1238 CE).
Notes
I have assumed that the Khmer maiden guard were limited in numbers. Elephants are raw because they lacked howdahs. I
have discounted chariots following a recent Slingshot article which suggests they were not used in warfare. Players may
choose to depict foot generals in chariots or on elephants, however, for purely aesthetic purposes.
The Khmer forged a vast Hindu-Buddhist empire which stretched across modern Cambodia, Thailand and Laos. The
empire, which grew out of the former kingdoms of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalized most of
mainland Southeast Asia from its capital at Angkor.
Thanks to Marco Cardano who wrote the first draft of this list.

Heian Japanese
This list covers the final period of Classical Japan, known as the Heian period. It begins with the end of the great war against
the Emishi in 811 CE and ends with the beginning of the Genpei War in 1180.

Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Standard 2 VP standard 0–1 – 2
2–3**, 3–
Tsuwamono or Bushi ("warriors") Cavalry, bow 8+ 9
5***
or Kondei ("strong fellows")
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran (as
mounted archers Any 7+ 11
household retainers)
7–14**, 4–
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
8***
Archers Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen Up to 1/2 8+ 7
At least
Upgrade bowmen, raw or bowmen with pavise 1/2**, Up to – +1
1/4***
Kenshi ("strong warriors") Bowmen or crossbowmen, pavise 0–2* 8+ 8
Sohei with naginata Billmen, fanatics 0–1**** 8+ 7
Northern provincial heishi Spearmen 0–2* 7+ 7
Nimbei sei (conscripted
0–2**, 1–
peasants) or banrui (allied Mobs, deep 8+ 7
3***
peasants)
0–1**, 0–
Tsuwamono or bushi retainers Light infantry, melee weapons***** 7+ 4
2***
Emishi archers Light infantry other, bow 0–2* 8+ 7
O-Yumi crossbow artillery Artillery (catapults) 0–1* 7+ 7
* Only before 900.
** Only before 1020.
*** Only from 1020–1179.
***** See the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla Korean.
Notes
Tsuwamono retainers may support Tsuwamono cavalry using the supported cavalry rule in the Even Stronger supplement.
The Heian (“peace”) period of Japanese history marks the point at which Chinese influences were less evident in Japanese
society and culture due to the decreasing power and influence of the T’ang Dynasty in China. Whilst this era was remembered
in Japan as a period of relative peace due to the absence of large-scale warfare, the increasing power of noble families and
general lawlessness meant that low-intensity conflicts simmered on throughout the period.

Although the Imperial House of Japan held power on the surface, the real power lay in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a
powerful aristocratic family which intermarried with the imperial family. Lacking a standing army, the Fujiwara and other
noble families employed soldiers to protect their interests in the provinces. This led to the creation of professional warrior
houses, the tsuwamo no ie, which the government would hire as military contractors. The greatest of these, the Taira and the
Minamoto clans, made steady political gains throughout the Heian period, and from time to time threatened a military
takeover of the Japanese government (which would eventually take place in the late c. 12th).
Although the Heian era officially commenced in 794 with the relocation of the Japanese Imperial Court to the city of Heinan-
kyo (modern day Kyoto), for reasons of convenience we start this list with the end of the Thirty-Eight Years' War against
the Emishi in 811 CE.
Army Notes
During this period, armies were also considerably smaller than in earlier eras, typically numbering between the high hundreds
and the low thousands.
The new tsuwamono ("warriors") were mercenary bands of skilled mounted archers, led by aristocrats, which could be hired
by magistrates to enforce their authority. They would later become better known as bushi or samurai. During this period, they
largely fought on horseback; as cavalry, they could respond to threats much more rapidly than could infantry raised under
the previous conscription system. It is possible that they were supported by retainers on foot, as in later periods.
The infantry was still largely composed of foot soldiers armed with bows and usually fighting from behind tower shields.
However, these men were now usually followers of noble households rather than the militias of city-states, which had mostly
been abolished late in the previous Ritsuryo period. The last major battle in which the use of tower shields was recorded was
fought in 1019 against Jurchen pirates; this date therefore constitutes a natural end point for this list.
Kenshi “strong warriors” were recruited from veteran soldiers and were used to garrison the main forts. They are likely to
have trained with the o-yumi crossbow artillery and hand crossbows.
Peasant conscripts called nimbei were used to supplement field armies. They were considered quite unreliable and something
of a rabble. Banrui were better-off peasants and others who were not direct dependents of the war-leaders; like the nimbei,
they would often consider discretion to be the better part of valour. Both types might be armed with spears and shields
taken from provincial armories.
The Emishi peoples of northern Japan were also known to serve as mercenaries and auxiliaries during this period, and thus
appear in the early portion of this list, after which we assume they would have been absorbed into the Japanese system and
lost their separate identity.
Crossbow artillery was common during the early part of this period, but its use declined as time went on.
The naginata polearm was introduced around 1146 CE. This weapon would become much more common in the following
Kamakura period when the bushi/samurai would emerge in their recognizable form.
Further Reading
Samurai Warfare Dr. Stephen Turnbull
With many thanks to Marc Lauterbach who wrote this list.

Hsi-Hsia
This list covers the Tangut Hsi-Hsia from the recognition by the Tang of Toba Ssu-Kung as King of Hsia in 885 CE through
to the destruction of the kingdom by the Mongols in 1227.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Hsia guards Cataphracts 0–2 6+ 11
Hsia nobles
Hsia retainers, Mongols, Turks
or other steppe nomads Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
0–2 7+ 6
veteran
Mongol, Turk or steppe nobles Cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 9
Guard infantry or dismounted
Bowmen, veteran 0–1 7+ 9
Hsia nobles
Skirmishing archers or
dismounted retainers
Billmen or spearmen, raw 2–6 8+ 5
City militia Upgrade billmen or spearmen, raw to billmen or
Up to half 7+ 7
spearmen
Bowmen, raw or crossbowmen, raw 2–6 9+ 5
Militia archers Upgrade bowmen, raw or crossbowmen, raw to
Up to half 8+ 7
bowmen or crossbowmen
Bomb throwers Light infantry other, incendiary* 0–1 8+ 4
Palisades around camps Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* See the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Tibetan, Tang Chinese (before 980 CE), Khitan or Liao, Mongols, Central Asian Turks
Initially competing chiefdoms, the Hsia were united following Sung attacks in the late c. 10th. Controlling the rich horse
lands of the Ordos, northwest of China, the Hsia fielded excellent cavalry and were generally successful in both defensive
and offensive war against the Chinese. Control of the wealthy cities and trade routes of the Yellow River and Silk Road gave
them access to a well-organized and equipped, if not necessarily enthusiastic, infantry arm. They also imported Chinese
technology – fielding both siege weapons and gizmos such as hand hurled bombs and fire lances.
Army Notes
Hsia armies relied primarily on their excellent cavalry, both traditional steppe horse archers and heavier horsemen, sometimes
riding armoured horses, armed primarily with lances.

Medieval Vietnamese
Ngo Qyen defeated a Chinese invasion in 938 CE and was proclaimed king of Dai Co Viet in 939. Thereafter, Vietnam
remained independent until 1527, except for a brief period of Ming Chinese occupation from 1407 to 1427.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Court cavalry Cavalry, javelin 0–1 7+ 9
Regional cavalry Cavalry, javelin, raw 0–2 8+ 7
Billmen or spearmen, veteran 1–2 6+ 7
Court infantry Upgrade billmen, veteran or spearmen, veteran with
Any – +2
extra bow or crossbow
Court archers and Bowmen or crossbowmen, veteran 9
1–2 7+
crossbowmen Light infantry other, bow or crossbow, veteran 5
Ten Circuit spearmen Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, raw with extra bow
Any – +2
or crossbow
Bowmen or crossbowmen, raw 4–6 9+ 5
Ten Circuit archers and
crossbowmen Upgrade bowmen or crossbowmen, raw to bowmen
Up to 1/2 8+ 7
or crossbowmen
Regional spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen, raw with extra bow or crossbow Any – +2
Regional archers and Bowmen or crossbowmen, raw 5
3–6 9+
crossbowmen Light infantry other, bow or crossbow, raw 3
Tribal warriors Warriors, deep 0–2 7+ 10
Tribal archers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
Elephants Indian elephants, deep 0–2 6+ 8
Allies
Champa
Notes
Tribal allies must be in a command of their own. Generals on foot may be depicted riding on an elephant.
Army Notes
Court infantry were the kingdom's small standing army. They were supplemented by decimally organised "Ten Circuit"
peasant militia and by troops supplied by regional nobles.
Thanks to Marco Cardano who produced the first draft of this list.

Sung Chinese
This list covers the Northern Sung (or Song) dynasty who reunified China after a period of rule by warlords, until northern
Sung China was taken over by the Jin in 1127 CE and southern Sung by the Mongols in 1279.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Fire–lance cavalry Cavalry, lance 0–1*** 7+ 9
Cavalry with bows
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1 7+ 11
Light cavalry with bows Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Incendiary oxen Scythed chariot, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Billmen 1–3 7+ 7
Upgrade to billmen to billmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Halberdiers/swordsmen
Upgrade any billmen with extra bow or crossbow Any* – +2
Downgrade any billmen to raw Any** 8+ 5
Spearmen 4–8 7
Spearmen Upgrade to spearmen, deep Any 7+ 10
Upgrade with extra bow or crossbow Any* +2
Bowmen Bowmen 0–4* 8+ 7
Crossbowmen Crossbowmen 1–6* 8+ 7
Skirmishers Light infantry other, bow or crossbow 0–4 8+ 4
Naphtha throwers Light infantry other, incendiary**** 0–1*** 8+ 4
Mobs, deep 0–2 7
Levies Upgrade mobs, deep with shock missile representing 8+
Any 8
fire lances
War Wagons War wagons 0–2 7+ 13
* The total number of bowmen, crossbowmen and upgraded halberdiers/swordsmen and spearmen cannot exceed
eight. The total number of bowmen and halberdiers/swordsmen and spearmen upgraded with bows cannot exceed the
total number of crossbowmen and halberdiers/swordsmen and spearmen upgraded with crossbows.
** Raw halberdiers/swordsmen cannot be upgraded with extra bows or crossbows.
**** Naphtha throwers are armed with pots of naphtha, either slung or thrown. See the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
TBC.
The Sung dynasty ruled the country during a period where Chinese culture was at one of its highest points. It was divided
chronologically between Bei (North) Song period, ending in 1127 CE, and Nan (South) Song period.

The Bei Song was founded by Zhao Kuangyin, a military general of the Zhou dynasty (one of five dynasties that had emerged
during the unstable time preceding the Sung period). In 960 he staged a military coup d'état and forced Emperor Gong, the
last Zhou dynasty ruler, to abdicate in his favour. He was able to consolidate his power using his considerable skills of
diplomacy. From there he expanded his kingdom until he had gained control over most of China
Emperor Taizu (Zhao’s name as Emperor) created a supremely efficient civil service. This enabled him to curb the power
of the military and lessen the threat of any future coups. He also made sure that the beliefs of Confucius remained strong
within the Empire. This meant that most in the Empire lived modestly but contentedly.
In 979 Taizu tried to recover Chinese lands long held by the Khitan Liao. This was a fascinating campaign which included
the Khitan Liao tunnelling underneath the besieging Sung forces to feed reinforcements into the besieged city of Youzhou,
to help defend it. However, in 1123 Sung and Jurchen Jin armies combined to finally take the same city. Ultimately, the Sung
invasion was repulsed at the Battle of Gaoliang River.
During Taizu’s tenure, and for all subsequent Emperors, the court was based in the far north city of Bianjing (modern
Kaifeng). However, in 1127 the north of the Empire was invaded by the Jurchen Jin and the Sung were forced to retreat
southwards beyond the Yangtze River, establishing a new capital at Lin'an (modern Hangzhou), marking the beginning of
the Nan Sung period.
In 1234 the Mongol Empire defeated the Jurchen Jin and seized control of North China. In 1257, after a long period of
uneasy peace, Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, invaded Nan Sung. In 1259 he was killed (or
perhaps died from cholera or dysentery) during a siege and his horde retired. Later, in 1279, Kublai Khan reunited the
Mongol tribes and, this time, successfully conquered Nan Sung. China was once again united, albeit by the Mongol Empire.
Army Notes
Unfortunately, the historians who recorded the events of the Sung Dynasty appear to have had little military knowledge, and
the military, themselves, did not produce written material that has survived. As a result, there is almost nothing recorded
regarding battles or tactics, which means that, unfortunately, this army list is more conjectural than most.
With many thanks to Roger Calderbank, who wrote the list, and to Derek Pearson who wrote the historical background.

Jurchen or Kin Dynasty
The Jurchen were Manchurian pastoralists who united in 1115 CE and overran and controlled much of Northern China
until being eventually defeated and absorbed by the Mongols in 1235.
Downgrade attached mounted general to foot 0–1*** – 4
Generals Upgrade mounted general to detached 0–1 – +1
Upgrade mounted general to senior 0–1 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, bow 4–12* 8+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow Up to half* 7+ +2
Jurchen and Khitan horsemen* Upgrade cavalry, bow or cavalry, lance, extra bow to
cavalry, bow, veteran or cavalry, lance, extra bow, 0–2* –1 +2
veteran as bodyguard or "Iron Pagodas"
Cavalry, bow 2–6*** 8+ 9
Jurchen and Khitan Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–2*** 7+ +2
horsemen** Upgrade cavalry, bow or cavalry, lance, extra bow to
0–1*** –1 +2
veteran as Imperial Guard
Jurchen camelry Camelry, bow 0–1 8+ 9
Mongols or similar auxiliaries Light cavalry, bow 1–4 8+ 5
Uighur mercenaries Light cavalry, javelin, extra bow 0–2*** 7+ 6
Hsia mercenaries Cavalry, lance 0–2*** 7+ 9
Billmen or spearmen 4–8** 7+ 7
Upgrade billmen or spearmen with extra bow or
Any***** – +2
crossbow
Chinese infantry
4–8
Crossbowmen or bowmen 8+ 7
**/*****
Downgrade any Chinese infantry to raw Any 1 -2
Chung–hsiao chun Warriors, deep 0–2*** 7+ 10
Ill–trained militia Mobs, deep 0–2** 8+ 7
Northern tribesmen Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
Bomb throwers Light infantry other, incendiary**** 0–1** 8+ 4
Trained Chinese artillery Artillery (catapults) 0–1** 7+ 7
* Up to 1180.
** After 1180.
*** After 1125.
**** Bomb throwers are armed with pots of naphtha, small rockets, or fire lances. See the Even Stronger supplement.
***** The total number of bow, crossbow and upgraded mixed units may not exceed eight. Moreover, the minima for
separate missile units is reduced by one for each mixed unit deployed.
Allies
Uighur, Hsi-Hsia, Mongol, Sung Chinese
The Jurchen were vassals of the Liao until rebellion in 1114 under Wan-yen Akuta. Declaring the Kin, or Golden, dynasty,
the Jurchen had overthrown the Liao by 1125. They then attacked their erstwhile allies, the Sung, and overran the northern

half of China, including the Sung capital at K'aifeng by the 1130s. A state of war with the Sung continued for most of the c.
12th until the Kin were themselves defeated and absorbed by the Mongols after a series of tough campaigns between 1209
and 1235.
Army Notes
Jurchen armies initially relied on excellent mounted archers fighting in a tight formation. Following the acquisition of Liao
and northern Sung territories, the quality and quantity of mounted units may have declined. As a result, there was an increased
reliance on mercenary cavalry and Chinese infantry and artillerists. Chung-hsiao chun (Loyal and Filial) troops were
enthusiastic, though not well-disciplined irregulars.

Kamakura Samurai
This list covers the armies of the samurai from the Genpei War of 1180 and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate
in 1185, through to the beginning of the Muromachi period in 1336, including the Mongol invasions.
Attached, mounted, heroic general 2–4 3+ 5
Generals Upgrade to detached Any – +1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Portable sacred shrine 2VP standard 0–1*** – 3
Mounted samurai
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran Half or more 7+ 11
Genin (mounted retainers) with Cavalry, special** 0–2* 7+ 8
naginata Downgrade cavalry, special to cavalry, special, raw Any 8+ 6
Sohei (warrior monks) cavalry Cavalry, special**, fanatics 0–1*** 8+ 8
Bowmen 0–4* 8+ 7
Foot samurai bowmen Upgrade bowmen to bowmen, veteran Any 7+ 9
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any – +1
Billmen 0–4* 7+ 7
Foot samurai with naginata or no- Upgrade billmen to billmen, veteran Any 6+ 9
dachi Upgrade any billmen with extra bows Any – +2
Billmen 3–8* 7+ 7
Genin (retainers) with naginata Downgrade billmen to billmen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade to mounted infantry Up to half – +1
Bowmen 0–4* 8+ 7
Genin bowmen
Upgrade to mounted infantry Up to half – +1
Upgrade bowmen with pavises Any – +1
Sohei with naginata Billmen, fanatics 0–2*** 8+ 7
Peasants Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Palisades of cut down trees Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* For every samurai unit, there must be least one genin unit.
** Genin cavalry fought mounted using the naginata. Treat as cavalry, lacking javelins or lance, but counting as
2HCCW–armed.
*** Sohei monks must be in a command of their own.
Notes
Attached generals must be initially attached to a samurai unit. Should this be lost, they can join any other unit.
Army Notes
Samurai started the period as elite mounted missile troops with genin warrior attendants or retainers sometimes mounted.
These genin or shoju were often as well equipped as their masters, and samurai units are considered to include genin. Hence,
samurai are not all graded as veteran, but this remains an option. Samurai wore full oyoroi armour which attained its final
decorative form during this period. Retainers wore lesser do-maru armour and often lacked protective headwear.
The emphasis was on individual bow skills, but the Mongol invasion leads to less cultured wars, without shows of
horsemanship and challenges. Samurai were forced to adapt and fight as groups rather than individuals with weapons more
suited in dismounted hand-to-hand close combat such as the naginata, favoured by monks. Samurai are not rated as longbow,

since their yumi bow was used at close range to penetrate armour, rather than shot high in the air in massed volleys like the
Medieval longbow. The Samurai yumi was a match for the composite Mongol bow.

Mongol Conquest
This is the army led by Temuchin once he had adopted the title "Chenghis Khan". It begins with the Mongols’ early
conquests (1206 CE) and concludes with the end of the Toluid civil wars (1264).
Upgrade a senior, mounted, heroic general to brilliant
0–1* – 11
as Chenghis Khan
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Yak or horse tail standard or
camel drummers
Mongol guard & elite keshig Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–4 6+ 13
Light cavalry, bow, veteran 8–15 7+ 6
Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to light cavalry,
Up to 1/3 6+ 7
The Mongol horde javelin, extra bow, veteran
Upgrade light cavalry bow, veteran to cavalry bow,
Any 7+ 11
veteran
Armenian or Khitan auxiliaries Cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
Light cavalry, bow 3–6** 8+ 5
Cumans and similar auxiliaries Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry bow,
Up to 1/3 7+ 6
veteran
Uighur auxiliary spearmen Spearmen, raw 2–6*** 8+ 5
Kharash (driven prisoners) Mobs, raw, deep, special 0–2**** 9+ 4
Uighur auxiliary archers 2–4***
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Elderly, women and children Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
* 1206 to 1227 only.
** Minimum applies if any Cuman or Uighur auxiliaries are taken.
*** 1219 to 1221 only. Minimum applies if any Uighur auxiliaries are taken. Numerous Uighurs participated in the
invasion of Khwarazm.
**** Kharash are civilians and other prisoners chained together and driven towards the enemy using whips. They act as a
human shield but, being numerous and scared, will fight desperately to escape from their cruel captors. They are treated
as special version of raw mobs. They have three hits and hit on an eight but, unlike mobs, have no javelins. Heroes
cannot be attached to Kharash. They cannot march. Most unusually, they do not contribute victory points to their
command's or army's total and no medals are surrendered when they are lost; the Mongols will shed few tears...
Allies
Jurchen Chin, Sung Chinese, Koryo Korean
Chinggis Khan (1162–1227) took a small tribe on the central Asian plateau just south of Siberia and forged it into the world’s
largest ever contiguous land empire which was named after his tribe – the Mongols. It stretched from Korea and the Pacific
in the east, to Hungary in the west and to India and Vietnam in the south. Some believe that as many as 40,000,000 people
were killed by the Mongols.

Temujin was born in 1162, clutching a blood clot in his right hand – according to folklore, a sign that he would become a
great leader. His family had been leading the fight against the Jin (who had taken control of Mongolia by defeating the Khitan
Liao) for the previous 40 years. However, the inter-tribal hatred between the Naimans, Merkits, Tatars, Khamags, Keraites
and Mongols had prevented any progress.
In 1171, Temujin’s father was poisoned by the Tatars whilst attending a wedding. His family then suffered years of manhunts,
capture and slavery until Temujin escaped and created his own army to exact revenge. By 1206, he had defeated all his local
enemies and unified the five tribes, incorporating their people into his growing empire. He claimed the title Chinggis Qaghan
(Genghis Khan) – “Universal Ruler” – and set out to conquer first the steppes and then the world.
In 1210, he conquered the Xi Xia. In 1211, he invaded the Jin empire and in 1214 he took their capital (now Beijing), taking
massive payments of silk, silver, gold and horses. In 1218, he conquered the Qara Khitai (the final remnants of the Khitan
Liao) with a massively outnumbered army of just 20,000 men. Also in 1218, the Sultan of the Khwarazmian Empire (modern
day Iran and parts of central Asia) reneged on a lucrative trade deal, stole the goods (including Chinggis’ personal items) and
murdered the Mongol ambassadors. Chinggis formed an army and attacked in 1219. By 1221 they had taken over the entire
Khwarazmian Empire.
Chinggis then took half the army to invade Afghanistan and northern India, whilst his son Jebe and his general Subutai went
north to conquer Armenia and Georgia. In 1223, they defeated the alliance of the Kievan Rus’ and Cuman-Kipchaks before
returning to the steppes.
Chinggis returned to Mongolia in 1225. In 1227, he marched to exact punishment on the Xi Xia for earlier refusing to
provide forces to support his war in the west. However, he was thrown from his horse and seriously injured. Several months
later, on 8th August 1227, he died just before the Xi Xia were finally destroyed. His final resting place remains unknown. At
his death his empire stretched from the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean all the way westwards to the Caspian Sea.
Ögedei, his successor, grew the empire eastwards into Manchuria by crushing the Tatars and allying with the Song dynasty
to finally destroy the Jin in 1234. He then cowed the Koryo Koreans into submission, although this turned out to be short-
lived. He invaded south into the Indian Sultanates as far as Kashmir and Lahore. He expanded westwards by taking
Azerbaijan and retaking Armenia and Georgia. In 1235–9 he conquered the Rus’ and then took Crimea by crushing the
Kipchaks and Alans.
In 1241, the Mongols laid waste to Hungary and then Poland, massacring perhaps 20% of the population. This onslaught
into Europe only stopped when Ögedei died in 1242, requiring all Mongols to return to Mongolia to decide the next Khan.
The rivals bickered until 1251, when Möngke became the new Great Khan. By 1258, he had conquered Dali (formerly Nan
Zhao), Tibet and northern Vietnam. In the west, he first took Baghdad and then Damascus and Aleppo in 1259. He died
the same year and his two sons Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke fought the Toluid Civil War for the title of Khan, during which
enemies began to make incursions into the Mongol Empire. Kublai founded the Yuan dynasty and enlisted the Venetian
Marco Polo into his court. Although that is another story – and another army list!
The Mongols differed from previous steppe kingdoms in having an ideology and discipline. They believed that there was
only one god in heaven and that there should likewise be only one ruler on earth. A Chinese sage wrote "since the beginnings
of time no barbarians have been so powerful as the Mongols are today. They destroy kingdoms as one tears up grass. Why
does heaven permit it?"
Army Notes
Temujin’s tough childhood and ego drove a sense of ruthless revenge and determination. Unusually, he incorporated
defeated tribes into his army and his empire instead of massacring them, thereby expanding his forces very quickly. It is no
coincidence that Mongolia experienced its wettest ever century just at this time, giving more pasture to support more horses
than ever before.
He trampled on the old steppe tribal loyalties and, through ruthless discipline and an ego-centric ideology that he was the
one ruler on earth to match the one god in heaven, forged a single Mongol loyalty across the steppe tribes. He chose his
very top leaders based on unshakeable trust and loyalty of family and lifelong friendships. He abolished tribal aristocracies
and promoted warriors and leaders based on merit versus tribal lineage. Any disloyalty would lead to death by being boiled
alive, having their back broken and left to starve, or other hideous methods of execution.
He structured his forces into units of purposefully mixed tribes - tumens (10,000 men). Each tumen was then split into
myangans (1,000 men), zuuns (100 men) and arbans (10 men). This created deep camaraderie and responsibility at the
“squad” level and a strong yet flexible command structure at every level. He enforced intense discipline and training. As his
enemies observed: “Each time they turn, their ranks are proper, each time they turn, their order is proper.” He “improved”
on the Roman idea of decimating deserters by killing every single member of an arban if one member broke a Yassa law.

Chinggis created a personal guard of armoured men and horses armed with lance and bow called the nokod that evolved
into the black armoured keshig as shown in the army list. Children of allied rulers were required to join this unit. These
guards were trained as officers and were then moved into the other zuuns, myangans and tumens as senior leaders.
The frightening speed and endurance of his armies was enabled by travelling without supply trains other than multiple horses
per rider. They drank soured mares milk mixed with blood from the horses’ veins. Meat was often tenderised under their
saddles because of the lack of wood to cook it.
Chinggis’ tactics were initially based upon nomadic herding and hunting techniques, including "thornbush", "lake" and
"chisel" formations. The nerge involved creating a giant circle of riders several days' ride across and gradually closing in on
the herds, ending with an arena for nobles to pick the biggest animal and leave the rest for the lower ranks. The nerge was
used to drive human populations into cities to cause confusion, panic, food shortage and disease. He also developed the use
of small and large-scale feigned retreats, some of which lasted days or even weeks, to lure his enemies into carefully concealed
and deadly ambushes.
He diverted rivers to flood cities, used frozen rivers to move through impenetrable Russian forests in the winter and he used
hit-and-run and envelopment tactics, and left gaps in his combat lines to trick enemies into going where he wanted them to
go.
He used fear to encourage enemies to surrender without fighting, by massacring the entire populations of those territories
who did not instantly submit to him. Furthermore, he used enemy civilians as human shields to absorb arrows and even to
fill trenches with their bodies (these are represented by the Kharash in the army list). He forced prisoners to reveal their
expertise in building fortifications and the use of catapults and siege engines.
Mongol archery
The Mongols drew with their thumb, both because it was the strongest digit and because it gives two inches extra draw
versus fingers, helped by a horn thumb ring for protection and a cleaner release. The bow string’s twist from the thumb
release also meant it was better for the arrow to be on the right of the bow, which had the added benefit of a faster rate of
fire.
The Mongol composite bow is far more efficient than an English style longbow in several ways, including a continuous
delivery of power and less momentum loss in the bow limbs. A Mongol bow (weight for weight) can shoot the same arrow
further (450 vs 350 yards) and far faster than a longbow. However, horse archers tend to shoot lower weight bows than foot
archers and so a light Mongol bow has less penetrative power than a heavy English “war bow,” which explains why Mongol
horse archers preferred to shoot at the mounts of armoured knights, rather than the knights themselves.
Mongols used a range of arrows, including
whistling hunting arrows developed to
distract prey by making them curious
about the sound and thereby permitting a
second shot. The sound came from
hollow tubes drilled into the bone
arrowheads. These arrows were also used
to scare enemies and to send messages,
both in relays over long distances and even
during battles.
Uniquely, steppe horses have a fifth gait
that other horses do not have (walk, trot,
canter gallop) that gives a stable platform
for accurate archery with the powerful
Mongol bows.
Thanks to Peter Ryding who wrote most of this
list and the accompanying background material.
Also, thanks to Barry Lee for images of
miniatures from his collection, painted by the
talented Redzed.

Later Muslim Indian
This list covers the Muslim armies of India from the foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi (1206 CE) down to its conquest
by the Mughals following the battle of Panipat (1526).
Upgrade to heroic 2–4 +1 –
Upgrade a senior, heroic mounted general to great
leader (see the Even Stronger supplement, for details) 0–1* 3+ 10
as Sultan Tughluq
Heroes 2–4 – 1
2–3/1–
2*****
Hashm–i–qalb (household
mamluks)
extra bow, veteran (as khahah–khail household 1–3/0–1** 6+ 13
mamluks)
Cavalry, lance, extra bow, raw 2–4 8+ 9
Hashm–i–atraf (provincial
mamluks) Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow, raw to cavalry,
Any/0–1** 7+ 11
lance, extra bow
Rathor cavalry Cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1^^ 7+ 11
Afghan nobles Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1^ 6+ 13
Afghan light cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 0–1/1–2^ 7+ 5
Muslim horse archers Light cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Javelinmen, extra 2HCCW 0–2 7+ 8
Hindu (or Muslim) swordsmen Upgrade Hindu javelinmen to mounted infantry as
0–1 – +1
payak–ba–asp ("nag–riders")
Bowmen, raw 4–8/2–4^ 9+ 5
Downgrade bowmen, raw to light infantry other,
Any 9+ 3
bow, raw
Hindu dhanuk bowmen Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen (as archers from 0–
8+ 7
the Deccan) 1/Any*****
Upgrade Hindu bowmen to mounted infantry as
0–2 – +1
payak–ba–asp ("nag–riders")
Spearmen 0–1/2–4^ 7+ 7
Afghan infantry Bowmen 8+ 7
0–1/1–2^
Elephants (Indian), deep, escorted 0–3 6+ 12
Elephants Upgrade elephant (Indian), deep, escorted to
Any 5+ 15
elephants (Indian), deep, escorted, veteran
Light infantry, bow, elephant screen 1–4 8+ 6
Elephant screen Upgrade light infantry, bow, elephant screen to light
Any 7+ 7
infantry, bow, elephant screen, veteran
Camp followers Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Hindu javelinmen Light infantry, javelin 0–1 7+ 4
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1**** 8+ 4

Manjaniq and arrada (trebuchets
Artillery (catapults) 0–1 8+ 7
and ballistae)
Field artillery Artillery (cannon) 0–1*** 8+ 7
Takhsh–andaz (rocketeers) Treat as artillery (organ guns) 0–1*** 8+ 7
Ra'd–andaz (grenadiers) and Light infantry other, incendiary (see the Even
0–1*** 8+ 4
atash–baz firework–throwers Stronger supplement)
Camp Camp 1–3 1
Palisade Fortifications 0–5 1
* Delhi Sultanate from 1310 to 1325 only. Ghiyas ud–Din Tughluq was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty.
** Delhi Sultanate from 1360 to 1414 only. Towards the end of the Tughlaq dynasty, and at the beginning of the Sayyid
dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate was riddled with corruption, and the quality of its troops was greatly diminished.
*** After 1340.
**** After 1470.
***** Bahmani Sultanate 1347 to 1527 only. The Bahmani Sultans revolted against the Delhi Sultanate and established
an independent state in the Deccan. Deccan archers had a particularly good reputation, but it was harder to access
horses in southern India.
^ Delhi Sultanate 1451 to 1526 only. The Lodi Sultans were of Afghan origin and Afghans predominated within their
armies.
^^ Delhi Sultanate 1316 to 1388 only. The Rathors were Rajput Hindus. Semi-autonomous subjects, they had a
fearsome reputation.
Allies
TBC.
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire which, from its capital in Delhi, ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent
for 320 years (1206–1526 CE).
The first Sultan of Delhi was Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former Turkic mamluk slave who killed his master and assumed power.
The Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290) that he founded was able to repel successive Mongol invasions and conquer large areas
of northern India. The succeeding Khalji dynasty (1290–1320) was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate
reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), when it occupied most of the Indian
subcontinent, but the dynasty was brought low by internal corruption and devastating Timurid invasions and contracted due
to Hindu reconquests and the secession of Muslim states. The Sayyid (1414–1451) and Lodi (1451–1526) dynasties ruled
over a much-diminished state in Northern India. The last Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, was killed by invading Mughals at the
battle of Panipat in 1526.
Army Notes
The three core elements of most Muslim Indian armies were the mamluk slave-soldiers, who fought with lance and bow
from horseback, exceptionally large numbers of elephants, which screened the front of the army, and masses of Hindu
subjects armed with bows, swords and javelins.
Muslim war elephants, and their mahouts, were well trained and armoured and a number may therefore be classed as veteran.
Accounts of period battles are sparse, and I cannot find a great deal of evidence for how they were used. They certainly seem
to have been used to screen the front of the army. Babur at Panipat in 1526 seems to have feared a frontal elephant charge
however, so I have included the option for both elephants and elephant screen. It is somewhat unclear whether elephants
were war-winning behemoths or potential liabilities brought along for largely for reasons of status!
The javelins carried by swordsmen represent a combination of actual javelins and chakram steel throwing quoits, worn on
the wrist, which could be thrown with lethal force. The sword represents the long, broad sosun pattah ("lily leaf") swords
that were carried, sometimes in conjunction with a buckler. I have chosen to class these as two-handed on account of their
size.
Sources
I used Ian Heath's Armies of the Middle Ages, Part 2, as the primary source for this list.

Thai (Siamese)
This list covers the various kingdom of Thailand (formerly Siam) from its unification in the thirteenth century (1238 CE)
until the Burmese invasion in 1518.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, javelin, raw 2–5 8+ 7
Thai cavalry Upgrade cavalry, javelin, raw to cavalry, javelin 0–4 7+ 9
Cavalry, crossbow 0–1** 8+ 9
Spearmen 4–8 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–2* 6+ 9
Thai warriors
Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade any spearmen with extra bow Any*** – +2
Bowmen, raw 3–6*** 9+ 5
Archers
Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Crossbowmen Light infantry, crossbow 0–2** 8+ 4
Elephants Indian elephants, escorted, deep 0–3 6+ 12
Servants and conscripts Mobs, deep, raw 0–2 9+ 4
* As royal guards.
** Only after 1378.
*** The total number of archer units or "extra bow" upgrades may not exceed six.
Allies
Burmese, Malaysians, Khmer Empire.
The Thais may have originated in China but by the Thirteenth century were established in the northern highlands of what is
today Thailand. As Khmer power waned the Thais expanded southwards. There were usually two to four competing Thai
kingdoms. The Sukhothai kingdom was dominant early in the period but gradually supplanted by and eventually merged
with the Ayutthaya kingdom. The combined kingdoms came under attack from the Burmese towards the end of the period
covered by this list.
Thanks to Marco Cardano who wrote the first draft of this list.

Yuan Chinese
This list covers the Yuan Empire from the succession of Kublai Khan in 1260 through to the conquest of China by the
Ming Dynasty in 1368.
Upgrade an attached mounted general to detached 0–1^^ 2+ 6
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Horse–tail standard 2VP standard 0–1 – 3
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 1–2^, 2–4^^ 7+ 11
Su-wei (Imperial Guard) cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
1–3 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Light cavalry, bow 5–8^, 2–4^^ 8+ 5
Meng-ku Chun (Mongol Army) Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2^ 7+ 6
and T’an-ma-ch’ih (Tamma veteran
Army) cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow Up to 1/2 6+ 6
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran Up to 1/2^ 6+ 11
Chinese cavalry Cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–1^ 7+ 11
Southern tribal cavalry Cavalry, javelin, extra crossbow 0–1** 7+ 11
Su-wei infantry Billmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Billmen 7+ 7
Han Chun ("Han Army") or 2–8***
Hsin-fu Chun ("Newly Adhered Billmen, extra bow or crossbow 7+ 9
Army") or Nu Chun Bowmen or crossbowmen 2–6*** 8+ 7
("Crossbow Army")
Downgrade to raw (as Hsin-fu Chun) At least 1/2 -1 -2
Southern tribal infantry Javelinmen 0–4** 7+ 7
Kan-t'ao-lu' (looters) Mobs, deep 0–2* 8+ 7
Chinese or southern tribal
Light infantry other, bow or crossbow 0–2 8+ 4
skirmishers
Fire-lances Light infantry other, incendiary 0–1** 8+ 4
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1^^ 8+ 4
Artillery (catapult), raw 0–1 9+ 6
P'ao Chun ("Artillery Army") Artillery (bombard), raw (representing light guns or
0–1^^ 9+ 6
rocket launchers)
Camps Camp 1–3 – 1
* Before 1275.
*** The number of bowmen and extra bow must equal or exceed the number of crossbowmen.
^ Before 1300.
^^ From 1300 onwards.
Allies
Koryo Korean Allies, Mongol conquest allies (before 1264)

Notes
Kublai Khan, if present, must be the senior general. He could be modelled in a tower, raised high on the back of four
elephants.
The Yuan Empire was one of the four khanates that emerged after the death of the Great Khan Möngke in 1259. Kublai, a
grandson of Genghis Khan, succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but needed to defeat his younger brother
Ariq Böke. The consequent Toluid Civil War, lasting until 1264, resulted in the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire.
Thereafter, Kublai's real power was limited to the Yuan Empire, even though as Khagan he still had some influence in the
Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.
The war against Song China resumed in 1265. In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty and formally claimed orthodox
succession from prior Chinese dynasties, ruling as Emperor Shizu. The writing was on the wall for the Song, and several
Song generals defected with their troops. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated
by Kublai's newly appointed commander-in-chief, general Bayan. By 1276, most of the Song lands had been captured by
Yuan forces, including the capital Lin'an. In 1279 the Song fleet was defeated at the naval Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River
Delta and the Emperor was killed; the Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was complete. Kublai became the first non-Han
emperor to rule all of China proper. Later, Kublai successfully annexed Korea but failed to conquer Burma and Japan. His
Yuan Dynasty came to rule over most of present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, southern Siberia, and other adjacent areas.
Kublai died in 1294 and was succeeded by his son Temür Khan (ruled 1294–1307) and his descendants. From 1315
onwards, a series of major rebellions against Yuan rule broke out, and Yuan control began to break down in those regions
inhabited by ethnic minorities. The cost of suppressing these revolts aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan
government. Political infighting within the Mongol elite further weakened Yuan control.
The Red Turban peasant rebellions against the Yuan dynasty between 1351 and 1368, eventually led to the collapse of the
Yuan dynasty. The last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür, and the Yuan imperial court retreated northwards into Mongolia and
became known, in historiography, as the Northern Yuan.
Army Notes
For his Imperial Guard, Kublai created a new force, the Su-wei, half of which were Chinese and the other half ethnically
mixed. The Su-wei was initially 6,500 strong but, by the end of the dynasty, it had expanded in size to over 100,000, and
constituted a private army for the emperor. Wei (guards) units were always recruited from a particular ethnicity. Most units
were Chinese, but others were Mongols, Koreans, Tungusic peoples, and Central Asians/Middle Easterners including
Kipchaks, Alans and even Russians.
The remainder of the Yuan forces were divided into four main categories. The Meng-ku Chun (Mongol Army) was the first,
consisting of Mongol cavalry units under the emperors’ direct control. More Mongols served in the second T’an-ma-ch’ih
Chun or Tamma (“to govern/control”) army, but as allies, led by their own chiefs. Although mostly Mongol tribesmen, the
Tammachi also included Muslim units from Central Asia, especially the Uyghurs. Over time the Mongols, now living in China,
struggled to meet their military service obligations, as they needed to make a living as farmers and lacked the pastures required
to rear horses. By the 1300s, many Mongol men could not even foot the cost for travel to enlist in the army.
The third army was the Han Chun (“Han Army”) consisted of troops from Northern China, including ethnic Chinese,
Khitans, Jurchens, Koreans and Tibetans, raised by conscription. Even before the start of the period covered by this list,
Chinese infantry already formed an important element of Mongol armies. Whilst the majority were peasant militia, others
were former frontier veterans or Jin dynasty cavalrymen, and capable of serving as cavalry forces equal in quality to those of
the Mongols.
The fourth army was the Hsin-fu Chun (“Newly Adhered Army”) and consisted largely of Song troops who had defected to
the Mongols. This was considered the least reliable element of the army, but the vast numbers of troops required for Kublai
Khan's campaigns could only be raised by recruiting from the huge numbers of southern Chinese soldiers that submitted in
the 1270s.
Aside from the above four armies, the Yuan army also contained a force known as the Tongshi Jun, consisting of Mongols
who had fought against the Mongols for the Song dynasty. In southern China, the Mongols made heavy use of Indigenous
ethnic minority soldiers who were better suited to the terrain than were Mongol cavalry. There were also Kan-t’ao-lu, bands

of looters who followed Kublai’s armies. These were indifferent soldiers and often devastated the conquered territories, so
Kublai disbanded them in 1274 and incorporated them within other infantry units.
Chinese infantry fought with either swords, spears or halberds, which we have grouped and classed as bill, or bows and
crossbows, with the bow being somewhat more common than the crossbow.
Sources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Yuan_dynasty#:~:text=The%20military%20of%20the%20Yuan,the%20
Mongol%20Empire%20in%201260.
Medieval Chinese armies 1260–1520 C J Peers, David Skue Osprey Ltd
With thanks to Peter Ryding who produced the first draft of this list.

Muromachi Samurai
This list covers the armies of the samurai from the establishment of the Ashikaga shogunate in 1336 until the beginning of
the Onin wars in 1467 CE.
Upgrade to mounted Any – 1
Generals
Upgrade to detached Any – 1
Upgrade to senior 0–1 – 1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Portable sacred shrine 2 VP standard 0–1*** – 3
Mounted samurai with yumi Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran Any 7+ 11
(bow) or yari (spear) Replace cavalry, bow with cavalry, lance Any 7+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Any 6+ 11
Genin (mounted retainers) with Cavalry, special** 0–2 7+ 8
naginata (pole weapons) Downgrade cavalry, special to cavalry, special, raw Any 8+ 6
Sohei (warrior monks) cavalry Cavalry, special**, fanatics 0–1*** 8+ 8
Bowmen 0–4 8+ 7
Foot samurai bowmen* Upgrade bowmen to bowmen, veteran Any 7+ 9
Upgrade bowmen to mounted infantry Any – +1
Billmen (with naginata or no-dachi) 4–8 7+ 7
Upgrade billmen to billmen, veteran At least 1/2 6+ 9
Upgrade billmen or billmen, veteran with extra bows Any – +2
Upgrade billmen to mounted infantry Up to 1/2 – 1
Replace billman with (yari-armed) spearmen Any 7+ 7
Foot samurai
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran At least 1/2 6+ 9
Any – +2
bows
Any – +1
2HCCW
Billmen 4–8* 7+ 7
Genin (retainers) with naginata Replace billman with (yari-armed) spearmen Any 7+ 7
or yari Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw Any 8+ 5
Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, raw with extra bows Any – +2
Bowmen 0–2* 8+ 7
Genin bowmen Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5
Sohei with naginata Billmen, fanatics 0–2*** 8+ 7
Palisades of cut down trees Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* For every samurai unit, there must be least one genin unit.
** Genin cavalry fought mounted using the naginata. Treat as cavalry, lacking javelins or lance, but counting as 2HCCW-
armed.
*** Sohei monks must be in a command of their own. Any sacred standard must be attached to a foot unit.

Notes
Attached generals must be initially attached to a samurai unit; if this should be lost, they may join any unit.
Army Notes
During the Muromachi period, yari(lance)-armed samurai gradually replaced the elite mounted bowmen of the earlier
Kamakura period, although they still are accompanied by genin warrior retainers, sometimes mounted. These genin or shoju
were often as well equipped as their masters, and samurai units are considered to include genin. Hence, samurai are not all
graded as veteran, but this remains an option. The more box-like restrictive oyoroi armour was still used by samurai with
yumi but armour encompassing both sleeves, preventing use of the bow, became more common. Retainers are now more
likely to wear lighter do-maru armour. The experience of the Nanbokucho Wars in wooded countryside more suited to
dismounted hand-to-hand close combat saw the widespread use of the naginata, favoured by monks, and the two-handed
no-dachi. The yari, a long, straight spear, was introduced from the fourteenth century and, as the c. 15th began, the yari began
to replace the naginata. Neither samurai nor retainers are rated as longbow, as their yumi bow was used at close range to
penetrate armour, rather than shot high in the air in massed volleys like the Medieval longbow.

Yi Korean
This list represents the Yi-Dynasty from its foundation in 1392 until the end of the Imjin Wars with Japan, in 1598.
Upgrade from foot to mounted Any – +1
Generals (Jang) Upgrade to detached 0–2 – +1
Upgrade to heroic Any 3+ –
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Wi (guard) cavalry armed with Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 6+ 13
1–2
flails, hyup do glaives or swords Cavalry, polearm*, extra bow, veteran 6+ 12
Cavalry Cavalry, bow 1–3 8+ 9
Light cavalry Light cavalry, bow 0–3 8+ 5
Sam hyul chong (light cavalry) Light cavalry, handgun 0–1*** 8+ 5
Wi (guard) with sword & shield Auxiliaries, veteran 0–1 5+ 9
Wi (guard) with two swords Auxiliaries, 2HCCW 0–1 6+ 9
Spearmen 2–4 7+ 7
Spearmen, raw (garrison troops) 2–4 8+ 5
Yeo Jang Chang ("long spear
troops") Replace spearmen with billmen as hyup do (glaive
Up to 1/2 7+ 7
men)
Upgrade spearmen or billmen with extra bows Any** – +2
Guerrillas or Buddhist monks Mobs, deep 0–3 8+ 7
Bowmen 1–4** 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw (garrison) 2–4** 9+ 5
Yeo archers
Replace bowmen with crossbowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Light infantry other, bow or crossbow 8+ 4
Yeo skirmishers 0–2
Light infantry other, bow or crossbow, raw 9+ 3
Guerrilla archers Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–2 9+ 3
Light infantry other, handgun 0–2 8+ 4
Upgrade light infantry other, handgun to infantry,
Chongtong (hand cannons) Any*** 8+ 7
handgun
Add pavise to infantry, handgun Any – +1
Hwacha ("fire cart") and
Artillery (organ guns) 0–2 7+ 7
Chongtong (artillery)
* Treat as cavalry, lacking javelins or lance, but counting as 2HCCW–armed.
** Minimum number of two archers applies unless spearmen are upgraded with extra bows. For every two so upgraded
(excluding guardsmen) reduce the minimum and maximums by one.
*** Only from 1447.
Allies
Ming Chinese, Jurchen.

To follow.
Army Notes
Firearms had been used in Korea long before the introduction of the musket in the late 1500s. Korean archaeologists have
unearthed many guns from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Some were imported from China, but the Koreans also
made their own gunpowder weapons, some of which were impressive enough to be presented as tribute gifts by the Korean
court to the Ming emperor. In fact, by 1447, Koreans seem to have employed some kind of volley principle with guns.
Hwacha (literally "fire carts") came in two basic versions. The first was a multiple rocket launcher that fired one or two
hundred singijeon rocket-powered arrows. The second was a multi-barrelled organ gun that could fire two hundred small
chongtong bullets. These artillery pieces could be used in fortresses or on the battlefield and proved highly effective against
dense infantry formations.

Sengoku Samurai
This list covers the armies of the samurai from the start of the Onin War in 1467 CE until the siege of Osaka in 1615.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
ō-uma-jirushi (great standard) 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
0–2*, 0–4**,
Mounted samurai with yumi Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
0–2****
(bows) or yari (spears)
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran or Up to 1/2,
7+/6+ 11
cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow, veteran all^^^^^
Spearmen, 2HCCW, veteran 6+ 10
3–6
Auxilia, 2HCCW 6+ 9
Upgrade auxilia, 2HCCW to auxilia, 2HCCW, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 11
Foot samurai armed with yari,
or ronin (after 1601) Upgrade auxilia, 2HCCW or auxilia, 2HCCW, veteran
Up to 1/2 – +2
or spearmen, 2HCCW, veteran with extra bows
Replace extra bows with handguns Any*** – –
Spearmen 5–8 7+ 7
Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw Any^^ 8+ 5
Ashigaru with yari Upgrade with extra bows Any – +2
Upgrade with extra handguns Any^ – +2
Replace spearmen with teppo^^^^ 2–4^^^ 8+ 7
Bowmen 0–4 8+ 7
Ashigaru bowmen or teppo Replace bowmen with teppo^^^^ Any**** 8+ 7
Upgrade teppo^^^^ with palisade***** and/or
Any – +1
pavise
Ashigaru skirmishers Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
Any^ 8+ 4
other, handgun
Billmen, fanatics 0–2 8+ 7
Sohei Upgrade billmen, fanatics with extra bows Any – 9
Replace extra bows with extra handguns ^ – –
Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1**** 8+ 5
Light artillery
Upgrade artillery (cannon) with pavises 0–1 – 9
* Before 1530.
** 1530–1575.
**** From 1576 onwards.

***** Treat as stakes, except they must be placed in front of the unit when it is deployed at the beginning of the battle.
^ 0–1 from 1543 onwards or any after 1560.
^^ Up to 1590.
^^^ From 1591 onwards. Minimum applies only if no ashigaru are upgraded with extra handguns.
^^^^ Teppo units are an admixture of arquebusiers and bowmen. They have a save of 8+ and six ammunition. When
shooting, they may expend two ammo and play two to-hit cards, as if bowmen. The first card in each pair counts as
handgun for save purposes, the second as bow.
^^^^^ Takeda clan, in which case at least 2 cavalry, lance must be taken.
Allies
Ikko Ikki
Notes
There must be least one mounted or foot samurai unit for each general. Attached generals must be attached to a samurai
unit.
Army Notes
Mounted samurai equipped with yumi represent samurai using old cavalry methods rather than the yari.
I have included two alternative models for modelling samurai. The first option is as spearmen, 2HCCW, veteran and the
second is auxilia, 2HCCW +/- veteran. In both cases the veteran status represents in part the discipline and military
experience of the samurai, and in part their superior armour. The 2HCCW represents both their katana side arms and the
exceptional aggression of Japanese armies. Ronin would have been armed with a mixture of weapons including naginata, yari
and katana and can be represented by non-veteran auxilia, 2HCCW.
After 1575, arquebuses became more common, so ashigaru may be fielded as separate units of spearmen and bowmen/teppo
or as mixed units of spearmen, extra bows/handguns, depending on the size of the unit envisaged. After 1590, Hideyoshi's
reforms imposed a more formal structure, reflected in the absence of raw ashigaru and a requirement of a minimum number
of teppo units when the extra handguns upgrade is not used.
A few light artillery pieces were used at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, but the first cannons entirely made by the Japanese
were cast a few months after the battle.
Sources
Samurai Armies of the Late Sengoku Period, Volume 1 by Till Weber.
Thanks to Roger Calderbank and Gareth Beamish for writing and revising this list, which I subsequently edited (May ’21), and Tim Thompson
and Sid Bennett for checking it. I have revised this list again (October ’21) to simplify it somewhat and provide two alternative ways of representing
samurai.
I will eventually split this list into two, around the 1543 date of the introduction of the arquebus. The second part will fall within Renaissance.

Ikko-Ikki
This list covers the Ikko-Ikki Japanese Buddhist revolutionary movement from their first major uprising in Kaga province
in 1488 CE up to the elimination of the last centres of resistance in 1585.

Generals
Upgrade to detached 0-4 – +1
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Mounted sohei Cavalry, special, fanatics 0–2* 8+ 8
Upgrade billmen, fanatics to billmen, fanatics, veteran Up to 1/2 7+ 9
Sohei
Upgrade billmen, fanatics or billmen, fanatics,
Up to 1/2 – +2
veteran with extra bows or handguns***
Ikko-Ikki fanatics
Downgrade billmen, fanatics to billmen, fanatics, raw Any 9+ 5
Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Ikko-Ikki bowmen or teppo
Upgrade bowmen to teppo Any**** 8+ 7
Upgrade teppo with palisade (treat as stakes) 0–2 – +1
Town peasants Mobs, deep, special 0–6** 8+ 7
Ronin Billmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Ikko-Ikki skirmishers Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
Any*** 8+ 4
other, handgun
* Sohei cavalry fought mounted using the naginata. Treat as cavalry, lacking javelins or lance, but counting as 2HCCW–
armed.
** Town peasants represent a mass of people armed with a variety of weapons including naginata and farming tools.
They fight as if armed with two handed cutting weapons but lack the usual javelins.
*** Handguns after 1550.
**** From 1575. Teppo were a mixture of arquebusiers and bowmen. They have a save of 8+ and six ammunition. They
may play two to-hit cards; the first card in each pair counts as handgun for save purposes.
Allies
Sengoko Samurai
Thanks to Roger Calderbank, Daniel Moreno and Gareth Beamish from the TtS! Forum for collaborating to write this list.

IV Medieval Northern and Eastern Europe
This chapter contains the army lists of Medieval Scandinavia and Russia.
Viking
This list covers the Vikings abroad from their first raids in Britain in 793 CE until the fall of Jorvik (York) to William I in
1069. A separate Leidang list covers the national armies of the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden and Denmark, when fighting
at home.
Attached heroic general on foot 2–4 3+ 4
Upgrade to senior 0–1 3+ +1
Generals
Upgrade a senior, heroic general to great leader as
0–1* 3+ 9
King Cnut.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Land-waster or similar banner 2 VP army standard 0–1 – 3
Shieldwall, deep 6–12 7+ 10
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran Up to half 6+ 13
Hird or Huscarls ("household" Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran with extra 2HCCW Any – +1
or "retinue") or Bondi (land–
owning farmers) Upgrade shieldwall, deep or shieldwall, deep, veteran
0–3** – +2
with extra bow
Irish Javelinmen, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 9
Shieldwall, deep, veteran, extra 2HCCW 0–1*** 6+ 14
English rebels
Upgrade to mounted infantry 0–1 – +1
Skirmishers
Light infantry other, sling or bow 0–3** 8+ 4
Fortified camp Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only between 1015 and 1035. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** The combined total number of light infantry other, bow and shieldwall, extra bow taken may not exceed 3.
*** Irish and English rebels may not be used together.
Allies
English Kingdoms, Irish, Scots, Strathclyde Welsh
Notes
Cnut has been selected as great leader because his achievements were longer lasting than those of most of the Viking
chieftains; an alternative great leader might be the collective Sons of Ragnar. Berserkir ("bear-shirt" berserks) are best
represented as heroes.
Vikings were originally from Scandinavia and of Norse ancestry. Most came from the areas now covered by Norway, Sweden
and Denmark. There are, however, also accounts of Saami, Estonian and Finnish Vikings.
Skilled sailors using a new shallow design of boat that could cross seas and penetrate far inland along rivers, the Viking bands
proved to be extraordinarily successful raiders. The Vikings did not feel the need to ‘pick a fight’ and their early raids were
against undefended Christian churches and monasteries. The fact that Vikings were not Christian only added to their
fearsome reputation.
Between 865 and 875 CE, several groups of Norse warriors combined to form the ‘Great Heathen Army’ (as named by
Anglo-Saxons) and invaded the English kingdoms, conquering much of the north which became the “Danelaw”. Alfred the

Great of Wessex was eventually victorious against the invaders, but it was 952 before the last Scandinavian king of
Northumbria, Eric Bloodaxe, was expelled and killed and England was no longer partially under Viking rule.
Viking armies also invaded Ireland, creating trading towns such as Waterford, Dublin and Limerick. They conquered parts
of Scotland and all the Western Isles. Other Vikings made many incursions into mainland Europe. Nantes was sacked and
Paris, Limoges, Orléans, Tours and Nimes were also raided. The area now called Normandy was gifted to a Viking lord
called Rollo for colonisation on the basis that he would take responsibility for defending the River Seine against other raiders.
Norwegians colonised Iceland and later Greenland. The colonisation of lands east of the Baltic Sea led to the creation of the
Rus cities and eventually a raid on Constantinople, where Viking mercenaries eventually formed the Emperor’s Varangian
Guard.
During the c. 10th, King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark launched new raids against England, the Scottish Isles and, to a lesser
extent, other parts of Europe. Harald’s son, Sweyn Forkbeard, led further Viking raids on England and took the whole
kingdom by 1013. After Sweyn’s death, King Knut ruled over a vast kingdom consisting of England, Denmark and Norway.
Army Notes
This list covers the overseas raiding and conquest armies but not home armies which are covered by the Leidang list.
Huscarls were paid troops, often the retinue of kings and other leaders.
Bondi might serve overseas, in the summer, as part of a half-leiðangr ("ship levy"). They were freemen and constituted the
bulk of Viking society: landowners; craftsman and farmers.
English rebels under Tostig Godwinson fought alongside the Vikings at Stamford Bridge in 1066.
During the early raids Viking tactics were haphazard. However pure aggression, high levels of individual martial skill and
extended reconnaissance counterbalanced this weakness. Ambushes were another favoured tactic. However, by the time of
the Great Heathen army forces were better organised.
Spears and axes were the main Viking weapons. Spears were not seen as lesser weapons than axes, but rather as tools for
different jobs. Axes were used more when raiding.
Swords, where used, were plain and functional. However, once a warrior owned a sword a bond was quickly formed and a
well-made example would often be handed from father to son, often posthumously.
Bows were relatively common, but one tactic used against mounted foes was a line of spearmen with archers behind.
Many thanks do Derek Pearson who wrote the historical background and army notes.
Viking looters painted by Nick Speller.

Scandinavian Leidang
This list covers the leiðangr (“ship levy”) coastal fleets/armies that could be summoned by Scandinavian kings and used for
defence or foreign conquest.
Generals Upgrade to mounted 0–2 3+ +1
Upgrade to senior 0–1 3+ +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Shieldwall, deep, veteran 0–3 13
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran with extra
Hird or Huscarls ("household" Any 14
2HCCW 6+
or "retinue")
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any +1
Replace shieldwall, deep, veteran with knights, lance 0–3^, 0–1^^ 11
Replace a shieldwall, deep with a pair of light
Up to 1/4* 7+ 2x4
infantry, javelin as Finns or woodsmen
Upgrade light infantry, javelin to light infantry,
Up to 1/4 6+ 5
javelin, veteran
Bondi ("land–owning farmers") Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep,
0–3 6+ 13
veteran
Downgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, raw 0–3 8+ 7
Upgrade shieldwall, deep or shieldwall, deep,
3–5** – +2
veteran with extra bow
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran to mounted
Any – +1
infantry
Bondi bowmen Bowmen 3–5** 8+ 7
Skirmishers
Lapp scouts Light infantry other, bow, veteran 0–1*** 7+ 5
Germanic settlers Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 0–1**** 9+ 3
Thralls (slaves and similar) Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Light infantry other, bow 1–3***** 8+ 4
Wends
Light infantry, javelin, veteran 2–6***** 6+ 5
Felled trees or stockade Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Swedish armies only.
** A minimum of three and maximum of five in total across light infantry, bow, or bowmen or shieldwall, extra bow
may be taken.
*** Not Danish armies.
**** Danish armies, only.
***** Danish armies before 1043. Minima only apply if any Wendish troops are taken.
^ Danish armies after 1100.
^^ Norwegian or Swedish armies after 1150.
Allies
Feudal German 1218–1227 CE****

Leidang were Norwegian, Danish and Swedish fleets/armies,
usually summoned by a king and raised by a form of
conscription. They could be defensive, in which case the entire
leidangr might be called out, or could be offensive raids, which
might involve a half-leidangr.
Leidang armies could be quite large, particularly in defence. In
1263, for example, during the Scottish/Norwegian War, King
Haakon IV summoned a leidangr of over 120 warships and
their crews to defend the Hebrides.
There is a useful Wikipedia site on Leidang at
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidang
Army Notes
Leidang armies were composed primarily of Bondi (land-
owning farmers). They would have fought in a generally similar
manner to the raiding Vikings but perhaps with a greater
reliance on archery. Each village was required to supply one
bow for every 3–4 able men to be used mostly when on ship.
The Finns in Swedish armies were able woodsmen and capable
warriors but were not keen on open battle.
With many thanks to Derek Pearson, who wrote this excellent list.
A Viking jarl – Wargames Foundry.

Rus’
This list covers the armies of the Rus’ from the date of Rurik’s establishment of the kingdom in Novgorod (862 CE) until
the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054).
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Druzhina nobles and retinue Cavalry, javelin, raw 0–1* 8+ 7
Danubian Bulgar, Pecheneg,
Magyar or Turkic horse archers Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
0–1 7+ 6
veteran
Shieldwall, veteran, deep, extra 2HCCW 0–3* 6+ 14
Druzhina nobles and retinue or
Varangian mercenaries Upgrade shieldwall, veteran, deep, extra 2HCCW to
Any – +1
mounted infantry
Rus’ shieldwall
Upgrade shieldwall, deep with extra bow Any 7+ +2
Rus’ archers Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–3 9+ 3
* No more than three units of druzhina or Varangians, in total, may be taken.
Allies
Pecheneg, Viking.
The origins of the Rus’ people are not clear. The most popular view is that they were Norse traders, raiders and mercenaries
using the river routes from the North Sea to the Baltic. They were known as ‘Varangians.’ The other main theory (especially
favoured by Russian historians) is that the Rus’ were a Slavic people from the Carpathian Mountains.
In 859 CE there are records of Varangians controlling local Slav and Finnic tribes in the areas surrounding the lands later
called Novgorod. Just three years later the tribes rebelled and the Varangians were driven out. However, the tribes
subsequently fought with each other continuously and three Varangian brothers Rurik, Truvor and Sineus were invited to
return and rule again. The brothers created a settlement around Novgorod in the ninth century. Two of the brothers died,
leaving Rurik to rule until his death in 879. His kinsman, Prince Oleg, became regent for Rurik’s son, Igor.
Rurik had given permission for two other nobles, Askold and Dir, to make the journey to Constantinople. However, during
their journey south they came upon a small walled city called Kiev. Because of its ideal strategic position, a decision was
made to capture the city and the surrounding area from the Khazars. More Varangians were invited and control over the
area was secured. In 860 a Kievan Rus’ fleet attacked Byzantium. They caused great damage in the area but stopped short
of attacking Constantinople itself.
In 881 Oleg sent out an army and captured Lyubech and Smolensk. From there a successful attack was made upon Kiev
where Askold and Dir were killed. By 885, Oleg had subjugated all Slav tribes in a large area, creating a Kievan state defended
by a latticework of the forts that had been started by Rurik.
The Kievan state quickly became wealthy due to its control over many trade routes, but this led to tensions with the Khazars.
The Byzantines fuelled this antagonism and carefully manipulated the Khazars, using them as a buffer against the Rus’. This
included building a fort for the Khazars on the Don River. However, Byzantium concluded a peace treaty with the Rus' in
911, and Rus’ relations with the Khazars deteriorated thereafter. In 913 the Khazars’
Khwârazmian Islamic guard routed and massacred a Rus’ force of raiders who has attacked their coreligionists, and
subsequently the Rus' warlords launched several wars of revenge against the Khazar Qağanate. The Khazar alliance with the
Byzantine Empire began to collapse in the early c. 10th, and Svyatoslav I of Rus’ finally succeeded in destroying Khazar
imperial power in the 960s, capturing their capital city of Atil in 968 or 969.

The relationship between the Rus’ and Byzantine Empire was particularly problematic. Although sometimes trading partners,
there were at least seven wars or invasions where they were involved on opposing sides.
In the c. 11th, the now Christian Kievan Rus’ changed its method of choosing rulers to a rota system, whereby power was
transferred to the eldest member of the ruling dynasty, rather than from father to son. Typically, the eldest brother of the
former ruler became the new king. This fomented hatred and rivalry within the royal family, which led to individual clans
gaining more power and the gradual fragmentation of the Kievan state. The decline of Constantinople also affected the Rus’
because they were the Rus’ biggest trading partners during this period.
As the Kievan Rus’ continued to fragment, Novgorod became a republic. It still controlled many trade routes and, after
receiving its first Archbishop, became fully independent of the Kievan Rus’. The Kievan Rus’ fully disintegrated in the c.
13th during the Mongol invasions into a handful of minor principalities paying tribute to their new Tatar overlords.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the historical background for this list.
Gripping Beast Rus’

Old Prussian
This list starts with the accession of the first Duke of Poland in 966, after which the Old Prussians started to come under
pressure from foreign invaders. It ends with the defeat of the last Old Prussian rebellion in 1295.
Upgrade to mounted Any 2+ +1
Generals
Pagan priests brandishing idols 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Cavalry, javelin, veteran 1–3 7+ 11
Nobles and followers Replace cavalry, javelin, veteran with javelinmen,
Any 6+ 13
deep, veteran
Downgrade javelinmen, to javelinmen, raw 1/3 to 2/3 8+ 5
Militia
Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, deep Any 7+ 10
Downgrade javelinmen, deep to mobs, deep 1/3 to 2/3 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Archers 1–3
Javelinmen Light infantry, javelin 0–4 7+ 4
Felled tree obstacles Fortifications 0–5 – 1
Allies
Pomeranian (only after 1242 CE) from the Wendish List (to be written), Early Lithuanian or Samogitian (only in 1295).
The Old Prussian tribes inhabited the south-eastern shore of the Baltic Sea between the Vistula Lagoon to the west and the
Curonian Lagoon to the east. The Prussian tribes included the Sambians, Natangians, Bartians, Warmians, Pogesanians and
Pomesanians.
The Prussians were pagans who “worshipped every creature as divine, namely the sun, moon and stars, thunder, birds, even
four-legged animals, even the toad. They also had forests, fields and bodies of water, which they held so sacred that they
neither chopped wood nor dared to cultivate fields or fish in them. (Peter of Dusburg: Chronicon terrae Prussiae III,5 ,53).
This paganism made them a tempting target for their Christian neighbours, who made many efforts to forcibly convert the
tribes to Christianity. These intensified after the accession of Mieszko I, the first Christian ruler of Poland in 960 CE. In 997
the Polish king, Boleslaw the Great, sent Adalbert of Prague on a missionary effort to Christianize the Prussians. They were
not ready to abandon their pagan gods, and he was murdered.
In 1147, the Polish Duke Boleslaw IV the Curly was disgruntled that the Prussians had supported an exiled Polish duke and
so invaded and defeated the Prussians, although details are scarce. In 1166 Boleslaw and his brother Henry led a second
invasion. However, this time the Prussians were ready and lured them into a marshy area. Most of the Polish soldiers were
drowned, and the remainder were killed with missiles.
Another Polish Duke, Konrad I of Masovia, was repeatedly defeated in his attempts to subdue the Prussians, but in 1226
after many counter raids by the Prussians upon Masovia, Konrad requested aid from the Teutonic Knights, who considered
Prussia an excellent training ground for their knights. The Papal Bull of 1217 from Pope Honorius III declaring a Crusade
against the Prussians by the Teutonic Knights, Livonian Brothers of the Sword, Danes and Poles.
The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II at Rimini his approval of the enterprise in the Golden Bull of Rimini of 1226,
granting the Order any lands that they should conquer.
In 1230 the Prussian Crusade was launched. Over 21,000 crusaders took part in an attack on Prussia in 1233, decisively
defeating the Prussians at the Battle of the Sirgune River. In 1243 the Prussians defeated at the Osa river killing four hundred

Teutonic soldiers including their Marshal. Wherever they were successful in subduing the Prussians, the Teutonic Order
built castles and attempted to Christianise the population.
Various rebellions by the Prussians still had to be faced. During the “Great Uprising” of 1260-1274 the Prussians captured
many castles, mostly by blockade since they struggled with siege. They managed to ambush several Teutonic armies. Another
large uprising took place in 1286, but again the Teutonic Order managed to subdue the revolt. Later, the Lithuanians aided
the Old Prussians in their continuing struggles to free themselves of the Teutonic Order. The final Prussian uprising was
defeated in 1295, after which the Order turned its attentions to Lithuania.
Army Notes
The noblemen and their immediate followers were the most effective element of an Old Prussian force. They often fought
dismounted leading the rest of the army.
The militiamen that made up the rest of the infantry were not very reliable and would often retreat from the field in the face
of superior forces. Ian Heath writes that “The conventional battle tactic for Baltic Infantry was to launch showers of spears
and follow up with a charge if circumstances permitted it: in the face of mounted German knights this would have been
suicidal, of course so that more often than not they had to assume a defensive stance instead, drawing up in a large, solid
phalanx of shields and spears which the Germans invariably tried to smash through by brute force.” (p. 105)
The army's favourite tactics were skirmishing from cover and sudden charges from woods. Prussian infantry preferred to
fight with their backs to a forest to provide a relatively safe line of retreat.
For the above reasons I have classed the militiamen as javelinmen, with an option of forming up as javelinmen, deep, to
better resist Teutonic charges!
Background Reading
Armies of Feudal Europe 1066–1300 by Ian Heath.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote this list, which I edited.

Early Lithuanian or Samogitian
This list covers the Lithuanians and their Samogitian neighbours from the first invasions by the Kievan Rus’ in 1040 through
to the accession of Grand Duke Vytenis ca. 1295.
Generals
Cavalry, lance, single extra javelin, veteran 6+ 12
Lithuanian or Samogitian Light cavalry, lance, single extra javelin, veteran 6+ 7
2–4
nobles Light infantry, javelin, extra bow, veteran, mounted
6+ 7
infantry
Cavalry, lance, single extra javelin 7+ 10
Other Lithuanian or
Light cavalry, lance, single extra javelin 8–16 7+ 6
Samogitian horsemen
Light infantry, javelin, extra bow, mounted infantry 7+ 6
Javelinmen 7+ 7
Lithuanian infantry 0–2
Archers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
Fortifications Fortifications per one box-side length 0–5 – 1
Allies
Teutonic Knights (1250–1253).
The Lithuanian people were originally one of the Balt tribes. The first use of the name ‘Lithuania’ was in documents
chronicling 1009 the ruler, King Nethimer when he was baptised by the missionary, Bruno of Querfurt.
Many of the Baltic tribes suffered from incursions by Viking gangs, and Lithuanian territories were invaded by the Kievan
Rus including Yaroslav the Wise from 1040. However, from the mid c. 12th onwards, the Lithuanians began invading Kievan
Rus territories and so the situation was reversed. In 1183 they sacked the cities of Pskov and Polotsk and even the distant
Republic of Novgorod struggled to resist to Lithuanian incursions. During the c. 12th, aggression between Polish and
Lithuanian forces became increasingly commonplace. The situation became even more complicated towards the end of the
century, as many German settlers forced their way into the area. Fortunately, because the Lithuanian forces had become
more organised as a fighting force the situation remained within their control.
Lithuanian aggression became more prevalent from the beginning of the c. 13th, and from 1201 to 1236 there were at least
forty explorations into Polish, Estonian, Latvian and Rus territories. These incursions took advantage that the areas in
question were already in conflict with the Livonian Order. Likely because of the increasing threat from the Livonian Order
and the Teutonic Knights, a Baltic or Lithuanian Duke, Mindaugas became Grand Duke of all Lithuania.
In 1236 the Pope declared a crusade against the Samogitians, Lithuania’s lowland and fiercely pagan western neighbours.
However, this met with an early setback when the Samogitians defeated the Livonian Brothers at the Battle of Saule. After
this heavy defeat the Teutonic Knights absorbed the remnant Brothers. Samogitia later became a separate Duchy in 1250.
Mindaugas continued to expand Lithuanian territories by overcoming the Black Rus region, including Grodno, Brest and
Navahrudak. However, with the aid of the many enemies of Mindaugas the Rus Duke Daniel of Galicia created a powerful
coalition against Mindaugas, which included Yotvingians, Samogitians and other crusader knights. Unfortunately, the various
factions in the alliance found it hard to work together and this hindered their success.
In 1250 Mindaugas agreed to be baptised as part of an agreement with the Teutonic Knights and with their help managed
to finally overcome the alliance which confirmed his rule over Lithuania. However, Samogitia continued to oppose the
Teutonic Knights and defeated them on more than one occasion. After Pope Innocent IV gave his blessing, Mindaugas was

crowned King of Lithuania. Mindaugas rewarded the Teutonic Knights with lands that he did not strictly control. He also
made peace with Daniel of Galicia by consenting to the marriage of his son to Daniel’s daughter.
In 1260 the Samogitians were again victorious over the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Durbe. Following this the
Samogitians agreed to submit themselves to Mindaugas’ rule so long as he returned to paganism, which he agreed to. From
that point two main policies were set. The first was to oppose the German expansion, especially into Samogitia, and the
second was to continue to expand into Ruthenia, the Rus territories.
Mindaugas was murdered by rivals in 1263, and this was the beginning of a turbulent period in Lithuania’s history, including
civil war. It was not until a power struggle between the Dukes Shvarn and Traidenis ended, that the latter reunified all
Lithuanian lands. He then raided Poland and Ruthenia repeatedly and defeated the Teutonic Knights in 1279.
Because Lithuania remained staunchly pagan throughout the period of this list, it continued to be a target for the Teutonic
Knights. The Golden Horde also began to raid frequently, and by the end of the period covered by this list, had devastated
parts of Lithuania.
Army Notes
Lithuanian and Samogitian cavalry were armed with lances called spisa that could be used as lances or thrown. They also
carried self-bows but apparently never used them when mounted. Most of their cavalry were unarmoured, but nobles could
be very finely armoured. They and other armoured men might fight in the front rank or grouped in the centre of formations.
Ian Heath writes that "the nobles fought alongside the light cavalry of their tribe or family in mixed units" and describes
them as "light cavalry rather than heavy cavalry,” however they were capable of fighting "in close order" in "a more formal
battle array". We have included options for the Lithuanians to fight formed, unformed or dismounted, with bows.
Spearmen fought loosely formed and behaved more like skirmishers.
Lithuania was mainly forested, lakes or marshland. Perhaps because of this the Lithuanians preferred to use ambushes and
would, if possible, avoid a pitched battle. Certainly, they were rarely successful against the Teutonic knights in the open field.
Sources
Armies of Feudal Europe 1066-1300 by Ian Heath. A Wargames Research Group Publication
Armies of the Middle Ages, Volume 2 by Ian Heath. A Wargames Research Group Publication
Thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the first draft of this list and the historical background.

Feudal Russian
This list covers the armies of Russia from the accession of Iziaslav I as Grand Prince of Kiev (1054 CE) until the destruction
of most of the cities of Kievan Rus' during the Mongol invasions in 1238.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Prince's standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Druzhina nobles and retinue
Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran with
2–6 – +2
extra bow
Cavalry, javelin 0–1*** 7+ 9
Poles
Knights, lance 0–1**** 6+ 11
German knights
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, deep All** 6+ 16.5
Chernye klobuki ("black hoods"), Light cavalry, bow 2–5 8+ 5
Torks, Berends, Pechenegs, Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, javelin,
Kipchaks or Hungarians 0–2 7+ 6
extra bow or light cavalry, bow, veteran
Lithuanians Light cavalry, lance, single extra javelin, veteran 0–1** 6+ 7
Shieldwall, deep, extra 2HCCW, veteran 0–1* 6+ 14
Varangian Mercenaries
Shieldwall 7+ 7
0–2
Shieldwall, extra bow 7+ 9
Polk town militia
Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Replace bowmen with crossbowmen 0–1**** 8+ 7
Shieldwall, raw 8+ 5
0–2***, 0-
Shieldwall, raw, extra bow or extra 2HCCW 8+ 7
Smerdy peasant levy 1****
Mobs, deep 8+ 7
Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–2 9+ 3
* Before 1100.
** After 1150.
*** Before 1200.
Allies
Mordvins, Poltovti (Cumans), Hungarians or Polish (after 1150).
Notes
I have classed the foot as shieldwall, rather than spearmen (as they were formerly) since the spears were held one-handed
and a largeish shield was carried.
I have added an option to equip the smerdy with 2HCCW, to represent the large axes wielded by the inhabitants of forest
villages.

Army Notes
Medieval Russian armies in this period were a mix of Western and Eastern influence. Some of the elite Druzhina would have
been equipped with a heavy lance and mace, substantial body armour, kite shaped shields and utilised western close combat
shock tactics. Others, however, would have carried eastern style lance and bow, like their contemporaries in Byzantine,
Islamic and Mongolian armies. Better-off horsemen of either type could ride armoured horses.
Princes would have a banner decorated with fringes or tassels as their own personal standard, well known to their own
followers and other leaders. This banner also acted as a rallying point for the bodyguard after combat.
The Rus enlisted horsemen from nomadic steppe peoples, particularly Torks in the late c. 10th, Pechenegs in the c. 11th (who
evolved into the famous “black hoods”) and Kipchaks in the late c. 11th. Polovtsian warriors still relied on traditional horse-
archery tactics while also using javelins, spears, sabres and other close-combat weapons. The Russians also hired Polish,
German and Hungarian mercenaries.
At the beginning of the period covered by this list, some princes still employed Varangian mercenaries. The polk was a city
militia infantry, relatively well equipped in the manner of western medieval infantry with spear and crossbow. Smerdy (rural
peasants) were poorly equipped and inexperienced and called up only in emergencies, and even then, less so as time went
on.
Sources
Armies of Medieval Russia David Nicolle, Angus McBride Osprey Publishing
Kalka River 1223 - Genghis Khan’s Mongols invade Russia, Osprey Campaign Series
Armies of Feudal Europe Ian Heath A Wargames Research Group Publication
I have not yet been able to establish whether the nobles were less likely to carry a bow than their followers, so have permitted most cavalry to carry
both bow and lance- but should more research become available in the future, may return to revisit this.

Teutonic Order
This list covers the Teutonic order from the date of the formation Livonian Brothers of the Sword (1202 CE), which was
incorporated into the Teutonic knights in 1237, until 1525, when the Prussian Grand Master resigned and became Duke of
Prussia.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Ritterbruder, Dienende Bruder and Knights, lance, veteran 2–3 5+ 13
Mitbruder (knights, brothers and Upgrade knights, lance, veteran to later knights,
lay members of the order). 1–2**** 6+ 16
lance, veteran
Gastritter (Crusading German 2–4***, 1–
Knights, lance 6+ 11
and other guest or vassal 3****
knights) Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 1–2**** 6+ 14
Knechte (mercenary mounted
Cavalry, crossbow 1 8+ 9
crossbowmen)
Turkopolen (turcopoles; Light cavalry, javelin 1–2 5
7+
mercenary or subject cavalry) Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin Any 9
Hungarian cavalry Light cavalry, bow 0–1* 8+ 5
Spearmen 0–2 7
7+
Dienende Bruder (brothers) Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, extra crossbow Any 9
Gastritter (crusaders or 8+
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, raw, extra
mercenaries) or German town Any 7
crossbow
militia
Subject infantry
Artillery Artillery (cannon), raw 0–2** 8+ 5
** After 1380.
*** Before 1425.
Allies
Hungarians (before 1225), Polish (before 1342), Early Medieval Germans (before 1320), Later Medieval Germans (after
1320).
Originally a hospital for German speaking pilgrims, The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem
or Teutonic Order for short became a purely military order in 1192.
After being defeated and leaving the Middle East, the Order moved to Hungary to help its defence against the Kipchak
nomads and stop them from invading through Transylvania. Unfortunately, the agreement did not last long and after four
years they were expelled forcibly from the country.

In 1230 the Order joined the Prussian Crusade. This was a campaign with the sole purpose of converting Old Prussians to
Christianity. There was also a similar campaign to Christianise Lithuania. Campaigns against its former ally, Poland and the
Rus Novgorod Republic followed. At this point the Order lost its main purpose which was to fight against the enemies of
Christianity.
In 1237 the Order of the Brothers of the Sword, also known as the Knights of the Sword or the Livonian Order (originally
founded in 1202) was made a branch of the Teutonic Order. This swelled the Order with one hundred knights and many
other troops.
In 1337, the Royal Roman Emperor gave permission to the Order to invade the whole of Lithuania and Russia. The King
of Sweden later also requested help and gave them permission to use the Island of Gotland should they clear the area of
pirates – a task the Order successfully completed.
The Order continued to be expansionist and made enemies of both Poland and Lithuania. Poland had lost access to the
Baltic Sea and Lithuania, although now Christianised, still felt that it would not be long before the Order would once again
threaten its territory. Poland and Lithuania therefore joined forces and were victorious over the Knights at the battle of
Grunwald in 1410.
Although the Order lost little land after the battle, its perceived aura of invincibility was broken. Poland continued to wage
war against them with the aid of Prussian rebels and, at the end of the Thirteen Year War in 1466, the Order was a spent
force. It clung on to parts of Prussia but had to accept Polish members. Up to this point the Order had been an entirely
German order. Furthermore, the Grand Master became a vassal of the Polish King. By 1525 the Order had lost all remaining
Prussian territories and its other territories dwindled away.
Army Notes
Besides the full members of the Teutonic order there were other knights who were ‘half-brothers’ (Halb-bruders). They
wore grey mantles rather than the white of the full members. It is likely that they were not required to take monastic holy
vows as were the full brethren. Whether the half Brothers fought mounted or as heavy infantry is disputed.
Full knights and half-brothers were only a percentage of the Teutonic Order’s available forces. The subjects of the Teutonic
knights included Estonians, Kurs, Letts, Livs and Old Prussians. Other secular knights and crusaders also joined the Order.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the historical background to this list, and to Peter Ryding for providing the image.

Post-Mongol Russian
This list covers the armies of Russia from immediately after the destruction of most of the cities of Kievan Rus' in 1238 CE,
through the period of Mongol suzerainty until 1480, when Muscovy became effectively independent from the Golden Horde.
Upgrade an attached, senior, mounted heroic general
0–1^^ 3+ 10
to great leader^, as Alexander Nevsky.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Prince's standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Druzhina or dvor nobles and Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow 2–4 7+ 11
retinues Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, javelin, extra bow 2–4 7+ 11
Upgrade any cavalry to veteran 2–3 7+/6+ +2
Skirmishing retinue, or, from Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
0–2
1380, Tatars or Cossacks Light cavalry, javelin, extra bow 7+ 6
Kopejschhik civic militia Shieldwall 0–2, 0–3* 7+ 7
Lucznik militia bowmen Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Samostreltsi militia crossbow Crossbowmen with pavise 0–1$, 0–2$$ 8+ 8
Mobs, deep 8+ 7
Smerdy peasant levy 0–1
Light infantry, javelin 0–2$$$ 7+ 4
Cossack foot Replace light infantry, javelin with light infantry
0–2** 8+ 4
other, handgun
Porocki (catapults) Artillery (catapult) 0–1 7+ 7
Artillery Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1* 9+ 5
Gulay Gorod Fortifications 0–5 – 1
^ Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
^^ Before 1263
$ 1220–1300
$$ 1300–1480.
$$$ After 1380.
* Only from 1425.
** Only from 1470.
Allies
Lithuanian (before 1380), Golden Horde (before 1380).
By 1238 the Mongols had conquered most of the Russian principalities. Many Russian cities had been destroyed; only the
vast Novgorod Republic in the north remained relatively intact.. Russian princes had to pay tribute to the Mongols of the
Golden Horde, (commonly called Tatars). In return they received charters authorizing them to act as deputies to the khans
and were allowed considerable freedom to rule as they wished.
In 1236 the Novgorodians summoned Alexander Nevsky to become knyaz (prince) of Novgorod and, as their military leader,
to defend their northwest lands. At the Battle of the Neva, at which he earned his nickname, he defeated the Swedish and
German invaders, and two years later he defeated the German knights of the Livonian Order and their supporting Estonian

infantry at the Battle of the Ice. He paid tribute to the Golden Horde and with their support was able to expand the influence
of Novgorod. He went on to become Grand Prince of Kiev (1236–52) and Grand Prince of Vladimir (1252–63).
By the middle of the c. 14th, the power of the Mongols was waning, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the
Mongol yoke. In 1380, at Battle of Kulikovo, the Mongols were defeated, although this victory did not yet end Tatar control
over Russia. Muscovy emerged as the leading Russian principality, conquering and absorbing most of the other principalities,
including Novgorod. In 1480 there was a standoff across the Ugra River between the forces of Akhmat Khan of the Great
Horde and the Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy. This ended when the Tatars withdrew, effectively marking the end of
Tatar control over Muscovy.
Army Notes
After the Mongol invasion the term druzhina for a prince’s retainers was gradually replaced by dvor (“court”), retainers who
received land in exchange for service. The dvor, entirely composed of cavalry, were more Mongol in terms of organisation
and equipment than the previous druzhina.
At the beginning of the period covered by this list, Russian armies still used a mixture of western and eastern armour and
tactics, with both heavily armoured lancer cavalry and bow-armed cavalry with sabres A mixture of eastern and western
weapons were used; straight swords were favoured in the north, for use against European opponents, and sabres in the south
for use against the Tatars. During the period, however, the bow became more important than the lance, and eastern-style
equipment became much more common than western.
Following the Mongol invasion, the Black Hoods were either assimilated by neighbouring peoples or deported to Central
Asia by the Golden Horde rulers. However, they were replaced after 1380 by Tatars and Cossacks. Such horse archers could
be deployed on the wings or in front of the army.
When so many Russian cities were destroyed by the Mongols, most of the men serving in their polk militias were lost along
with them. However, the city militias were revived in the early c. 14th. Russian infantrymen were often equipped with boar
spears or javelins and battle axes. Crossbows became common by the 1240s and, by the c. 14th, had become an essential part
of Russian armies. They were particularly valuable in sieges. Sometimes crossbows were very heavy and equipped with
armour-piercing bolts.
Cossacks were of Tatar origin and served both as infantry and cavalry under their own ataman leaders.
Catapults called poroks were used in sieges and, sometimes, on the battlefield.
Sources
Medieval Russian Armies 1250–1500 V Shpakovsky & D Nicolle. Osprey Publishing
Armies of Feudal Europe Ian Heath A Wargames Research Group Publication
Armies of the Middle Ages, Volume 2 Ian Heath A Wargames Research Group Publication

Medieval Scandinavian
These cover the armies of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and, from 1397, the armies of the Kalmar Union, from the
adoption of the feudal system 1round 1280 until the effective end of the Kalmar Union, in 1523 CE.
Generals
Heroes 3-5 – 1
Riddare (knights), Frälse ("the Knights, lance 2-4 D, 0-1 S 6+ 11
saved"- saved from taxes, that Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 1–2 D* 6+ 14
is!) Knights, lance, raw 0–1 S 7+ 9
German mercenary knights Later knights, lance, raw, deep 0–1 D* 7+ 18
Småsvenner ("little friends") Cavalry, lance, raw 0–1 D, S 8+ 7
Skyttar Cavalry, crossbow 0–1 D, S 8+ 9
3–6 D***,
Shieldwall, deep, extra bow/crossbow 7+ 12
4–8 S***
Leidangr and Hird Upgrade shieldwall, deep, extra bow/crossbow to
shieldwall, deep, extra bow/crossbow, extra 1–3 S 6+ 16
2HCCW, veteran as Hird
Billmen, extra crossbow 3–4 D** 7+ 9
Obudshaer (select levy) Upgrade billmen, extra crossbow to billmen, extra
Up to 1/2 6+ 11
crossbow, veteran
Spearmen, deep, extra crossbow 7+ 12
Landevaernet (general levy) 0-4 D**
Spearmen, deep, extra crossbow, raw 8+ 9
0-2D**, 4-8
Billmen, deep, extra crossbow 7+ 12
Allmogesoldater ("commoner S**
soldiers") Upgrade billmen, deep, extra crossbow to billmen,
Up to 1/2 6+ 15
deep, extra crossbow, veteran
Billmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
German mercenaries Pike, extra deep (landsknechte) with a hero
(representing doppelsöldner with zweihanders or 0–2 D**** 7+ 18
halberds)
Skärmytslare (skirmishers) Upgrade light infantry other, bow or crossbow to
Any** 8+ 4
light infantry other, handgun
Lätta Stycken (light pieces) Artillery 0–1** 7+ 7
Bråte (barricades) Stakes, special***** 0–3 S – 1
D represents Danish, Norwegian or (from 1397) League of Kalmar armies. S represents Swedish armies.
* After 1330
** After 1390
*** Before 1350 in Denmark or 1390 in Sweden
**** After 1487, only
***** Bråte are treated as stakes but must be positioned in front of the units to which they are assigned at the outset of
the battle and may not, thereafter, be moved.
Allies

Later Medieval German D**.
At the start of this period, Scandinavia was divided into three main areas: Denmark; Sweden and Norway. During this era,
the economy and population of Denmark; was roughly equal to that of the rest of Scandinavia combined. Denmark was also
more efficiently governed, along main-stream Western European lines.
Sweden generally consisted of self-governing provinces. King Magnus Ladulås (1275–90) began to introduce a feudal system
into Sweden like that already established in continental Europe, and a Swedish nobility began to emerge.
The kings of Norway, in addition to mainland Norway, controlled overseas possessions including the Northern Isles of
Scotland, Greenland, Iceland and the Faroes. Norway, under King Erik II, supported by a group of Danish nobles, waged
the “War of the Outlaws” against Denmark between 1289–1295, in support of his claim to the Danish throne.
The first union between Sweden and Norway occurred in 1319 when the three-year-old Magnus inherited the throne of
Norway from his grandfather Haakon V and in the same year was elected King of Sweden. The boy king's long minority
weakened the royal influence in both countries, and in 1365 the Swedes replaced him with his nephew, Albert of
Mecklenburg.
The early c. 14th proved to be a difficult time for Denmark. During the reign of King Christopher II (1319–1332), control
of most of the country was seized by local counts and the province of Skåne was annexed by Sweden. For eight years after
Christopher's death a divided Denmark had no king. In 1340, however, Christopher's son Valdemar was chosen as king, and
eventually managed to reunite the country in 1360. However, in 1361 Valdemar IV’s efforts to expand the kingdom led him
to retake Skåne and seize the island of Gotland including, after a battle, the Hanseatic League town of Visby (whose burial
pits have provided so many well-preserved sets of contemporary armour). Eventually in 1370 the League, in alliance with
Sweden and the Jutland nobles of northern Denmark who had revolted against the heavy taxes levied by the king to fight
the war, forced Valdemar into exile.
The Kalmar Union was a union of the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish crowns that lasted from 1397–1523. It was a response
by the Scandinavian aristocracy to the northward expansion of the German Hanseatic League into the Baltic region. The
Union comprised the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden (including most of present-day Finland), and Norway including
Norway's overseas dependencies (present-day Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and the Northern Isles). The three
countries remained separate sovereign states, but their domestic and foreign policies were directed by a common monarch.
The Union was established by Queen Margaret I of Denmark (1353–1412), the wife of King Haakon VI of Norway and
Sweden, who succeeded in having her son Olaf recognised as heir to the throne of Denmark in 1376, under her guardianship.
After Haakon died in 1380, Olaf also inherited the crown of Norway. When Olaf died unexpectedly in 1387, Margaret
adopted her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania as her heir. In 1388, Swedish nobles called upon her help against their King
Albert. Margaret defeated Albert in 1389, and her heir Eric was proclaimed King of Norway and subsequently elected King
of Denmark and Sweden in 1396. His coronation in Kalmar in June 1397 marked the establishment of the Union.
The Union had a turbulent history due to tensions between the monarchy, who wanted a strong unified state, and the
nobility, which did not. The Swedish nobility resented the dominant role played by Denmark and Holstein, and the rule of
the absentee kings of Denmark. Sweden had never really implemented feudalism and the commoners (the ‘Allmoge’) had
quite extensive legal rights. Efforts by the Union to extract more taxes and to modernize the country at the expense of
traditional rights and privileges met with stiff resistance. There were a series of rebellions throughout the c. 15th. There were
also intervals when Sweden had a king of its own. There were also further conflicts with the Hanseatic League, over trade.
The Union finally collapsed when Sweden rebelled and became independent in 1523.
Army Notes
Knights formed a smaller portion of a Scandinavian army than would be the case in most European states, particularly in
Sweden and Norway where knights tended to ride much smaller horses and used armour that would have been considered
obsolescent elsewhere. For these reasons, and because the terrain in Sweden and Norway was often less well suited to
mounted warfare, they struggled to win a battle on their own and often dismounted to stiffen the infantry.
Danish armies, on the other hand, were more influenced by German military practises and were also able to hire German
mercenary knights. From 1279 onwards, the elite infantry of the Hird had been replaced by knight who received tax
exemption for serving as armoured horsemen, and Danish armies included large numbers of cavalry. Knights were
sometimes supported by småsvenner (unarmoured squires) and skyttar (mounted shooters). Cavalry were often held in
reserve at the start of a battle. From the mid c. 14th onwards, Danish armies often included German mercenary knights.
During the c. 13th and much of the c. 14th, Scandinavian infantry were very recognisably a continuation of the Leidang of
the Viking era – they were drawn up in shieldwall formations with round (later kite or heater) shields, armed with spears and
axes, with the better-equipped warriors wearing mail. The bow was common, at first supplemented by, and later largely

replaced by the crossbow, which many Scandinavians were already familiar with as a hunting weapon. Coats-of-plates began
to be introduced from close of the c. 13th and heavy kettle helms and, later, sallets were adopted as headgear.
The Leidangr had begun to decline from the end of the c.12th when kings started to prefer to take a payment in either cash
or provisions instead of military service. Often the payment was used to hire mercenaries instead. In Denmark, the Leidang
was replaced after 1350, or so, by a combination of levies and mercenaries. The Obudshaer were a select levy of single
Danish men created for use in foreign service. Well-equipped and carrying halberds, they had a reputation for rapid charges.
The Landevaernet was an emergency general levy of all men capable of bearing arms; they were mostly armed with a short
spear called a spiud. Mercenary infantry could include Germans armed with polearms. From 1487 on, the Kalmar Union
began to hire landsknechte.
In Sweden, the Leidang was replaced by well-armoured and equipped militias composed of Allmogesoldater (Allmoge being
the Swedish word for countrymen, although the militia would also have included townsmen). The Allmoge in each region
to a large extent made their own decision regarding which side to join, and consequently often found themselves fighting
against the Allmoge from other regions. Crossbowmen might now form the front rank, or two ranks, of a dense formation
of infantry equipped with halberds and a variety of other polearms, including the unusual and fearsome svaerdstav (“sword-
staff”), a sword mounted on the end of a 5’ pole. Swedish militiamen were as well trained and equipped as any foot of the
period and regularly beat such mercenary armies. That said, they were trounced in the 1502 battle depicted in the below
drawing by the German military engineer Paul Dolnstein (Swedes on the right and landsknechte on the left).
Norwegian military resources were extremely limited, and Norway did not field major independent armies. Troops from
Norway, however, often participated in Kalmar Union military operations.
Sources
• Medieval Scandinavian Armies (1) and (2) (Osprey)
• Armies of Feudal Europe 1066-1300 Ian Heath
• Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350 David Nicolle
Many thanks to Michael Leck and Ulf Olsson for their valuable contributions to the list and historical background!

Later Lithuanian or Samogitian
This list models the Lithuanians from the accession of Grand Duke Vytenis ca. 1295 until the signing of the Union of Vilnius
in 1499.
0–1 – +4
leader^ as Grand Duke Algirdas (1345-1377)
Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 6+ 13
Lithuanian baiores (boyars) 2–4
Light cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 6+ 7
Other Lithuanian horsemen 8–16
Light cavalry, lance, extra bow 7+ 6
Tatar exiles Light cavalry, bow 0–2 8+ 5
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–2* 7+ 11
Russian cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–1 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Polish knights Knights, lance, extra crossbow 0–2** 6+ 13
Knights, lance, veteran 5+ 13
Teutonic knights 0–1***
Later knights, lance, veteran 5+ 16
Lithuanian infantry Shieldwall 0–2 7+ 7
Bowmen 8+ 7
Lithuanian or Russian archers 0–2
Bombards Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1**** 8+ 5
^ Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
* Only from 1360
** Only from 1386
*** Only from 1397, onwards. May be taken as later knights from 1425 onwards.
**** Only from 1382
Allies
Later Medieval Polish**, Golden Horde (1397-1399, only), Crimean Tatar allies (from 1419, only), both Teutonic Knights
allies and Hussite allies (1435 only).
Vytenis became Grand Duke of Lithuania ca. 1295. His rule was marked by constant warfare with the Ruthenians, Masovians,
and the Teutonic and Livonian Orders.
Vytenis died ca. 1316 and was succeeded by Gediminas, who may have been his cousin. Gediminas is credited with founding
Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, and establishing a dynasty that later came to rule other European countries such as Poland,
Hungary and Bohemia. He also began the long expansion of Lithuanian territory that was to be continued by his successors.
A committed pagan, he successfully diverted attempts to Christianize his country. After his death 1341 he was briefly
succeeded by his son Jaunutis, until he was deposed by his elder brothers Algirdas and Kęstutis in 1345.
Grand Duke Algirdas ruled with the help of his brother Kęstutis, who defended the western border of the Duchy. In 1362
or 1363, Algirdas achieved a decisive victory over the Golden Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters. This gave the Grand

Duchy control over Kyiv and parts of present-day Ukraine. He also occupied the Russian principalities of Smolensk and
Bryansk. During the Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1368–1372) he besieged but failed to take Moscow. By his death in 1377
he ruled over an empire stretching from the present-day Baltic states to the Black Sea.
Algirdas was succeeded as Grand Duke of Lithuania by his son Jogaila, later known as Władysław II Jagiełło in 1377, who
was crowned King of Poland in 1386, ruling Lithuania through regents. Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of
Lithuania, which was, by this time, one of the last remaining pagan areas of Europe. During his reign, there were two civil
wars with his cousin Vytautas (“the Great;” son of Kęstutis). In 1392 Jogaila was eventually forced to recognise Vytautas as
Grand Duke of Lithuania, under his overlordship, in exchange for peace.
At the great Battle of the Vorskla River in 1399, the combined forces of Vytautas and Tokhtamysh, the Khan of the Golden
Horde, were decisively defeated by the Timurid Mongols’ use of a feigned retreat tactic.
In 1410, the now-united armies of Lithuania and Poland led by Vytautas and Jogaila fought the Teutonic Order at the Battle
of Grunwald (sometimes referred to as the First Battle of Tannenberg). Early on in this huge battle, the Knights back drove
Vytautas’ Lithuanians (or, possibly, the latter staged a feigned retreat). Later, though, they returned to attack the Teutonic
knights (who were, by now, engaged with the Poles) in the rear, inflicting a major defeat from which the Order never fully
recovered.
Vytautas died in 1430 and Władysław II Jagiełło died in 1434. His long reign laid the foundation for the centuries-long
Polish–Lithuanian union and is often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden Age. After their deaths, the Lithuanian
nobility attempted to break the union between Poland and Lithuania, independently selecting Grand Dukes from the
Jagiellon dynasty. But, in the late c. 15th, the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow threatened Lithuania's Russian
principalities and forced Lithuania into a closer alliance with Poland, both parties signing the Union of Vilnius in 1499.
Army Notes
See the notes against the Early Lithuanian and Samogitian list. By the period covered by this list, however, the Lithuanians
were using their bows whilst mounted.
Sources
Armies of Feudal Europe 1066-1300 by Ian Heath. A Wargames Research Group Publication
Armies of the Middle Ages, Volume 2 by Ian Heath. A Wargames Research Group Publication

V Medieval Southern Europe and North Africa
This chapter contains the Medieval army lists of Europe, south of the Pyrenees and Alps, and of Africa.
Early Lombard
This list covers the Lombards from the approximate date of their arrival in Pannonia (540 CE) through to the Frankish
conquest of their Italian Kingdom in 774.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Lombard nobles & gasindii Cavalry, lance, veteran 2–4 6+ 11
Lombard retainers
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Up to 1/3 6+ 11
Warriors, deep 0–3* 7+ 10
Lombard retainers on foot
Downgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, raw Any 8+ 7
Italian city militias Spearmen, deep, raw 0–2** 8+ 7
Bowmen 7
Lombard archers 1–4 8+
Wagon defenders Mobs, deep, raw 0–1* 9+ 4
Wagon laager Fortifications 0–5* – 1
* Only up to 569.
** From 570 onwards (after the capture of Mediolanum, the most important city in Northern Italy).
Allies
Avars, Franks. Saxons, South Slavs, Bulgars.
The Lombards, a tribe originating in southern Scandinavia, settled in the Danube basin. They helped the Avars to break the
power of the Gepids, but after the final defeat of the latter in 567 it appears that their presence was no longer welcomed by
the Avars. Consequently, they invaded Italy in 568 at the head of a motley confederation of remnant Sarmatians, Gepids,
Heruls, Thuringians, Ostrogoths, Bavarians, Saxons and, later, Bulgars.
Italy, at that time, was depopulated in the aftermath of the long war between the Byzantines and the Ostrogoths and there
was relatively little resistance to the invasion. By late 569, they had conquered all of Italy north of the Po River, except for
the city of Pavia, which fell in 572. They established a Lombard kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum
Italicum ("The Kingdom of Italy") which survived until it was conquered by the Frankish king Charlemagne in 774. However,
Lombard states survived in Italy into the c. 11th, and are covered in the Later Lombard list.
Notes
The Lombards were originally infantry. It is assumed that, after settling in Pannonia, they progressively fought mounted.
Followers on foot represent the remnants of their infantry, whom we assume became fully mounted after the conquest of
northern Italy. The army included numerous archers and sometimes levies of subject peoples.
Sources
Armies of the Dark Ages 600-1066 by Ian Heath, a Wargames Research Group Publication.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards

Berber
This list covers several Berber dynasties, beginning with the Kharijite breakaway from Umayyad rule (704 CE), and through
to the end of the Almohad dynasty (1280).
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Army standard 2VP standard 0–1 – 3
Arab noble cavalry Cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
African cavalry Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran as
0–1 6+ 11
"Black Guard"
3–6*, 4–8**,
6–10***
Andalusian or Berber light
horse Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
Up to 1/3* 6+ 6
veteran
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin Up to 1/4^ 7+ 9
Tuareg camelry Light camelry, javelin 0–2* 8+ 5
Javelinmen, raw 4–8* 8+ 5
Berber or African javelinmen
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to spearmen Up to 1/2 7+ 7
3–5**, 2–
Spearmen 7+ 7
4***
Berber or African spearmen Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran as "Black
0–2 6+ 9
Guard"
Upgrade spearmen with extra archers Any – +2
Berber light infantry Light infantry, javelin 4–12 7+ 4
Berber archers or slingers Light infantry other, sling or bow 3–5 8+ 4
* Only Berber Dynasties 740–1050.
** Only Almoravids (Murabits) 1030–1150.
*** Only Almohads 1150–1270.
^ Only after 1086.
Allies
Early Feudal Spanish, Andalusian, Aghlabids (only in Sicily), Nikephorian Byzantines, Tuareg.
Before the period covered by this list, the Berbers were largely semi-nomadic tribes with loose family structures and no
central authority. An Umayyad army had formalised Caliphate control of the Berbers by 705 CE.
The Kharijites broke away from the Umayyads in the 740s and became the first 'independent' Berber Dynasties. They would
later be followed by the Firids, Rustamids, Aghlabids, Idrisids, Zirids and others. All these armies differed from each other
only in minor respects.
The Almoravids (sometimes called Murabits) were originally a Sanhaja Berber confederation founded in the 1030s who
conquered Morocco in 1056. They conquered much of Iberia from 1086 but gradually lost it to the Almohads between 1140
and 1170.

The Almohads were originally Mahmuda Berbers who believed that the Almoravids had lost sight of the Islamic ideal. After
a decade of struggle in Morocco, they came to power across in Africa and Al-Andalus during the 1140’s but had lost it by
1270.
With many thanks to Philip Garton who wrote this excellent list!

Later Lombard
This list covers the Lombards from 774 CE as vassals of the Carolingians and Germans in their former northern Italian
kingdom and the independent Lombard Duchies of Benevento, Spoleto and Amalfi and principalities of Capua and Salerno
until their conquest by the Normans. The last Lombard Duchy, Salerno, fell in 1077.
Upgrade from foot to mounted 2–4 2+ +1
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Gasindii (senior general's Cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
1
bodyguard) Spearmen, mounted infantry 7+ 8
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
3–6
Gastaldii (Lombard nobles and Spearmen, raw, mounted infantry 8+ 6
retainers) Up to 1/3*,
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
up to 2/3**
Mercenary cavalry Cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1** 6+ 11
Hungarians Light cavalry other, bow 0–1** 8+ 5
Italian militia spearmen Spearmen, raw, deep 0–2*, 0–4** 8+ 7
Bowmen 3–4 7
Lombard archers 8+
Downgrade bowmen to light infantry other, bow Any 4
Obseqium (Lombard militia) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
* Before 912.
** From 912.
*** From 912 to 1024.
**** After 1038.
Allies
Byzantine, Carolingian Franks*, Eastern Franks***, Later Lombard, Normans**** and Italian Marches.
Notes
Gasindii and gastaldii occasionally fought dismounted. They may, therefore, be fielded as spearmen and spearmen raw,
respectively, but I have assumed they were not numerous enough to constitute deep units.
Many thanks to Philip Garton, who wrote much of this list.

Al Andalus
This list covers the Andalusian states from the death of Abd ar-Rahman I in 788 CE until the departure of the last Almohad
prince, Idris, in 1228.
Upgrade a mounted, heroic, senior general to great
0–1* 3+ 10
leader, representing Almanzor
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, javelin 1-2 7+ 9
Andalusian nobility
Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1** 6+ 11
Cavalry, lance, extra javelin, veteran 0–1** 6+ 12
Christian mercenary caballeros
(knights) Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra javelin, veteran to
All**/*** 6+ 13
knights, lance, veteran
Andalusian, Berber or negro
African light horse Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
Up to 1/3 6+ 6
veteran
Andalusian horse archers Light cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Shieldwall, raw 3–8 8+ 5
Andalusian, Berber or negro
Upgrade shieldwall, raw to shieldwall Up to 1** 7+ 7
African spearmen
Upgrade any shieldwall with extra archers Any – +2
Light infantry, javelin, raw 3–8 8+ 3
Berber or Andalusian light
infantry Upgrade light infantry, javelin, raw to light infantry,
Up to 1/3 7+ 4
javelin
Berber or Andalusian archers
Light infantry other, sling or bow, raw 0–2 9+ 3
or slingers
Andalusian crossbowmen Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 0–2*** 9+ 3
** If caballeros are taken then neither the Andalusian nobility nor the shieldwall may be upgraded to veteran.
Allies
Early Feudal Spanish, Later Feudal Spanish, Later Islamic Berber

Italian Marches
This list covers the development of independent city-based forces after the Carolingian conquest of Northern Italy, ca. 890
CE, through to the rise of the city-states in the late c. 11th (from 1078; see the Communal and Papal Italian list).
Upgrade from foot to mounted 0–1 2+ +1
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalieri feudali e comunali Italiani Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
(communal knights) Upgrade cavalry, lance or lance, veteran with one
Any – +1
extra javelin
Mercenary knights
Upgrade cavalry, lance, veteran with one extra javelin Any – +1
Lancieri comunali (communal
Spearmen, raw, deep 2–3 8+ 7
spearmen)
Mercenary spearmen Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Bowmen 2–3 8+ 7
Arcieri comunali (communal
Downgrade bowmen to light infantry other, bow Any 8+ 4
archers)
Upgrade bowmen to crossbowmen, raw 0–2* 9+ 5
Coscritti Mobs, deep 1–3 8+ 7
Light infantry other, javelin 0–2 7+ 4
Contadini e cafoni "locals" Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 0–1* 9+ 3
* After 950.
Allies
Early Slavs, Lombards, Ottonian Franks, Sicilian Arabs
Notes
Mercenaries and allies were essential to create viable armies. This is an army that needs to invite its friends along to do the
heavy lifting!
Thanks very much to Philip Garton who wrote this list.

Early Feudal Spanish
This list covers the Spanish Kingdoms of Asturias and later Galicia, Castile, Leon, Navarra and Catalonia that grew up in
northern Spain in the centuries following the Muslim invasion ca. 900 CE until the first military orders were founded in
1164.
Attached, mounted, heroic general 2–4 3+ 5
Generals Upgrade one general to mounted, senior, heroic,

0–1** 3+ 10
great leader representing El Cid
Upgrade a general to mounted, senior, heroic, great
0–1*** 3+ 10
leader representing Alfonso the Battler
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Army standard 1 VP army standard 0–1 – 2
The Victory Cross 2 VP army standard 0–1**** – 3
Caballeros hidalgos (noble Cavalry, lance, single extra javelin 3–6 7+ 10
knights), infanzones (knights) and
caballeros villanos (non–noble Upgrade cavalry, lance, single extra javelin to cavalry,
1–2 6+ 12
citizens) lance, single extra javelin, veteran
Berber, Basque or Andalusian
mercenaries
Shieldwall, raw 3–8* 8+ 5
Peones (citizen spearmen) Upgrade shieldwall, raw to shieldwall Up to 1/3 7+ 7
Crossbowmen, raw 9+ 5
Ballesteros (crossbowmen) 0–1*****
Arqueros (archers) or slingers Light infantry other, bow or sling 2–4* 8+ 4
Skirmishers Light infantry, javelin, raw 3–6* 8+ 3
* Minimum applies only if any foot units are taken.
** El Cid 1065–1099 CE. Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar was a famous Castilian knight and warlord.
*** Alfonso the Battler in 1104–1134. Alfonso was King of Aragon and Navarre and fought twenty–nine battles against
Christians and Moors. Only in an army of Aragon.
**** Only in an Asturian army after 908 CE. The Victory Cross is a jewel-encrusted wooden cross said to have been
carried by King Pelagius of Asturias at the Battle of Covadonga in 718 or 722, but which was probably made in the late
c. 9th. It may be depicted carried on a wagon.
***** From 1000 CE.
Allies
Al Andalus, Almoravid Berber.
Notes
Heath describes the Spanish knights as wearing lighter gear than their northern peers, often of Muslim design and riding
horses with Moorish saddles. They were equipped with round shields and used spears overhand, not couched, occasionally
throwing them, all of which seems indicative of cavalry. Their charge was heavier than that of their Andalusian opponents.
For these reasons we have classed them as cavalry but equipped them with both lance and a single javelin and allowed a
good proportion to upgrade to veteran.

At the start of this period, the Muslim Umayyad dynasty ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula from their Caliphate capital in
Cordoba with a culture of tolerance and enlightenment. The ruling classes were mainly of Arab descent and were part of a
greater empire that had expanded along the North African coast from its origins in Syria. The empire included Arabs,
Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians and pagans, all of whom were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens who
would be given benefits if they converted to Islam. Their territory in Spain spread north to around Oporto in present day
Portugal, and east to as far north as Saragossa.
Throughout the c. 10th and c. 11th, the three major Christian kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon, and León-Castile, although
relatively small and often in conflict with each other, occasionally formed alliances to wage war against the Muslims. This
campaign of reconquest, which was to continue for centuries, was named the Reconquista.
After 1031, the Umayyad Caliphate began to disintegrate as local governors known as taifas (“parties” or “factions”) became
autonomous and set themselves up in the image of the previous rulers in Córdoba. The strongest of these taifas formed
dynasties including Seville’s Abbadid dynasty, Toledo’s Dhunnunid dynasty, Saragossa’s Hudid dynasty and Granada’s Zirid
dynasty. They built monumental palaces which became centres of learning and art.
Sancho II el Mayor (“the Great”) of Pamplona was one of the most influential Christian monarchs. He eventually ruled as
King of Navarre, Castile and Aragón. Upon his death in 1035, he divided his kingdom between his sons, giving Navarre to
his eldest son García, Castile to Fernando and Aragón to Ramiro. This division resulted in disputes that led to many wars
and long formed an obstacle to the unity of the Reconquista.
In October 1085, Alfonso VI, King of Castile, captured Toledo and created a large Christian realm in the very centre of
Spain. The emirs of the smaller taifa states found themselves unable to resist Christian aggression without external assistance
and called upon Yusuf ibn Tashfin of the Almoravid Empire for help. On October 23, 1086, Yusuf’s Almoravid forces,
accompanied by 10,000 local Andalusian fighters, decisively defeated the Christian alliance at the Battle of Sagrajas. They
were unable to recapture Toledo, but their victory checked the progress of the Reconquista for several generations. By 1094,
Yusuf had annexed all the major taifas, except for Saragossa, into a single Almoravid Caliphate.
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar El Cid (meaning “the Lord”) is the most famous of the Christian knights who ruled Valencia from
1094 to 1099, at times warring with and at other times living in peaceful harmony with his Muslim neighbours. Towards the
end of his life, he conquered and set up his own kingdom in Valencia, but this, too, was crushed by the Almoravids and El
Cid died during the siege.
Yusuf ibn Tashfin died at the age of 100 in 1106. In 1108 his successor, Tamim Al Yusuf, defeated the Kingdom of Castile
at the Battle of Uclés. In 1134, at the Battle of Fraga, the Almoravids dynasty was once again victorious, and Alfonso I of
Aragon fell in battle.
Yusuf's son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, invaded Iberia again in 1119 and 1121. However, the tide had already turned, as
the French had helped the Aragonese to recover Zaragoza. In 1139, Afonso Henriques defeated Ali ibn Yusuf at the Battle
of Ourique. Alfonso was shortly thereafter crowned Alfonso I of Portugal. The Portuguese took Lisbon in 1147.
Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by a combination of action of his Christian foes in Iberia and his emergent fundamentalist
Almohad (“those who profess the unity of God”) foes in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in 1143, his son Tashfin ibn
Ali was defeated by the Almohads and died in 1146. Andalusia once again became divided into a patchwork of small,
vulnerable taifa states.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who helped to write this historical background. Also, thanks to Sid Bennett for his contributions to the army list.
Sources
Armies of Feudal Europe 1066–1340 by Ian Heath (A Wargames Research Group Publication).

Fatimid Egyptian
This list covers the Fatimid armies from their conquest of Egypt (969 CE), including the reforms of Badr al-Jamali in 1077,
until the advent of Salah ad-Din's Ayyubid Sultanate (1171).
Upgrade to mounted 2–4 2+ 5
Generals
Upgrade to heroic 0–2*, 0–1** 3+ 5
Upgrade to senior 0–1* 2+ 6
Standard 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Heroes 2–4*, 1–3** – 1
Arab, Syrian, Berber, Armenian Upgrade cavalry, lance, raw to cavalry, lance 0–5 7+ 9
or other lancers or Turkish-style
ghilman Up to 1/2*,
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow 7+ 11
0–2****
Armenian horse archers Cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1 7+ 11
Bedouin or Berber light cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 2–4 7+ 5
Turkomen Light cavalry, bow 0–1**** 8+ 5
Spearmen 2–8 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Abid al–shira
Upgrade any spearmen with extra bow 0–2 7+ +2
Bowmen, raw 0–2* 9+ 5
Saririya Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
Berbers Spearmen, extra bow 1–4*** 7+ 9
Daylamite mercenaries Shieldwall, single extra javelin, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 10
Billmen 7+ 7
Lutât mace men 0–1
Billmen, veteran 6+ 9
Armenian archers Bowmen, veteran 0–2*, 1–3** 7+ 9
Naval crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Mutatawwia (volunteers) or city
Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
militia
Skirmishers
Light infantry other, slings 0–2 8+ 4
Berber, Bedouin or other lights Light infantry, javelin 1–2 7+ 4
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary terror weapons 0–1$ 8+ 4
* Only before 1074.
** Only during or after 1074.
*** Only up to and including 1045.
**** Only during or after 1105.
$ Naffatun are armed with pots of naphtha, either slung or thrown. See the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Early Crusader, Syrian City States
The Fatimid Caliphate originated in North Africa in the early c. 10th, and by 969 had taken over Egypt. As leaders of the
Shia Ismaili sect, they became the main ideological opponents of the Abbasids in Baghdad, and they followed a deliberate
policy of attempting to gain control of the whole of Islam. By the early c. 11th, the Fatimid Empire was at the height of its

power. Centred on Egypt, it reached from Marrakesh in North Africa to Aleppo in Syria, as well as extending south down
both sides of the Red Sea coast. In Sicily, the Fatimids captured those parts of the island held by the Byzantine Empire, and
the Fatimids and Byzantines were also in conflict in Palestine. As well as the Abbasids, the Fatimids also had to fight off
attacks by the Qarmatians, another Ismaili sect which, for a time, gained control of large parts of Syria.
From the second half of the c. 11th onwards, the empire gradually contracted as the Caliph either handed over or competed
for power with his chief minister, the Wazir. First the Berbers broke away, and then the Seljuks came to dominate Syria.
Sicily, over a period of 60 years, was conquered by the Normans. The Levantine Coast was captured by the Crusader states,
against whom the Fatimids fought several largely unsuccessful campaigns. Under outside pressure, internal political struggles
became ever more debilitating, with Arab and later Turkish elements of the army often in direct conflict with Sudanese
regiments. Eventually, in 1179, Egypt fell to the Ayyubids.
Army Notes
As a wealthy empire, the Fatimids were able to finance large standing armies that were formed of regiments of varying size,
some separated along ethnic lines but others of mixed ethnicity to combat factionalism.
Before the Zirids broke away from the empire, Berber regiments provided cavalry and foot skirmishers. After they broke
away, they continued to do, so but in more limited numbers. Light cavalry were recruited from those Bedouin tribes that
were paid retainers to ensure their loyalty and availability.
For much of the period a high proportion of the regular infantry, the ‘abid al-shira, were formed from black Africans, both
slave and freeborn. They were armed with spear, bow or javelin, but some carried heavy clubs and others iron-tipped whips.
Others were formed cavalry.
Turkish horse archers and heavy cavalry might be recruited from ghilman slave soldiers during the period of Fatimid
expansion, or later recruited as mercenaries, especially during the c. 12th. Mamluks were also soldiers of Turkish, Kurdish,
or Greek extraction introduced following the battle of Tawahin (978 CE). They formed ever higher proportions of the
cavalry until 1073 CE, after which the Turkish and Kurdish numbers and those of the Daylami were severely restricted for
both political and ethnic reasons, though Turks made some comeback after the Fatimids lost control of coastal Palestine to
the Crusading states after several major battles in the early 12th century and no longer presented a threat to the Syrian Seljuk
Successor states.
Armenians supplied both heavy cavalry and foot archers (qaws). Fatimid regular cavalry were frequently armed at least as well
as their Crusader adversaries with a higher proportion of horse armour, although they never performed particularly well
against them. After Byzantium subjugated the Bagratid Armenian kingdom in 1045, many Armenians migrated to Egypt,
half of whom became Muslim and formed a corps of infantry archers, led by Muslim Armenians. These Armenians seized
control of Cairo in 1073–1074, after which their leaders took up important positions within the Fatimid administration and
recruited even more Armenians into the army.
Mutatawwia are troops fighting entirely for plunder and often were associated with Bedouins, city militia or simply local
villagers with a desire for someone else’s goods. The Daylamites were formidable fighters from the shores of the Caspian
Sea, in modern-day Iran, but were only available in small numbers at the beginning of the period, being very much in demand
throughout the Middle East.
It seems that archers and other foot formed separate units, with archers deployed behind short spearmen in 3 or 4 rank
formations who kneeled to enable the archers to fire over them. In practical TtS! terms it seems better to represent this as
spear, extra bow. Separate bowmen are graded as raw, because they reputedly used their own African wooden bows which
lacked both range and power.
Saririya were armed with exceptionally long spears. Lutât mace men were usually placed in the middle of the Fatimid line of
battle. City militias remained important in Fatimid coastal Palestine even when the territory shrunk to just Ascalon. Whilst
adequate for local policing duties, their battlefield performance was less than stellar. It does seem to have been customary
practice at first and in Egypt to base the army in fortified camps, though these were not utilised in the group of battles
around Ascalon at the beginning of the twelfth century due to the nearness of that city.
As far as tactics were concerned it seems certain that many regiments specialised in specific weapons and yet could also be
a mix of infantry and cavalry. The infantry spearmen formed up in the centre, with the lutât mace men at the centre of this
line and separately deployed archer units at its ends. Light cavalry deployed on the wings of the army and formed cavalry
deployed behind the infantry, with the least reliable being placed on the left wing. The plan was generally that the infantry
would disrupt and absorb the enemy initial attack, leaving the enemy vulnerable to a charge of the heavy cavalry in reserve
behind the infantry whilst the light cavalry attempted to envelop the rival wings. However, factionalism could be rife in such
a polyglot army and possibly affected battlefield performance, with Turks seeming particularly treacherous. Commanding
generals did not perform well and in the later period do not seem to have the commanding presence to even justify “senior.”

With this list you should be able to produce an army which can represent the opposing views of Tibble, who has the Fatimid
formed cavalry fleeing before contact with their Crusader foes in every major battle, or those of the late Bill Hamblin in his
masterful Ph.D. on the Fatimid Army.
Sources
The Fatimid Army during the Early Crusades, PhD by William Hamblin (the principal source for this list).
The Crusader Armies - Steven Tibble, (covers the major battles between the Crusaders and the Fatimids)
Various Ospreys by David Nicolle, his medieval Sourcebooks and Volume 3 of the Gladius specials by Nicolle, on early
medieval Islamic arms and armour.
African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East by Bacharach (a particularly good article on African troops in Egyptian
armies)
The Armenians in the Medieval Islamic World vol 2 - Dadoyan.
The Crusades through Arab Eyes - Amin Maalouf (memoirs of Usamah ibn Munqhid who was present in the late Fatimid
period- a fascinating read!)
Many thanks to Neil Grant who edited and added extensive new background material to a list originally written by Tim Whitworth and Peter
Clarke.

Italo-Norman
This list covers the development of the independent Norman Duchies in Italy from 1046 CE until their final conquest by
the Hohenstaufen Emperor in 1194.
Upgrade a mounted, heroic, attached senior general
0–1* – 10
to great leader, representing Robert Guiscard
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Papal banner 2 VP standard 0–1***** – 3
King's banner 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Norman knights and their Knights, lance 2–4 6+ 11
retinues Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–2** 5+ 13
Mercenary knights Knights, lance 1–2 6+ 11
Communal knights
Upgrade cavalry, lance, raw to knights, lance 0–2** 6+ 11
Sicilian cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 0–2*** 7+ 5
Spearmen, raw, deep 1–3 8+ 7
Militiae
Upgrade spearmen, raw, deep to spearmen, deep Any 7+ 10
Sicilian spearmen Spearmen, deep with extra bow 0–2**** 7+ 12
Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Mercenary spearmen
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Bowmen 0–2
Archers 8+ 7
Replace bowmen with crossbowmen 0–1
Bowmen 0–2***
Saracen archers 8+ 7
Replace bowmen with crossbowmen 0–1***
Obsequium (Lombard militia) Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Contadini ("countrymen") Light infantry, javelin 0–2 7+
4
infantry Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+
Light infantry, javelin 0–2*** 7+
Sicilian infantry Light infantry other, bow 0–2*** 4
8+
Light infantry other, crossbow 0–1***
* From 1047 to 1085 CE only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** Only after the Battle of Civitate (1053), the first major alliance by the various Norman groups against the forces of
the Pope.
*** Only Sicilian Norman armies after 1076.
**** Only Sicilian Norman armies after 1120.
***** Only 1061–1090 representing a Papal Banner given to Roger de Hauteville for his conquest of Sicily.
Allies
Later Lombard, Italian Marches, Italian Communal, Sicilian Muslims.
Notes
The army standard represents the 'King's banner".

The 'Militiae' are mostly Italians, either drawn from local Lombard sources or from freebooters. The number of Norman
infantrymen appears to have been exceedingly small.
The increasing number of Sicilians represents the shift from alliances with local warlords to the wholesale recruitment of
Muslim troops fighting in the traditional Arab manner.
For the first fifty years these forces were constantly at war, often with each other, as the various Normans leaders fought to
establish their own dominions in southern Italy. When threatened from outside they could band together. This happened at
Civitate in 1053 when they faced the combined army of the Pope, German mercenaries and the local Italian dukes. Perhaps
fortunately for them, the expected Byzantine contingent missed the battle, which could make for an interesting 'What if
Argyrus had arrived?' scenario. The Normans would later beat the army of the Byzantine emperor at Dyrrhachium in 1081.
The Normans took thirty years to conquer Sicily (the last emirate being defeated in 1087). The Arab emirs had been divided,
sometimes providing support, sometimes rising against the invaders. The conquest brought about one of the most tolerant,
multi-faith kingdoms of the medieval world. The Arabs were treated well and would later fight in large numbers for their
Norman overlords. The next fifty years were a great period for the Normans in Sicily. The period is marked by various
expeditions against neighbouring territories.
In 1095, the Pope's call for a crusade saw many Normans leave Italy to join the forces of the Norman nobleman Bohemond
d’Hauteville. The First Crusade was a success and Bohemond created a Norman dynasty in Antioch. In 1123, the Sicilian
Normans attacked the Almoravids in North Africa, but things did not go as well as planned. They would return in 1148 with
more success but after twelve short years, the new power of the Almohads retook all the Sicilian gains. These campaigns
provide some interesting alternative history to explore.
After their defeat at Rignano in 1132, the Normans managed to hold on to their territories but from 1150 they came under
increasing pressure from the Holy Roman Empire. Two Emperors, Conrad and Frederick Barbarossa, campaigned for
several decades, steadily weakening the Norman position. On the Italian mainland, the whole period is one of political
intrigue interspersed with occasional fighting. There were expeditions to Greece, the Holy Land and further north into Italy.
There were many rebellions but few large-scale battles. In the end, it would be Frederick's son Henry who ended the Norman
domination of southern Italy and brought this fantastic chapter to a close.
Many thanks to Philip Garton for writing this excellent list and background!

Almoravid Berber
This list covers the Almoravid Berber dynasty who, as the Murabit sect, emerged from the Sahara Desert from 1053 CE
onwards to conquer an empire that eventually stretched across north-west Africa and much of Spain. They were defeated
by the Almohads, who killed their last king in 1147.
Attached heroic general (on foot) 2–4 3+ 4
Upgrade a senior, attached, heroic, mounted general
0–1* – 10
to great leader* representing Yusuf ibn Tashfin
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Large white silk banner 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Berber Black Guard cavalry Cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
Cavalry, lance, single extra javelin, veteran 0–1** 6+ 12
Christian mercenary caballeros
(knights) Upgrade cavalry, lance, single extra javelin, veteran to
All*** 5+ 13
knights, lance, veteran
3–6^, 3–
Berber, Andalusian or negro 15**
African light horse Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
Up to 1/3 6+ 6
veteran
Light camelry Light camelry, javelin 0–2^ 8+ 5
Shieldwall 4–10^^ 7+ 7
Downgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, raw All*** 8+ 5
Berber, Andalusian or negro
African spearmen Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, veteran as Black
0–1 6+ 9
Guard
Light infantry, javelin, raw 4–8^^ 8+ 3
Upgrade light infantry, javelin, raw to light infantry,
Berber or Andalusians Up to 1/3 7+ 4
javelin
Light infantry other, sling or bow, raw 0–2 9+ 3
* Only between 1056 and 1106.
** Only in Spain and after 1086.
*** Only in Spain and after 1106.
^ In Spain and Africa until 1086. After then, only in Africa.
^^ Minima apply only if any infantry are chosen.
Allies
Early Feudal Spanish, Later Feudal Spanish, Al Andalus, West Sudanese (Takrur after 1040 or Ghana Wagadou after 1080).
Notes
The Almoravid army fought under a large white silk banner with the words "There is no God but God, and Mohammad is
His Prophet” embroidered on it.

Communal and Papal Italian
This list covers the armies of the Italian city-states and commune from the dates when individual cities received their grants
of communal status from 1078 CE through to the rise of the mercenary condottieri in the early c. 14th (ca. 1320). It includes
the Papal States – territories under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope.
Upgrade from foot to mounted 1–4 – 5
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Carroccio (wagon–mounted
2VP standard 0–1*** – 3
altar)
Papal gonfalon (standard) 2VP standard 0–1**** – 3
Cavalieri comunali (Communal
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance All*
knights and sergeants) 6+ 11
Knights, lance 1–2, 2–3 Pa
Knights, lance 0–2, 0–3 Pa* 11
Upgrade German knights, lance to knights, lance, 6+
Nobili feudali e uomini d'arme 0–1* 16
(mercenary knights) deep
Upgrade French knights, lance to knights, lance,
0–1** 5+ 13
veteran
Light cavalry, crossbow 0–1** 8+ 5
crossbowmen)
Berrovieri Light cavalry, javelin 0–1** 7+ 5
Papal guard Spearmen, veteran 0–1 Pa* 6+ 9
Spearmen 0–1, 0–2 Pa* 7+ 7
Lancieri (mercenary spearmen)
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1 ** 6+ 9
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen as popolo
0–1* 7+ 7
Lancieri comunali (communal (guards)
spearmen) Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, raw, extra
Any** 7
crossbow 8+
Upgrade spearmen, raw, extra crossbow with pavises Any** +1
Milizia del comune (militia) Spearmen, raw, deep 2–3, 1–2 Pa 8+ 7
Balestrieri (mercenary Crossbowmen 0–1, 1–2 Pa* 7
8+
crossbowmen) Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises Any** +1
Balestrieri del Comune (communal Crossbowmen, raw 2–4, 1–3 Pa 5
9+
crossbowmen) Upgrade crossbowmen, raw with pavises 0–2 +1
Arcieri del Comune (communal
archers)
Giavellottieri Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–1 8+
Balestrieri leggeri Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 0–1 9+ 3
Arcieri leggeri Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–1 9+
Contadini (peasants) or poorly
Mobs, deep 0–1, 0–3 Pa 8+ 7
drilled militia
Special*** 1, 0 Pa – 4
altar)

Pa refers to Papal States.
* After 1150.
** After 1200.
*** A carroccio is represented by a model wagon-altar, counting as a 2VP standard as described in the Even Stronger
supplement. It must be placed with a foot unit.
**** The Papal gonfanon (banner), if present, must be carried by the Papal Guard. It is a 2VP army standard as described
in the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Byzantine (Pa), Feudal Lombard (Pa), French (Pa), Italian Communal and Papal Italian, Imperialist
In the c. 11th and c. 12th, many cities in northern Italy were able to take advantage of conflicts between the Popes and Holy
Roman Emperors to achieve a degree of autonomy, including the right to organise their own defences. Communes were
formed in Cremona (1078), Pisa (1081), Genoa (1098), and in Florence, Siena, Bologna (all in 1115). Later, Milan led the
Lombard cities against the Holy Roman Emperors and defeated them at the battles of Legnano in 1176 and Parma in 1248,
gaining independence.
The list also covers city-states such as the Duchy of Naples, Duchy of Amalfi, Gaeta and Venice which, although nominally
under Byzantine control, were effectively independent, and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.
The Papal States included several central regions, such as Romagna, Tuscany and Umbria. The Pope was also owed a basic
feudal allegiance by many other towns and cities across the Italian peninsular, such as Benevento, Capua and Spoleto. Papal
armies were usually led by the Papal gonfaloniere (banner bearer) rather than by the Pope himself.
During this period industry (particularly textiles) and trade boomed and the population of Italy roughly doubled. Some city-
states, particularly Florence and Venice, developed banks and played a crucial innovative role in world financial
developments, whilst others rose to become great commercial and military powers. Venice and Genoa acquired vast naval
empires in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. During the Fourth Crusade (1204), Venice conquered almost half of the
Byzantine Empire.
By 1300, many of these former republics had evolved into princely states dominated by a Signore (lord). Exceptions included
Venice, Florence, Genoa and Lucca. Many states became increasingly dependent upon the use of mercenaries, and, in the c.
14th, this evolved into the condottieri system (see the Early Italian Condotta list, below).
With thanks to Philip Garton who wrote most of this list!

Feudal Spanish
This list starts with the founding of the first Spanish military order, Calatrava, in 1164 and ends with the beginning of the
Castilian Civil War in 1366 in Spain and the coronation of Fernando I in 1367 in Portugal.
Generals
0–1 C* 3+ 10
leader representing Afonso I of Portugal
Heroes 2–4 – 1
The finger bones of St. James 2 VP army standard 0–1 C** – 3
Caballeros hidalgos (nobles), Knights, lance 3–6 6+ 11
infanzones (knights) and caballeros Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran (as
villanos (non–noble citizens) 0–1 5+ 13
the Knights of Santiago or a royal bodyguard)
0–1 A, 0–2
Basque or Berber mercenaries Light cavalry, javelin 7+ 5
C
0–1 A, 1–3
Jinetes (light horsemen) Light cavalry, lance, one extra javelin 7+ 6
C
Mounted crossbowmen Light cavalry, bow or crossbow 0–1 A 8+ 5
1–6 A, 0–3
Upgrade shieldwall, raw to shieldwall 7+ 7
C
Peones (citizen spearmen)
Upgrade shieldwall or shieldwall, raw with extra
0–3 – +2
archers or crossbowmen
Javelinmen, raw 8+ 5
Javelinmen (including bidets and 2–8 A, 0–3
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen 7+ 7
almughavari) C
Crossbowmen, raw 9+ 5
Ballesteros (crossbowmen) Light infantry other, crossbow 8+ 4
Any – +1
pavise
Bowmen, raw 0–2 A, 1–3 9+ 5
Arqueros (archers) Light infantry other, bow C 9+ 4
Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen Any 8+ 7
0–2 A, 0–3
Slingers Light infantry other, sling 8+ 4
C
Key C = Castile, Leon and Portugal, A = Aragon and Navarre
* Afonso I of Portugal the first king of Portugal, fought numerous battles and carved out a kingdom.
** After 1170. The finger bones of St James must be carried by the Knights of Santiago (knights, lance), who were
formed to protect Santiago and look after the body of St James and the pilgrimage route.
Allies

Berber (after 1269), Granadine (Castilian only, after 1238), Feudal Spanish Aragon and Navarre (Castilian only).
After a brief period of disintegration known as the Second Taifa period, the Almohads, the new fundamentalist Berber
dynasty controlling North Africa, sent an army to Spain in response to the taifa leaders’ plea for help in repelling the Christian
armies after the fall of Toledo. Over the next few years, the Almohads supplanted the Almoravids and took Seville, Córdoba,
Badajoz, and Almería. In 1195, at the Battle of Alarcos, the Almohads were attacked by King Alfonso VIII of Castile,
although he was heavily outnumbered. Although the Almohads were victorious, the charge of the Spanish knights broke
several Andalusian formations and there were heavy losses on both sides.
The combined armies of Aragon and Castile defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, which
marked a turning point in the peninsula’s history. The battle took place near a pass separating southern Spain from the
central plateau. Alfonso’s forces flank marched through a hidden pass and caught the Muslim army by surprise. In the
decades following this battle, almost all the remaining lands of Al-Andalus were lost to the Reconquista. In 1213, Castilians
under Peter II “The Catholic” marched north of the Pyrenees to support the Count of Toulouse against an army of French
Crusaders attacking the Count of Toulouse and the Albigensians but were defeated at the battle of Muret (see below).
From 1232, the Nasrid dynasty ruled Granada and neighbouring areas in southern Spain. It was the Nasrids who built the
Alhambra in Granada as a powerful symbol of their monarchy. Their rule was characterized by insistent pressure from
Christian armies, which successfully conquered Valencia and surrounding areas and forced the Nasrids to become tribute-
paying vassals in 1243. By 1252, the Kingdom of Granada was the only remaining Muslim state in the peninsula.
In 1340, King Alfonso XI of Castile and King Afonso IV of Portugal joined forces to resist the combined army of Nasrid
ruler Yusuf I of Granada and Marinid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali from North Africa. At the Battle of Salado, the Christians
decisively defeated the Marinids who made up the bulk of the forces, causing them to return to Africa.
Alfonso XI’s son, Pedro of Castile (1334–1369), maintained cordial relations with the Nasrids of Granada. He admired their
culture to the extent that he employed craftsman from Granada to upgrade his palace in Seville in the style of the Alhambra.
Sources
Armies of Feudal Europe 1066-1340 by Ian Heath (A Wargames Research Group Publication).
Armies and Enemies of the Middle Ages, Volume 1 by Ian Heath (A Wargames Research Group Publication).
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who helped to write this historical background.

Ayyubid Egyptian
This list covers the non–provincial armies of Salah–ad–Din's Ayyubid Sultanate from his appointment as Vizier in 1169 CE
until 1250, when the Sultanate was overthrown by its own mamelukes.

Upgrade a mounted, attached, senior heroic general
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Salah–ad–Din (Saladin)
Heroes 2–4 – 1
1–2**, 0–
Al–Halqa al–Khassa Cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
2***
Other lancer cavalry including Cavalry, lance 2–5 7+ 9
Qaraghulams, Arabs and Syrians Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
Bahriyyah as–Saliyyah Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1*** 6+ 13
Other bow–armed cavalry Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow Any 7+ 11
including Toassin and Kipchak
Mamluks Upgrade cavalry, bow or cavalry, lance, extra bow to
0–2 6+ +2
veteran
Frankish knights Knights, lance 0–1 6+ 11
Light cavalry, javelin, raw 1–3 8+ 4
Bedouin Arabs Upgrade light cavalry, javelin, raw to light cavalry,
0–1 7+ 5
javelin
Turkomans Light cavalry, bow 3–8 8+ 5
Jabaliyya or Kurdish javelinmen Javelinmen 0–4 7+ 7
Sudanese spearmen Spearmen 0–2**** 7+ 7
Sudanese bowmen Bowmen 0–4 8+ 7
Qaws farangi Crossbowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Al–ashair Light infantry other, bow 0–4 8+ 4
Ghazis Warriors, fanatics, deep 0–1 8+ 10
Mutatawwia Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Syrian al-ahdath (militia) Mobs, deep, raw 0–3***** 9+ 4
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary terror weapons 0–1^ 8+ 4
* From 1169 to 1193 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** Only before 1240, when the Al-Halqa regiment (recruited from native Egyptians and Arabs) must be selected as the
senior general's bodyguard.
*** Only after 1240, in which event the Bahriyyah regiment of mamluks must be selected as the senior general's
bodyguard.
**** These represent the possible inclusion of spearmen in the forces recruited by Saladin following the massacre of the
old regiments in 1169. They cannot be employed in numbers greater than Sudanese bowmen units.
***** From 1175 to 1193 only.
^ Naffatun sling or throw pots of inflammable naphtha. See the Even Stronger supplement
Allies
Syrian Ayyubids (post 1193 CE), Khwarazmian (1244–1245 CE).

Salah-ad-Din (son of Ayyub) took over from the Fatimids, first becoming vizier and then taking control of Egypt following
the death of the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid. He expanded into North Africa, taking Tripoli from the Normans, and into
Nubia and Arabia. In the late 1170’s he took over Syria and then turned on the Crusader states, winning his most famous
victory at Hattin, leading to the re-capture of Jerusalem. Subsequently the Franks were confined to the coastal strip of the
Levant.
Following Salah-ad-Din’s death in 1193, his possessions were divided amongst his family, and although nominally under the
control of the Ayyubid sultan, the various parts of the empire were largely independent. Ayyubid rule in Egypt ended with
the take-over of the country by the Mamluks following of the defeat of the Seventh Crusade.
Army Notes
In contrast to the Fatimid army which had a significant infantry element, the Ayyubid army was heavily dominated by cavalry,
which came from a variety of origins. The al-Halqa al-Khassa regiment were Salah-ad-Din's elite bodyguard of non-mamluk
native Egyptian and Arab cavalry. Under later rulers this regiment was supplanted by the Bahriyyah as-Saliyyah regiment of
Kipchak Mamluks. In the earlier Ayyubid period Qaraghulams formed a significant part of the army. These were slave lancers
of black African or Berber origin. Later armies had larger numbers of Mamluks, bow-armed slave-soldiers who included
Toassin ("white slaves") often of Turkish, Georgian, Armenian or Byzantine birth) or latterly Kipchaks (Cumans).
Many of the Sudanese infantry regiments remained loyal to the Fatimids and were defeated in Salah-ad-Din’s early campaigns,
although he did retain some in his army. Other foot troops were provided by Qaws farangi (equipped with the crossbow).
Jabaliyya were javelinmen from Aleppo. Al-ashair were archers possibly of Druze origin. Ghazis are religious fanatics and
Mutatawwia are troops fighting entirely for plunder. Ah’dath are Syrian city militiamen.
Many thanks to Tim Whitworth who wrote the initial draft of this list and to Peter Clarke who added the historical background and notes. Also,
thanks to James Roach for the above image of his Turkomans.

Medieval Cypriot
This list covers the Cypriots from the arrival of Guy of Lusignan in 1192 until the death of the last Lusignan king in 1473.

Upgrade to mounted general 2–4 2+ 5
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Knights, turcopoles and Knights, lance 1–3 6+ 11
sergeants Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Any** 6+ 14
Knights, lance, veteran 0–1 5+ 13
Religious order knights and
sergeants Upgrade knights, lance, veteran to later knight, lance,
Any** 5+ 16
veteran
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
Separately deployed turcopoles 0–1
Karamanli Turkomen or ex-
Light cavalry, bow 0–4*** 8+ 5
Genoese mercenaries
Native subject, religious order Shieldwall 4–6 7+ 7
or mercenary spearmen Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, extra crossbow Any 7+ 9
Crossbowmen Crossbowmen 2–4 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Native, Maronite or Greek 2–4
archers
Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen (as Armenians) 0–1 8+ 7
Almughavars Javelinmen (special) 0–2* 7+ 7
Arriere-ban Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Fortifications for Camp Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only after 1320. Almughavars replace one of their javelins with a shock missile.
** Only from 1360
*** Only 1373–1374, or from 1415
Allies
Mamluk Egyptian 1460–1464 only.
In 1185, just prior to the period covered by this list, Isaac Komnenos, a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over
Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire.
In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Richard I of England was passing Cyprus and his fiancée, Berengaria of Navarre, was
driven by a storm into the Cypriot port of Lemesos (Limasol) where she was poorly treated by Isaac. When Richard arrived
and learned of these affronts, he interrupted his Crusade, first to marry Berengaria and then to capture Cyprus and depose
Komnenos. He extracted a huge bounty from the Cypriots, appointed officials to administer over them, left a small garrison
to enforce his rule, and sailed away to the Holy Land.
Shortly after he departed the Cypriots revolted. Although the revolt was crushed, Richard decided to sell the island to the
Knights Templar. As soon the tyrannical Templars began to raise taxes, the islanders rose in revolt once again. The Templars
decided to sell the troublesome island on to Guy de Lusignan, the former King of Jerusalem, who in 1192 became the first

of the Lusignan kings of Cyprus. Guy invited dispossessed Palestinian barons to move on the island, granting them feudal
rights over huge estates, where the poor Cypriots now laboured as serfs.
Cypriot society in the Lusignan period was multi-ethnic. Orthodox Greek Cypriots made up most of the population,
alongside Franks both settler and refugee, Moslems, refugee Armenians, Christian religious orders and Genoese, Venetian,
Aragonese and Provençal traders.
Guy’s descendants ruled Cyprus for over two hundred and eighty years. The island proved to be a convenient and relatively
secure supply base for the crusaders. When Acre, the last Crusader toehold in Outremer fell to the Mamluks in 1291, Cyprus
became the centre for European trade with the Orient and consequently became famous for its wealth. Lusignan kings raided
and campaigned in Egypt, but without lasting success. They also briefly held footholds on the Anatolian mainland: Antalya
between 1361 and 1373, and Corycus between 1361 and 1448.
Upon the ascension of Peter II "The Fat" in 1369, a riot broke out between the Venetians and the Genoese traders attending
his coronation ceremony at the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Famagusta. Many Genoese were killed in the riot, and the Italian
city responded by sending a fleet which ravaged and pillaged Cyprus. In 1374, the island surrendered to the Genoese under
terms of tribute, payment for damages, and the ceding of Famagusta to the Genoese, effectively ending Cypriot prosperity.
The Genoese became the effective masters of the island, although following a Mamluk invasion in 1426, Cyprus became a
Mamluk tributary state..
The Lusignan kings lost much of their independence and power until King James II, with Mamluk assistance, drove the
Genoese out in 1464. But upon his untimely death (possibly poisoned) in 1473, the Republic of Venice assumed control of
the island, although the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro, reigned as a figurehead. Venice formally
annexed the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489.
Grant who wrote this list, to which I added the background.

Granadine
This list commences in 1228 CE when Ibn al-Ahmar established the Nasrid Muslim dynasty and ends with the 1492
surrender of Granada by its last monarch, Boabdil, to Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain.
Upgrade from foot to mounted 0–4 2+ 5
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Knights, lance 0–2* 6+ 11
Grenadine lancers or Downgrade knights, lance to cavalry, lance All** 7+ 9
mercenaries Upgrade knights, lance or cavalry, lance to knights,
0–1 6+ 11
lance or cavalry, lance, veteran
Granadine jinetes Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry,
Up to half 6+ 6
javelin, veteran
Granadine mounted crossbows Light cavalry, crossbow 1–2 8+ 5
Granadine horse archers Light cavalry, bow 0–1* 8+ 5
Crossbowmen, raw 5
8–12 9+
Light infantry other, crossbow 4
Granadine crossbowmen
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen Up to half 8+ 7
Granadine militia Shieldwall, extra crossbowmen, raw 0–2 8+ 7
North African mercenaries Shieldwall, extra crossbowmen 0–4 7+ 9
Light infantry other, bow or sling 1–3 8+ 4
Skirmishers
Light infantry other, handgun 0–2** 8+ 4
* Pre 1340 only.
** Post 1340 only.
Notes
Knights may not dismount.

Mamluk Egyptian
This list covers Egypt from the overthrow of the Ayyubid Sultanate by its Mamluk slaves (1250 CE) until the fall of Cairo
to the Ottomans in 1517.
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Sultan Baybars.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Sultan's Mamluks Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–2 6+ 13
Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 2–5 6+ 13
Amir's Mamluks Downgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran to
Up to 1/3 7+ 11
cavalry, lance, extra bow
Halqa or Syrian, Kurdish or Al– Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, extra bow Up to half 7+ 11
Ashair cavalry Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw or 8+/9
All** 7/5
replace with bowmen, raw +
Light cavalry, javelin or lance, raw 1–3 8+ 4
Bedouin Arabs
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin or lance from raw Up to half 7+ 5
Turkomans Light cavalry, bow 1–4 8+ 5
Jabaliyya or other javelinmen Javelinmen 0–1 7+ 7
Qaws farangi Crossbowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Al–ashair 0–1
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Mutatawwia or city mobs Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Light infantry other, incendiary*** 0–1 8+ 4
Naffatun Replace light infantry other, incendiary with light
0–1**** 8+ 4
infantry other, handgun
* From 1260 to 1277 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** After 1300.
*** Naffatun are armed with pots of naphtha, either slung or thrown. See the Even Stronger supplement.
**** After 1490.
Allies
Syrian Ayyubids before 1286 CE.
Sultan Baybars helped to defeat the Mongols and conquered most of the Crusader kingdom.
Army Notes
Mamluks were bow-armed slave-soldiers of steppe origin. They were trained to exceptional standards. Halqa were free born
cavalry of lower status; the quality of the halqa deteriorated during the period covered by the list and some eventually became
foot bowmen. Jabaliyya were javelinmen from Aleppo. Qaws farangi were equipped with the foreign bow, i.e., crossbow.
Al-ashair were archers possibly of Druze origin. Mutatawwia are poor quality troops fighting entirely for plunder.

Early Italian Condotta
This covers the Italian states during the period 1320–1400 CE, when groups of mercenaries known as Condottieri and "Free
Companies" rose to prominence over state militias.
Generals
Upgrade a mounted, heroic, senior, general to great
0–1^ – 10
leader* as Sir John Hawkwood.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
2VP standard 0–1**** – 3
altar)
Knights, lance 4–7 11
Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Up to 1/2 14
Condottieri (the original "military
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, deep Up to 4** 6+ 16
contractors")
Upgrade knights, lance, deep to later knights, lance,
Up to 1/2** 21
deep
Elmetti feudali (feudal "helmets") Knights, lance 0–1 (0–2 N) 6+ 11
Later knights, lance 6+ 14
Cavalieri della Compagnia Bianca
Upgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance, 1–2^
(White Company knights) 5+ 16
veteran
Balestrieri montati (mounted 1–2 (2–3 if
Light cavalry, crossbow 8+ 5
crossbowmen) V)
0–2 Fl, N or
Hungarians Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
Pa***
Spearmen, raw 1–3^^ 8+ 5
Lancieri delle ordinanze (civic
militia spearmen) Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen as lanzieri
0–1 7+ 7
provisionati (professionals)
Papal or Neapolitan Guards Spearmen, veteran 0–1 Pa, N 6+ 9
Balestrieri (mercenary Upgrade crossbowmen to crossbowmen, veteran 0–1 7+ 9
crossbowmen) Upgrade crossbowmen or crossbowmen, veteran
Any – +1
with pavises
1–4, 2–4
Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 3
V^^
Balestrieri delle ordinanze (civic Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow, raw to
0–2 9+ 5
militia crossbowmen) crossbowmen, raw
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw with pavises Any 6
Rotularii (swordsmen) Light infantry, melee weapons^^^ 1–2^^ 7+ 4
Longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 1–3^ 7+ 11
Arcierii della Compagnia Bianca
Upgrade bowmen with 2HCCW
(White Company bowmen) Any – +1
Upgrade bowmen with stakes
Contadini (peasants) Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Bombarde (artillery) Artillery (cannon) 0–1 7+ 7

Key: Fl is Florence, Mi is Milan, N is Naples, Pa is Papal States and V is Venice. Troops may only be selected from a
single city state, unless Italian Condotta allies are selected, in which case allies from a different state must be in distinct
commands under their own general.
* Great leaders are described in the "Even Stronger" supplement.
** Representing German mercenaries; before 1363 only.
**** A carroccio is represented by a model wagon-altar, counting as a 2VP standard as described in the Even Stronger
supplement. It must be assigned to a foot unit.
^ From 1363 to 1394 only. Minima apply if any such troops are taken, in which case they must form a command of
their own led by Sir John Hawkwood. White Company knights, lance will usually be fielded dismounted. Dismounted
White Company knights, lance are treated as being armed with spears instead of the usual 2HCCW.
^^ Minima applies only if any such troops are selected.
^^^ Light infantry, melee weapons are described in the Even Stronger supplement
Allies
Free Companies.
Notes
The total number of mounted units (including dismounted knights, lance and mounted longbowmen) must exceed the
number of foot units. Knights, lance may only dismount after 1360. White Company may not be used together in the same
army as French from the Free Company list or with Hungarians. An allied Italian general may only command Italian troops.
Generals must be attached to units of men-at-arms.
The White Company- Claymore Castings miniatures painted by David Imrie

During this period, the Italian states became increasingly dependent upon mercenaries named "Condotta" after the contracts
that regulated their employment. The term became a synonym of "military leader.” During the c. 14th and c. 15th, many
Italian cities preferred to contract with these professionals to settle their wars. Sometimes entire armies of mercenaries were
employed, such as Sir John Hawkwood's famous White Company. Condottieri leaders were powerful individuals, and could
even, occasionally, rise to become the leader of a state. Francesco Sforza, the illegitimate son of a mercenary leader, became
the Duke of Milan.
Army Notes
A condottieri would be contracted to recruit a contracted number of three, or later five or six man “lances” to serve his
client. A typical lance might consist of a man-at-arms, a squire, a page and two archers or men-at-arms. Five lances could be
grouped to form a “post,” and five posts, a squadron. An entire condottieri bandiera (band) might include 50-100 lances.

During the period covered by this list, the mounted men-at-arms were the most important element of the armies, and the
quality of the infantry was relatively poor.
Thanks very much to Philip Garton for his suggestions and edits to this list.

Navarrese
This covers the Armies of Charles II of Navarre between 1354 and 1370 when he could be considered independently
militarily active. Prior to 1354 his forces would form part of the French Hundred Years War army.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
6+
Gascon, Breton, Norman or Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Up to 1/2 14
Navarrese men–at–arms Upgrade knights, lance or later knights, lance to
0–1 5+ 16
veteran
Knights, lance, veteran 1–2 13
English men–at–arms Upgrade knights, lance, veteran to later knights, 6+
0–1 16
lance, veteran
Spearmen 7
Gascon or other foot 0–1 7+
Spearmen, mounted infantry 8
Longbowmen, mounted infantry 8+ 9
English longbowmen 2–3
Longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 7+ 11
Navarrese or Gascon
crossbowmen
Navarrese javelinmen
Allies
Free Company, English 100 Years War Continental
Notes
Non-allied units English must all be in one command. Any knights may elect to dismount prior to a battle, replacing their
lance with 2HCCW.
If ever there was a ruler to which the word “weasel” should be applied, Charles II of Navarre was the man. He was
responsible for the assassination of the Constable of France and implicated in several plots against the life of Charles V, the
French King. Supremely self-serving, he made numerous alliances with England, France, Castile and Aragon depending on
his needs of the moment, often breaking them almost as soon as they were made. As a result, like the boy who cried wolf,
in the end no one would trust him.
More of a politician than a general, he was fortunate in having two brothers more able in that field, Philip and Louis, and
had, in addition to Navarrese and Normans from his French holdings, the services of several allied or mercenary companies
and their able commanders (one of whom, Seguin de Badefol, he poisoned rather than pay). He made attempts to partition
and rule France to its great detriment, but was ultimately unsuccessful, losing most of his French possessions and becoming
dominated by Castile. For much of his reign he was nominally allied to England.
Charles’ end was deliciously gruesome. He was afflicted by various crippling physical ailments, so his physician had him
wrapped in brandy-soaked bandages. These were accidentally ignited.by a foolish servant. Fearfully burnt, he lingered nearly
a fortnight, in the most terrible pain. His horrific death was widely considered God's justice upon him.

Army Notes
Charles’ largest field army was that which was defeated at Cocherel in 1364. This comprised 800–900 knights and 4000–
5000 soldiers from Normandy, Gascony and England, including 300 English archers. He could potentially have fielded larger
forces if he had stripped his Norman garrisons to a bare minimum. His artillery is not included because there is no record
of its use in the field.
Many thanks to Neil Grant for writing this list and the historical background.

Later Medieval Spanish
This list covers the Spanish crowns of Castile and Aragon from the 1366 CE beginning of the Castilian Civil War until the
union of the two kingdoms, forming the Kingdom of Spain, in 1479.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Knights, lance, one extra javelin, raw 2–6 7+ 10
1/2 to all
Lanzas– hombre de armas (men- Upgrade knights, lance, one extra javelin, raw to
A^, 0 to 1/2 6+ 12
at-arms) knights, lance (as Military Orders or Gardes Reales)
C^
Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 0–2 6+ 14
French gendarmes (men-at-arms) Later knights, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 16
Light cavalry, lance, one extra javelin 1–2 7+ 6
Lanzas à la jineta (light
horsemen) or Adalides (scouts) Upgrade light cavalry, lance, one extra javelin to light
0–1 6+ 6
cavalry javelin, veteran
Granadine mercenary jinetes Light cavalry, lance, one extra javelin, veteran 0–1* 6+ 7
Spearmen 7+ 7
2–4*, 3–6**
Spearmen, raw 8+ 5
Urban or Santa Hermandad
Replace spearmen with pike, deep 1^^ 7+ 13
("Holy Brotherhood") militia
Upgrade spearmen with extra crossbow Any – +2
Upgrade spearmen with extra handgun 0–1*/^ – +2
Mudéjars (Muslim or Jewish Javelinmen, raw 8+ 5
1–3*, 0–2**
levies, or mercenaries) Light infantry other, bow, raw 9+ 3
Javelinmen (special)^^^, veteran 1–3**/*** 6+ 9
Almughavars (Muslim levies)
Javelinmen (special)^^^ 1–2** 7+ 7
Javelinmen 7
Javelinmen 0–2* 7+
Light infantry, javelin 4
Bowmen, raw 0–1* 5
Archers 9+
Light infantry other, bow, raw 0–1 3
Crossbowmen 7
Crossbowmen, including 2–6 8+
Light infantry other, crossbow 4
French mercenaries
Light infantry other, sling 1–2* 8+ 4
Other skirmishers
Light infantry other, handgun 0–2*/^ 8+ 4
Bombard Artillery (cannon) 0–1^ 7+ 7
* Castile only.
** Aragon only.
*** Before 1385

^ After 1385.
^^ After 1450
^^^ Almughavars replace one of their javelins with a shock missile.
Allies
100 Years War French*/***, 100 Years War English**/***, Free Companies, Later Medieval Portuguese, Granada.
Notes
The option to upgrade knights to later knights represents the Gardas Reales (Royal Guards) or knights of a religious order.
Only later knights may dismount.
During the period covered by this list, Castile, Aragon and Portugal (covered in a separate Later Medieval Portuguese list)
vied for control of the peninsula, sometimes assisted by mercenaries and by the interventions of England and France. By
the end of the period, Grenada was the only survivor of the former Muslim states, and its days were numbered.
The Corona de Castilla (Crown of Castile) had grown from small beginnings to become the dominant kingdom in the
centre/north of the Iberian Peninsula, first by assimilating the adjacent Christian states of Leon, Asturias, Galicia and Toledo
and then by conquering all the Islamic principalities to the south, except for Granada.
In 1366, during the First Castilian Civil War, Count Henry of Trastámara assembled a large army in France and invaded
Castile with the support of the Kings of France (Charles V) and Aragon (Peter IV). The army included French and Aragonese
troops and English mercenaries, and Henry was able to force his brother King Pedro el Cruel (“the Cruel”) or el Justo (“the
Just”), depending on which side you were on, into exile. The following year King Pedro returned and, with the assistance of
Edward the Black Prince, defeated Count Henry at the Battle of Najera (1367). After the battle Pedro lost the advantage
because he failed to pay his ally the Black Prince, who in turn abandoned him. Count Henry eventually managed to defeat
and murder King Pedro in 1369 and was crowned King Henry II.
The Corona d'Aragón (Crown of Aragon) dominated the north-west portion of the Iberian Peninsula and included the
Kingdom of Aragon, the County of Barcelona, the Kingdoms of Valencia and numerous overseas possessions including the
Kingdoms of Majorca, Sicily, Malta, Naples and Sardinia, and, at times, parts of Greece and southern France. Aragon has
been described as a thalassocracy or seaborne empire.
In 1469, Queen Isabella of Aragon married King Ferdinand II of Castile and the two states merged, thereafter forming the
Kingdom of Spain.
Army Notes
The arrival of foreign armies in 1366/7 using ‘modern’ equipment and tactics proved a real shock for the Spanish, who had
to face dismounted knights and longbows for the first time, against which their tactics of mounted skirmishing with javelins
were found wanting. At the battle of Najera in 1367 the “Spaniards hurled with might archegays, lances, and darts. Each one
strove to acquit himself well, for archers shot thicker than rain falls in wintertime. They wounded their horses and men, and
the Spaniards perceived well that they could no longer endure; they began to turn their horses and took to flight.” (from
“The Life of the Black Prince” by the Herald of Sir John Chandos). Oman describes Spanish knights as “fighting in the
manner of the genitors,” i.e., using jinete tactics.
The Spanish had learned the hard way that they needed to modernise. We surmise that, after Najera, the Spanish moved to
a model like that used by the English and French with a reduced reliance on javelins. From 1372, the King of Portugal
specified that his vassals should be equipped in either the English or the French manner, and Castile set out new rules for
raising its armies in 1382. In 1385, King Juan I of Castile introduced an ordinance of arms, like those in England and France,
requiring service from all able-bodied males according to their income. A small, permanent royal army was, thereafter,
supplemented by vassals, levies, troops raised by the church and by the urban and Santa Hermandad militias. The proportion
of infantry rose throughout the period covered by this list, and later Castilian armies often had a relatively high ratio of light
cavalry to men-at-arms.
The mounted archers and crossbowmen are of Muslim origin, based on a c. 14th frieze in the Alhambra.
http://warfare.cf/14/Alhambra-El_Partal.htm
Sources
Armies and Enemies of the Middle Ages, Volume 1 by Ian Heath (A Wargames Research Group Publication).
The Life of the Black Prince by the Herald of Sir John Chandos https://www.yorku.ca/inpar/chandos_pope.pdf
The Art of War in the Middle Ages A.D. 378-1515 by Charles Oman

Later Medieval Portuguese
This list covers the Kingdom of Portugal from the coronation of Fernando I (1367 CE) through to the death of John the
Perfect in 1495.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Lanzas– hombre de armas (men– Upgrade cavalry, javelin to knights, lance 0–2 6+ 11
at–arms) Upgrade cavalry, javelin to later knights, lance 0–2 6+ 14
Upgrade knights, lance or later knights, lance to 13/1
0–1 5+
knights, lance, veteran or later knights, lance, veteran 6
Ginetes (light horsemen) Light cavalry, javelin 0–1 7+ 5
Granadine jinetes Light cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1 6+ 6
Mercenary English men–at–
Dismounted knights, 2HCCW, mounted infantry 0–1 6+ 11
arms
Spearmen, raw, single extra javelin 1–2 8+ 6
Spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw, single extra javelin to
0–1 7+ 8
spearmen, extra javelin
Urban militia Any – +2
crossbow
0–1*/*** – +2
handgun
Javelinmen 7
Javelinmen 3–6 7+
Bowmen, raw 5
Archers 2–3 9+
Crossbowmen, raw 5
2–4 9+
Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 3
Crossbowmen
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen 0–2 7+ 7
Longbowmen, veteran, stakes 7+ 11
English longbowmen Upgrade longbowmen with extra 2HCCW 0–1 – +1
Upgrade longbowmen to mounted infantry – +1
Light infantry other, sling 1–2 8+ 4
Other skirmishers
Light infantry other, handgun 1–2*** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–1** 7+ 7
* Before 1385 only.

** After 1385 only.
*** After 1400 only.
Allies
100 Years War English, Free Companies, Grenada, Later Medieval Spanish (Castilian).
Notes
The option to upgrade knights to veteran represents royal guards or knights of a religious order. All knights and later knights
may dismount; English knights must dismount.
During the period covered by this list, the Kingdom of Portugal vied with the Crowns of Castile and Aragon for control of
the Iberian Peninsula.
King Fernando I o Formoso ("The Handsome") came to the throne of Portugal in 1367 and, in 1369, claimed the vacant
throne of Castile. This led to unsuccessful wars with Aragon and Navarre and later with John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster,
who all also claimed the Castilian throne.
In 1382, Fernando laid down rules for raising and administering his armies, abolishing the previous Moorish military
nomenclature and replacing them with the equivalent Anglo-French terminology.
Ferdinand died without a male heir in 1383 and Portugal experienced a chaotic two-year interregnum before he was
succeeded by João I de Boa Memória ("Of Fond Memory"), his half-brother. Castile claimed the Portuguese throne and
several wars followed, with France backing the Castilians and England the Portuguese. A small army under John decisively
defeated a large Castilian army at the Battle of Aljubarrota in 1385, securing the independence of Portugal. In February 1387,
John I married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt, consolidating an Anglo-Portuguese alliance that endures
to the present day. During his reign, Portugal seized the Moroccan city of Ceuta, which marked the beginning of Portugal's
eventual overseas empire.
In 1433, John I died of the plague and was succeeded by Duarte o Rei-Filósofo ("The Philosopher"). In 1437, Edward
ordered a disastrous attack on Tangier, which was defeated by the Marinid army at the Battle of Tangier. In 1438, Edward
himself died of the plague.
Afonso V o Africano ("The African") earned his sobriquet by conquering several significant Moroccan ports, including
Tangiers. He then tried to seize the vacant throne of Castile but was fought to a standstill at the battle of Toto in 1476, and
abdicated in 1478, retiring to a monastery.
Alfonso was succeeded by his son João II o Príncipe Perfeito (John II, the "Perfect Prince"). John ruthlessly consolidated
his power, executing, murdering and exiling nobles. He restored Portugal's finances through confiscations and from the vast
profits that came with successful overseas exploration and conquest.

Later Italian Condotta
This list covers the Italian city states from 1400 CE onwards, when states began to directly recruit mercenaries, through to
the beginning of the Italian Wars, in 1494.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
6+
Condottieri ("military Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 1/2 or more 14
contractors") or lanza spezzate Upgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance,
("broken lances") veteran as famiglia ducale elmeti (the Duke of Milan's 0–1 Mi 5+ 16
retinue)
Elmetti feudali (feudal "helmets") Knights, lance 0–1, 1–2 N 6+ 11
Light cavalry, crossbow 1–3, 2–3 V
Upgrade light cavalry, crossbow to light cavalry, 8+ 5
crossbowmen) 1 (Mi, V)***
handgun
0–1 Fl, N,
Hungarians Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
Pa
Turchi ("Turks") Light cavalry, bow 0–2 N*** 8+ 5
Stradiotti (Greek or Albanian Light cavalry, lance, veteran 0–3 V** 6
mercenaries) or cappelletti Upgrade light cavalry, lance, veteran with extra bow 6+
(Dalmatian mercenaries) Up to 1/2 7
or extra crossbow
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen (as Papal/Royal
1 Pa, N 7+ 7
guards)
Lancieri delle ordinanze (civic Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen as lanzieri 0–1, 1–2
7+ 7
militia spearmen) provisionati (professionals) (Mi, V)**
Upgrade spearmen, raw to picchieri pikemen, deep,
0–1** 8+ 10
raw
Upgrade pikemen, deep, raw to pikemen, deep 0–1 Pa, V 7+ 13
Alabardieri (halberdiers) Billmen 0–1 7+ 7
Balestrieri (mercenary
crossbowmen)
Upgrade any crossbowmen with pavises Any – +1
Light infantry other, crossbow, raw 1–3 (2–3 Mi, 3
9+
Crossbowmen, raw N, V)***** 5
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow, raw to light
Balestrieri delle ordinanze (civic infantry other, crossbow as provisionati 4
militia crossbowmen) or (professionals) 0–1** 8+
schioppettiere (hand gunners) Upgrade crossbowmen, raw to crossbowmen as
7
provisionati (professionals)
Any – +1
pavises

Replace light infantry other, crossbow or light 1–2, 0–1 N,
infantry other, crossbow, raw with light infantry 2–3 (Mi, – –
other, handgun or light infantry other, handgun, raw V)***
Arcieri (archers) Light infantry other, bowmen 0–2 V 8+ 4
Schermagliatori giavellotto
Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–2 8+ 3
(javelinmen)
Almughavars ("frontiersmen") Javelinmen (special), veteran 0–1 N^ 6+ 9
Rotularii (sword & buckler men) Light infantry, melee weapons**** 0–2, 1–4 N 7+ 4
Pioneers Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Bombarde (artillery) Artillery (cannon) 0–1 7+ 7
Key: Fl is Florence, Mi is Milan, N is Naples, Pa is the Papal States and V is Venice. Troops may only be selected from a
single city state, unless Italian Condotta are selected as allies, in which case allies from a different state must be in
distinct commands under their own general.
* Before 1454.
** 1454 onwards.
*** 1475 onwards.
**** Light infantry, melee weapons are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
***** before 1475.
^ Almughavars replace one of their javelins with a shock missile.
Allies
Swiss (V), Later Italian Condotta, Albanian (N).
During the first half of the c. 15th, the larger Italian powers had been consolidating their territories, with Venice focusing on
expanding its domini de terraferma hinterland, Milan expanding southwards and the Florentines seizing control of most of
Tuscany. However, decades of fighting between these (and other lesser) powers were ended when they set aside their
differences at the Peace of Lodi in 1454, in which permanent boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories were
set along the line of the river Adda, Francesco Sforza was confirmed as the rightful duke of Milan, and the parties bound
themselves to principles of non-aggression. This new Italic League brought peace to the peninsula for the first time in
centuries, a peace that would hold for the next forty years, until Charles VIII French army rudely intruded into Italian affairs
in 1494, initiating the bloody Italian Wars.
Army Notes
Famiglia ducale elmeti is a term which refers to the "extended family" of relatives, friends and supporters of the ruler of an
Italian city-state such as Milan. Some of the famiglia would have been armed, equipped, and trained in a similar manner to
the French gens d'armes (men-at-arms), but not necessarily to the same extremely high standards, for which reason they
were seldom as effective.
Lanza spezzate (“broken lances”) is a mid c. 15th term for men who had become detached from their mercenary companies
and who were hired directly by a city state, which grouped them in companies under a new commander.
It is worth mentioning that Italian armour, particularly that manufactured in Milan, was of the highest quality and was
consequently highly regarded. Italian knights were also early to armour their steeds. Initially this barding was fashioned from
leather, but later, particularly in the c. 16th, could be made from steel.
Light cavalry, such as the famous Venetian stradiots (“soldiers”), also began to emerge as a separate arm. These Balkan light
horsemen seem to have been primarily lance-armed, but some would also have carried bows or crossbows. During the period
covered by this list, the formerly despised Italian infantry began to become more important and increasingly professionalised.
They could be well-armoured heavy infantry, or lighter infantry with a sword or spear and a buckler or larger round or oval
shield or carry a missile weapon. Schioppettiere (hand gunners) became increasingly common as the period went on,
particularly in the Milanese and Venetian states.
Thanks very much to Philip Garton for his suggestions and edits to this list!

VI Medieval Western Asia
The Medieval army lists in this chapter are those of Asia Minor and the Near East.
Early Byzantine
This list covers the earlier Byzantine armies from the collapse of the Western Empire in 481 CE to the catastrophe of
Yarmuk, ending just before the reforms of Emperor Constans in 641.
Upgrade a mounted, attached, heroic, senior general to
0–1* – 10
great leader as either Count Belisarius or Maurice
Heroes 2–4 –
Boukellarioi ("hard–tack eaters") Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 0–2**, 0–1*** 6+ 13
Optimates Cavalry, lance, veteran 1*** 6+ 11
Kavallarioi (cavalry)
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw Up to 1/3 8+ 7
Upgrade cavalry, lance with extra bow Up to 2/3 – +2
Hyperkerastikoi (outflankers) Light cavalry, bow 0–2 7+ 5
Germanic symmachoi Upgrade cavalry, javelin or lance to cavalry, javelin or
Up to 1/2 6+ 11
lance, veteran
Arab or Moorish symmachoi 0–3
Light cavalry, javelin, raw 8+ 4
Hun symmachoi Light cavalry, javelin, extra bow, veteran 0–2 6+ 7
Shieldwall 0–4**, 0–3*** 7
7+
Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, deep At least 1/2 10
Skoutatoi
Downgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, raw Any 8+ 7
Upgrade shieldwall or shieldwall, deep with extra bow Any – +2
Dismounted cavalry Spearmen or spearmen, veteran, mounted infantry Special**** 7+/6+ 8/10
Bowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Toxotoi (archers)
Stratiotai (Isaurian, etc.)
Downgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 5
Militia or racing factions Mobs, deep, raw 0–2 9+ 4
Downgrade light infantry, javelin to light infantry,
Psiloi Any 8+ 3
javelin, raw

Downgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
Any 9+ 3
other, bow, raw
* Representing Count Belisarius between 527 and 562, and Maurice between 577 and 595. Great leaders are described in
the Even Stronger supplement.
** Before 560.
*** After 560.
**** Sometimes cavalry dismounted to stiffen the infantry. Cavalry lance dismount as spearmen; cavalry lance, veteran as
spearmen, veteran. These count against the number of cavalry units; each dismounted unit reducing the maxima of the
equivalent cavalry units. If bow armed, the infantry have extra bow.
Allies
Later Pre-Islamic Arab, Ostrogoth, Hun, Sasanians.
Notes
Upgrading kavallarioi represents either better quality troops or units with frontal horse armour.
During the period covered by this list, the Eastern Roman and Byzantine Empire fought many great battles against a
multitude of foreign foes. During the reign of Justinian, his brilliant generals Belisarius and Narses defeated the Persians at
Daras, conquered the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the brought the Moors under control. Under
Tiberius and Maurikios the main enemies were the Lombards in Italy and especially the Persians in the East. A series of
great battles ensued in the East, including the notable Byzantine victory at Solachaon in 586. Under Heraclius, the Byzantines
endured bitter defeats until winning final victory over the Sasanians at Nineveh in Mesopotamia in 627. Following the Arab
attacks beginning in 632, the Byzantines won the initial clash at Muta, but suffered disastrous defeats at Adjainan and the
Yarmuk, bringing the era to a close.

Army Notes
At the time of the final fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, the Eastern Roman Empire's army resembled that of
its Western equivalent but was somewhat more cavalry-oriented due to its principal Sasanian Persian foe. Cavalry increased
in importance as discipline in the infantry deteriorated. "On several occasions cavalry forces fought with minimal or no
infantry support, while infantry units sometimes acted merely as a reserve." Haldon, J., Byzantine Wars, 2008. During the
following centuries it altered its military structure in stages, evolving into the Byzantine system perfected under the Emperors
Maurikios and Heraclius in the late c. 6th and early c. 7th.
In the early c. 6th, the army consisted of native Roman and foreign (foederati) regiments. The foreign regiments, consisting
of mainly Goths, other Germanics and Huns were large and powerful, though not as important as their equivalents in the
Western Empire. The army included Guard Praesental regiments based around Constantinople and various provincial armies
such as the Army of Syria, Army of Armenia and so on. Units included light and heavy infantry (legionary and barbarian
foot some armed and equipped as Romans, others fighting in their native style) and light and heavy cavalry, again divided
into Roman and barbarian units. There was skirmish infantry, with javelins, bow and sling, close and loose order foot with
large shields, armour, and throwing weapons, heavy cavalry with charging barbarian and Roman heavies with spears, the new
cataphracts, armoured horse archers and light cavalry with throwing spears and bows.
During the c. 6th, the number of barbarian units reduced and bodyguard units of regular Bucellarii (“hard-tack eaters”) horse,
of native, Gothic or Hunnic origin, became important. These fought as armoured cavalry with bow and lance or javelin.
Infantry was no longer an attacking arm, now serving mainly as an anchor and pivot for the armoured cavalry. The heavy
foot fought with spears and was backed by skirmish troops. New regiments of barbarians, mainly cavalry, were levied from
the newly conquered kingdoms of the Goths, Vandals and Moors.
Following the reign of Justinian, the military emperors Tiberius and Maurikios expanded and reformed the Byzantine army.
Troops were still mostly native Romans supported by select units of barbarian mercenaries. The new army now contended
mostly with the Persians in Syria and Armenia, although they also served against the Lombards in Italy, Moors in North
Africa, Avars and Slavs in the Balkans and Visigoths in Spain. The cavalry, professional heavy horse armed with lance and
sometimes bow, was now the main striking force. The army was generally successful against its foes and, following peace
with Persia after Maurikios restored the Persian Shah Khosrow II to his throne, the Avars were defeated and driven north
of the Danube. Final victory for the Empire on all fronts seemed assured, but disaster struck. The army in the north mutinied
and, led by a centurion named Phocas, overthrew Maurikios. Khosrow invaded the Empire to avenge his benefactor and
the forces under Phocas collapsed. The situation was eventually redeemed by the new Emperor Heraclius who overthrow
the usurper and, in a series of epic battles and campaigns, defeated the Persians and restored the Empire.
All should again have been well, but within a few years the Muslim Arabs staged their assault on the exhausted Byzantine
and Persian Empires destroying Persian and driving the Byzantines back into Anatolia. The new Thematic period of
Byzantine history had begun.
Many thanks to Philip Garton for revising and extending this list and to Paul Georgian for adding the historical background. Thanks also to
Darrell Hindley for the stunning images of Aventine Miniatures he painted.

Central Asian City States
This list cover the Sogdian City States and the Kingdom of Khwarazm from their emergence after the fall of the Kushan
Empire ca. 500 BCE until their respective conquests by the Arab Caliphate in 712 and 710 CE. It also covers the cities of
the Tarim basin, such as Kucha and Khotan, until the fall of the latter to the Qarakhanids in 1006.

Heroes 3–5 – 1
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
5–10
Chakar cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran or
cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow Up to 1/2 6+ +2
veteran
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 0–2* 7+ 11
Sassanians exiled in Sogdia Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–1 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Nomad horse archers Light cavalry, bow 1–3 8+ 5
Spearmen Spearmen, raw 0–3, 1–4** 8+ 5
Bowmen, raw 5
Foot archers 1–4, 2–6** 9+
* Only Sogdia 650–730.
** Only the Kucha, Turfan (later Gaochang) or Khotan kingdoms of the Tarim Basin.
Allies
Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms, Umayyad Caliphate (in 704 CE, only, representing rebels).
During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, southern Central Asia was predominantly inhabited by Iranian language speakers.
The Sogdians and Khwarazmians were settled, whilst other Iranian peoples such as Scythians and, later, the Alans lived a
nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. During the period covered by this list, Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated
the Iranian-speaking locals, and the population of Central Asia became predominately East Asian.
Khwarazm
Khwarazm (also known as Chorasmia) was an ancient Iranian kingdom situated in a large oasis region on the Amu Darya
River Delta in western Central Asia, bordered to the north by the (former) Aral Sea, to the east by the Kyzylkum Desert, to
the south by the Karakum Desert, and to the west by the Ustyurt Plateau. Its territory corresponds to parts of modern
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Khwarazm was surrounded by steppe land and desert, rendering it geographically isolated
from other areas of civilization. Its leading centre was the city of Khwarazm, ruled by the Afrighids of Kath from 305–995
CE., a native Iranian Zoroastrian-worshipping Khwarazmian dynasty.
At times Khwarazm appears to have been under Sassanian suzerainty, at other times independent. In 712 CE the Arab
Caliphate intervened in a civil war between the Afrighid Shah and his brother and the kingdom fell loosely under Muslim
control, thereafter.
Sogdia
Sogdia or Sogdiana was another ancient Iranian civilization, situated to the east of Khwarazm, between the Amu Darya and
the Syr Darya, corresponding to parts of present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
The Sogdian city states were never united. The most important city, Samarkand, was amongst the largest cities in central
Asia. The Sogdians used their position on the Silk Road so effectively that that the Khotanese called all merchants suli
("Sogdian"), regardless of their actual culture or ethnicity.

The Tarim Basin
A third major grouping of cultures was in the Tarim Basin, to the east of Sogdia, that is now part of China's Xinjiang region.
Much of the basin is occupied by the Taklamakan Desert which is too dry for permanent habitation; the Silk Road divided
into two and passed to the north and south of it.
Kucha, the most populous oasis in the north of the basin, was the home of an ancient Buddhist kingdom, ruled by Indian
kings strongly influenced by Indian and Scythian thought. Other Tarim states included the Kingdom of Khotan, another
ancient Buddhist Saka kingdom located on the southern branch of the Silk Road to the south of the basin, and Turfan (later
Gaochang), a Chinese kingdom to the north-east of the basin.
In the mid c. 7th, the Tang Chinese expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia including the Tarim Basin,
directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals, until the Arabs defeated them at the battle of Talas in 751, marking the
end of their western expansion and influence. Thereafter the region changed hands between the Tang Empire and the rival
Tibetan Empire. The last surviving Tarim state, the Kingdom of Khotan, was overcome by the Qarakhanid Turkish Khanate
in 1006, which led to both the Turkification of the region and its conversion from Buddhism to Islam.
Army Notes
Sogdian chakars were the mounted retainers of the rulers and nobles, and were armed with a lance, bow, sword and round
shield and wore with lamellar armour over mail. According to the surviving images of the Sogdians, their horses were
unarmoured, and their main strength was their fierce mounted charge with the lance, but I have included an option for them
to additionally carry bows.
Following the fall of the Sassanian Empire, many nobles fled to Sogdia and formed a part of the Sogdian army for several
generations.
The cavalry of the Tarim basin were similarly equipped to the Sogdians, except that they did not carry shields. The sedentary
oasis-dwellers of the Tarim basin may have provided access to more infantry.
Sources
Warriors of Eurasia, from the VIII Century BC to the XVII Century AD. By Mikhail Gorelik, Montvert Publications.

Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms
This list covers Turkish and Turkomen tribes, kingdoms and other forces in Asia between 552 and 1501 CE from the early
Gokturks through to the Black and White Sheep Turkomen, excluding those tribes and kingdoms already covered in other
lists, such as the Seljuqs, Khazars and the Sultanate of Rûm.
Mounted, attached general 2–4 2+ 5
Heroes 1–3 – 1
Nobles Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–2 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Kurdish lancers Cavalry, lance 0–2** 7+ 9
Turks and Turkomans Up to 1/4 7+ 6
veteran
Upgrade light cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow Up to 1/4 8+ 9
Javelinmen or spearmen Javelinmen, raw 0–3* 8+ 5
Spearmen, raw 8+ 5
0–4
Bowmen 8+ 7
Bowmen Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5
Mount bowmen or light infantry other, bow on
0–2 – +1
horses/camels as mounted infantry
Wagon laager or fortifications Fortifications* 0–5 – 1
* Only after 840.
** Only after 1387.
Allies
None.
Notes
This is a composite list, and Turkish states also constitute other lists (e.g., Seljuks and the Sultanate of Rûm). Turkish and
Turkomen light cavalry are also present in many other lists. They will be encountered as allies to the following lists: Umayyad
Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Tibetan, Hsi–Hsia, Ghaznavid, Seljuk Turks, Jurchen, Khitan,
Mongol Conquest, Ilkhanid Mongol, Ottoman, Mamluk and Timurid. Turkic mercenaries or slave soldiers were ubiquitous
and will be found in many more lists.
The Turkomen tended to become invisible when a strong ruling tribe, such as the Mongols, was in power but to reappear
again once that strong ruling force declines, suggesting that the Turkik tribes never wholly lost their identity.
Although Turkic peoples had been present in Central Asia since at least 460, the first Turkish state was founded in 552 CE,
shortly before his death, by Bumin Qaghan of the Göktürks. This state, the Turkic Khaganate, expanded rapidly, eventually
ruling much of Central Asia from the Black Sea almost to Korea. In 563, it defeated the Hephthalites, ending Hunnic power
in the region.
A civil war from 581–584 saw the Khaganate divided into Eastern and Western states, both of which clashed repeatedly
with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. In 630 at the battle of Yinshan, the Tang defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.

Further west, the Khazars (650–969), Türgesh (699–796), Uyghurs (744–848), Oghuz (766–1055), Karakhanids (840–1212)
and Kipchaks (880–1200) all established Turkic states north and east of the Caspian Sea, whilst west of the Caspian were
Pecheneg (860–1091) and Khazar (630–969) states. Of these, the Uyghar Khaganate probably had the greatest extent,
covering much of north-eastern Asia south of Siberia and reaching the Pacific at what is now the Sea of Okhotsk. The
Karakhanids dominated Transoxiana, with the Oghuz further west between the Caspian and Aral seas, and the Kipchaks
forming probably the most northern Turkic state, north of the Oghuz and Karakhanids.
Islam started to be adopted from around 950 and beginning in 1037 the Turkic Seljuks (see separate lists) formed an empire
which came to dominate much of western Asia and the Middle East, although eastern parts of that empire were taken over
by the Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231) which also had Turkish rulers.
By 1220 the Mongols had overrun the Turkish heartlands, and, for a time, there were no formal Turkic states. Accordingly,
the Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep Turkomans) formed a new Turkic state in 1375 between the Black and Caspian Seas, clashing
with the Timurids. They were themselves taken over in the years before 1476 by the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans),
whose rule ended in 1501 after repeated clashes with the Safavids.
Army Notes
Throughout the very wide period covered by this list, Turkish armies were similar – a typical 'steppe' army of bow horsemen,
with some heavier cavalry with bows and lances and a few foot bowmen. Later, Turkic armies seem to have included some
spearmen or javelinmen. I have supposed that this change may have taken place around 840 CE, when the Turks first began
to occupy areas with more towns and so have access to more foot troops.
The Black and White Sheep Turkomen have access to Kurdish lancers as their heartland was in Anatolia rather than the far
side of the Caspian Sea.
Many thanks to Roger Calderbank for producing this interesting list. The Turks: who knew? :–)

Arab Conquest
This list covers the early battles of the Prophet and his immediate successors from 622 CE through the conquest of Persia,
Syria and Palestine in 638 and up to the foundation of the Umayyad Dynasty in 661.
Generals
0–1*** 3+ 10
leader representing Khalid Ibn Al–Walid
Heroes 1–3*, 3–5** – 1
Army banner 1VP standard 1 – 2
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
Tribal cavalry 0–1
Cavalry, lance, fanatic 8+ 9
Cavalry, lance 2–4** 7+ 9
Jund cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
0–2
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, fanatic 8+ 9
Persian Asawira cavalry Cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1** 7+ 11
Light cavalry or light camelry, javelin 0–2 7+ 5
Bedouin Upgrade light cavalry/camelry, javelin to light
Any 6+ 6
cavalry/camelry, javelin, veteran
Scouts Light camelry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Warriors, deep 5–10*, 3–6** 7+ 10
Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, fanatic, deep Up to 1/2 8+ 0
Tribal warriors
Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, veteran 0–1 6+ 13
Mount tribal warriors on camels as mounted infantry At least 1/2 – +1
Daylamites Javelinmen, mounted infantry, veteran 0–2** 6+ 10
Old men, women and youths Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Light infantry other, sling or bow 2–5 8+ 4
Mount skirmishers on camels Any – +1
Tethered camel defences Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only before or up to 638.
** Only after 638.
*** From 625–638, only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
None.
In 622 CE, religious persecution led to Muhammad fleeing Mecca, which led to conflict between heathen Mecca and Muslim
Medina. These early battles were small tribal and clan affairs mainly with swords. After defeat at Uhud, the Muslims resorted
to raiding and assassination to gain supremacy over Medina.
By 628, the Sasanian and Byzantine Empires were exhausted by twenty-six years of warfare. The assassination of the Sasanian
King Chosroes lead to anarchy in Persia, allowing the Arabs to simultaneously sweep into both weakened empires.

Muhammad died in 632 and Abu Bakr, his successor, quickly won over the whole of the Arabian Peninsula and suppressed
the apostates. The tribes were attracted to the new religion – loot or paradise if they fell in battle – and to the prospect of a
better life in more fertile areas. The ferocious skirmishing Bedouins, fighting in tribal groups, controlled the plains and desert
and swept north into Syria and Iraq but they were frustrated by enemies who held the mountains and passes. They were held
for several months by the Byzantines at the Yarmouk defile, north of Deraa in Syria. Khalid Ibn al Walid led his army on a
huge march past the Dead Sea via Beersheba to win the battle of Ajnandain (634), killing the emperor’s brother Theodore,
destabilising the Byzantines and winning most of Palestine.
The early Arabs had no knowledge of sieges and could only capture cities by attrition, treachery or negotiation – they offered
easy terms and even allowed Jews and Christians (and later Zoroastrians) to follow their own religion on payment of extra
taxes. When the Arabs fought in the open, though, they were usually victorious. When a largely mercenary Byzantine army
forced them to abandon their gains, another standoff at the Yarmouk occurred. This time, Khalid infiltrated tribesmen
behind enemy blocking a crossing of the river. Attacking under the cover of a sandstorm blowing from behind them, they
destroyed the Byzantine army, forcing them to abandon all of Palestine and Syria apart from Caesarea and Jerusalem.
Most early leaders chose to fight heroically in the front ranks, many dying in battle. Haritha ibn Muthanna killed a Sasanian
elephant in battle near Babylon and Abu Abaid (another leader) was trampled on trying to repeat this feat at the Battle of
the Bridge.
The Sasanian armies were led by veteran general named Rostam. When the fertile plains west of the Euphrates were captured
by the Arabs, the wily Rostam at first refused to cross the river and meet them the in the open. Eventually the boy-King
Yazdegerd III insisted that they cross the river and a bitter four-day battle ensued. Elephants caused the Arabs problems
but were eventually routed by groups of dismounted horsemen who blinded them with their lances. Finally, after a
spontaneous night attack, Rostam was killed and most of the Persian army destroyed. According to an Arab tradition, the
Sasanians’ Daylamite Guards defected to the Arabs. After a siege at Ctesiphon Iraq was won. At the battle of Nehawand in
643, the Persian Empire was finally overthrown, and Egypt fell to the Arabs by 644 – it helped that the Coptic Christians
preferred them to persecution by the orthodox Byzantines.
Local peasants were largely left to farm their existing lands and the Arabs were kept in military settlements (Kufa and Basra
in Iraq, Fustat in Egypt and Jabiya in Syria), thus the Jund cavalry, using captured arms and equipment and based in military
settlements, was born.
Muhammad left no clear succession, and the latter part of this period was marked by heresy and schism and the Sunni and
Shia branches were formed. This led to civil war until Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan gained control and the Umayyad caliphate
arose.
Sources
My main source was the very readable “The Great Arab Conquests” by John Bagot Glubb and, of course, Wikipedia.
Many thanks to Malcolm Dove for his assistance with this list and for writing the historical background.

Khazar
This list covers the Khazars from their emergence after 630 until the fall of their capital, Itil, around 968 CE. The small
Khazar successor states thereafter use the Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms list.
Tarkhans (generals) Upgrade to senior 0–1 – +1
Replace a senior, attached, mounted general with a
0–1* – 5
senior, attached, general on foot as the Qağan Bek
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Qağan Bek's command wagon 1VP standard 0–1* – 2
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 3–6, 2–4** 7+ 11
Khazar and subject nobles Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
1–3 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Arsiyah (Khwarazmians) Cavalry, bow, veteran 2–4** 7+ 11
Khazar and subject horse Light cavalry, bow 8+ 5
5–10, 3–8**
archers Cavalry, bow 8+ 7
Khazar guards Spearmen, veteran 0–1* 6+ 9
Slav subjects Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Khazar tribal or city militia Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Khazar or subject archers 0–2
Wagon laager or emplaced
Fortifications 0–5 – 1
stakes
* If the Qağan Bek is taken then the 1 VP standard and Khazar guards must also be taken; conversely, these may only be
taken if he is taken. The Qağan Bek and standard must be attached to the Khazar guards. The Qağan Bek may, optionally,
be upgraded to heroic. A wagon model should be included with the guards but is treated as a standard for all purposes.
Allies
Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms
The Khaganate of the Khazars emerged from the remains of the nomadic empire of the larger Göktürk Khaganate as it
fractured under pressure from the Tang dynasty Chinese armies, sometime between 630 and 650. For some three centuries
thereafter, the Khazars dominated the vast sea of grass that was the Volga-Don steppes, the eastern Crimea and the northern
Caucasus.
Culturally, the Khazars were a polyethnic semi-nomadic Turkic people. They worshipped many religions including paganism,
Tengrism, Judaism, Islam and Christianity. Their ruling elite converted to Rabbinic Judaism in the c. 8th, but it is unclear how
much of the Khazar population converted. In any case, they constituted the largest Jewish-ruled state in world history. A
theory that the Khazars were, at least in part, the ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern Europe is currently frowned
upon, because genetic studies show the latter to be genetically related to Israeli Jews. However, it seems to the author that
the Jewish Khazars would have shared the same genetic heritage if they were also primarily descended from the Jews of the
diaspora, which seems possible.

Khazaria was a major commercial empire. The Khazars were phenomenally successful middlemen between the economies
of China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'. Their control of the western approaches to the Silk Road, and the vast numbers
of Eurasian slaves they exported to the Arab countries to their south, generated the enormous wealth that enabled the
Khazars to maintain a standing army.
Militarily, Khazaria existed as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire to the south, the Sasanian Empire (and
subsequently the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates) to the southeast, and the nomads of the northern steppes and the Rus
to the north. Often allies of the Byzantine Empire, they blocked the advance of Islam at the Caucasus Mountains for several
hundred years. After 900, however, the Byzantines turned against the Khazars and encouraged the Alans, Pechenegs, Ghuzz
and Rus’ to attack them. The Khazar Empire fell around 968 CE, when their capital, Atil was sacked by Svyatoslav I of Kiev
in 968 or 969, although an impoverished rump Khazarian state existed until around 1030.
Army Notes
The Khazars developed a dual kingship governance structure, typical among Turkic nomads, consisting of a Qağan and his
deputy, the Qağan Bek (pronounced Kagan Bek). The former, greater king's role was primarily concerned with religious
leadership, whereas the latter managed and commanded the military, with the assistance of a second-in-command called the
Kende and subordinate officers known as tarkhans. The Qağan Bek would direct the battle from a command wagon, which
might be decorated with the heads of fallen enemy generals, and which presumably provided a useful vantage point on the
flat battlefields of the steppe.
The Khazar nobles fought as lancers, which practice they may have learned from the Byzantines. They rode armoured horses
and carried bows. From the early c. 8th, uniquely for nomads, the Khazars maintained a standing Royal army which consisted
of mercenaries who were paid, albeit poorly, but who also received a share of loot. The Royal army could be as large as 10-
15,000 strong. The most important element of this Royal army was the Arsiyah who were Muslim exiles of Khwarazmian or
Alanic origin. They principally fought as mounted archers, but some may also have been lance armed. The Khazars permitted
them to maintain their Islamic religion and they were not required to fight fellow Muslims. The Royal army could be
supplemented by Khazar nobles and their retainers.
The Khazars could also call upon a vast number of warriors from their two dozen or so tributary tribes, including Slavs,
Alans, Volga Bulgars, Rus and Burtas. The Khazars preferred to use their subjects to do the bulk of the fighting. When the
Qağan Bek sent forth a body of troops, they were not permitted to retreat under any circumstances. Should they be defeated,
any who returned would be killed, and their commanders hung or crucified.
It is recorded that the Qağan had a bodyguard of 4,000 infantry, who are likely to have been Jews, and who presumably
provided an escort for the command wagon. There are depictions of armoured Khazars on foot, so it is entirely possible
that these may have been armoured. The Khazars could draw upon numerous Slav subject infantry. They could also call out
the urban militias from Itil and other cities.
Sources
• The Khazars by Mikhail Zhirohov, David Nicolle – Osprey Publishing
• Armies of the Dark Ages 600-1066 by Ian Heath – WRG Publications
• http://www.khazaria.com/khazar-history.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars

Rshtuni Armenian
This list represents the Armenians from when Theodorus Rshtuni became marzban (“guardian of the border”, similar to a
Norman marcher lord) of Armenia in 638 until the country was taken under direct Muslim control in 705 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Holy standard or ikons 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Nacharark's and their azatk' Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 2–4 6+ 11
retainers Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran
At least 1/2 6+ +2
with extra bow
Less experienced cavalry Cavalry, lance, extra bow, raw 0–4 8+ 9
Skirmishing azatk’s Light cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Shieldwall, deep, extra bow 7+ 12
2–6*
Shieldwall, deep, extra bow, raw 8+ 9
Azatk's on foot
Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Light infantry other, bow or sling 0–3 8+ 4
* The minima applies only if any infantry, other than a single unit of light infantry, are taken.
Allies
Thematic Byzantine (in 652 and from 654-661) Arab Conquest (in 653 only), Umayyad (from 662-700).
The Kingdom of Rshtuni emerged in the aftermath of the Arab conquest of Armenia in the c. 7th. As Arab rule weakened
in the region, Armenian noble families like the Rshtunis seized the opportunity to assert their power and establish their own
kingdoms. Situated on the borders of the Byzantine and Abbasid Caliphate territories, the kingdom served as a buffer zone
between these two major powers. The Rshtuni rulers understood the importance of diplomatic relations and maintaining a
delicate balance between their powerful neighbours. The kingdom's economy benefited from its strategic location along the
Silk Road, a vital trade route connecting the East and West.
Theodoros Rshtuni was an Armenian nakharar who became famous for resisting the first Arab invasions of Armenia. After
the previous ishkhan (“prince”) was overthrown in 638 or 640, he became the leading prince of Byzantine Armenia. After
the destruction of the Sassanian Empire, the Arab Caliphate's expansionist ambitions turned to Armenia, which they raided
in 640, 642-643 and 650. In the face of the overwhelming strength of the Arab forces, the Rshtunis, assisted by the
Byzantines, displayed remarkable resilience in defending their territories, assisted by the rugged terrain of Eastern Armenia
and their well-fortified strongholds.
However, in 653, when the Byzantines tried to impose religious doctrines upon them, the offended Armenians changed
sides and helped the Muslims to drive them out of Armenia. Theodoros thereafter signed a treaty recognising Muslim
overlordship. The Caliph, however, no longer trusted Theodoros, who was exiled to Damascus in 655, where he died in the
following year.
During the second half of the c. 7th, Arab presence in Armenia was minimal. Armenia enjoyed de facto autonomy, paying
relatively low taxes and providing military support to the Arabs, who in return promised to come to their aid in the event of
Byzantine attack. However, from 700 onwards, the Arabs subdued the country in a series of campaigns and in 705 absorbed
it into a vast province called al-Arminiya.
Army Notes

The nakharar’s, or senior nobility, were supported by azatk’s who owed military service to them in return for their land.
The Rshtuni military’s principal strength lay in its skilled and disciplined cavalry units, renowned for their exceptional
horsemanship and proficiency in archery, and most likely organised like the contemporary Byzantines. Because of Armenia’s
wealth in iron, armoured horses are likely to have been relatively common. David Nicolle writes that horse archery was
employed by them although “not in the Central Asian dispersal or harassment manner”, which I take to mean as not,
generally, as skirmishers. Sometimes armies might be entirely mounted, and I have included an option to bulk out the better
cavalry with less experienced reserves.
Rshtuni infantry typically fought as spearmen, supported by archers.

Thematic Byzantine
This list covers the Byzantine armies from the beginning of the short reign of Constantine III (641 CE) and ends with
Romanos II (963) – a period of decline of the empire.
Upgrade to heroic 0-2 3+ –
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Holy standard or ikons 1VP standard 1 – 2
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran as
0–5 6+ 11
tagmata or better-quality thematic troops.
Kavallarioi (cavalry) Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw as
Any 8+ 7
poorer quality thematic troops.
Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, raw or cavalry,
Any – +2
lance, veteran with extra bow
Ethnikoi (foreign auxiliaries Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
including Franks, Georgians,
Khurrami Persians etc.) Light cavalry, javelin 0–2 7+ 5
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to veteran 0–1 6+ 6
Hyperkerastikoi (outflankers) Light cavalry, bow 0–2 8+ 5
Skithikoi (Bulgar or Eastern horse Light cavalry, bow 0–3 8+ 5
archers) Upgrade light cavalry, bow to veteran 0–1 7+ 6
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran 0–1 6+ 13
Upgrade shieldwall, deep or shieldwall, deep, veteran
Any – +2
with extra bow
Skoutatoi (spearmen)
Upgrade shieldwall, deep or shieldwall, deep, veteran
Any** – +1
with menavlatoi
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran to mounted infantry 0–1 – +1
Downgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, raw 0–1* 8+ 7
Shieldwall, deep 0–1** 7+ 10
Rhosi (Russians)
Upgrade to shieldwall, deep, extra 2HCCW Any – 11
Warriors, deep 0–2 7+ 10
Downgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, raw Any 8+ 7
Stratiotai (Slavs, Isaurians and
Armenians)
Upgrade light infantry, javelin to light infantry, javelin,
0–1 6+ 5
veteran
Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Toxotoi (archers) Downgrade bowmen to bowmen, raw Any 9+ 5

Downgrade to light infantry other, bow to light infantry
Any 9+ 3
other, bow, raw
Psiloi Downgrade light infantry, javelin to light infantry,
Any 8+ 3
javelin, raw
Katapeltai Artillery (carroballista) 0–1 7+ 7
* After 904. The menavlion was a stout, heavy spear deployed in front of the skoutatoi by specially trained troops when
charged by enemy cavalry. Units that are so equipped count as spearmen as well as shieldwall, gaining the +1 melee save
modifier that spearmen have when charged by enemy mounted.
** From 850.
Allies
Italian Marches, Later Lombard, Early Slavs, Moors, Khurrami Persians
Throughout the Thematic period, the fortunes of the Byzantine army rose and fell, depending largely on the emperor’s
abilities and the economic fortunes as well as the strength and ability of its enemies. Its main enemies during this period
were the Arab Muslims Empires in Anatolia, Armenia and Syria, the Bulgar Kingdom in the Balkans and the Lombards and
Arabs is Italy. From roughly 650 CE, constant Arab invasions led to two sieges off Constantinople. The Byzantines were
victorious and two great military Emperors, Leo III and his son Constantine V, restored Byzantine military prowess until
the Arab Omayyad dynasty was supplanted by the Abbasids in the late 700s. In the meanwhile, though, whilst the Empire
was involved with the Arab wars, the Bulgars conquered great swaths of the Balkans. Despite great victories over them by
Constantine V, the Bulgars remained a thorn in the Byzantine's side throughout this period.
A period of civil wars and weak rulership following the death of Constantine V contributed to a second period of military
weakness. This ended with a decisive victory over the Arabs at the Battle of Bishop's Meadow in 863, where an Arab army
under the Emir of Melitene was annihilated. Following this, the new Macedonian Dynasty under the Emperor Basil I began
a gradual assertion of Byzantine military superiority over the dissolving Arab Empire. This reached its fruition in the
transformation of the army during the period of the Grand Domestic Nikephoros Phokas in the 960s.
Army Notes
Following their defeats by the Arab Muslim invasions of the late 630s, the Byzantine Empire was forced to alter its military
structure dramatically. This restructure was accomplished in stages and eventually evolved into the famous Thematic system.
The bulk of troops for these armies was provided from military settlers organised in Themes (military districts). The frontline
Themes supplied the best supporting troops, including some decent cavalry and a higher proportion of the heavy infantry.
These two sources usually made up the bulk of any field army. The interior Themes had a higher proportion of light troops
due to their role in internal control.
The army’s cavalry consisted of Byzantine heavy and light cavalry, foreign mercenaries from western states such as the
Franks and Lombards, steppe nomads, Armenians and Georgians. A regiment of Khurrami Persian exiles from the Caliphate
was employed in the 830s. Infantry included Byzantine close order foot and skirmishers, and foreign mercenaries such as
Rus and Slavs.
Prior to the reign of Constantine V, the organisation of the elite guard regiments of the Empire was like that of the Praesental
units of the late Roman/Early Byzantine Empire. Constantine reorganized these into smaller Tagmatic (professional,
standing troops, based in and around the capital) formations and, over time, these elite formations began to play a key role
in the Byzantine warfare.
The army increased in strength and effectiveness through the c. 9th and c. 10th, eventually evolving into the Nikephorian
Byzantine army of the mid c. 10th to late c. 11th.
Many thanks to Philip Garton for writing this most useful list, and to Paul Georgian who wrote the army notes and historical background.

Umayyad Caliphate
This list covers the Umayyad Dynasty from its foundation in 662 CE through to the fall of Egypt and Damascus to the
Abbasids in 750. It includes the Umayyad invasion of Spain.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, lance 2–4*, 4–6*** 7+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran as
Jund cavalry 0–1 6+ 11
Fursan
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw ½ or more 8+ 7
Asawira Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 0–1 6+ 13
Ghazis Light cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1 6+ 6
Turks or Khurasanians Light cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Berbers Light cavalry, javelin 0–1, 3–6^ 7+ 5
Light cavalry, javelin 7+
Bedouin 0–1 5
Light camelry, bow 8+
Tribal warriors Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, veteran 6+ 13
0–2**
Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, fanatic 8+ 10
Spearmen 3–6*** 7+ 7
Jund infantry Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw ½ or more 8+ 5
Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, raw with extra bow Any – +2
Daylamites or hillmen
Berber subjects
Javelinmen, raw 4–8^^ 8+ 5
Mount skirmishers on camels Any – +1
Tethered camels Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only before 685.
** Warriors may be veteran or fanatic, but not both.
*** Only after 685.
^ Berbers cannot be taken with Asawira, Fursam, Daylamites, Turks or Khurasanians.
^^ Only in Spain and between 711 and 750.
Allies
Berber (from 705), Tibetan (from 715)
We have divided this into three sections, below.
Expansion

There were two main dynasties during this period. The first, the Sufyanids, expanded into North Africa and conquered vast
areas including Bukhara, Kabul, and Samarkand. Their successors, the Marwanids, expanded north from Samarkand into
Transoxania. Their forces were unsuccessful in the contest with the Tang Chinese for control of Ferghana, which is in
modern day Uzbekistan. Despite attempts to push into India and the Khazar territories, they could not expand their empire
any further.
Invasion of Iberia
This was undertaken by a Caliphate army with significant use of Berber auxiliaries who were promised rich rewards (despite
being treated as Mawali [clients] with respect to the Arabs). Tariq ibn Ziyad had just 8,000 men but he was pushing on an
open door – both Cordoba and Toledo were undefended! The Visigothic 'kingdom' was split between rival claimants.
Roderic (recognised as king by most of the nobility) was fighting against the Basques in the north when the Berber raid
arrived. His army may well have been weakened from its long march south, and he lost his first (and last) battle against the
Muslims. In the next year, Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr, the Umayyad Governor of Morocco (Tariq's superior) brought in an army of
18,000 to add to the Visigoths' problems. It was a Marwanid army that invaded the Iberian Peninsula and pushed into
southern France, being halted at the battle of Tours in 732.
Revolt
The Abbasid dynasty took control of Khurasan province in 747 and spread rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. At the
battle of Zab in 750, the Umayyads were defeated, and the remaining provinces fell, one by one, to the Abbasids. Only in
Iberia did an Umayyad leader refuse to accept Abbasid control. This leader became known as Abd al-Rahman I and his
armies are dealt with in the Andalusian list.
Army Notes
After 685 CE, the Umayyadd infantry was reorganised away from tribal lines and took on a secondary, defensive role, with
cavalry doing the bulk of the fighting.
With many thanks to Philip Garton who revised and extended this list!

Abbasid Caliphate
This list represents the Abbasid Caliphate during the period transition from the earlier tribal armies of the Umayyads to
government-paid forces between 750 and 950 CE.
Generals Upgrade to heroic Any 3+ –
Heroes 2–4 1
Al Khurasan
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–2* 6+ 11
Syrian or Kurdish ghulams
Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 0–1** 6+ 11
Cavalry, lance, extra bow 2–5 ** 7+ 11
Turkish mamluks Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–2** 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Bedouin Arabs Upgrade light cavalry, javelin, raw to light cavalry,
0–1** 7+ 5
javelin
Mawali (non–Arab converts to
Light cavalry, bow, raw 1–3 9+ 4
Islam)
Turkomans Light cavalry, bow, veteran 2–4** 7+ 6
Abna (heavy infantry) Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Spearmen, raw 4–8* 8+ 5
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, extra bow, raw Up to 1/2 7+ 7
Rijjala (Iraqi/Baghdadi
Spearmen, extra bow, raw 0–4** 8+ 7
infantry)
Upgrade spearmen, extra bow, raw to spearmen, extra
Up to 1/2 7+ 9
bow
Muttawia (volunteers) Mobs, deep 0–2* 8+ 7
Javelinmen 0–3 7
Kurdish or similar javelinmen 7+
Light infantry, javelin 1–3** 4
Tribal Arabs
Camp Camp 1–3 1
** Only from 850 to 950.
Allies
TBC.
During the first half of the period, large armies of infantry and Khurasanian cavalry grew the Caliphate's territory. Later, to
maintain control over its geographically vast area, smaller and more mobile field armies were needed and mercenary Turkish
ghulams rose to dominance. This army fought on all fronts, from Byzantine Asia Minor to the Yemen, and Libya to eastern
Iran.
Army Notes
Early Abbasid armies numbered in the tens of thousands, whereas most later armies were much smaller.

Neither the Abna nor the Khurasanian cavalry were noted for using bows. The emphasis was on the melee, where the
pressure of their numbers would overcome the opposition. The earlier Ghulams were mostly freemen who had sufficient
wealth to afford the equipment of the heavy cavalryman. Muttawia were commonly found in early armies but could be a
liability, due to their indiscipline.
The development of professional forces is reflected by the recruitment of large numbers of Turkish mamluks, who brought
their notable skill with the bow. These mamluks were recruited in increasing numbers, with some later forces being almost
exclusively bow-armed cavalry. They were essentially a contracted army and did not integrate well with the Arab population.
This was a major shift allowing different tactics to be used according to the situation.
This dependence on non-Arab mercenaries worsened the split between the Caliph and his Arab subjects. The Caliphate
fragmented into many city-based territories, and, within a century, the imperial city of Baghdad would be reduced to an
emirate of the Daylamite Buyid dynasty.
Many thanks to Philip Garton, who wrote this excellent list!

Pecheneg
This list covers the Pechenegs from the very approximate early date of their migration from Central Asia to the steppe
between the Urals and the Volga (850 CE), through to the last mention of them as a tribe in 1168.
Horsehair standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Heroes 1–3 – 1
Pecheneg nobles Upgrade cavalry lance, extra bow to cavalry lance,
0–1 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Pecheneg horse archers Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, javelin,
Up to 1/3 6+ 7
extra bow, veteran (as Kangars)
Pecheneg infantry Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Pecheneg archers 0–2
Pecheneg war wagons War wagons, bow, deep 0–3 7+ 13
Allies
None
The Pechenegs were a semi-nomadic people. Most experts agree than they were of Turkic origins, most likely descendants
of the Kangar people from the area now known as Tashkent in Uzbekistan. The Oghuz Turks were forced towards Pecheneg
lands and fought extensively until the Oghuz Turks allied with two other tribes to force the Pecheneg westwards, around
850 CE. They settled in lands between the Volga and Ural rivers. From there they again aided their neighbours. Eventually,
the Khazars formed an alliance with a tribe called the Ouzes and the Pecheneg found themselves attacked on two fronts.
Once again, the Pecheneg were pushed westwards, this time through the Khazarian Khaganate into the lands between the
Donet and Kuban rivers, forcing the settled Magyar, in turn, from these lands, sometime between 850–900.
In the c. 9th and c. 10th, the Pechenegs expanded to control most of the steppes of southeast Europe and the Crimean
Peninsula. They allied with the Byzantines against their old antagonists, the Magyar, and against a new foe, the Rus’. In the
c. 10th, the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I employed them to drive the Magyars from the Pontic Steppes and other disputed areas.
The Magyar feared the Pechenegs; when, on another occasion they were invited to attack them by the Byzantines, they
replied “'We are not putting ourselves on the track of the Pechenegs, for we cannot fight them, because their country is
great, and their people are numerous, and they are the devil's brats; and do not say this to us again; for we do not like it!'"
After this there was a period of uneasy alliance mixed with periods of outright war with the Rus in the c. 10 th and 11th.
Fighting also continued against the Byzantines, Bulgarians and others, stretching the Pecheneg further. However, it was not
until a combined Byzantine and Cuman army under Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos defeated the Pechenegs at the
Battle of Levounion in 1091, that the latter ceased to exist as an independent force, although they still served as mercenaries
in other armies well into the c. 12th.
Army Notes
Unlike many nomad races, the Pechenegs had a reputation for delivering fierce mounted charges. Pechenegs from the Kangar
tribes had a reputation for being “more valiant and noble than the rest.” They also made use of the feigned retreat. The
Pecheneg employed wagon laagers to a greater extent than other nomad tribes of the period. The wagons were high-sided
and pierced with slits for archery. Pecheneg infantry had a poor reputation and benefitted from the protection of a laager.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who added the historical background to this list.

Tulunid and Iqshidid
This list covers two different quasi-independent Abbasid Egyptian regimes (865–905 and 935–969) with a 30-year Abbasid
loyalist regime sitting in between them.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Standard for the senior general 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
Turkish, Rhum or other
ghilman Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–2 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran (as Turkish ghilman)
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin, raw to light cavalry,
Berber (or Bedouin) light 0–1 7+ 5
javelin
horse
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
0–1* 6+ 6
veteran (as Tulunid guard)
Spearmen 2–6 7+ 7
Sudanese 'abid Upgrade spearmen to auxilia (as guard) 0–1* 6+ 8
Daylamites Shieldwall, single extra javelin, veteran 0–2*, 0–1** 7+ 10
Bedouin, Berber or Africans Light infantry other, sling or bow, raw 0–2 9+ 3
Berber (or Bedouin)
Light infantry javelin, raw 0–2 8+ 3
skirmishers
Camp Camp 1–3
* Tulunid only
** Iqshidid Only
Allies
None
The Tulunid regime began in 868 CE when the Abbasid Caliph appointed Ahmad ibn Tulud as his representative in Egypt
although, since he was not a Governor, without control of the area’s finances. This he was able to gain after the revolt of
the Governor of Damascus, which the Caliph asked him to help quell (though he did not actually have to campaign
personally, as this was done by another commander). He was able to raise a large army and occupy Syria as far as the
Byzantine border, capitalising on the weakness of the Abbasids whilst paying them lip service. He was a competent general.
His succeeding son was a little less so, and the following generation was unable to resist an Abbasid reconquest in 905 CE.
The Iqshidids came to power in 935 CE when Muhammad Ibn Tughj was appointed Governor with a remit to resist the
Fatimid invasions. His regime managed to do for a while, inflicting several defeats upon them and becoming effectively
independent. They, too, moved into Syria, but after an unsuccessful conflict with the Hamdanids were forced to concede
Northern Syria. Eventually, Iqshidid rule was ended by the success of the Fatimids.
Army Notes
Both the Tulunids and Iqshidids built their armies around a core of Turkish style ghilman cavalry (even though access to true
Turks was limited at times, especially for the Iqshidids due to rivalry with their eastern Abbasid equivalents) and African
infantry supplemented by Berber and sometimes Bedouin auxiliaries. The Tulunids, at least, had in addition a force of
Daylamite infantry which the Iqshidids may have lacked for the same reason as they lacked true Turks.
With thanks to Neil Grant who wrote both this list and the background material.

Zanj Revolt
This list covers the Zanj revolt from its beginnings in 869 CE, until the last rebel groups were defeated by the Abbasids in
883.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Banner inscribed with Kharijite
1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
slogans
Bedouin cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 1–2 7+ 5
Warriors, deep, raw 3–6 8+ 7
Better equipped Zanj rebels Replace warriors, deep, raw with warriors, deep, raw
0–3* 9+ 7
fanatics
Upgrade warriors, deep, raw to warriors, deep 0–3** 7+ 10
Ill armed but vicious Zanj
Mobs, deep 3–8 8+ 7
rebels
Screaming Zanj women Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Zanj bowmen
Zanj armed only with stones Light infantry other, javelin, raw 2–4 9+ 3
* Only 869–871 CE.
** Only 872 CE onwards.
Allies
None.
Notes
The better-armed rebels can either be fanatics, in the earlier part of the revolt, or better equipped and experienced, later.
The Zanj Rebellion was probably the most damaging rebellion experienced by the Abbasid Caliphate. The instigator was an
Islamic Scholar, Ali ibn Mohammed. Although his background has not been confirmed he made claims to be descended
from Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the son-in-law of the Islamic Prophet, Mohammed and fourth caliph of the Rashidun
Caliphate. Islamic historians generally reject this claim.
The core of the Zanj were African slaves used for agricultural labour in the marshlands of Southern Iran. Their working and
living conditions were extremely poor, and even after two earlier unsuccessful revolts slaveholders had made no attempt to
improve the lot of their slaves. The rebellion also attracted other people of different social groups including non-African
slaves, craftsmen, peasants and Bedouin.
It is known that Ali ibn Mohammed spent some time in Samarra, where he mixed with influential ‘court’ slaves. Moving on
to Bahrain he started to build a rebellion against the Caliphate but failed. In Basra he again failed and had to hide in the
marshlands where he likely became aware of the African slaves’ plight. But when other political scuffles erupted in Basra,
Ali returned. He then liberated and recruited many slaves and other discontented groups, including Bedouin tribesmen. The
revolt was based on the egalitarian doctrine of the Islamic Kharijite sect, who preached that “the most qualified man should
reign, even if he was an Abyssinian slave."
The rebellion quickly grew, and several towns were occupied. The rebels soon controlled large area of the marshlands
adjoining Basra and Wasit, and along the Blind Tigris River. Basra itself fell in September 871 CE and the sack was particularly
vicious, with many of its inhabitants massacred. After mid-870s the leader of the rebellion, Ali ibn Muhammad no longer

personally lead the Zanj armies into battle; instead ruling from his newly built city, al-Mukhtara. Thereafter the Zanj armies
were led by his two principal lieutenants, 'Ali ibn Aban al-Muhallabi and Yahya ibn Muhammad al-Azraq.
By 879 the rebellion was at its height and had spread to within fifty miles of Baghdad. As the rebellion grew in strength, the
Zanj constructed fortresses, built a riverine navy, collected taxes and even minted their own coins.
Up to this point, the Abbasid military had suffered a string of defeats and seemed unable to quell the rebellion, probably
because they were under external pressure from the Saffarid Persians and Byzantines. The Abbasids, though, managed to
regain the initiative in late 879, when the Caliphal Regent al-Muwaffaq sent his son Abu al-'Abbas with a major force against
the rebels. Al-Muwaffaq himself joined the offensive in the following year, and the government forces succeeded in driving
the rebels back toward their "capital", al-Mukhtarah, which was to the south of Basra. In 883 this final rebel stronghold fell,
Ali ibn Mohammed was killed, and the rebellion was at an end.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the first draft of this list.

Bagratid Armenian
This list represents the Armenians from the recognition of Ashot I as King of Armenia by the Abbasids in 885 CE, until
the kingdom was annexed by the Byzantines in 1045 CE.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Holy standard or ikons 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Nacharark's and their mounted Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran 3–4 6+ 11
azatk' retainers Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran
Up to 1/2 6+ +2
with extra bow
Skirmishing azatk’s Light cavalry, bow 0–1 8+ 5
Shieldwall, deep, extra bow 2–4 7+ 12
Azatk's on foot Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Upgrade bowmen to bowmen, veteran Any 7+ 9
Serfs Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Skirmishers
Allies
Georgian, Thematic Byzantine (until 963), Nikephorian Byzantine (from 963).
Bagratid Armenia was an independent Armenian state established by Ashot I (“Ashot the Great”) Bagratuni of the Bagratuni
dynasty in the early 880’s following nearly two centuries of Arab Umayyad and Abbasid domination of Greater Armenia.
The destruction of several of the competing Armenian nacharark noble families enabled Ashot to assert himself as the leading
figure of a movement to dislodge the Arabs from Armenia. He was able to establish a domain, with his capital in the city of
Ani, from which he gradually expanded its influence over the Armenian territories.
The two contemporary powers in the region, the Abbasid Caliphate and Byzantines, were too preoccupied to concentrate
their forces upon subjugating the region. As Ashot's prestige rose, both the Arab and Byzantine leaders courted him, eager
to maintain a buffer state near their frontiers. The Abbasids recognized Ashot as "prince of princes" in 862 and as king in
885, as did Basil I of Byzantium in the following year.
Under Ashot I's successors, particularly Smbat I and Ashot II, the Bagratid state continued to grow in both territorial reach
and political significance. The Bagratid rulers skilfully navigated the complex geopolitical landscape, often balancing between
the Byzantine Empire to the west and the Abbasid Caliphate to the east. This delicate diplomatic dance enabled them to
maintain a level of autonomy while also ensuring their survival amidst the turbulent regional power struggles.
The establishment of the Bagratuni kingdom began a period of relative stability for the Armenian people, with the Bagratid
rulers having a lasting impact on the development of the Armenian nation. The Bagratid rulers fostered a climate of
intellectual and artistic flourishing, attracting scholars, theologians, and artists to their court in Ani, beginning a renaissance
of Armenian literature, architecture, and religious thought.
Although the Bagratid state faced intermittent threats from neighbouring powers, it reached the pinnacle of its power and
territorial extent under King Ashot III (952/53–77).and his son Smbat II. The Bagratid realm expanded to include territories
in present-day Armenia, Georgia, and eastern Anatolia, effectively establishing itself as a regional power in the Caucasus.
Several regions, including Vaspurakan, Vanand and Syunik, later seceded from Bagratid Armenia, becoming independent
Armenian principalities.

This era of prosperity and expansion, however, would prove to be short-lived. In the early c. 11th, the Bagratid state faced a
series of internal conflicts and external invasions that gradually weakened its hold on power. The Byzantine Empire, the
Seljuk Turks, and other regional powers coveted the Bagratid territories, leading to a protracted period of instability and
fragmentation. The Byzantine emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) won a string of victories and annexed parts of southwestern
Armenia; King Hovhannes-Smbat III felt forced to cede his lands and in 1022 pledged that his kingdom would pass to the
Byzantines upon his death. However, in 1041 his successor, Gagik II, refused to hand over Ani and continued resistance
until 1045, when his kingdom, plagued by both internal and external threats, was annexed by the Byzantines.
Army Notes
The Armenian nobles known as nacharark’s fought as heavily armoured lancer cavalry, with large shields and often riding
armoured horses (Armenia being rich in iron). They were supported by their azatk’ retainers who might be armed with bows
or javelins. Armenian cavalry had a reputation for delivering powerful, if impetuous, charges.
Azatk’ infantry formed in dense masses, supported by their archers, who had an excellent reputation, becoming sought-after
mercenaries in the Fatimid Egyptian army. In extremis, serfs might be used to bolster the size of the army.
Further Reading
“Arms & Armour of the Crusading Era 1050–1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia” David Nicole, Greenhill Books
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Armenia#Armenian_cavalry
“Armies of the Dark Ages” Ian Heath, a WRG Publication

Daylamite Dynasties
This list represents the Daylamite people in their Daylam home region or in the states they set up, from beginning of the c.
10th CE until the last Daylamite kingdoms by the Caspian Sea fell in 1090 CE.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Army banner 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Cavalry, bow, veteran 7+ 11
Turkish ghulams 0–4**
Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 6+ 13
Daylamite cavalry Cavalry, javelin 0–1^ 7+ 9
Kurdish cavalry Cavalry, lance 0–2**** 7+ 9
Bedouin Light cavalry, lance 0–1 7+ 5
Shieldwall, single extra javelin 7–14 7+ 8
Upgrade shieldwall, single extra javelin to shieldwall,
Daylamite (or Gilite) infantry 1–4 6+ 10
single extra javelin, veteran
Downgrade shieldwall, single extra javelin to
1–4* 7+ 7
javelinmen
Daylamite (or Gilite)
Light infantry, javelin 1–2* 7+ 4
skirmishers
Daylamite archers Light infantry other, bow 1–3 8+ 4
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary 0–1 8+ 4
Mount foot on horses or
Mounted infantry Any – +1
camels
Buyid elephants Indian elephant, deep 0–1*** 6+ 8
* Only Justanid or Ziyarid
** Only Buwayhid.
*** Only Buwayhid from 669 CE.
**** Only after 950 CE.
^ After 1000 CE.
Allies
Mosul Hamdanids (Bedouin Dynasties list, not yet written) – only the Buyids from 934–1002 CE, Saffarids (not yet written)
– only from 900–1003 CE, Bagratid Armenians (not yet written) – until 1045 CE.
Notes
A Daylamite Dynasty army may be either:
• Justanid (791–1090)
• Ziyarid (928–1090)
• Buwayhid (934–1055)
• Musafirid (941–984)
In the late c. 9th became a refuge for some of the descendants of ‘Ali (the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad) who sought refuge from Sunni ‘Abbasid persecution in its impregnable mountain fastnesses. These ‘Alids

(proto-Shias) gradually achieved what the ‘Abbasid armies had been unable to achieve – the conversion of the majority of
Daylamites to Islam.
The Justanid (or Jostanid) Daylamite dynasty ruled the mountainous district of Gilan in the Daylamite homeland. They
converted to Islam in 805 and became connected to the Zaydi Alids of the Daylam region in the c.10th. Their kingdom was
centred around the supposedly impregnable Alamut fortress which was taken in 1090 CE by the Ismailis (more famously
known as the Assassins).
A series of generals, seasoned in the service of the ’Alids, began to commence the conquest of western and southern Persia.
One of these was Mardavij Ibn Ziyar, who founded the Ziyarid Dynasty, the first important Daylamite (or rather Daylamite-
related, since they hailed from nearby Gilan) dynasty, taking power in Isfahan in 931 CE and Ray in 935, but losing both by
943, although they retained control of Tabaristan until 1090.
Mardavij Ibn Ziyar employed three brothers with the surname Buya as captains. 'Ali ibn Buya, the eldest of the three Buya
brothers, discovered that Mardavij was jealous of his competence and planned to have him killed. Consequently the Buya
brothers revolted and, luckily for them, Mardavij was assassinated in 935 before he could crush them. The Buyas were able
to exploit the subsequent chaos in the Ziyarid realms, establishing the Buwayhid (or Buyid) Dynasty. Ali and Ahmad
conquered Khuzistan, while Hasan captured the Ziyarid capital of Isfahan, and, in 943, captured Rey, which became his
capital. In 945, Ahmad entered Iraq and made the ‘Abbasid Caliph his vassal. The Buwayhids became the most successful
Daylamite dynasty, ruling as a family federation over a Shi'a dynastic confederation of Persia until crushed by the Seljuq
Turks in 1055.
Finally, a fourth Daylamite Dynasty, the Musafirids (or Sallarids), ruled Azerbaijan from 941–984.
Army Notes
During the wars in which they supported the ‘Alid dynasties that emerged in Daylam, Tabaristan, and Gilan during the 9 th
and 10th centuries, the Daylamites gained experience in large scale warfare, fighting pitched battles and operating in larger
numbers and formations. Other Daylamites gained experience serving as mercenaries in foreign armies, fighting on terrain
quite different from that of their mountainous homeland. The advent of the fast-shooting ghulam horse archers must have
increased the need for protection.
David Nicolle writes in his “Arms & Armour of the Crusading Era 1050–1350” that “The most typical Daylami weapons,
ar least during the early period, were a set of javelins or short spears called zupins, which are said to have been double-ended,
as well as a large, highly-decorated shield. Swords, battle-axes and bows – the last possibly using the nawak or majra arrow-
guid to shoot short arrows – were also in their arsenal. Shields seem to have been carried into battle by younger men or
youths acting as shield-bearers. Some warriors wore heavy armour, though it seems that Daylami protection was not as
effective as that of the Turkish ghulams, at least not against arrows, and probably consisted largely of mail. Daylami, or more
accurately Buwayhid, tactics relied upon their infantry maintaining a solid front even when advancing.” Moreover, a poem
written in 1048 describes the Daylamite shields as being "similar to a wall and painted in 100 colours."
We therefore feel that the majority of Daylamites, in this period, are best represented as shieldwall, supported with extra
bows or javelins. It does however seem plausible that some warriors within mountainous Daylam itself, and neighbouring
Gilam, might retain their original javelinmen classification.
Buyid armies consisted of Daylamite infantry supported by the same Turkish ghulam cavalry that had previously played a
prominent role in the 'Abbassid military. Nicole writes that the Daylamites seem to have been at their most effective when
operating with the support of close-combat cavalry such as the Turkish ghulams. That said, the Daylamites and Turks often
quarrelled with each other over who should be the dominant force within the army.
Nicolle writes that by the c. 11th some Daylamite warriors fought as “genuine cavalry, fighting with the tabarzin (literally
“saddle-axe”), which was a light axe designed for use on horseback. This also seems to have applied to Daylamis serving
elsewhere, such as in Fatimid Egypt.”
Further Reading
David Nicole “Arms & Armour of the Crusading Era 1050–1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia”
The Daylamis: Elite Infantrymen in the Age of Mounted Warfare by Adam Ail- the Medievalist site has several interesting
pieces on the Daylamites.
V Minorsky, "La Domination des Daylamites", a paper given in 1931).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280003925_Translation_of_La_Domination_des_Dailamites_by_Vladimir_Mi
norsky_1931/link/55a2fccf08ae1c0e046531cd/download
Particular thanks to Ian Notter for the interesting sources that he provided for this list.

Ghaznavid
This list covers the armies of the Ghaznavid dynasty from their initial revolt against the Samanids in 962 CE to their final
defeat by Mohammed of Ghur in 1186.
Generals
0–1** – 10
leader as Mahmud of Ghazni
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Palace ghulams (slave soldiers) Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 2–3 6+ 13
Upgrade cavalry, bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow 1 to 1/2 7+ 11
Other ghulams
0–1 6+ 11
extra bow, veteran
Arab or Kurdish auxiliaries Cavalry, lance, raw 0–1 8+ 7
Arab or Kurdish ghazis (raiders) Light cavalry, javelin 1–2 7+ 5
Turkish or similar nomadic
riders Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 6+ 6
veteran
Armoured infantry Spearmen, extra bow 0–3 6+ 9
Shieldwall, single extra javelin 0–2 7+ 8
Daylamites Upgrade shieldwall, single extra javelin to shieldwall,

0–1 6+ 10
single extra javelin, veteran
Ghazis on foot Warriors, deep 0–1 7+ 10
Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
Afghans
Bowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Hindu archers Bowmen, raw 0–2* 9+ 5
Armoured elephants Elephant Indian, deep, veteran 0–2 5+ 11
Daylamite archers Light infantry other, bow 0–1 8+ 4
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary terror weapons 0–1 8+ 3
Stone thrower Artillery (catapult) 0–1 8+ 7
Ditch and rampart Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only after 1000.
Allies
Hindu Indian– only after 1050.
The Ghaznavid dynasty was a dynasty of Turkic origin that ruled in Khurasan, a vast territory that stretched across north-
eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and as far as northern India. Its founder was Sebüktigin (ruled 977–997 CE), a Turkic Mamluk
who was acknowledged by the Samanid Dynasty as the governor of Ghazna (now part of Afghanistan). The Samanid
dynasty was in decline, and Sabuktik took full advantage of that. He consolidated his position and then undertook a campaign
of expansion, expanding his control as far as the Indian border.

After the death of Sebüktigin, his governorship was split between his sons. However, although his eldest son Mahmud was
given command of the army, he was not awarded any provinces. In 998, Mahmud took his army to Ghazna and was
victorious against his brother, Ismail, at the battle of Ghazni. Mahmud then continued to expand in the name of Sunni
Islam, extensively campaigning in Ismaili and Shi'ite territories. Following on from these successes, he conducted seventeen
expeditions into Northern India between 1004 and 1009, setting up areas of authority, from where he was able to further
raid and loot. In 1018 he destroyed the city of Mathura, which was rumoured to be the richest city in India at the time. This
was followed by the destruction of the city of Kannauj, and a raid on the Hindu Somnath temple, from which he reputedly
took twenty million dinars-worth of treasure back to Ghazni. Mahmud created an empire that stretched from the Oxus
River to the Indian Ocean.
Mahmud died in 1030 and left the empire to his mild-mannered son Mohammed. However, Mohammed fought with his
brother, Mas’ud, after the latter refused Mohammed’s claim on three provinces. Mohammed was blinded and imprisoned.
Unfortunately, Mas’ud struggled to keep the empire intact, losing provinces in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks.
Eventually his army turned on him and reinstated the blind Mohammed, imprisoning Mas’ud in his place. In 1040, the sons
of Mas’ud and Mohammed fought for control of the dwindling dynasty and in the next nine years four more kings claimed
the throne.
In 1058 Mas’ud’s son Ibrahim re-established a much smaller Ghaznavid empire. Ibrahim was a man of knowledge and a
great calligrapher. He made peace treaties with the Seljuks, but frequently had to raid into India for financial reasons.
Unfortunately, Indian rulers had learned from past mistakes and were now better organised in defence than previously.
Two sons of Mas’ud III later fought for the throne, weakening the dynasty further and in 1148 Ghazi fell to the Ghurids.
Although the city was recovered, it fell again in 1151, and for a final time in 1163. The Ghaznavids then re-established
themselves at Lahore, which had previously been the Ghaznavid regional capital, but the Ghurids then took Lahore in 1186.
The last Sultan, Khusrau Malik and his son were both executed in 1191.
Army Notes
The Ghaznavid army was built around a core of Turkish, Indian and Khurasanian ghulam slave soldiers, typically armed with
lance and bow, although some were armed with maces. The Palace ghulams formed up in the centre of the line, supported by
the other ghulams and by nomad auxiliary cavalry. Arab and Kurdish cavalry were also employed.
Armoured infantrymen were recruited from the Ghaznavid heartlands. Other infantry could include the Daylamites who
were some of the finest warriors of their day, ferocious yet extremely well organised, and armed with their characteristic
zupin two-ended javelins/short spears or bows. Indian archers were also employed.
The Ghaznavids were the first Muslim army to use elephants in battle, which were protected by iron plates and carried a
crew of four warriors. Elephants were not deployed in a line but were, instead, used in a concentrated ‘pack’ to break through
the enemy line.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote this list and the historical background.

Nikephorian Byzantine
This list covers the Byzantines from the accession of Nikephoros II Phocas as Emperor in 963 CE through to the terrible
defeat at Manzikert in 1071. It includes the armies of Nikephoros, John I Tzimisces and Basil II as well as the Strategos
George Maniakes.
Upgrade a detached, senior, mounted general to
0–1^ – 11
brilliant as Nikephoros II Phokas
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Kataphraktoi Cataphracts, lance, veteran 0–2***** 5+ 13
Cavalry, lance 5–12***** 7+ 9
Tagmatic or first grade
Thematic Kavallarioi Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw as
Up to 1/3** 8+ 7
second–grade Thematic Kavallarioi
Upgrade cavalry, lance with extra bow Any – +2
Hyperkerastai (outflankers) or
trapezitai (scouts) 1–2
Prokoursatores (advance guard) Light cavalry, lance, extra bow 7+ 6
Arab symmachoi (auxiliaries) Downgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry,
Any 8+ 4
javelin, raw
Phragkoi (Franks) or other Cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 9
Western mercenaries Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Any 6+ 11
Nomad symmachoi Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Any 7+ 6
veteran
Shieldwall, deep 0–2*** 7+ 10
Varangoi (Varangians) Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran,
0–1 6+ 14
extra 2HCCW
Shieldwall, deep 0–4**** 7+ 10
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran,
Tagma ton Varangon (Varangian At least 1/2 6+ 14
extra 2HCCW
Guard)
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran, extra 2HCCW to
Any 6+ 15
mounted infantry
Shieldwall, extra bow 0–6****** 7+ 9
Upgrade shieldwall, extra bow to shieldwall, deep,
All or none 7+ 12
Skoutatoi extra bow
Upgrade shieldwall, extra bow to shieldwall, extra
Up to 1/2 6+ +2
bow, veteran

Upgrade shieldwall, deep, extra bow to shieldwall,
Up to 1/2 6+ +3
deep, extra bow, veteran
Upgrade with menavlatoi Any* – +1
Armenian or similar stratiotai
Downgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 7
Psiloi (skirmishers) Light infantry, javelin 1–4 7+ 4
Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Toxotoi (archers)
* The menavlion was a stout, heavy spear deployed in front of the skoutatoi by specially trained troops when charged by
enemy cavalry. Units that are so equipped count as spearmen as well as shieldwall, gaining the +1 melee save modifier
that spearmen have when charged by enemy mounted.
** After 1042.
*** Only before 988.
***** From 1060 onwards, reduce the maxima/minima to 0–1 kataphraktoi and 6–9 tagmatic/thematic kavallarioi.
Moreover, only up to half of the kavallarioi may be upgraded to veteran, and at least one third must be downgraded to
raw.
****** From 1060 onwards, reduce maximas to four skoutatoi; moreover, only a single skoutatoi may be upgraded to
veteran.
^ Before 969.
Allies
Arabs, Bagratid Armenian (before 1045), Huns, Ostrogoths, Lombards
Notes
Upgrading kavallarioi can represent either better quality units or average units with partial metal or full fabric horse armour.
The upgrade to Varangians of the City represents Basil II's 6,000 elite Varangians.
Between the mid-ninth through the mid-tenth centuries, the Byzantine Empire had steadily been increasing the size and
effectiveness of its army, over matching that of its enemies in both the east and the west. The Empire remained at this peak
of power for at least a century from roughly the late 950’s CE under first the Domestic of the Schools and later Emperor
Nikephoros II Phokas, and his successors John I Tzimiskes, Basil II ("The Bulgar Slayer") and the great strategos George
Maniakes. The army defeated Arabs, Rus, Bulgars and Lombards, and re-established the Byzantines as the strongest power
in the Mediterranean world.
In a series of devastating campaigns, under Nikephoros and John, Crete, Syria and Cyprus were restored to the Empire. In
a merciless war of conquest under Basil II, the Bulgarian state was defeated and annexed. The Fatimids were defeated, and
control of southern Italy was solidified. George Maniakes led an invasion of Sicily, regaining temporary control of much of
that island.
From 1059, following the reign of Isaac Komnenos, the military power of the Empire declined under a series had unmilitary
emperors. Economies in military spending reduced the size and quality of the regular portions of the army. Recent
scholarship has shown that this decline was not so drastic as previously thought, affecting mainly the eastern thematic forces
and Italian provincial units. However, the weakened military eventually caused the loss of southern Italy to the Normans.
Finally, the Seljuk Turks and Byzantine treachery defeated the Imperial army under the soldier-Emperor Romanos IV
Diogenes at the Battle of Manzikert in Asia Minor in 1071. This defeat and the ensuing Byzantine civil war led to the loss of
most of the recruiting and economic Anatolian heartland of the empire to the Seljuks and brought the Nikephorian army.
Army Notes
The "new model" Byzantine army was composed of heavily armoured native cavalry and kataphraktoi as its hammer, and
steady Byzantine and Armenian infantry squares as its anvil. The army also included many mercenaries, notably the famed
Varangian Guard of Scandinavian, Rus and later Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, Frankish and Norman knights, Slavic tribesmen

and nomad light horsemen. The army was composed of elite tagmatic regiments and provincial thematic cavalry and infantry
units. In this period the better-quality thematic regiments were nearly as effective as the tagmatic units.
In 1045, the fall of Bagratid Armenia and the subsequent dispersion of Armenians throughout Eastern Anatolia filled the
ranks of the Byzantine army with former Armenian military units or tagmata Armeniôn. In particular, the three "themes" of
Antioch, Chaldia and Mesopotamia became known as armenika themata.
Many thanks to Paul Georgian for researching and writing this most interesting list!

Seljuq Turk
This list covers the Seljuqs from their revolt against their Ghaznavid overlords in 1037 CE, though a period of dramatic
expansion under Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. In 1092, Malik died, and the kingdom split into several rival Sultanates.
Upgrade a senior, mounted, attached general to great
0–1 – 10
leader* as Sultan Tughril between 1037 and 1063 CE.
Heroes 1–3 – 1
Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to cavalry, lance,
1 6+ 13
Seljuq cavalry extra bow, veteran as Seljuq nobles
Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to cavalry, lance,
Any 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran as ghilman
Turkomen Up to 1/4 7+ 6
veteran
Bedouin Light cavalry, lance, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Shieldwall, single extra javelin, mounted infantry,
Daylamite guardsmen 0–1 6+ 11
veteran
Javelinmen 7
Foot with javelins 0–3 7+
Foot with bows 0–2 8+
Bowmen 7
* Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
TBC
The Seljuqs were a Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the c.
11th to the c. 14th. The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning
of Turkic power in the Middle East. In the c. 11th, the Seljuqs migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia,
in the province of Khurasan, where they encountered the Ghaznavid Empire. Led by Tughluq Bey the Seljuqs, at the battle
of Dandanaqan in 1040, defeated a Ghaznavid army and seized control of Khorasan (the present-day territories of north-
eastern Iran, parts of Afghanistan and much of Central Asia). Later, following a successful siege of Isfahan in central Persia
in 1050/51 they took control of central Persia and, after defeating the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071, most of the Eastern
Roman Empire.
At its height the Great Seljuk Empire stretched from Anatolia in the west through Persia and as far as Kyrgyzstan in the
east. The Seljuqs adopted the Persian culture and are regarded as the cultural ancestors of today’s western Turks.
The Suleyman bin Kutalmish split from the Seljuq Empire in 1077 and founded the Sultanate of Rûm (covered in a separate
list, below). From the 1140s, the Seljuk Empire declined, and was eventually replaced by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1194.

Fierce Turkomen, from the collection of James Roach.

Cuman (or Kipchak)
This list covers the Cumans from their first appearance in Russia in 1055 CE through to the 1241 destruction of their
kingdom by the Mongols.
Horsehair or fabric standard 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cuman nobles Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
0–3 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
9–18
Light cavalry, javelin, extra bow 7+ 6
Other Cumans Upgrade light cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow 8+ 9
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin, extra bow to cavalry, Up to 1/3**
7+ 11
javelin, extra bow
Cuman infantry Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Javelinmen 7+ 7
Vlach allies Light infantry, javelin 0–2* 7+ 4
Stone or bolt throwers Artillery (catapult) 0–1** 7+ 7
* From 1129 to 1269, only.
** After 1180, only.
Allies
Alans
The Cumans (or Kumans), known to the Poles and Slavs as Polovtsians or Polovtsy, were a Turkic nomadic people. The
ancestry and origins of the Cuman tribes is unknown, as is the origin for their name, which probably meant “pale” and
referred to their blonde hair. They had a strong connection with the Kipchaks and were, perhaps, the western part of the
Kipchak confederation. We know that they settled in the west of the Eurasian Steppes before moving into the southern
Russian Steppes in the c. 11th, displacing the Pechenegs and establishing a vast kingdom, known as Cumania, bordered to
the west by the lands of the Rus’, to the north by the land of the Volga Bulgars, to the east by the Kara Khitai Khaganate
and to the south by the Caucasus mountains. This was a sea of grass of which the Moroccan traveller, Ibn Battuta (1304–
1369) wrote "This wilderness is green and grassy with no trees, nor hills, high or low ... there is no means of travelling in
this desert except in wagons."
The Cumans first encountered the Rus’ in 1055 but Prince Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl managed to postpone a military
confrontation until 1061, when the Cuman chief, Sokal, invaded the principality, beginning a series of conflicts between the
Cumans and the Rus’ that would last for over 170 years. In 1068, at the Battle of the Alta River, the Cumans defeated the
combined armies of the three sons of Yaroslav the Wise. Following this victory, the tribes repeatedly returned, often taking
slaves for their own use, or for sale. However, some strong Rus’ leaders such as Vladimir II Monomakh were able to unite
the principalities and inflict serious reverses against the Cumans, and raid Cumania, in turn.
In 1089, Ladislaus I of Hungary defeated the Cumans after they attacked the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1091, the Pechenegs
were decisively defeated at the Battle of Levounion by the combined forces of a Byzantine army under Emperor Alexios I
Komnenos and a Cuman army under Togortok/Tugorkan and Boniak.

The Kingdom of Poland was raided in 1092 and the Cumans pushed through to Lithuania. Two years later they allied with
a Byzantine pretender, Constantine Diogenes, and the Byzantine province of Paristrion was invaded, The Cumans moved
onto Adrianople and Anchialos but failed to conquer either. Returning to Hungary in 1099, the Cumans crushed a Hungarian
army and seized the royal treasury. During the same period, Cumans raided Volga Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire. This
was followed up by a further invasion of Volga Bulgaria by Khan Ayepa, which caused the Bulgarians to arrange for the
Khan and other Princes to be poisoned.
In 1114 Cumans invaded the Byzantine-held Balkans, following up with a further incursion in 1123–4. The Kingdom of
Poland suffered the same fate in 1135. During the Second and Third Crusades they made audacious attacks against crusading
knights. Cumans also settled in Georgia, became Christians, and helped Georgia turn the tide against a Seljuk Turk invasion.
Following this, Georgia became the most powerful kingdom in the region. From 1160 raids in Rus’ territory had become
annual and were affecting Rus’ trade. This led Cuman forces to be invited into Kiev as retained troops, although it is written
that the Cumans retained their ‘wildness.’
In 1220, the newly arrived Mongols defeated the Cumans. The latter appealed to the Rus’ for help. Initially reluctant, due to
their history of conflict with the Cumans, the Rus’ eventually agreed to support them against the Mongols and a huge,
combined army met the Mongols near the Kalka River in 1223. The allies were defeated by the superior tactics of the
Mongols. Many of the Cumans managed to escape, but the Rus’ contingent was crushed. In 1237 the Mongols attacked the
main Cuman/Kipchak confederation on the Eurasian Steppe. By 1241 the Cumans had been dispersed and no longer held
any influence in the area. Some migrated to the west and were integrated within the Byzantine Empire, the Second Bulgarian
Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. Others remained and became subjects of their Mongol conquerors, eventually
forming the Golden Horde (Kipchak Khanate) and Nogai Horde. Numerous Cuman captives were sold as slaves and went
on to become Mamluk slave-soldiers in Egypt, where some would rise to hold power as emirs or beys, or even attain the
rank of Sultan.
Army Notes
Before the c. 12th the Cumans fought as light cavalry, later developing into a heavier cavalry. Their main weapons were the
recurved bow and, later, the composite bow (worn on the hip with the quiver), the javelin, sabre, mace, and lance. Defensively,
they used a round or almond shaped shield and wore mail or lamellar armour and a helmet. Unusually, they sometimes wore
elaborate masks in battle, shaped like and worn over the face, which could be gilded in the case of their princes.
The commonly employed Cuman battle tactic was repeated attacks by light cavalry archers, facing and shooting to the rear
of the horse, then a feigned retreat and skilled ambush. Each Cuman kept ten twelve reserve horses to ensure that a fresh
horse was always available. A Byzantine government official and historian by the name of Niketas Choniates, when describing
the Battle of Beroia (1122), wrote of them:
They fought in their habitual manner, learned from their fathers. They would attack, shoot their arrows, and begin to fight with spears. Before long
they would turn their attack into flight and induce their enemy to pursue them. Then they would show their faces instead of their backs, like birds
cutting through the air, and would fight face to face with their assailants and struggle even more bravely. This they would do several times, and
when they gained the upper hand over the Romans [Byzantines], they would stop turning back again. Then they would draw their swords, release
an appalling roar, and fall upon the Romans quicker than thought. They would seize and massacre those who fought bravely and those who
behaved cowardly alike.” [Vásáry, István (2005). Cumans and Tatars Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans 1185–1365. Cambridge
University Press.]
Tribal banners could be of cloth with tribal emblems or of dyed horsehair, with the number of tails indicating the importance
of the tribe.
Sources
Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumans
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the first draft of this background.

Komnenon Byzantine
This list covers the Byzantines from the aftermath of the defeat at Manzikert (1071 CE) and subsequent loss of Anatolia,
through the long military recovery led by the Emperors Alexius I, John II and Manual I and up to the fall of Constintinople
in 1204.
Upgrade to mounted Any – +1
Upgrade to detached Any – +1
Generals Upgrade to heroic 0-2 3+ –
Upgrade a mounted, heroic, senior, detached general
0–1 – +4
to brilliant as Alexius I Komnenos
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw Up to 1/2* 8+ 7
Kavallarioi (cavalry)
Upgrade cavalry, lance with extra bow Up to 1** – +2
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knight lance 1/2 to all*** 6+ 11
Upgrade knight, lance to knight, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 13
Peltestoi Light cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 0–2 6+ 7
Vardariatae (guards) Light cavalry, bow, veteran Up to 1**** 7+ 6
Latinikon or other western Knights, lance 0–4 6+ 11
mercenaries Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 13
Georgians or Armenians Cavalry, lance Up to 1 6+ 9
Nomad Skythikon (Pechenegs,
Cumans, Turks and Turkopoloi) Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran as Turks, Cumans or Turkopoloi
Shieldwall, deep, extra 2HCCW 0–4***** 7+ 11
Tagma ton Varangon (Varangian At least 1/2 6+ 14
extra 2HCCW
Guard)
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran, extra 2HCCW to
Any 6+ 15
mounted infantry
Downgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, raw Any* 8+ 5
Skoutatoi
Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall deep All or none 7+ 10
Downgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, raw Any* 8+ 7
Slavs or similar hillmen Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, veteran as
0–1** 6+ 9
Manicheans
1–4^, 0–
Psiloi (skirmishers) Light infantry, javelin 7+ 4
4***
Bowmen 0–4 8+ 7

* Before 1091 and after 1180.
*** From 1143 to 1186. Prior to 1143 and after 1186, up to one unit may be upgraded with an attached general.
**** From 1130; probably founded in the reign of John II.
***** From 1071 to 1081 and after 1105.
^ Only before 1143 CE and after 1186.
Allies
Crusader states, Sicilian Norman rebels, Cumans, Hungarians, Seljuks, Serbs, Armenians, Georgians
After the defeat by the Seljuks at Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire settled into ten years of civil conflict and weak rule,
frittering away many of its remaining military resources. The Seljuks occupied almost all of Anatolia. Central power was
reasserted by Nicephorus III and particularly by Alexius I Komnenos (as commander in chief to Nicephorus III 1078–81,
then as emperor from 1081 to 1118) and later by Alexius’s son and successor John II (1118–1143). At first, Alexius defended
the empire with whatever variable quality troops he could scrape together, raise or hire, beating back the Sicilian Normans
only with difficulty, but decisively defeating the Pechenegs at Levunium in 1091 in alliance with the Cumans. The impetus
of the Crusades – a movement that greatly exceeded the extra mercenaries Alexius had requested – permitted expansion
back into Asia Minor, accompanied by a gradual improvement in military quality and capacity.
Whilst there were more mercenaries, traditional Byzantine regulars were raised and a regular army reformed, with troop
quality improving. As had been the Roman custom, many mercenaries were also incorporated as regular units. Anna
Komnena records the Scholae including Frankish troops as well as natives. The empire’s resurgence meant that a second
Sicilian Norman invasion in 1107 was crushed and the Seljuks were heavily defeated at Philomelium in 1116. John II
continued this re-establishment of Byzantine power, obliterating the Pechenegs at Eski Zagra in 1122 and conscripting the
survivors as military colonists. He campaigned successfully in Asia Minor, retaking territory and establishing effective
suzerainty over the northern Crusader states, as well as attacking into Syria. John focused on siege warfare and the
consolidation of territorial control, succeeding against powerful opponents.
Manuel I, son of John II, continued to extend Byzantine power in Asia Minor, Syria and the Balkans. He reduced Hungary
to vassalage, extending the Balkan borders of the empire to their greatest extent since the sixth century. His armies
campaigned in Italy and in Egypt. However, the balance of regional and European power meant that opposition was strong,
and success depended on Manuel's ephemeral personal prowess, diplomatic and military ability. Manuel suffered a heavy
defeat at Myrokephalon in 1176 whilst fighting against the Seljuks. What contemporary evidence survives suggests that the
Frankish division of the army broke, and the Byzantine regulars fought their way out. John Kinamos’ account of campaigns
against the Hungarians likewise suggests a disciplined regular largely native army in the Romans/Byzantine tradition, along
with many mercenaries and vassals. Despite the 1176 defeat, Manuel’s army also inflicted heavy defeats on the Seljuks,
restoring the pre-1176 border by the time of his death in 1180. After his decease, however, things began to go downhill.
Komnenon rule was centred on the ability of the emperor and the unity of those around him and the period from 1186 to
1204 saw disunity and military decline. Eventually, in 1204 Constantinople was sacked by the rogue Fourth Crusade.
Army Notes
Kavallarioi – in the early period, post Manzikert, these would have been whatever the emperor could get together, ranging
from Tagmatic remnants to newly raised and sometimes short lived, poor-quality units, increasing in consistency later.
Manuel I trained many or all his kavallarioi to fight as knights in the western style, introducing tournaments; he had a
reputation as a great jouster. Emperors and generals are recorded as charging hard – one general even charging into a tree
and killing himself. Byzantine armour had a superior reputation. We have assumed that the kataphraktoi armour and padded
textile protection combination used by those around the emperor permits several units of knights to be upgraded to veteran
knights. Alexius I himself is recorded as receiving many lance thrusts but being unhurt. There is no evidence for cataphract-
style cavalry in this period.
Peltestoi – this term appears to refer to fast moving advance guard cavalry and we have assumed that it represents the
survival of detached prokurastors.
Mercenary horse archers – these range from cautious Pechenegs to fierce Turks and regular Turcopoles.
Latinikon – many Latins seems to have been incorporated in regular units, e.g., in the Scholae in the reign of Alexius I.
Veteran status reflects both experience and drill.

Varangians – there is some uncertainty regarding their quality during this period, so upgrades are optional.
The quality of the regular component gradually improved as the army was rebuilt during the reign of Alexius I. Upgraded
troops represent veterans, or cavalry on fabric or partially armoured horses. The option for extra bow reflects the initial
survival of old-style Tagmata. Manual I 1143–1180 trained his cavalry, including elite household units, to fight as western
knights. The Varangians were destroyed at Dyrrachium in 1081 CE, re-emerging as a combat unit circa 25 years later.
Skythikon were Asiatic mercenary horse archers, at first mainly Pechenga, noted for their caution, and later mainly Cumans.
Turks were also hired, and Christianised Turks served as regular Turkopoloi units. From the mid-1180s political weakness
was reflected in poor military performance.
Sources
The Alexiad of Anna Komnena; Deeds of John and Manual Komnenos, John Kinamos; O City of Byzantium, Niketas
Koniates plus contemporary sources including Birkenmaier’s Development of the Komnenon Army and Paul Magdalino's
Empire of Manual I Komnenos.
Many thanks to David Harvey who wrote this exciting list!

Cilician Armenian
This list covers the Cilician Armenian state from its formation by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia
in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert, until its conquest by the Mamluks in 1375.
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Armenian nobles and retainers Upgrade cavalry, lance with extra bow 0–3* – 11
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance 2–3** 6+ 11
Knights, lance 0–3*** 6+ 11
Normans or other latinikon
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–1*** 5+ 13
Armenian or Turkish light Light cavalry bow 8+ 5
0–2
cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 7+ 5
Armenian spearmen Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, extra crossbow 0–1***** 7+ 9
Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, extra bow 0–4***** 7+ 9
Shieldwall 0–1**** 7+ 7
Frankish Mercenaries
Crossbowmen 0–1**** 8+ 7
Bowmen 8+ 7
Armenian archers 3–8*****
Mountaineer skirmishers Light infantry, javelin 0–2 7+ 4
* Only 1071 to 1100.
** Only after 1100.
*** Only 1073–1086.
***** The total number of bowmen units and light infantry other, bow units and extra bow or crossbow upgrades to
Armenian foot units, may not exceed 8.
Allies
Bedouin, Early Crusader, Later Crusader, Seljuk (as Danishmend), Ilkhanid Mongol, Lusignan Cypriot (not yet written)
Syrian City States (Nur el Din, 1170–1174). Only a single ally may be chosen.
After the annexation of Greater Armenia by the Byzantines in 1045, Cilicia was seeded with Armenians as a tripwire area to
guard against foreign incursions. After the defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071, many Armenians settled in and
around Cilicia. An ex-Byzantine Armenian general, Philaretos Brachamos, declared himself ruler of an independent state
including northern Syria and Cilicia; his army forms the start of this list. From 1078 to 1090 he ruled over several clans, the
largest of which were the Hethumids and the Rubenids. However, by the time of his death, his realm was already shrinking,
leaving these clans to compete for dominance.
Cilician Armenia always had to walk a political tightrope, struggling to maintain their independence from Byzantium, the
Seljuks, Crusaders and the Crusader states, the Ilkhanid Mongols and Mamelukes (who eventually destroyed them).
Recognised as a kingdom in 1198 under Leo I, the Cilician Armenians ended their days ruled by a Lusignan king from
Cyprus. In broad terms, they loathed the Byzantines and Mamelukes but got on well with the Ilkhanids. Their strongest

relations (although not always peaceful) were with their Crusader state allies, many of whose customs they adopted. Cilician
history feels almost tidal, with victorious invasions often running out of steam, followed by Armenian recovery of territory.
Army Notes
We know the nobles and their mounted followers constituted 10% of the army. We surmise that they initially fought in a
manner similar to the Byzantines. Later, after the First Crusade passed through, they adopted Western ways. Their knights
were quite disciplined like those of Outremer, and they provided much of the manpower for the northern Crusader states.
There is little recorded information about the rank and file, but many would have been spearmen. Before and after the period
covered by this list, the Cilician Armenians had a strong tradition of archery, both foot and mounted, so we can assume that
the bow played an important part in Cilician Armenian armies.
Many thanks to Neil Grant who wrote this list.

Sultanate of Rûm
This list covers the Sultanate of Rûm (or Rome, referring to its Byzantine past) in Anatolia from the defection of Suleyman
bin Kutalmish from the Seljuq Empire in 1077 CE up until the Mongol conquest of 1243.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Ghilman Cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance, extra bow,
Up to half 6+ 13
veteran
5–8***, 4–
8^
Turkomans Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/4 7+ 6
veteran
Franks Knights, lance 0–1* 6+ 11
Cilician Armenians Knights, lance 1–2* 6+ 11
Byzantines Cavalry, lance 0–1* 7+ 9
Kwarizmian refugees Light cavalry, bow 1–3^ 8+ 5
Shieldwall, single extra javelin, mounted infantry,
Daylamite guardsmen 0–1** 6+ 11
veteran
Spearmen Shieldwall, raw 0–2* 8+ 5
Javelinmen 7+ 7
Foot with javelins 0–3
Foot with bows 0–2
Bowmen 8+ 4
Wagon laager or fortifications Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Only after 1220.
^ Only after 1237.
The Sultanate of Rûm (“Rome”) was formed by Sultan Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, in 1077, when much of recently conquered
Byzantine Western Anatolia seceded from the Great Seljuk Empire. In Rûm, a Sunni Muslim Turko-Persian elite ruled over
mostly Byzantine subjects.
Suleiman’s initial capital was in formerly Byzantine Nicaea. Unfortunately for Rûm, it was squarely across the route that the
First Crusade would follow to the Holy Land. Nicaea was captured and the Rûm, now lead by Sultan Kilij Arslan, were
defeated at the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097 and driven back into central Anatolia. Nonetheless Arslan was able to defeat
several further crusader columns in 1101. By the mid -12th century, the sultanate had absorbed several smaller Turkish states
and controlled most of central Anatolia. In 1176, the Rûm inflicted a major defeat on the Byzantines at the battle of
Myrokephalon, bringing an end to Byzantine hopes of regaining their Anatolian heartland.
Rûm reached its greatest extent during the late c. 12th and early c. 13th, when it stretched from the Mediterranean ports in
the south of Anatolia to the Black Sea coast in the north and Lake Van in the east. The state was financed by the caravan
routes from Central Asia which passed through Rûm, on their way to the Mediterranean.

In 1243 at the Battle of Köse Dağ, the Sultanate’s army was crushed by Baiju (the Mongol commander with responsibility
for Persia, Anatolia and Georgia) and the Seljuk Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their
vassals. Its last remnant fell to the Karamanids in 1328.
Army Notes
The Sultanate is likely to have had poorer access to mercenary Turkomans than the more easterly post-Seljuq states. From
1220 until the Mongol conquest, however, it had a large force of mamluks and could draw on vassals including Franks,
Cilician Armenians, Syrians and Byzantine remnants.
Turkish Ghulams from the collection of James Roach.

Syrian City States
This list covers the armies of Syrian cities from the reduction in Seljuq control after the death of Malik Shah in 1092 CE
until Salah-ad-Din was recognised as ruler of Syria in 1175.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Askari Upgrade cavalry, lance, veteran to cavalry, lance,
Up to 1/2 6+ 13
veteran, extra bow
Other Syrian or Kurdish lance Cavalry, lance 1–6 7+ 9
armed cavalry
Bedouin Arabs Upgrade light cavalry, javelin or lance, raw to light
Up to half 7+ 5
cavalry, javelin or lance
Turkomen Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Upgrade spearmen raw to spearmen, raw, extra
Up to 1/4 +1
2HCCW as glaive men 8+
Syrian Ah'dath
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen or spearmen,
Any +2
2HCCW, raw with extra bow
Downgrade spearmen, raw to mobs, deep, raw Up to 1/2 9+ 4
Ghazis Warriors, fanatics, deep 0–1 8+ 10
Mutatawwia Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Jabaliyya, Kurdish or similar Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Al–ashair 0–2
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary* 0–1 8+ 4
* Naffatun are armed with pots of naphtha, either slung or thrown. See the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Syrian Ayyubids (post 1193 CE), Early Crusader, Late Crusader.
Army Notes
Ah'dath were Syrian city militiamen. Ghazis are religious fanatics and Mutatawwia are troops fighting entirely for plunder.
Jabaliyya were javelinmen from Aleppo. Al-ashair were archers, possibly of Druze origin. Salah-ad-Din proposed an alliance
with the Later Crusaders, but it never materialised – it is included as it was an interesting possibility.

Many thanks to Tim Whitworth who wrote the draft list, which I subsequently edited, and to James Roach who contributed the above image of
his Syrian ah’dath.

Early Crusader
This list covers the Crusaders from the beginning of the First Crusade in 1096 CE through to 1129, when the Knights
Templar were endorsed by the Catholic church at the Council of Troyes, after which the Holy Orders rose in importance.
Attached, heroic, mounted general 2–4 3+ 5
Generals
Upgrade a mounted, senior, heroic general to great
0–1* 3+ 10
leader representing Bohemund I of Antioch
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Holy Lance of Antioch 1VP standard only between 1097 and 1099 CE – 2
0–1
The True Cross 3VP standard only between 1099 and 1129 CE – 4
Knights, lance 1–5** 6+ 11
Crusader knights and retinue Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to half 5+ 13
sergeants Upgrade dismounted knights with extra bow or
Any** – +2
crossbow
Byzantine or Crusader Turkopoloi Light cavalry, lance and extra bow 0–1 7+ 6
2–10*, 3–
Shieldwall 7+ 7
10****
Crusader spearmen
Upgrade shieldwall to veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Upgrade shieldwall with extra bow or crossbow Any – +2
Crusader arriere–ban
Upgrade shieldwall with extra bow or crossbow Any – 7
Pilgrims Mobs, deep, raw 2–3* 9+ 4
Bowmen or crossbowmen 2–4 8+ 7
Crusader archers and
crossbowmen Downgrade bowmen or crossbowmen to light infantry
Any 8+ 4
other, bow or crossbow
Maronite Christian or Syrian Bowmen 0–1*** 8+ 7
bowmen Downgrade bowmen to light infantry other, bow Any 8+ 4
Tents, wagon laager or ditch Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* First Crusade from 1096 to 1099 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** In 1098 , only, at least half the knights must be dismounted.
*** Maronite Christians may only be taken in a Tripolitanian Crusader army.
Allies
Komnenon Byzantine, Armenian***, Syrian City States, Bedouin.
Notes
Knights may not dismount except where specified. Crusader arriere-ban represent a call up of less well-equipped retainers
in an emergency. The authenticity of the Holy Lance was always in doubt; the True Cross, however, was rather more highly
revered.
Following an appeal for military assistance by the Byzantine Emperor Alexios Komnenos, Pope Urban II preached a
successful Crusade appeal to Western Europe to take Jerusalem by military means. Following on the heels of a Commoners

Crusade led by Peter the Hermit, which was destroyed by the Seljuks, the military side of the first Crusade led by several
prominent nobles, arrived in the east in the winter of 1096.
Initially directed by the Byzantines to their own ends the Crusade took Nicea then went on to win the keenly contested
battle of Dorylaeum. In 1098 they took Antioch, giving themselves a base before going on to take Jerusalem in 1099. The
Crusaders set up four independent but interdependent states; the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County
of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, of which the Kingdom of Jerusalem was dominant when under strong rule.
Together with the island of Cyprus, these constituted Outremer, the Land over the Seas.
Having made their way thousands of miles in the name of religion and having displayed a lethal intolerance to many of the
region’s inhabitants the Frankish forces settled down to try to expand and hold their gains in an area of mixed races and
religions. They soon adapted to working with what they would normally have considered to be heretical Christian sects, Jews
and Muslim alike, both as allies and subjects. Consistently successful in battle against the Fatimids of Egypt at Ascalon and
over the three Battles of Ramla, they had mixed fortunes against the Seljuk successor states in Syria. Tactically they learned
quickly that it was necessary to operate mounted and foot in close concert, on occasion adopting some quite sophisticated
formations not normally utilised by Western Europeans.
The region was sustained by annual arrivals of pilgrim Crusaders and finances from the Church in Europe. This list ends
with the failed local Crusade against Damascus in 1129, the same year that the Council of Troyes formally recognised the
Order of the Temple (although it took a further ten years before a formal Papal Bull was issued).
Suggested Reading
“Victory in the East” by John France (Cambridge University Press).
Many thanks to Neil Grant who added the historical background to this list, and James Roach for the image of Crusader knights.

Khwarazmian
This list covers the Khwarazmians from their independence from the Seljuks (1186 CE) until the overthrow of the dynasty
by the Mongols (1231). For the period when Khwarazmians were subject to the Seljuks, use the Turkish Tribes and
Kingdoms list.
Generals Upgrade to heroic 2–4 3+ +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Nobles and heavy cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
2–4 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Downgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry,
Other Iranian lancers 0–4 8+ 9
lance, extra bow, raw
Turkomen Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/4 6+ 6
veteran
Kurdish Lancers Cavalry, lance 0–2* 7+ 9
Javelinmen 7
Javelinmen 0–2 7+
Bowmen 7
Bowmen 0–2 8+
Peasants and Camp–followers Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Elephants Indian elephant, deep 0–1** 7+ 8
* After 1226.
** Only between 1215 and
1222.
*** Before 1207.
Allies
Turkish Tribes and Kingdoms, Ghurid**, Khitan***
The Khwarazmian dynasty was founded by Anush Tigin Gharchai in 1077, when he was appointed governor of Khwarazm
by the Seljuk Turks. The dynasty remained subjects of the Seljuks even as their rule extended to cover much of what is now
Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. As the power of the Seljuks declined, the Khwarazmians
became independent. From about 1220, the Mongols invaded their territory, driving the then ruler Jalal ad-Din into exile in
India. After three years, Jalal ad-Din returned to re-establish his rule, but was forced to fight a series of campaigns against
the Mongols and against the Sultanate of Rûm in the west to try to maintain his dominance in the region. He was assassinated
in 1231, bringing an end to the dynasty.
Many thanks to Roger Calderbank for writing this list!

Later Crusader
This list covers the Crusader state from the Templars’ receipt of Papal protection in 1129 CE through to the fall of the last
mainland enclave, Acre, in 1291.

Attached mounted, heroic general 2–4 3+ 5
Generals
Upgrade a mounted, senior, heroic, general to great
0–1** – 10
leader, representing King Richard I 'The Lionheart'
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Standard 1 VP standard 0–1 – 2
The True Cross 3 VP standard 0–1*** – 4
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran (as
Knights, sergeants and rear rank knights and sergeants of Military Orders) 0–2 5+ 13
turcopoles
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–2* 5+ 13
Dismount knights, lance to knights, 2HCCW 0–1 6+ 11
Turcopoles in distinct units
Upgrade light cavalry, bow to cavalry, bow Any 8+ 9
Bedouin Light cavalry, lance, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, veteran Up to 1/4 6+ 9
Foot sergeants
Upgrade shieldwall or shieldwall, veteran with extra
At least 1/2** – +2
crossbowmen
Crossbowmen
Maronite Christian or Syrian Bowmen 7
0–1 8+
bowmen Light infantry other, bow 4
* After 1175, representing more complete armour and padded horse caparisons.
** During the Third Crusade (1189–1192) only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
*** Only between 1129 and 1187.
Allies
Armenian, Fatimid Egyptian, Komnenian Byzantine, Syrian City States
Until the fall of Edessa in 1142 the Latin states consolidated and attempt expansion. Because the Franks were quite relaxed
about worship and taxed the inhabitants far less than their previous masters, he polyglot mix of subject peoples integrated
well into the fabric of the state. Crusader settlers married locally, and warriors including knights in all the states could come
from various ethnic backgrounds including Arab and Armenian. Until the death of Baldwin IV, the Leper King in 1185, the
Kingdom of Jerusalem usually led the Latin states which, for their own security, had to rely on assistance from their
neighbours.
Whilst the focus of the other states was on the south, Edessa fell in 1142. This resulted in the unsuccessful Second Crusade
as a response. The small forces remaining after that Crusade, combined with the local forces were unsuccessful in their
attempt to take Damascus which ultimately resulted in the fragmented post-Seljuk states starting to fall under the control of
Imad al-Din Zengi and subsequently his son Nur ed-Din, with Saladin completing the task. With the inability of the Franks

to expand inland, they increasingly had to rely on cutting-edge fortifications to hold and protect their areas. So great was the
expense of construction that many of these were given to or built by the military orders who were able to afford this due to
donations from western Europe. The military orders of the Hospital and Temple thus became ever more powerful and
important to the defence of the states. The Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Pisa who were granted extensive rights in the
coastal cities provided naval assistance and the only effective siege engineers as well as providing substantial numbers of
crossbow men and archers on occasion. However, each of the Latin States, the Italian cities and the military orders pursued
their own foreign policies, on occasion to the detriment of the others.
The only other possible (and potentially lucrative) conquest was that of Egypt. Unfortunately, the Franks and assorted
Crusades were unable to achieve this. As Nur Ed-Din had the same goal, at least the Franks were able to counter this twice,
but on the third occasion Nur Ed-Din’s proxy Shirkuh father of Saladin was successful, resulting in the Ayyubid dynasty.
Unfortunately, the controversial ascension of the less-than-gifted King Guy, combined with an overly aggressive and
dominant master of the temple, led to the disastrous battle of Hattin in 1187 in which the bulk of the armed strength of the
state was destroyed, the True Cross was lost, and Jerusalem and large swathes of Outremer overrun. The perennial problem
for the Latin States was that they were only ever one serious defeat away from disaster, because, to create a field army, the
castles had to be stripped of their garrisons. In contrast by this point the Muslims, now united under Saladin, had sufficient
troops to attack with larger armies and on multiple fronts. The disaster at Hattin and the subsequent loss of Jerusalem
resulted in the Third Crusade.
The leaders of the Crusades often had different agendas from local rulers and, although Jerusalem was returned to Christian
control on occasion because of Crusades, after Hattin the realms were shrinking and outwith Crusade years existed on the
sufferance of the Ayyubids and their Mameluke successors. Ultimately, only a rump state remained around the coastal cities
such as Acre which had become the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In addition, western European rulers increasingly
interfered in the succession of rulers in Oultrejourdain to the detriment of the security of the states. Finally, the Mamelukes
overran the rump of the states with relative ease, with Acre falling in 1291.
Army Notes
The Franks tended to be successful when they exercised due caution, the small units of knights operating in concert with
foot spear men and missile troops, with numbers of mounted sergeants and lighter turcopole horse. Their approach was far
more sophisticated than that of western Europe. Less fortunate were those occasions when rash commanders did not follow
that cautious procedure. They also had access to mercenary troops paid for by western European rulers or by the Church in
the case of those serving the military orders. There were a fair number of religious military orders in the Frankish states,
though none as large as the Templars and Hospitallers who could field up to 300 knights each, with additional bodies of
sergeants and turcopoles. Members of the military orders were hated by the Muslims and, together with crossbowmen, were
inevitably executed if captured. Crusades and bodies of warrior pilgrims were a valuable source of manpower, the magnates
often leaving mercenaries or the funds to pay for them when they left.
Knights might occasionally dismount. Neil Grant During the attempted siege of Damascus in the 2nd Crusade, the German
knights dismount to take the river shore “as is their habit” (quotation from William of Tyre).
Suggested Reading
Tim Whitworth recommends the novels 'The Knights of Dark Renown' and 'The Kings of Vain Intent' by Graham Shelby,
available on Kindle.
Simon recommends “Knight Crusader” by Ronald Welch- he read this many times, in his youth.
For non-fiction books, Neil Grant recommends Steve Tibble books: “The Crusader Armies” and “The Crusader Strategy.”
Many thanks to Tim Whitworth for getting me started on this list, and to Neil Grant who suggested edits and wrote the historical background.

Later Byzantine
This list covers the Byzantines from the sack of Constantinople in 1204, and the successor states thereafter, until the
recapture of Constantinople in 1261. Thereafter it covers the weakened empire through to the fall of Constantinople to the
Ottomans in 1453.
Generals Attached general (on foot) 2–4 2+ 4
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Holy standard or ikons 1 VP standard 1 – 2
Kavallarioi (cavalry)***
Upgrade cavalry, lance with extra bow Up to 1 – +2
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance 1/2 to all* 6+ 11
Pronoia (Feudal cavalry)
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw Up to half 8+ 7
Latinikon or other western Knights, lance 1–2 11
6+
mercenaries Replace knights, lance with later knights, lance Any* 14
Nomad Skythikon (Pechenegs,
Cumans, Turks and Turkopoloi) Upgrade light cavalry, bow to light cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
veteran
Light cavalry, javelin, veteran with extra bow or
Stradioti (Albanians)** 0–2 6+ 7
crossbow
Light cavalry, javelin with extra bow or crossbow 0–2 7+ 6
Vardariotai (guards)*** Light cavalry, bow, veteran 0–1 7+ 6
Kontaritoi (spearmen) Shieldwall 0–2 7+ 7
Slavs or similar hillmen** Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Latinikoi (Latin foot) Shieldwall 0–2 7+ 7
Genoese or other Italian Shieldwall, raw 9+ 5
0–2^
spearmen Light infantry, javelin 7+ 4
Italian crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0–2^ 8+ 7
Psiloi (skirmishers) Light infantry, javelin 0–2 7+ 4
Bowmen 2–4 8+ 7
Mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2**** 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon)**** 0–1**** 7+ 7
* From 1350.
** Only the Despotates of Epirus (1204–1340) and the Morea (1280–1460).
*** Only the Empire of Nicea (1204–1261) and the Palaiologan Byzantine Empire (1261–1384).

^ From 1329
Allies
Catalan Company (1303–1305), Ottomans (1327–1452), Serbians and Bulgarians (1327–1352).
Three successor Byzantine states emerged after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. These were the Empire of Nicaea in
Anatolia, which was headed by Emperor Alexios; the Despotate of Epiros and, briefly (until 1222), the Kingdom of
Thessaloniki.
In 1261, the empire recovered Constantinople and then most of Thrace, Macedonia, Albania and in the Morea, which later
became an autonomous Despotate in 1280. Latin attempts to regain ground were thwarted by Byzantine diplomacy, although
religious division weakened the empire both militarily and economically. The Serbian and Bulgarian states also expanded at
their expense in the c. 14th.
The Ottomans entered Europe as Byzantine mercenaries in 1345 and gradually expanded into the Balkans, effectively
surrounding Constantinople. The Timurid invasion of Anatolia in 1402 briefly stalled Ottoman progress, but they recovered
and captured the remaining Byzantine territories. The failure of the Crusade of Varna in 1444 meant that western support
was never likely to save the empire and Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople in 1453.
Army Notes
The traditional Byzantine troop types, based on pronoia fiefs, declined as the empire lost territory. They were partly replaced
by mercenaries, including knights and horse archers. However, a shortage of funds meant that Byzantine armies of this
period were generally small.
Latinikon represent the small number of mercenaries that could be afforded, and/or the sporadic assistance sent by western
nations including Savoy (1366), France (1399) and England (1402). These contingents included knights, 'varlets' and archers
or crossbowmen.
The various auxiliary troops fought in their own traditional fashion, but the Byzantines themselves are described as drawing
up with foot archers in the centre ahead of the heavy cavalry, with lighter cavalry on the wings. Other non-skirmishing
infantry, where present, generally served as a rallying point or to guard the camp.

Golden Horde
This list covers the Golden Horde from the accession of Grand Khan Möngke in 1251 and concludes with the death of
Khan Edigu in 1419.
Upgrade to heroic Any 3+ –
Upgrade a senior, heroic general to great leader as
0–1*** 3+ 10
Nogai Khan
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Yak or horse tail standard,
camel drummers or Islamic 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
banner
Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–4 6+ 13
Mongol or Golden Horde
guard cavalry Downgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran to At least
7+ 11
cavalry, lance, extra bow half**
Downgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to light At least
7+ 5
cavalry, bow half**
Other Mongol or Golden
Horde cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to light cavalry,
Up to 1/3 6+ 7
lance, extra bow, veteran
Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 11
veteran
Alan, Mordvin, Cuman or
similar nomadic horsemen
Siberian or Ugrian tribesman Warriors, deep 0–1 7+ 10
Fryazei (Italian colonists) Crossbowmen 0–1 8+ 7
Armen (Crimean Armenians) Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Bessermeni (Muslim townsmen) Bowmen, raw 0–1 9+ 5
Naffatun Light infantry other, incendiary 0–1* 8+ 4
* After 1340
** After 1395
*** Nogai Khan 1262–1299. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Georgian (before 1259), Post Mongol Russian.
The Golden Horde (also known as the Kipchak Khanate) was a khanate of Mongol origin, which became independent and
occupied the north-western portion of the Mongol Empire. There are three theories regarding the origin of the name
‘Golden Horde.’ The first is that the name originated from the golden colour of the Horde’s tents. The second, that the
Khan used a gilt-embroidered tent. The third theory is that it was a name given by its subject peoples referring to the great
wealth held by the horde.
Just before his death in 1227 CE, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire into four khanates, each of which was allocated
to the family of one of his sons. However, his eldest son, Jochi, had died within the previous year so the responsibility for
the most westerly of the khanates, covering Russia and Kazakhstan, fell to his eldest son, Batu. It took eight years for Batu
to consolidate his hold on the lands gifted to him, but in 1235 he moved an army westward and conquered the Bashkirs, a

Turkic tribe on the borders between Europe and Asia. The next year he conquered Bulgaria, followed in 1237 by southern
Ukraine.
By 1240 Batu had finally conquered the Kievan Rus principalities of northern Ukraine and western Russia. His next targets
were Poland and Hungary, followed by Austria. However, whilst besieging Vienna, Batu Khan received the news that the
second Great Khan, Ögedei, had unexpectedly died. Breaking the siege, Batu’s horde marched eastwards so that he could
contest the succession, destroying the Hungarian city of Pest and re-taking Bulgaria en route. However, in 1242 Batu decided
not to attend the kurultai after all, as he did not wish to support the likely winner. He rejected many invitations, citing
infirmity as an excuse. After years of stalemate where no Great Khan was chosen, Batu finally relented by sending a younger
brother as his delegate. During this period the Rus Princes declared fealty to Batu.
Batu died in 1256 and Grand Khan Möngke declared that his son was to lead the Golden Horde. Unfortunately, he died
almost immediately, and Batu’s younger brother Berke replaced him. Whilst this situation was ongoing various Kievan
Princes decided to rebel. However, by 1259 an ultimatum was given, and the Rus pulled their own city walls down to avoid
the inevitable massacre by the Golden Horde. Once the Kievan rebellion had been quashed, Berke marched the horde back
into Europe. Poland and Lithuania were reminded of Khan Berke’s authority over them. In 1259 the attacks on Prussia
ended the Teutonic Order as an effective force. The King of Hungary was forced to bow before the Khan and demands
were made that King Louis IX of France submit to him.
In 1262 civil war broke out when the Golden Horde attempted to take advantage of the Ilkhanate’s defeat by the Mamluks
at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Despite this and other Mongol civil wars between other Khanates, including Kublai Khan’s
struggles for the Great Khanate, the Golden Horde enjoyed a period of prosperity and relative peace.
Nogai Khan was a grandson of Chinggis Khan and a prince of the Golden Horde and proved to be one of its most
formidable generals. In 1262, he defeated an Ilkhanid army in a battle ar the Terek River. He won military successes in
Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland, and ravaged Byzantine Thrace. Because he was descended from a concubine, he was unable
to claim the throne in his own right but was a kingmaker and able to exercise power through the current khan. He was
eventually killed when a khan he appointed, Tokhta, turned out to be unexpectedly competent.
Öz Beg Khan assumed the throne in 1313 and adopted Islam as the state religion. During his reign from 1313–1341 the
kingdom was well-ordered, and trade was good, and the khan’s armies achieved foreign victories over the Ilkhanate and the
Byzantines. However, in 1345 the Golden Horde were particularly severely affected by a wave of the Black Death. This was
followed by a succession dispute and civil wars lasting from 1359 and 1381, during which the Horde began to fragment.
Sensing this, Grand Duke Algirdas of Lithuania invaded and defeated the Horde at the Battle of Blue Water in 1362 or 1363,
which enabled him to seize Kiev and much of present-day Ukraine.
The khanate’s territories were invaded three times by Timur in 1391–1395 and its armies defeated in another battle at the
Terek River. Subsequently Timur destroyed their capital, looted their Crimean trade centres, and the Horde lost its eastern
territories. The last Khan of the Golden Horde, Edigu, was killed in a skirmish in 1419, but there were various successor
states, most notably the Great Horde (1459–1502).
Army Notes
The army standard would originally have been of Yak or horse tails Similar to Mongol standards but was replaced with a
banner after the horde reverted to Islam under Oz Beg Khan around 1313.
Crimean Armenians were considered reliable and steady, unlike the Bessermeni who were the inhabitants of Muslim towns
within Golden Horde territory. The Italian crossbowmen were supplied from Genoese and other colonies in the Crimea.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote the first draft of this list.

Ilkhanid Mongol
The Ilkhanid (or "subordinate") Khanate was established by Hulagu Khan in 1255 CE and constituted the south-westerly
portion of the Mongol Empire. This list covers it through to the death or deposition of its last ruler Ghazan II in 1357.
Generals Upgrade to heroic Any 3+ –
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Mongol guard cavalry Cavalry, lance, extra bow, veteran 1–4 6+ 13
Other Mongol cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to light cavalry,
Up to 1/3 6+ 7
(including locals trained to lance, extra bow, veteran
fight in Mongol fashion) Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to cavalry, bow,
Up to 1/2 7+ 11
veteran
Turkomen Light cavalry, bow 0–2 8+ 5
Kurds Bowmen, raw 0–1 9+ 5
Ditch to protect camp Fortifications 0–5 – 1
Allies
Armenian, Georgian, Golden Horde, Islamic Persian, Later Crusader.
The Ilkhanate was a Mongol khanate established in Persia in the c. 13th, based on Genghis Khan's conquest of the
Khwarazmian Empire in 1219–1224. Its first khan was Genghis's grandson, Hulagu. It became an independent khanate after
the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire in 1259. At its zenith it stretched across the territories of modern Iran, Iraq,
Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and western Pakistan.
The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity, and sought
a Franco-Mongol alliance with the Crusaders to conquer Palestine. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295,
embraced Islam.
In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death, which killed the current khan and contributed to a period of
political instability. Later, under pressure from both internal rebellions and external invasions by the Golden Horde, the
khanate disintegrated.

Timurid
This list covers the Transoxanian armies from the revolt of Timur the Lame (AKA Tamerlane) against the Jagatai in 1360
CE, through the dramatic expansion of his empire and also the successor kingdoms that emerged after his death in 1405.
Upgrade to detached 0–4* 2+ 6
Generals
Upgrade a detached, senior general to brilliant as
0–1* – 11
Timur the Lame
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Horse–tail standard 2VP standard 1 – 3
Timurid, Persian, Georgian or
Turkoman cavalry Upgrade cavalry, lance, extra bow to cavalry, lance,
Up to 1/2 6+ 13
extra bow, veteran
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
Turkoman light cavalry veteran
Upgrade light cavalry, bow, veteran to light cavalry,
Any 6+ 7
javelin, extra bow, veteran
Stampeding incendiary camels,
Scythed chariots, raw 0–1* 8+ 4
cattle or buffaloes
Javelinmen 7
Afghan spearmen 0–2 7+
Timurid or Afghan bowmen Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
Persian or Tajik bowmen Bowmen, raw 0–2 9+ 5
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2*** 8+ 4
Kharash (driven prisoners) Mobs, deep, raw, special**** 0–2* 9+ 4
Stone throwers Artillery (catapult) 0–1 7+ 7
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–1*** 7+ 7
Elephants Indian elephant, veteran 0–1** 5+ 11
* Only between 1369 and 1405.
** Only between 1399 and
1421.
**** Kharash are civilians and other prisoners chained together and driven towards the enemy using whips. They act as a
human shield but, being numerous and scared, will fight desperately in order to escape from their cruel captors. They
are treated as special version of raw mobs. They have three hits and hit on an eight and lack javelins. Heroes cannot be
attached to Kharash. They cannot march. Most unusually, they do not contribute victory points to their army's total and
no medals are surrendered when they are lost; their captors will shed few tears...
Allies
Turkoman, Later Nomadic Mongol
Notes

Elephants are rated veteran on account of their full armour. This is a most interesting army with some uncommon troop
types!
Whilst little known in Europe, Timur is recognised across Asia and the Middle East as a genius general and the equal of
Chenghis Khan, Alexander the Great and Hannibal. This reputation is based upon many remarkable achievements. He rose
from a solo cattle thief to become the leader of a gigantic empire. If he hadn’t died in 1405 during his campaign to conquer
China, his empire would likely have surpassed even that of Chenghis.
Born on 9th April 1336, Timur was the son of a noble of the Mongolian Barlas tribe. After starting out as a solo cattle thief,
he built a team of 12 followers. During one raid, whilst stealing a sheep, he was shot in the hip and hand which left him lame
for life and with only three fingers on one hand, which led to his nickname ‘Timur the Lame’ or ‘Tamerlane.’ He then chose
to follow certain warlords and other leaders, adeptly switching sides as he saw personal advantage.
He rose to lead the western Chagatai Khanate in 1369, and in 1370 he began a ten-year plan to dominate the Mongol world
by taking control of the Chagatai Ulus, the forty Mongol tribes that would form the heart of his steppe cavalry. Because he
could not be a ‘Khan,’ since he was not of Chengis’ bloodline, he instead self-proclaimed himself as an ‘Emir.’ To further
increase his legitimacy, he married a princess who was a direct descendant of Chengis Khan. He was still concerned that the
tribal leaders of the Chagatai Ulus might not give him the total loyalty that he required. So, he inserted his own trusted and
highly trained officers into the tribes at a senior level, knowing that over the next decade they would rise to the top roles. By
1380, he had legitimised his personal leadership and had a totally loyal and highly trained elite cadre of commanders of the
Chagatai Ulus, without having to risk challenging tribal loyalties.
Over the next decade, he extended his control over much of Central Asia. By 1385, he had become ruler of most of
Afghanistan, Persia and parts of Iraq, Armenia, and Georgia. He destroyed the Delhi Sultanate in 1398, the Mamluks in 1400
and the Ottomans in 1402.
Timur fell ill and died in 1405 whilst preparing to invade China. His appointed successor failed to unite the tribes and the
empire fragmented into warring dynasties which included Herat, Khorasan and Transoxania. Its last surviving kingdom, in
Persia, was destroyed in 1507 by the remnants of the Golden Horde. His great, great, great, great, grandson Babur did,
however, found the massive Mughal Empire.
Anecdotes of Timur
Timur intimidated his enemies through fear and coerced countless cities into surrendering without a fight through his
ruthless treatment of any army or city that failed to instantly surrender to him - he would massacre the survivors. At Baghdad
in 1401, he required each of his soldiers, on pain of death, to bring at least two severed heads to build “skull towers”. These
were many metres tall and were left for anyone to see what happened if you did not surrender instantly. After one battle
there were 28 such towers, each comprised of over 1,000 skulls. During his career, he is estimated to have massacred 17
million people, or 5% of the world’s population at the time.
One town initially refused to surrender, then changed its mind when Timur guaranteed no bloodshed. Timur agreed. They
surrendered. He buried them all alive!
At the siege of Smyrna in 1402, he used severed heads as ammunition for his catapults to hurl at the enemy ships coming to
relieve the city port garrison. The Knights of Rhodes were so appalled, they turned around and sailed away.
When the city of Isfizar rebelled and was recaptured by Timur, he forced the builders in the city to rebuild the walls and had
hundreds of the citizens buried alive in the foundations or cemented alive into the walls. Other favoured forms of execution
included impaling, being boiled alive, starved to death in a cage, and being crushed under heavy timbers and rocks. The only
civilians he did not kill were skilled artists and architects that he gathered at his capital city to make it the most beautiful city
in Eurasia. He also retained military engineers to conduct sieges and to create catapults and gunpowder experts for his early
artillery taken from the Ottomans.
Timur was very clever and innovative. He adopted new technologies such as catapults and artillery from his enemies and
used herds of cattle and buffalo to stampede through enemy lines. The night before the battle of Delhi his spies reported
that he would be facing many fearsome mail-covered elephants with poisoned tusks. He responded by loading 100 camels
with hay and dry wood and then when the elephants charged, he lit the hay and prodded the camels to charge the elephants,
who panicked, turned and rampaged through their own lines! He then took the surviving elephants and added them to his
army.
During his war with the Ottomans, Timur used his extensive male and female spy network to discover and report back
exactly what his enemies were doing. He also had his own secret police force, the Kourtchi, to counter enemy spies. In 1402,
when fighting the Ottomans, this allowed him to avoid Bayezid’s scouts and apparently disappear with his army, only to
reappear at the gates of Ankara, requiring Bayezid to force march his army to face Timur on ground of the latter’s choosing.

Not only was Bayezid’s army tired from the march, but Timur had also used his engineers to dam the course of the local
river, so that the Ottoman army had no access to drinking water. Even worse, shortly after the battle commenced, the Tartar
cavalry in Sultan Bayezid’s army suddenly switched sides to join Timur, leading to the annihilation of Bayezid’s elite janissary
troops, the defeat of the whole army and the capture of the Sultan. Timur had secretly bribed the Tartars before the battle
and afterwards incorporated them into his army. The Sultan was taken to the capital Samarkand in a cage, where he was
forced to watch his naked wife serve drinks to Timur whilst he, himself, served as Timur’s footstool.
Army Notes
Timur incorporated soldiers from all the lands he conquered into his army and, like the Romans, deployed his “auxiliaries”
in different countries from where they came from. This meant that wherever there was risk of a rebellion, he would have
troops available with no local loyalty, prepared to carry out his trademark ruthless treatment of the population.
The Timurid army was an extremely well-organized and disciplined military machine, initially using terms that Chenghis had
developed. An army of up to 100,000 men was called an Ordu and was usually led by Timur. Tumens consisted of 10,000 men
led by an Emir. Mingghan (later called Hazara) were 1,000 men, led by a Ming-Bashis or Sardar. Yuz Bashis led 100 men and On
Bashis led 10. Officers from Yuz Bashis up had the ability to locally improvise in how they carried out orders, provided the
orders were carried out.
Timurid discipline was very tough, and, in over 35 years of his leadership, there are only two instances where his army went
on a rampage - the sacks of Damascus and of Delhi – in each case sanctioned by Timur. This discipline was a result of both
carrot and a very big stick. The carrot was that his soldiers were paid regularly, sometimes ahead of a campaign and in some
cases received pensions. The stick was intense discipline and punishments applied to not just the wrongdoer but also his
officer and the entire unit. On one campaign, Timur saw a soldier sleeping while riding with his unit. Before Timur could
even give the order to punish the officer and the unit, the officer of the unit galloped up with the man’s head and so avoided
Timur’s wrath. The slightest delay in carrying out orders, or any hint of cowardice was punished by being taken to the capital
Samarkand, completely shaven of their beard and hair, dressed in women’s clothes, made to dance through the streets and
then left to die in a cage in the marketplace.
Timur personally conducted military reviews before every campaign and every battle to check armour, equipment and
discipline. He conducted mock battles to ensure all officers understood the surprisingly sophisticated use of banner
movements, trumpets, drums, war cries and sometimes flaming arrows to instantly send messages to control and direct his
army.
After defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1402, Timur was approached by emissaries from numerous European kings who
were grateful for having tamed the intimidating threat of the Ottomans. These emissaries reported back how well disciplined
and manoeuvrable the Timurid army was. One observer from Byzantium reported that Timur’s army was the best trained
and disciplined army they had ever seen. They were also impressed that, unlike most European and middle eastern armies
of the time that used three divisions - left, right and centre, Timur used seven. There were three in the first line, as usual,
and four more which could be deployed to give a more agile and flexible response. This could be a second line of three with
the last division in reserve, perhaps, or a single very powerful wing, or a central force designed to punch through the middle
of the enemy line. He always kept at least one division in reserve. This ability to precisely deploy fresh forces at a critical
point underpinned many of his victories.
Many thanks to David Smith for writing this list, and to Peter Ryding who wrote the background and notes. Peter persuaded me that the extreme
discipline of the army should permit detached generals.

VII Medieval Western Europe
This chapter contains the medieval army lists of Western Europe, north of the Pyrenees and west of the Rhine.
Middle Frankish
This list covers the Franks from the adoption of shieldwall tactics, around 600 CE, through to the end of the Merovingian
dynasty in 752 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran Up to 1/2 6+ 11
Frankish cavalry
Dismount cavalry, javelin, veteran to shieldwall, deep,
Any 6+ 14
veteran, mounted infantry
Aquitanians, Bretons or
Basques
Frankish infantry Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran Up to 1/3 6+ 13
Upgrade shieldwall, veteran to mounted infantry Up to 1/2 – 14
Frankish Heerbann (militia) Shieldwall, deep, raw 0–6 8+ 7
Skirmishers
Allies
TBC, West Slavs (after 623).
Army Notes
During this period the Franks were predominately infantry and even cavalry might sometimes dismount to fight on foot.

English Kingdoms
This list covers the kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria and the smaller sub-kingdoms from the approximate
date of the introduction of larger shields, around 600 CE, until the completion of the Norman conquest in 1072. It includes
the periods of Danish control from 1013 to 1014 and 1016 to 1042.
Generals
Upgrade a general on foot to senior, heroic, great
0–1* 3+ 9
leader representing King Alfred
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, javelin, raw 0–2** 8+ 7
Hird (mounted)
Upgrade cavalry, raw to cavalry 0–1*** 7+ 9
Norman knights Cavalry, javelin, veteran 0–1**** 6+ 11
Shieldwall, veteran, mounted inf., deep 0–3** 6+ 14
Hird (foot)
Equip with extra 2HCCW as Huscarls 0–3***** – 15
Shieldwall, veteran, mounted inf., deep, extra
Scottish exiles 0–1**** 6+ 15
2HCCW
Upgrade shieldwall to shieldwall, deep, veteran Up to 1/3 6+ 13
Fyrd Downgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, raw Up to 1/3 8+ 7
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran to shieldwall, deep,
Any – 14
veteran, mounted infantry
Fyrd dregs Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Skirmishers
Downgrade light infantry other, sling or bow to light 8+/9
Any 3
infantry other, sling or bow, raw +
* Only between 868 and 899. Great leaders are described in the "Even Stronger" supplement.
** The combined number of hird foot and mounted units taken may not exceed three.
**** Only between 1042 and 1057. Norman knights and Scottish exiles may not be used in the same army. Norman
knights must be led by a mounted general, representing Ralph the Timid.
***** Only from 1013, representing huscarls.
Allies
Welsh, Vikings.
Notes
The Anglo-Saxons were able to field cavalry, albeit not particularly reliable cavalry. Prudent kings will field the hird on foot,
lest they be routed like Ralph the Timid. The option to upgrade infantry with 2HCCW represents the poleaxes adopted from
the Danes from 1013 and depicted behind the shieldwall in the Bayeux Tapestry.
In 600 CE, England was divided between Northumbrians in the north, Mercians in the midlands, Angles around Anglia,
Saxons in the south and Jutes from Jutland in Kent, although Celtic strongholds still survived in Cornwall, Wales and along

the north-west coast. Each of the three main kingdoms was to become the dominant power in England, for a time -
Northumbria in the c. 7th, Mercia in the c. 8th and Wessex in the c. 9th.
In the late c. 8th, Offa, the ruler of Mercia, seized power and created a single state covering much of England south of
modern Yorkshire. However, afterwards he came under attack by the Vikings, who began by raiding Lindisfarne in 793. A
few decades later, Vikings from Denmark began venturing further south, raiding Winchester, Canterbury and London.
The next century was filled with battles between the English kingdoms and the Vikings. In 865, a Danish army captured
York, turning it into their capital (Yorvick). The northern kings made terms with the invaders and in 870 the Danes advanced
into Wessex, capturing Reading. Nine battles were fought around the area that year and in 871 the English, while under the
command of 23-year-old Alfred of Wessex, won their first significant victory against the Danes at Ashdown on the Berkshire
Downs. Wessex, like the other English kingdoms, made peace with the Danes who withdrew to winter in London.
From 871 to 899, Alfred (“the Great”) was the first Anglo-Saxon ruler to be accepted as national leader. In 878, a Danish
attack pushed Alfred west into the Somerset marshes, from whence he organised local resistance. Within months he defeated
the Danes at Edington in Wiltshire, after which the Danish king Guthrum agreed to leave Wessex and to be baptised a
Christian.
In 886, Alfred captured London, leading to a treaty between the Anglo-Saxons in the south and west and the Danes of the
Danelaw in the north and east of the country. Alfred became accepted as the overlord of Mercia, uniting the two kingdoms
of Wessex and Mercia. After Alfred's death in 899, two of his children, Edward and Ethelfled (married to the king of Mercia)
won back parts of the Danelaw, until eventually all the rulers in England, including the Danish chieftains of the eastern
regions, accepted Edward as their overlord.
In 925, Aethelstan was crowned King and completed the unification of England, receiving submission from the king of
Strathclyde and the Northumbrians. During the rest of the century, the English fought with the Scots and with the Vikings
and finally, in 991, the Danes defeated the English at the battle of Maldon, resulting in the first payment of Danegeld
“protection money”.
In 1013 Sweyn, King of Denmark, invaded England and conquered much of the country. The English king Ethelred (“the
Unready”) escaped to his wife's family in Normandy along with their son Edward (who would eventually become king of
England). Ethelred returned when Sweyn died in early 1014 and was able to drive Sweyn’s son Cnut from the country.
Ethelred died in 1016 and was succeeded by his son Edmund “Ironside” but soon after Edmund was defeated by the Danes
at the Battle of Assandun and forced to agree to Cnut’s terms that all of England north of the Thames was to be the domain
of the Danish prince and all to the south, including London, could be kept by the English king. The critical condition was
that accession to the reign of the entire realm of England was to pass to Cnut upon Edmund's death. Edmund died within
weeks of this arrangement, some sources claiming that he was
murdered. The Saxons now accepted Cnut as king of all of England and
he was crowned in London in 1017. Cnut then strengthened his hold
on the country by marrying Ethelred’s widow, Emma of Normandy. As
her 14-year-old son Edward, still living with his mother's family in
Normandy, was the Anglo-Saxon heir to the English throne, Cnut
became the boy’s stepfather, even though he had a natural heir in his
own son Harthacnut.
Cnut died after eighteen years of rule and was succeeded by his son,
Harthacnut but, since he was stuck in Denmark, Harold Harefoot
(“fleet of foot”) was chosen in his place. He died in 1040 and Godwin,
Earl of Wessex, supported the accession of his son-in-law Edward “the
Confessor” to the throne. Edward had spent the previous thirty years
in Normandy, but his reign restored the native royal house of Wessex
to the throne of England. Unfortunately, he was an unusually pious man
and consequently did not sire any children. Succession therefore came
down to who was the strongest and Godwin's son Harold took the
throne. Unfortunately, the kingdom was invaded in 1066 by Harald
Hardrada, King of Norway, supported by Godwin's third son Tostig
who had been exiled by Harold. The Danes were crushed at Stamford
Bridge in Northumbria and Harold then rushed southwards to meet the
invasion of the Normans. At the Battle of Hastings though, his army
was defeated and Harold II, the last English King, fell in battle.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who wrote the historical background for this list, and Darrell “Hideyoshi” Hindley who kindly provided the image
of his Harold Godwinson (Gripping Beast models).

Breton
This list covers the Bretons from 600 CE until the conquest and occupation of Brittany by the Vikings around 920 CE.
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Breton milites
Upgrade cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin, veteran Up to 1/2 6+ 11
Breton light horse Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin,
Up to 1/2 6+ 6
veteran
Spearmen Shieldwall, raw 0–2 8+ 5
Archers Light infantry other, bow or crossbow 0–1 8+ 4
Allies
Normans, Vikings, Carolingian Franks (up to 888 CE), Western Franks (from 888 CE).
Notes
Although the Bretons are best known for their cavalry, I have permitted them some optional poor quality shieldwall and
archers or crossbows for use in the defence of Brittany. I have also allowed a few light infantry skirmishers, since, in later
times, Breton javelinmen served as mercenaries.
British colonisation of Armorica had begun at the end of the c. 4th and was particularly heavy in the 5th and 6th Centuries, as
Britons strove to escape the encroaching Anglo-Saxons and Irish. Brittany became a Dumnonian colony, and the Brythonic
Celtic language was reintroduced into the peninsula.
To prevent Breton raids, the neighbouring Frankish kingdoms created a Breton borderland incorporating the counties of
Rennes and Nantes. The Merovingian and the later Carolingian Franks tried to integrate the region into the Frankish
kingdom, with limited success. The Bretons defeated the Franks at the Battle of Messac (843), the Battle of Ballon (845) and
even more importantly at the Battle of Jengland (851) which, by the Treaty of Angers, secured Breton independence.
The Franks were again defeated at the Battle of Brissarthe (866) by a joint Breton-Viking army but, by around 920, Brittany
itself had been conquered and occupied by the Vikings. When liberated from Viking rule in 936–939, by an invasion of
British exiles supported by the English king, Brittany became a Frankish duchy and is subsequently covered by the Western
Frankish list.
Army Noes
The Bretons were famed for their light horse which skirmished with javelins. Writing about Jengland, Regino of Prüm likened
the Breton tactics to those of eastern horse archers:
"The Bretons, by habit accustomed to darting here and there with horses drilled in this manner, attacked the tightly packed
battle array of the Franks, throwing with great strength javelins into its midst. After simulating flight, they likewise pierced
the breastplates of their pursuers with javelins." (Mercenaries to Conquerors: Norman Warfare in the Eleventh & Twelfth
Century Mediterranean by Paul Brown.)
Sources
The Vikings in Brittany by Neil S. Brown, published by the Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London
1989 http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/The%20Vikings%20In%20Brittany.pdf
Thanks to Richard “Doctor Phalanx” for the historical background and his useful suggestions regarding the list.

Carolingian Frankish
This list covers the Franks from the foundation of the Carolingian dynasty in 752 CE, until their empire was partitioned in
888 CE.
Generals
Upgrade a mounted, heroic, senior general to great
0–1* 3+ 10
leader as Charlemagne
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Cavalry, javelin 1–3** 7+ 9
Cavalry, lance 3–5*** 7+ 9
Upgrade cavalry, javelin or cavalry, lance to cavalry,
0–2 6+ 11
javelin, veteran or cavalry, lance, veteran
Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran with
Any – +1
one extra javelin
Frankish caballarii (cavalry)
Downgrade cavalry, javelin or cavalry, lance, veteran
0–1 6+ 6
to light cavalry, javelin, veteran as scarae
Dismount cavalry, javelin or cavalry, lance as Any**, up to
7+ 11
shieldwall, deep, mounted infantry 1/2 ***
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, mounted infantry to
Up to 1/2 6+ 14
shieldwall, deep, mounted infantry, veteran
Cavalry, javelin 1–2**/*** 7+ 9
Cavalry, lance 1–2*** 7+ 9
Downgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, javelin to
At least one 8+ 7
Bavarian, Swabian or cavalry, lance, raw or cavalry, javelin, raw
Thuringian caballarii (cavalry) Downgrade cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, javelin 0–1 7+ 5
Upgrade cavalry, lance with one extra javelin Any – +1
Dismount cavalry, javelin or cavalry, lance as Any**, 0–
7+ 11
shieldwall, deep, mounted infantry 1***
Bretons or Gascons Light cavalry, javelin 0–1 7+ 5
3–5**, 1–
Shieldwall, deep 7+ 10
Frankish infantry 2***
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to mounted infantry Any – +1
2–5**, 1–
Shieldwall, deep, raw 8+ 7
Heerbann (militia) 4***
Downgrade shieldwall, deep, raw to mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Skirmishers Light infantry, bow 0–1 (0–3*) 8+ 4
Light infantry, crossbow 0–1*** 8+ 4
* Between 768 and 814.
** Before 795.
*** After 795.
Allies
Bretons, West Slavs, Early Serb or Croatian (after 798 CE), Later Lombard (after 774 CE), Saxons (772–804 CE).

Army Notes
At the start of the period and by the beginning of Charlemagne's reign in 768 CE, the Carolingians were still fighting mainly
on foot. This changed during Charlemagne's reign in response to fast-moving raiders on distant borders, e.g., Avars, Arabs,
Vikings, Lombards & Magyars. In 795, to fight the Avars, Charlemagne assembled a multitude of horses and, thereafter, the
Franks became predominately cavalry, although they sometimes dismounted to fight on foot.
Scarae were full-time picked troops of elite status (including royal/imperial bodyguard) who were sometimes used as light
units for raids or as frontier guards, etc.
Many thanks to Paul Caspall, who wrote the original version of this list. I have edited the list to give the Franks the lance, after 795 CE, and
to permit the cavalry to dismount in the earlier part of the period, as they often did.

Norse Irish
This list covers the Irish from the heavier Viking raids and first overwintering in Ireland after 821 CE, until mercenary
gallóglaigh started to replace the Irish ca. 1300.
Attached, heroic general 2–4* 2+ 4
Generals Upgrade to mounted 0–4 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Irish light horsemen Light cavalry, javelin, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Anglo–Norman mercenaries Knights, lance 0–1** 6+ 11
Irish nobles
Upgrade javelinmen, veteran to shieldwall, veteran 0–1 6+ 9
Upgrade with extra 2HCCW Any – +1
Fianna (bands of young Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
warriors) Upgrade javelinmen with extra 2HCCW Any – +1
Downgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, raw At least 1/2 8+ 5
"Rising out"
At least 1/2 8+ 3
javelin, raw
Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Ostmen (men of the East) Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran,
0–1 6+ 14
2HCCW
Gall ghaedheil (“foreign Gaels”) Javelinmen, veteran, fanatic, extra 2HCCW 0–1 7+ 10
Gallóglaigh (“foreign warriors”) Shieldwall, veteran, extra 2HCCW 0–1*** 6+ 10
Welsh archers Bowmen 0–2** 8+ 7
* Generals must have a bodyguard of either Irish nobles, if Irish, or if Anglo-Norman, knights.
** Only after 1169, minimum applies if any such troops are taken. They must be commanded by an Anglo-Norman
general.
Allies
Viking, Anglo-Norman
Notes
The option to upgrade nobles to shieldwall represents the wall of shields and spears described at Clontarf in 1014, but that
might, possibly, have been a literary embellishment.
The first gallóglaigh to arrive in Ireland were numbered in the low hundreds and were based on two family groups of exiles,
who had backed the wrong side in Scotland. We have equipped them as islesmen, but they were not numerous enough to
constitute a deep unit.
The first recording landing by Vikings in Ireland was not on mainland Ireland but Lambay which is an island two miles off
the coast in the Irish Sea. It was home to a religious settlement which was ransacked. After that first landing in 795 CE, raids

against the Irish mainland continued until approximately 830, when the Norse started to build fortified settlements in which
they could over-winter.
Norse raids continued during the rest of the 9th and the 10th centuries with self-contained kingdoms being formed, including
Dublin, Lexford, Waterford and Cork. The colonists started to intermarry with Gaelic families and these Norse Gaels became
a separate group, becoming more Irish as time went by and becoming part of the political landscape in Ireland. Christianity
became the norm, taking over from the traditional Norse Gods.
Another term used by the Norse Gaels themselves and by the English was Ostmen, meaning “Men from the East.” They
also came to be known as Gall-Goídil or Gall-Ghaeil, meaning “foreign Gaels.” Although as time went by the Norse-Gael
gradually became more Gaelic, they retained the Viking way of battle, including their armour, tactics and weaponry.
Battles between the Norse Irish and local Irish leaders were numerous, most of them small affairs between ever changing
allegiances. However, some battles were much larger. One of the largest was the Battle of Clontarf which took place in 1014.
Brian Boru, High King of Ireland, led a large army against a Norse-Irish alliance comprising the forces of Sigtrygg Silkbeard,
King of Dublin; Mael Morda mac Murchada, King of Leinster; and a Viking force led by Sigurd of Orkney and Brodir of
Mann. It lasted a whole day with the Viking army finally being routed from the field, although Brian Boru was slain.
Sources
Ian Heath “Armies of Feudal Europe” A Wargames Research Group Publication

Pre-Feudal Scottish
This list covers the Scots from 843 CE, when Kenneth McAlpine became King of both the Picts and Scots, until the kingdom
was reorganised along feudal lines in 1124.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Light cavalry, javelin 1–3 5
Scottish cavalry 7+
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin 0–2 9
Cavalry, lance, one extra javelin, veteran 0–1* 6+ 12
Norman knights
Shieldwall, deep, veteran 0–2 13
Scottish thegns Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran with extra 2HCCW 0–2 6+ 14
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any +1
Spearmen, deep 5–10 7+ 10
Scottish spearmen Downgrade spearmen, deep to spearmen, deep, raw Up to 1/2 8+ 7
Upgrade to mounted infantry Up to 1/2 – +1
Warriors, deep 1–5*** 7+ 10
Galwegians Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, veteran 0–1 6+ 13
Upgrade to mounted infantry All or none – +1
Downgrade to raw Up to 1/2 8+/9+ 3
Elderly, youth, women Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
* From 1052 to 1072.
*** Minimum applies if any Galwegians are selected.
Allies
Before 945 CE, Strathclyde Welsh. Post 1056 CE, Scots Isles and Highlands.
In 843 Kenneth McAlpin, the King of the Scots (Irish Gaels) of Dalriada, became the King of the Picts, as well. The new
nation, called Alba, extended northwards from the rivers Forth & Clyde. Alba's rival kingdoms were the Strathclyde Welsh
to the south-west and the Angles to the south-east. Malcolm II invaded the Lothians in 1018 and defeated the Angles at the
Battle of Carham on the banks of the Tweed. The importance of this battle is that the border of Alba (the future Scotland)
was set at the Tweed, where it currently lies, instead of the Forth. In 1034, the Kingdom of Strathclyde was formerly merged
with that of Alba, and Scotland was born, albeit Scotland without the Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland which were still
under Norse rule.
Duncan and Macbeth, the two kings who came after Malcolm II, are well remembered from the Shakespeare “Scottish”
play. Duncan I ruled from 1034 to 1040, when he was killed in battle, near Elgin, by Macbeth who had risen in rebellion.
Macbeth ruled for 17 years until Duncan’s son, Malcolm, who had been exiled in England, attacked him with an army of
Scots & English. Macbeth was defeated and killed in the battle near Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, and Malcolm was crowned
King Malcolm III (also known as Malcolm Canmore). He was a warrior king who fought against uprisings in the north of
Alba and often attacked the Anglo-Saxons in Northumbria.
In 1066, after Malcolm had reigned for nine years, the Normans conquered England and, in, 1072 William the Bastard
marched against Scotland, crossing the Forth. He met Malcolm at Abernethy, just south of Perth, where a treaty was agreed

in which Malcolm submitted to William’s authority. Shortly thereafter, William’s son Rufus seized Cumberland which, as
part of Strathclyde, was lost to Scotland so establishing the line of the border which survives to this day. Rufus constructed
the castle at Carlisle to defend the territory. This was the start of the wars between Scotland & England. In 1093, Malcolm
invaded England for the fifth time but was killed when the English defeated his army on the banks of the Alne in
Northumberland.
In 1097 Edgar, son of Malcolm III, was crowned king. During his reign, the people of the Western Isles rose and expelled
the Norwegians. This caused the Norwegian king Magnus Bareleg to attack and reclaim them as well as the Isle of Man and
Anglesey. Instead of standing up to them, Edgar made a treaty that wherever the Norseman could take their boats, they
could claim as their territory. The Norsemen dragged their ships over the land of the peninsula of Kintyre and thus this land,
too, was lost to the Scots.
The pre-Feudal period ended in 1124 with the death of Alexander I.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who added the historical background to this list.

Western Frankish
This list covers the Franks between the death of Charles the Fat in 888 CE and the foundation of the Ottonian dynasty in
the east, ca. 911. Thereafter, it covers Western Francia only, which evolved to become the Kingdom of France, ending with
the majority of Philip I ("The Amorous") in 1066. The Ottonian Franks and the Normans are covered in separate lists.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Frankish Milites Upgrade cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran with

Any – +1
a single extra javelin
Replace cavalry, lance or cavalry, lance, veteran with All or
– –
cavalry, javelin or cavalry, javelin, veteran (as Bretons) none***
Gascon cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 1* 7+ 5
Heerbann (militia)
Upgrade shieldwall, raw to shieldwall Any 7+ 7
Peasants Mobs, deep 0–3, 1–3* 8+ 7
Archers 0–2 8+
Bowmen 7
Light infantry other, crossbow 0–1 4
Crossbowmen 8+
Upgrade light infantry, crossbow to crossbowmen 0–1** 7
Gascon infantry Light infantry, javelin 1* 7+ 4
* Gascon Western Franks only. Minima apply only if any such troops are taken.
** After 1000.
*** After 936.
Allies
Bretons (before 920 CE), Normans, Vikings (before 923 CE)
After the deposition (and subsequent death) of Emperor Charles the Fat, the
Carolingian Empire divided into five kingdoms, which were never to be entirely
reunited. After 911, the Eastern Franks were united under the Ottonian dynasty. The
Western Franks, however, remained divided into different duchies and counties that
were ruled by hereditary nobles who paid little respect to the authority of the French
king. These included Aquitaine, Gascony, Toulouse, Brittany, Anjou, Normandy,
Burgundy, Blois, Orléans and Flanders, amongst others.
The various kings, dukes, counts and margraves of the Western Franks fought the
Vikings, the Bretons, the Normans, the Hungarians, the Eastern Franks and, regularly,
each other.
Crusader miniatures beautifully painted by Darrell "Hideyoshi" Hindley

Norman
This list covers the Normans from the foundation of Normandy in 911 CE until the completion of the conquest of England
in 1072, excluding their adventures in Italy and Sicily which are covered separately in the Italo-Norman list.
Upgrade one mounted, attached, senior, heroic
0–1* – 10
general to great leader representing William I
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Papal Banner 2VP standard 0–1***** – 3
0–2**, 5–
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
12***
Norman or similar milites Upgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 6+ 11
Upgrade cavalry, lance or lance, veteran with one
Any – +1
extra javelin
Shieldwall, deep 6–12** 7+ 10
Spearmen 0–2 6+ 15
extra 2HCCW, mounted infantry
Shieldwall 1–3***/^ 7+ 7
Archers 1–3^ 8+
Bowmen 7
Light infantry other, crossbow 1–2^ 4
Crossbowmen Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow to 8+
1–2****/^ 7
crossbowmen
Armed peasants Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
* After 1047.
** Before 930.
*** From 930.
**** After 1000.
***** From 1066–1072, only, in which case William I must be taken as a great leader.
^ Minima apply only if any infantry units are taken, other than a single light infantry other, bow.
Allies
Vikings, Western Frankish, Later Lombard.
Notes
I have assumed that the first generation of Normans fought more like Vikings than Franks but after a generation or so, had
enthusiastically and successfully embraced the Frankish way of warfare.
I have given the Normans the option of an extra javelin that might create an opportunity to charge in against a Saxon
shieldwall on the top of a hill.
Since Brittany was, by the time of this list, a Frankish duchy, Breton allies can be drawn from the Western Frankish list.

The Normans are an ethnic group that emerged from contact between Viking settlers, Franks and Gallo-Romans in north-
western France. After the Siege of Chartres in 911, Charles III the Simple, the king of the Western Franks, ceded the coastal
lands between the mouth of the Seine and Rouen to Gaange Rolf, a Viking leader known as Rollo, in exchange for his oath
of fealty and protection against further Viking incursions. Rollo became the first Duke of Normandy and Count of Rouen.
The Viking settlers intermingled with the
local Franks and adopted the local Gallo-
Romance language, which developed into
Norman French. They adopted Christianity
and became fervent Catholics. They also
adopted feudal doctrines similar to those of
the Franks. By the mid c. 10th, a strong
Norman identity had emerged.
The Normans seem to have inherited their
fierce martial spirit from their Viking (and
Frankish) ancestors. Norman knights were
poor and restless, especially the second
sons, and sought opportunities for wealth
and advancement throughout
Christendom, eventually carving out
kingdoms in England, Italy and the Levant.
Norman milites painted by Darrell "Hideyoshi"

Hindley

Scots Isles and Highlands
This list covers the armies of the Lords of the Isles from the seizure of the Isles from the King of Man by Somerled in 1056
CE, until the last independent lord, John Macdonald II, forfeited his estates and titles to James IV of Scotland in 1493.
Generals
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to shieldwall, deep, veteran Up to 1/3 6+ 13
Islesmen or west coast
Upgrade shieldwall, deep, veteran with extra 2HCCW Any – +1
highlanders
Upgrade remaining shieldwall, deep with extra bow Up to 1/2 – +2
Warriors, extra bow, deep 2–9 7+ 12
Upgrade warriors, extra bow, deep, to warriors, extra
Other highlanders Up to 1/3 6+ 16
bow, 2HCCW, deep, veteran
Lesser islesmen or highlanders Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Galwegians Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, veteran 0-1 6+ 13
Upgrade warriors, deep to mounted infantry Any – +1
Irish mercenaries Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Skirmishers 1–2
* Only before 1256.
Allies
Vikings, Norse Irish
Notes
Highlanders, Islemen and Galwegians must serve under a general of their own nationality.
After discussions with various chums and reviewing the images in Ian Heath’s Armies of Feudal Europe, which are based
on the Lewis chessmen. I’ve regraded the Islemen as shieldwall, deep. It’s clear that at least some of them used long kite
shields, or large round shields. In terms of protection there is a remarkable similarity in general appearance, not only across
Ireland and Western Scotland but over a couple of hundred years, i.e., the aketon, mail coif and bascinet. Islemen seem
strongly associated with textile protection. At least some of them used large axes; Heath writes that in 1171 the Orcadian
and Hebridean mercenaries “were predominately armed with axes like their Viking forbears.” It also seems likely, by
extension from the Vikings, and comparison with the highlanders, that some Islemen were bow-armed.
The Kingdom of the Isles consisted of the Isle of Man, the Hebrides and the islands of the Firth of Clyde from the c. 9th to
the c. 13th. The islands were known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar, or "Southern Isles" as distinct from the Norðreyjar or
“Northern Isles” of Orkney and Shetland. The kingdom was at first entirely independent from the rest of Scotland, and
later, although subject, largely independent and often clashed in battle with the Scots.
Norse rule over the Southern Isles ended with the emergence of Somerled (1113–1164). Born in Argyll in the west of
Scotland, Somerled rose to become the Norse-Gaelic thane (lord) of Argyll. In 1156, his fleet, which was said to number 80
galleys, won a great victory over Godred, the Hiberno-Norse King of Man and the Isles, and thereafter Somerled ruled over
Argyll, Man and the Isles. In 1164, he led a vast invasion force into Scotland culminating in the disastrous Battle of Renfrew,

just outside Glasgow, against forces commanded by Herbert, Bishop of Glasgow and Baldwin, Sheriff of Lanark. Somerled
was killed and his lands were divided between his sons or grandsons – Donald, Dougall and Ruari. These became the
founders of three of Scotland's greatest clans – McDonald, McDougall and McRory. Over the next 200 years or so, through
battle and inter-marriage the McDonalds gradually became the dominant clan.
In 1220 Alexander II of Scotland invaded Argyll, taking it from the McDonalds and annexing it to the Crown of Scotland.
Scottish pressure on the Isles themselves led to a Norwegian intervention. At the Battle of Largs in 1263, the Scots inflicted
a defeat upon the army of Haakon Haakonson, the King of Norway. Three years later his son, the new Norwegian King
Magnus VI, signed a treaty giving Alexander III of Scotland control over the Hebrides, the Isle of Man, Shetland and Orkney
in return for a lump sum of 4,000 marks and an annuity of 100 marks.
After Robert Bruce’s defeat by the English at Methven in 1286, Angus Og the Lord of the Isles allied himself with him,
sheltering him on various of his islands and in his castles. He became a close ally and supporter and led a contingent from
the Isles to help Bruce defeat the English at Bannockburn in 1314.
Antediluvian Miniatures Islesmen painted by Andrew Taylor

Angus Og and Robert Bruce (now King of Scotland) both died in 1329. Angus Og's son John became the new ruler of the
Isles and David II, son of Robert Bruce, succeeded his father although the crown was held by the claimant Edward Balliol
with support from Edward III of England. From 1336, with Balliol's blessing, John MacDonald styled himself the First Lord
of the Isles. In 1346, David II now king of Scotland invaded England to honour the 'Auld Alliance' with France but was
defeated at the Battle of Neville's Cross. In the same year John MacDonald married Robert Bruce's daughter Margaret and
an even stronger MacDonald power base was formed in the north.
Throughout our period, inter-clan skirmishes and fights between the men of the Isles and the Scots were frequent and they
culminated in the Battle of Harlaw, on the 24th of July 1411 between Highlanders and Lowlanders to decide the chief power
in Scotland. Donald, the Lord of the Isles, invaded the mainland with an army and was met by the Earl of Mar at Harlaw,
just north of Inverurie to the west of Aberdeen. Mar’s army was bloodied but victorious. You can see David Imrie's (of
Claymore Castings fame) fabulous Harlaw game on YouTube at http://theminiaturespage.com/news/805972356. The
video includes a detailed account of the battle.
Sometime between 1485 and 1491, the McDonalds attacked and were defeated by the Clan Mackenzie at the Battle of the
Park just outside Strathpeffer, north of Inverness. In 1493, King James IV of Scotland discovered that John MacDonald,
Earl of Ross and the Fourth Lord of the Isles, had made a secret treaty to conquer Scotland with Edward VI of England
and the Earl of Douglas. The War of the Roses in England had prevented the activation of this alliance. John MacDonald’s
estates and titles were forfeited to James IV of Scotland. Subsequently in the c. 16th, several MacDonald leaders
unsuccessfully tried to restore the independence of the Isles. Prince William is currently the titular Lord of the Isles.
The rulers of the Isles included:
• Somerled (1113–1164)
• Ranald (1148–1207)
• Donald (c. 1200–1250)

• Angus Mor “The Great” (1249–1292)
• Angus Og “The Younger” (1274–1329)
• John First Lord of the Isles (1320–1387)
• Donald Second Lord of the Isles (1326–1423)
• Alexander Earl of Ross, Third Lord of the Isles (1398–1449)
• John Earl of Ross, Fourth, and last, Lord of the Isles (1434–1503)
The full family tree of the rulers of the Isles can be viewed at:
https://www.finlaggan.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/family-tree.jpg
A detailed history of the Macdonald family and the Lordship of the Isles can be read at:
https://deriv.nls.uk/dcn23/9686/96862057.23.pdf
Sources
Ian Heath “Armies of Feudal Europe” A Wargames Research Group Publication
Many thanks to David Soutar who wrote the historical background for this list, and to Neil Grant and DoctorPhalanx for the interesting
discussion on Islemen and Gallóglaigh.

Feudal French
This list covers the armies of feudal France from the majority of Philip I ("The Amorous") in 1066 CE, during whose reign
the French monarchy began a modest recovery, up to the Hundred Years War in 1322.
Heroes 2–4 – 1
The Oriflamme (from Latin aurea
2 VP standard 0–1***** – 3
flamma, "golden flame")
Feudal and mercenary knights Knights, lance 4–10 6+ 11
and sergeants. Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran Up to 1/2 5+ 13
Shieldwall, raw 3–8* 8+ 5
Upgrade shieldwall, raw to shieldwall 0–4* 7+ 7
Replace shieldwall, raw with spearmen, veteran as
0–2* 6+ 9
Feudal levy, town militia and Brabançon or Flemish mercenaries
mercenaries Spearmen, raw 3–10** 8+ 5
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen as town militia 0–4** 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, veteran as
0–4** 6+ 9
Flemish, Brabançon or other mercenaries
Feudal levy slingers, archers Light infantry other, bows or slings 0–2 8+ 4
and bidets Light infantry, javelin 0–2 7+ 4
Communal militia and
mercenary crossbow Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow to
0–1*** 8+ 7
crossbowmen
Feudal levy peasants or ribauds Mobs, deep 0–4 8+ 7
Torsion artillery catapults or
Artillery (catapult) 0–1**** 7+ 7
ballistae
* Only up to 1150.
** Only after 1150.
**** Only in 1304.
***** Only from 1124
Allies
Feudal Spanish, Communal Italian
During most of the period covered by this list, France lacked a strong, centralised monarchy, which had collapsed with the
Carolingians. Later in the period, we see the Capetian kings, who were also dukes of L’Île-de-France, first starting to bring
to heel their own duchy and then expanding out to impose their royal rule over the other dukes of France.
This was a period of near-constant fighting and sieges but perhaps unexpectedly, given the rivalries, a period with few major
battles. Only toward the end of the period covered by this list, did Philippe II manage to break the stranglehold of the Feudal
magnates. The end of this period also saw major battles to suppress revolts in the Low Countries at Courtrai, Mons-en-
Pévèle and Bouvines, where we finally see large French armies in action.

Phillip II is perhaps better known today for suppressing the Knights Templar rather that unifying France, but the success of
the Capetians was not only at the expense of the French nobility but also at the expense of the English Crown, leading to
the Hundred Years’ War.
Army Notes
This period saw many sieges and campaigns but few pitched battles, among which the main ones we have orders of battle
for are Taillebourg, Bouvines, Courtrai and Mons-en-Pévèle. Armies were, as in the rest of Europe, much smaller than
theoretically possible.
The Oriflamme (from the Latin aurea flamma, "golden flame") was the battle standard of the King of France. Originally the
sacred banner of the Abbey of St. Denis, it was red with two or three pointed ends. When raised in battle it indicated that
no prisoners were to be taken until it was lowered. It was lost in battle and replaced several times. The French battle cry was
“Montjoie Saint Denis;” unfortunately, its etymology is uncertain.
Knights and communal militia formed the backbone of French armies, with the use of crossbowmen increasing throughout
the period. Mons-en-Pévèle in 1304 was noteworthy for the use of a least five pieces of torsion artillery, either catapults or
ballista, or a mix of types. They had little effect on the overall battle, however, as a sortie destroyed them early on.
Many thanks to Andy Green who wrote this list and the associated historical background!

Anglo-Norman
This list represents the Normans from the completion of the conquest of England (1072 CE) through to the reign of Henry
II, first of the Plantagenet kings (1154).
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Wagon with standards 2VP standard 0–1*** – 3
Knights and their retinues
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–4 5+ 13
Francingenae ("men of French
origin"), sergeants, etc
Marcher muntatores (military
tenants)
Spearmen 2–8 7+ 7
Foot sergeants, town militia or Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran Up to 1/2 6+ 9
mercenary infantry Upgrade spearmen or spearmen, veteran to mounted
0–4 – +1
infantry
Fyrd
Upgrade shieldwall, deep to mounted infantry 0–4 – +1
Marcher Welsh foot Warriors, deep 1–3* 7+ 10
Light infantry other, bow 0–8**
Light infantry other, crossbow 0–2** 4
Skirmishers 8+
Light infantry other, sling 0–2**
Upgrade any light infantry other to mounted infantry 0–4 +1
* Minima apply only within a Marcher army; not permitted in a non-Marcher army.
** No more than eight bow/sling-armed units in total may be chosen.
*** In 1038 only, representing the banners of Saint Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, St. Wilfred of Ripon and St.
Cuthbert of Durham carried on a wagon at the "Battle of the Standards."
Allies
Feudal French (not permitted in a Marcher army)
Notes
Armies must be either Marcher or non-Marcher; the former being those armies raised near to the borders of the independent
Welsh Kingdoms. Francingenae were tenant subjects of less than knightly status and supplied feudal obligation of up to 60
days. From 1100 or so they were usually referred to as "sergeants". Knights may dismount before a battle and fight as knights
2HCCW or knights 2HCCW, veteran. Archers and crossbowmen were sometimes mounted to keep pace with the cavalry
and mounted infantry, but they dismounted to shoot and so are best depicted as mounted infantry.
Army Notes
After the conquest, many Saxon institutions were retained, particularly the military service due from the elite and the
recruitment of shire and town levies. Saxons were soon to be found fighting for the king against rebellious barons or invading
Danes. This Saxon integration had a significant influence on the development of Anglo-Norman armies. It was common
for knights to fight dismounted during this period and did so at the battle of the Standard, at Lincoln and in many smaller

skirmishes. Mercenaries were also extensively used. For background reading, try the novel 'Knight in Anarchy' by George
Shipway which includes the Battle of the Standard.
Many thanks to Tim Whitworth who wrote this useful list and to Alan Easton who subsequently edited it.

Medieval Welsh
This list covers the Welsh from the approximate date of their adoption of long spears and bows to counter the Norman
knights (1100 CE), until the fall of Owain Glyndŵr's final fortress in 1409.
Generals
Upgrade a senior, heroic, attached, mounted general
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Owain Glyndŵr
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Upgrade cavalry, lance to knights, lance 0–2 6+ 11
Uchelwyr or Men–at–arms
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran as
0–1 5+ 13
the King or Lord's "teulu" (household)
Welsh light cavalry Light cavalry, javelin 0–1*** 7+ 5
2–4**, 6–
Spearmen 7+ 7
12***
Welsh spearmen
Upgrade spearmen with a single extra javelin Up to 1/2 7+ 8
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran 0–1*** 6+ 9
Ostmen ("Men of the East") Shieldwall, deep 0–3**** 7+ 10
Irish bonnacht mercenaries Javelinmen 0–1**** 7+ 7
Light infantry other, bow 6–12**, 2– 4
8+
Bowmen 4*** 7
Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
All***** 8+ 4
other, longbow
Welsh archers
Upgrade bowmen to longbowmen All***** 8+ 8
Upgrade longbowmen to longbowmen, veteran Up to 1/2 7+ 10
Upgrade bowmen or longbowmen to mounted
0–2 – +1
infantry
Welsh javelinmen Light infantry, javelin 1–2 7+ 4
* Between 1400 and 1409 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** South Welsh.
*** North Welsh.
**** Only before 1150.
***** Only after 1295.
Allies
Medieval Welsh, Feudal English (Marcher option), 100 Years War French (1400–1409, only)
Notes
Armies must either be North Welsh or South Welsh, but can include South or North Welsh allies, respectively. The North
Welsh tended to be spear-armed, the South, bow-armed. The option to upgrade some spearmen with extra javelins represents
Gerald of Wales's description of Welshmen throwing heavy spears. The option to upgrade cavalry to knights represents
Welsh kingdoms, such as that belonging to Lord Rhys Deheubarth in the c. 12th.

By 1100 CE, the Normans had started settling and building castles in Wales both as shelter and as symbols of power over
the local population. During the next century there were continual Viking raids on the coast, infighting within local power
bases and frequent uprisings and patriotic revolts against Norman rule. In 1136, a vast Welsh host met and defeated a
Norman army at the Battle of Crug Mawr, fought near Cardigan Castle.
From 1143 onwards, Owain Gwynedd, a prominent Welsh leader, revolted against Norman rule. In 1157 Henry II of
England, having spent three years consolidating his authority in the vast Angevin Empire, moved against Owain but was
defeated once at the Battle of Ewloe and again in 1165 at the Battle of Crogen near Oswestry. Both defeats were due to
successful Welsh ambushes of the invading English armies.
The first half of the c. 13th saw continual Welsh offensives led by Prince Llywelyn (“the Great”) who, by 1208, had expanded
his power base as far south as Powys. He fought off an attempt by King John to conquer Wales in 1211. The Treaty of
Worcester in 1218 recognised Llywelyn's authority in Wales and secured the dominance of Welsh language over Norman
French.
The 1258 civil war in England between Henry III and barons led by Simon de Montfort enabled the ambitious regional lords
to expand their influence and the Welsh Prince Llewelyn ap Gruffudd to expand his territories. He defeated a royal army
and was acknowledged as the first and last native Prince of Wales. He went on the offensive and besieged the Marcher
fortress at Caerphilly in the southeast, which had been built to stop the Welsh reaching the River Severn. Now at the peak
of Welsh power, he ruled three quarters of the Welsh population.
Edward I's patience eventually ran out and he led a large army into Wales with which he forced Llywelyn's submission. He
then controlled more of Wales than any previous English king. In 1282, the Welsh again revolted; Edward invaded, once
again, and the Welsh were defeated at the Battle of Orewin (or Irfon Bridge), after which they were entirely subjugated.
In 1301, Edward’s son, who was to become Edward II, was invested as the first English Prince of Wales. When he ascended
the throne in 1307, he was fearful of potential opposition from the powerful Marcher Lords. He moved against Roger
Mortimer, the most powerful and unpopular of these. This generated a degree of loyalty towards Edward from his Welsh
subjects.
In 1322, Mortimer was captured and thrown in the Tower, but two years later he escaped to France and became the lover
of Edward’s estranged queen Isabella. Together they invaded England and forced Edward II to flee to Wales, where he was
arrested and eventually killed. In 1328, Mortimer became the first Earl of March and ruled England with Queen Isabella as
the legitimate heir, Edward III, was not yet of age.
In 1400, Owain Glyndŵr, who claimed descent from Llewelyn the Great, assumed the title of Prince of Wales. Thousands
joined his national uprising and, importantly for Glendower, these included Welsh soldiers and archers, recently returned
from fighting for the English in France and Scotland.
In 1402, Glyndŵr was crowned Prince and he negotiated for peace. He beat the English forces sent against him at the Battle
of Bryn Glas (or Pilleth) where he captured Mortimer. This action paved the way for a treaty with the Mortimers and the
Percys to overthrow the king. Their alliance ended with the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403), in which Glendower, who had not
received word of the rebellion, failed to join the Percys, who were thus defeated.
From 1405 onward, Glyndŵr’s power started to decline, and his sons were captured by Prince Henry. He recaptured
Carmarthen with the help of the French but was defeated at the Battle of Pwll Melyn in 1406. Although Henry made several
offers of full pardon, hoping to calm the Welsh border on the eve of his French campaign, Glyndŵr, who passionately
wanted to preserve the language and independence of Wales, never submitted. It is believed he died in 1415.
Many thanks to Andy Green who wrote this list, and to Dave Soutar who wrote the historical background.

Frisian Free Canton
This list covers the autonomous peasant republics or Free Cantons of the Frisian coast from their emergence in the early c.
12th until 1498 (Friesland) and 1234 (the Stedinger). It also covers Dithmarschen from 1144 to 1500.

Upgrade from foot to mounted 0–1 2+ 5
Generals
Army standard 1VP army standard 0–1 – 2
Local gentry Knights, lance 0–1**** 6+ 11
Spearmen 8–16 7+ 7
Pole spearmen
Replace spearmen with billmen Up to 1/4** 7+ 7
Landsknecht pikemen Pikemen, deep 0–1*** 7+ 13
Poorly organised peasants Mobs, deep 0–1 8+ 7
Crossbowmen 8+ 7
1–2
Crossbowmen
Replace light infantry other, crossbow with light
0–2* 8+ 4
infantry other, handgun
Bowmen 8+ 7
Archers 0–2
Javelinmen Light infantry, javelin 1–3 7+ 4
Landsknecht handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1*** 8+ 4
Light guns Artillery (cannon) 0–1* 7+ 7
0–1****, 1–
Field fortifications Fortifications – 1
2$
* Only Friesland or Dithmarschen and after 1400 CE.
** Only Dithmarschen after 1450 CE.
*** Only Dithmarschen in 1500 CE. Any landsknechts must be within the same command.
**** Only Friesland or Dithmarschen.
$ Only Stedinger.
Allies
Danish Leidang allies drawn from the Scandinavian Leidang list or German feudal allies drawn from the Feudal German list
(Dithmarschen, only, from 1148–1227).
Notes
A Frisian Free Canton army must be either from Friesland, from Stedinger or from Dithmarschen.
Pole spearmen may ignore the difficult activation movement (but not charge) penalties applied when crossing ditches or
streams, or when moving through marsh.
The Frisians and particularly the Stedingers often made use of field fortifications. During deployment, the Frisians may place
0–1 fortification in their deployment area, and the Stedingers, 0–2.
The Frisians, a West Germanic ethnic group, inhabit the north coast of the Netherlands and part of the coast of north-
western Germany.

In the c. 12th, to resist attempts to feudalise the region, Frisian noblemen and the city of Groningen formed the Verbond van
de Upstalsboom. This Upstalsboom (“high tree”) League was named after the grove at Aurich in Ostfriesland where their
council would meet to resolve disputes and agree foreign policy. The league consisted of modern Friesland, Groningen, East
Frisia, Harlingerland, Jever and Rüstringen (the Frisian districts in Schleswig-Holstein. The Frisian districts in West
Friesland and along the Danish North Sea coast did not join. Fighting under the slogan "Frisian freedom", this republican
league was generally able to resist foreign domination and the imposition of serfdom. In times of crisis the Frisians would
elect temporary leaders called potestaats to lead armies of Frisian free men against invading feudal lords.
The Upstalsboom League collapsed in 1337, after which the non-Frisian city of Groningen took the lead of the independent
coastal districts. On several occasions Friesland had to resist attacks by the Counts of Holland. One such invading force was
defeated in battle by Frisian infantry at Warns in 1345.
The late c. 15th saw the decline of Frisian republicanism. In 1464 a nobleman in East Frisia, with the backing of the Hanseatic
League, managed to defeat his competitors and acquired the title of count of East Frisia. Later, the King of Denmark
assimilated the coastal districts north of the Eider River and in 1498, Duke Albert of Saxony-Meissen conquered Friesland.
In 1500 Dithmarschen, a Frisian-speaking district in Schleswig-Holstein, was invaded by a large Danish mercenary army
including a “Black Guard” of 4,000 landsknechts, 2,000 armoured cavalry, 1,000 artillerymen, and 5,000 commoners. The
outnumbered 1,000 Ditmarsian defenders, led by a farmer named Wulf Isebrand, faced them at Battle of Hemmingstedt. By
opening the dykes and using their pole spears to manoeuvre swiftly across the flooded land, the Frisians were able to inflict
a crushing defeat on the invaders.
The city of Groningen surrendered to count Edzard of East Frisia in 1506, leaving Dithmarschen as the last surviving Free
Canton. It was not until 1559 that its free peasants were forced to give up their political and religious autonomy by a
successful Danish invasion commanded by Count Johan Rantzau of Steinburg, one of the best strategists of the time.
The Stedinger
The Stedinger were Dutchmen who, by agreement with the Archbishop of Bremen, settled on marshy land at Stedingen on
the Weser. The contract stated that that they could administer their own affairs in exchange for the payment of annual tithes.
They drained the land, built dykes and made it productive. However, successive Archbishops tried to increase their temporal
and religious control over the Stedinger, who became increasingly reluctant to pay their tithes and, eventually, declared
independence. When an Archbishop tried to re-establish control, the peasants responded by sacking monasteries and killing
clergy. The peasants were excommunicated and, shortly after in 1233, a crusade was preached against them. Although they
put up a strong resistance from behind their now-fortified dykes, they were wiped out in 1234.
Army Notes
Knights were never particularly numerous in the non-feudal Free Cantons, and completely absent in Stedingen. Perhaps
because of the marshy terrain, Frisian knights usually preferred to fight on foot.
A standard can represent a banner such as that of the Ditmarsian patron saint Mary of Nazareth, carried by the legendary
virgin Telse at the Battle of Hemmingstedt.
The pole spear was a long spear or pike that was four metres in length, and wielded two-handed, without a shield. At the
butt end it had a round disc, up to 20cm in diameter. This end of the spear could be thrust into a ditch or pond, where the
disc would ensure it would not sink into the mud, enabling its owner to vault across the obstacle. Despite the great length
of this weapon (allegedly longer than the pikes of the landsknechts they fought) I have elected to represent Frisians as
spearmen, rather than deep pike. This is because Frisian spearmen favoured fighting from marshy terrain, crisscrossed with
ditches, sometimes even opening sluices to inundate the land, and I cannot believe that deep formations of pike would
function well in such terrain.
Further Reading
Frisian Freedom:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisian_freedom
Duncan Head has posted is an excellent paper on Frisian armies at:
http://tabulaenovaeexercituum.pbworks.com/w/page/14246689/Frisian,%20Stedinger,%20or%20Dithmarschen%20110
6-1500%20AD
With thanks to Tommy Worden who wrote the first draft of this list and got me interested in the Frisians. This is an army for a player who
believes that supreme executive power derived from a mandate from the masses, not from some farcical aquatic ceremony! During terrain selection,
a Frisian player might wish to maximise streams and marshes.

Feudal Scottish
This is the list for the Scottish Kingdoms from the introduction of the feudal system in 1124 CE, up to and including the
battle of Flodden in 1513.
Generals
0–1* – 10
to great leader as Robert the Bruce.
Royal banner 1 VP Standard 0–1 – 2
Norman/Scots knights
Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance 0–1**/***** 6+ 14
French knights Later knights, lance 0–1^/***** 6+ 14
Border horse Light cavalry, lance, raw 0–1 8+ 4
Spearmen, deep 6–12 7+ 10
Downgrade spearmen, deep to spearmen Up to 1/3 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen, deep to pikemen, deep, raw 0–4$$ 8+ 10
Lowland Scots spearmen Upgrade spearmen, deep to spearmen, deep, veteran
0–3** 6+/7+ +3
or pikemen, deep, raw to pikemen, deep
Upgrade with stakes (special)^^^^ (representing pits) Any – +1
Upgrade spearmen or pikemen to mounted infantry All or none – +1
Light infantry other, bow 0–3 4
0–1***, 8+
Lowland Scots archers Upgrade light infantry other, bow to longbowmen 8
any****
Equip longbowmen with stakes Any – +1
Warriors, deep 1–5^^ 7+ 10
Galwegians Upgrade warriors, deep to warriors, deep, veteran 0–1 6+ 13
Upgrade warriors, deep to mounted infantry All or none – +1
Islesmen Shieldwall, extra bow, deep 0–1^^^ 7+ 12
Highlanders Warriors, extra bow, deep 0–1 7+ 12
"Small folk"/Ribaulds Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–2$ 7+ 7
** The total number of Norman/Scots knight units and veteran spearmen or non-raw pike units may not exceed three.
This represents the knights dismounting to stiffen the foot. Each veteran spearmen/pike unit must be accompanied by
an attached general.
*** 1418–1429, 1437 onwards.
**** 1360–1418, 1429–1437
***** Only after 1350.
^ A single unit of French knights may serve in the British Isles. They must be commanded by a French general who may
command no troops other than Norman or Scots knights.
^^ Only before 1256 and within the British Isles. Minimum applies if any such troops are taken.

^^^ A single unit of either Highlanders or Islesmen may serve under any general. Larger contingents may serve as allies
under their respective generals. Highlanders and Islemen may only serve in the British Isles.
^^^^ Pits are treated as stakes but must be positioned in front of the units to which they are assigned at the outset of the
battle and cannot, thereafter, be moved.
$ From 1452 onwards. James II imported artillery from Flanders and promoted its use.
$$ Only in 1513 for the Flodden campaign.
Allies
Hundred Years War French^^, Medieval Irish, Scot Highlands and Isles
Notes
Scottish spearmen and pikemen sometimes fought in schiltrons – treat these as fighting in orbis.
Antediluvian Miniatures Scots painted by Andrew Taylor

When David I became King of Scotland in 1124 CE, he expanded his power in northern England despite his defeat at the
Battle of the Standard (1138). His son, Malcolm, subsequently gave away these territories to Henry II in 1174 to avoid a
damaging war. Had he retained them, then the history of the British Isles might have been quite different. Throughout most
of the feudal period there were continual skirmishes, raids and wars between Scotland and England.
In 1263, Alexander III defeated King Haakon’s Viking army at the battle of Largs and won sovereignty over the Western
Isles. However, it would be as late as 1472 before Norwegian Orkney and Shetland would also become Scottish. Alexander
died without an heir and, on the death of his granddaughter Margaret (“The Maid of Norway”), the throne was left vacant.
John Balliol (“Toom Tabard” or “Empty Coat”) was appointed king in 1292 but his rule proved weak, causing a power
vacuum that allowed William Wallace to become the ‘Guardian of Scotland’. Wallace subsequently beat the English at the
Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) but his schiltrons of spearmen were beaten by an English longbow army at Falkirk (1298).
Following the execution of Wallace by the English, and after having disposed of his rivals, Robert Bruce emerged after many
years of guerrilla warfare to eventually be anointed King of Scotland in 1306 and to lead his army to victory against the “Auld
Enemy” at Bannockburn (1314).

Throughout the following years, there was constant fighting between the Scots and the English. In 1384, France sent 2,000
soldiers with 1,500 suits of armour but were disappointed that there were no major battles – the Scots preferring profitable
raids across the border.
Inter-clan skirmishes continued, culminating in the Battle of Harlaw (1411) between Highlanders and Lowlanders to decide
the chief power in Scotland. Donald, the Lord of the Isles, invaded the mainland with an army and was met by the Earl of
Mar at Harlaw, just outside Aberdeen, where Mar’s army was bloodied but victorious. You can see David Imrie's (of
Claymore Castings fame) fabulous Harlaw game on YouTube at http://theminiaturespage.com/news/805972356.
In 1424, the Stuart King James I came to the throne. During his descendants’ reigns, there was a lot of internal fighting, but
when James IV came to the throne, in 1488, there had been a long period of peace between Scotland and England. James,
however, had a fiery temper and was eager for a fight. Scotland and France were allies against England, known as the ‘Auld
Alliance.’ James IV warned Henry VIII of England not to declare war on France and when he did, James declared war on
him. James led his army into England whilst Henry was invading France. However, the Earl of Surrey marched north and
defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden (1513), where the Scots were outmanoeuvred and forced to fight on English
terms. The death of James in the vanguard of the Scottish pike block heralded the end of the feudal period.
Army Notes
Neil Grant observes that the Scottish spears of the period seem to have been 12–14 feet in length. Although the Scottish
Parliament passed legislation to purchase "pikes" from the French in the 1470s, nothing was done until just before the
Flodden campaign. The 6,000 pikes supplied by the French were also 12–14 feet in length, shorter than the ones that they
themselves used. In other words, they supplied what the Scots were already using, though they may possibly have had
additional protection further down the shaft. Pikes purchased from the Low Countries were longer.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar for writing the historical background to this list.

Early Feudal English
This list covers Feudal England from the accession of Henry II through to the death of Henry III.
Generals
Upgrade a senior, heroic, attached, mounted general
to great leader* as Henry II (1154–1189), Richard I 0–1 – 10
(1189–1199) or Simon de Montfort (1248–1265)
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Standard (possibly on a wagon) 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Feudal and mercenary knights Knights, lance 3–8 6+ 11
and sergeants. Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–4 5+ 13
Light cavalry, bow, veteran 7+ 6
Richard I's Saracens 0–1****
Light infantry other (bow), veteran 7+ 5
Muntatores (military tenants) Cavalry, lance 0–1** 7+ 9
Feudal levy, town militia, Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen (as town militia
0–4 7+ 7
mercenary and Welsh or mercenaries)
spearmen Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen (as Welsh) 0–4 7+ 7
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen, veteran 0–4*** 6+ 9
Feudal levy slingers Light infantry other, slings 0–1 8+ 4
0–2(0–4)^
Light infantry other, crossbow, veteran 7+ 5
Feudal levy and mercenary Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow to crossbow,
0–2 7+ 9
crossbow veteran
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow, veteran or
0–1 – +1
crossbow, veteran to mounted infantry
Feudal levy or allied Welsh
archers Upgrade light infantry other, bow, raw to light
0–4 8+ 4
infantry other, bow
Poorer-quality feudal levy Mobs, deep 0–4 8+ 7
* Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
** Only in a Welsh marcher army or Royal Army in Wales.
*** As Flemish, Brabançon or other mercenaries. Should more than one veteran spear unit be taken, then no raw
infantry (including archers) may be taken.
**** 1194–1199 only.
^ 0–2 in Britain, 0–4 in Gascony
Allies
Feudal English (as Marcher Lords), Medieval Welsh, Feudal French, Feudal Scottish, Norse Irish.
Henry II (“Curtmantle”) became king of England in 1154 and was the first king of the House of Plantagenet. King Louis
VII of France made him Duke of Normandy, and he later inherited Anjou and Maine. His marriage in 1152 to Eleanor of
Aquitaine, gained him Aquitaine and he became Count of Nantes by treaty in 1185. Before he reached the age of forty, he

controlled England, large parts of Wales, the eastern half of Ireland and the western half of France; this vast realm was later
named the Angevin Empire. At various times, Henry also partially controlled Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany.
The latter part of Henry’s reign was marred by civil wars with his own sons over the succession, from which Richard I (“The
Lionheart”) emerged as king after Henry’s death in 1189. Most of Richard’s reign was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or
actively defending his lands in France. He was shot and killed by a crossbow bolt during a minor siege and succeeded by his
brother John (“Lackland”) in 1199.
During John’s reign the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands were lost to King Philip II of France. A
baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document considered an early step in the
evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.
John was succeeded by Henry III (“Of Winchester”) in 1216. Henry assumed the throne at the age of only nine, during the
First Barons' War. His forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217. In
1258 a group of barons revolted, and various factions of barons effectively ruled an unstable England until 1263 when one
of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power. Henry was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Lewes
in 1264. Henry's eldest son, Edward, escaped from captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in the following
year and freed his father, who ruled until his death in 1272.
Army Notes
The period covered by this list saw the decline of feudal military obligation and the rise of scutage (‘shield money,’ which
was money paid by a vassal to his lord in lieu of military service). This enabled the kings of England to hire professional
soldiers who were not only better trained and equipped, but who would serve for longer than would the feudal levy.
Henry III unfurled his 'dragon' standard at Oxford to signal the opening of hostilities against the rebelling barons. It was
present at the battle of Lewes.
Veteran and better-equipped knights could include knights of the ‘Royal Household,’ some feudal knights and mercenaries.
Throughout this period, knights fought on horseback and did not dismount. Horse barding began to appear in the mid c.
13th. On the borders with Wales, where terrain made the use of knights less effective, a lighter cavalry type called muntatores
was employed.
Richard I returned from the crusades with a small unit of just over one hundred men, recruited from Muslim prisoners
captured in the Holy Land. Unfortunately, we do not know how they were equipped, but they are likely to have been archers.
Veteran spearmen represent Flemish, Brabançon or other good-quality mercenaries funded by scutage. Upgraded raw
spearmen represent border levy, town militia, lower grade mercenaries or Welsh. In addition to these Brabançon
crossbowmen, French and Norse Irish were commonly employed as mercenaries. After the reign of John, the use of
mercenaries sharply declined in England except for a brief period during the Second Barons’ War, but they were never
popular. However, troops from overseas ‘Crown Lands’ which at the start of this list until the reign of King John nominally
included half of modern France, could be present. The veteran units in this list represent those with up-to-date, better-quality
equipment or better-quality mercenaries.
Although archers, often originating from Kent, the Midlands and the Welsh Marches, are recorded as present in battles in
large numbers, they were not deployed in mass, and it was spearmen who formed the dense infantry formations. In this list,
therefore, archers are light units.
This period saw some of the largest armies employed by England, albeit armies of extremely varied quality. Henry II had an
exceptionally large army, possibly over 20,000 strong, much of which was transported to France with the purpose of taking
Toulouse. He called out the feudal levy, and though he dismissed some in return for scutage, did take others with him. De
Montfort also assembled an exceptionally large army, based around the feudal array in Kent, to resist a potential invasion
from France. The Kentishmen turned out in such great numbers that the army numbered over 20,000, though it was
dismissed when the invasion did not materialise. These exceptionally large levies are represented by TtS! Mobs.
The original list and notes were written by Alan Easton and edited by Simon Miller and Neil Grant.

Anglo-Irish
This list represents the English in Ireland, starting from 1170 with the invasions of Richard “Strongbow” de Clare and
ending with the introduction of firearms (1489).
Generals
Upgrade a mounted, senior, heroic general to great
0–1**** – 10
leader as Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
Heroes 1–3 – 1
Knights, lance 1–2*/** 6+ 11
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–2 5+ 13
Knights and men–at–arms Later knights, lance, raw 1*** 7+ 12
Upgrade later knights, lance, raw to later knights,
0–1 6+ 14
lance
Cavalry, lance 1–3** 7+ 9
Anglo–Irish lances/spears
Cavalry, javelin 2–3*** 7+ 9
Cavalry, lance, raw 8+ 7
Hobilars Cavalry, javelin 1–2** 7+ 9
Spearmen, mounted infantry 7+ 8
Irish horse Light cavalry, javelin 0–3**/*** 7+ 5
Ostmen Shieldwall, deep 0–3* 7+ 10
Bonnachts Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, veteran, extra
0–2 6+ 10
2HCCW
Shieldwall, raw 8+ 5
Sersenaigh 0–2
Light infantry, bow 8+ 4
"Rising out" Light infantry, javelin, raw 1–4 8+ 3
Welsh spearmen Spearmen, raw 0–1* 8+ 5
Longbowmen 3–8* 8+ 8
Welsh bowmen
Upgrade longbowmen to mounted infantry 1–6 – +1
Longbowmen, raw 1–6**/*** 9+ 6
Colonist archers
Upgrade longbowmen, raw to longbowmen All*** 8+ 8
English archers Longbowmen, mounted infantry, veteran 1–2** 7+ 11
Colonist billmen Billmen, raw 1–5*** 8+ 5
Gallóglaigh ("foreign warriors") Billmen, veteran 0–4*** 6+ 9
Bombard Artillery (cannon) 0–1*** 7+ 8
* Only before 1300.
** 1300 to 1394 only. Only one of the three possible hobilar troop types may be chosen.
**** 1170–1176 only. Great leaders are described in the Even Stronger supplement.
Allies
Norse Irish, Medieval Irish, Manx allies 1165–1240, only (for Manx, use the Scots Isles and Highlands list).

In 1169, Anglo-Norman mercenaries arrived in Ireland at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, who wished to regain the
Kingdom of Leinster. Richard de Clare, the 2nd Earl of Pembroke, subsequently led two larger invasions. Henry II invaded
in 1172 to secure the gains made and, perhaps, to keep de Clare’s ambitions in check. Royal official representation was later
known as the Justiciar, Lieutenant or Lord Deputy. Sometimes this post was held by an Englishmen with little knowledge
of the local situation and who would there often be unsuccessful. At other times, it would be held by a prominent Anglo-
Irish family which could cause its own problems, since these families often had ongoing feuds with other local families.
Army Notes
Gallóglaigh and sersenaigh were both mercenary groups. Gallóglaigh were preferred, being more reliable and with a fierce
reputation. By this time the majority of the Gallóglaigh would have been Irish, rather than Scottish. They don’t seem to have
used shields but seem to have been well protected with mail and wielding, of course, their characteristic axes.
‘Rising out’ were young peasants who would hide until they were close enough to throw their javelins or darts.
With many thanks to Derek Pearson who wrote this list!

Later Feudal English
This list covers English armies from the ascension of Edward I until the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.
Dismount general to foot 2–4^^ 2+ 4
Generals
Heroes 3–5 – 1
3–6 (0–
Feudal and mercenary knights Knights, lance 6+ 11
3^^^)
and sergeants
Upgrade knights, lance to knights, lance, veteran 0–2* 5+ 13
Muntatores (military tenants) Cavalry, lance 0–1** 7+ 9
Hobelars Light cavalry, lance 0–2*** 7+ 5
Upgrade spearmen, raw to spearmen (as border levy,
Feudal levy or disaffected 0–4 7+ 7
town militia and compliant Welsh)
Welsh spearmen
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, veteran (stiffened by
0–3*,^^ 6+ 9
dismounted knights)
Light infantry other, crossbow 0–2*, 2–4^ 8+ 4
Upgrade light infantry other, crossbow to crossbow
Feudal levy or mercenary 0–2* 8+ 7
(as mercenary or Gascon crossbowmen)
crossbow
Upgrade crossbow to crossbow, veteran, mounted
0–2 7+ 10
infantry
Light infantry other, bow, raw 4–8*, 2–4^ 9+ 3
Upgrade light infantry other, bow, raw to light
infantry other, bow (as "reliable Welsh" or town 0–4 8+ 4
Feudal levy or Welsh archers militia)
Upgrade light infantry other, bows to bowmen 0–3^^ 8+ 7
Upgrade archers to longbowmen 0–3^^ 8+ 9
Feudal levy slingers Light infantry other, sling 0–1 8+ 4
Poorer-quality feudal levy Mobs, deep 0–4 8+ 7
* Within the Britain Isles.
** Only before 1300 and in a Welsh Marcher army or a Royal Army in Wales.
*** Only after 1295 (i.e., Scottish Wars of Independence).
^ Within Gascony.
^^ Only from 1322 onwards.
^^^ If any spear should be upgraded to veteran.
Allies
Welsh up to 1297, Anglo-Irish.
This list begins with Edward I (“Edward Longshanks,” also known as “The Hammer of the Scots”) becoming King of
England in 1272. Edward invaded and annexed Wales (1277–83) and secured it with a chain of castles. In 1292 Edward I
forced the Scots to accept his lordship and appointed John Balliol as their king but fighting continued and in 1297 the Scots
under Andy Murray and William Wallace defeated an English army at Stirling Bridge. Wallace was himself defeated by the

English at Falkirk in the following year and executed. Edward also fought the French who invaded his holdings in Gascony.
A man of strong personality, Edward could also be mean, untrustworthy, cruel and vindictive.
When Edward I died in 1307 his son, Edward II, inherited both the crown and continuing difficulties in Scotland. Edward
II was but a pale shadow of his father but, although he did not lack for bravery, he did lack in the art of making correct
decisions. In 1314 the Scots, now led by Robert the Bruce, defeated the English at the Battle of Bannockburn. A famine and
poor leadership weakened Edward’s control over the country, and when an exiled noble, Roger Mortimer, invaded England
with a small army in 1326, Edward's regime collapsed. In January 1327, he was forced abdicate in favour of his 14-year-old
son, Edward III, and in September he died in Berkeley Castle, probably murdered by the new regime.
Edward’s rule began with him acting as a figurehead for Mortimer, but in 1330 Edward took Mortimer by surprise at
Nottingham Castle, and the latter was captured and executed. Edward became drawn into renewed fighting in Scotland, and
the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 and the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333. The latter part of
Edward III’s reign, after the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War between England and France in 1337 in covered in a
separate list.
Army Notes
The period covered by this list saw the decline of feudal military obligation and the rise of scutage ‘shield money’ which
enabled the kings of England to hire professional soldiers. These were not only better trained and equipped but were also
able serve for longer than the feudal levy. ‘Feudal levy’ in this list is a ‘catch all’ term to describe a military obligation, and it
was common for retinue or better-quality troops to be maintained at royal expense after their term of feudal service was
over.
Edward I is often regarded as a great military leader, but he only commanded at only two major battles. For this reason, we
have elected not to class him as a great leader – we think of him, instead, as a great king. When campaigning he usually
attempted to employ overwhelming force.
During the period covered by this list the mounted knightly formations were the main offensive arm, regardless of whether
the terrain or enemy formation made their use appropriate. Constant service by many of the knights and nobles resulted in
what could be regarded as veteran status in TtS! terms, but, to their detriment, they were often overly aggressive. Veteran
and better equipped knights would include knights of the Royal Household, some feudal knights and mercenaries. However,
when faced by their French counterparts at the end of the c. 13th, English knights were routinely bested. Horse barding
began to appear in the mid c. 13th but was only used selectively until the late c. 13th.
On the borders with Wales and Scotland, where terrain rendered the use of knights unsuitable, a lighter cavalry was
employed. Muntatores were lighter cavalry employed on the Welsh marchers by the Marcher Lords but were not used outside
of Wales and the Marches. Hobilars were similar, riding hobbies, a type of light and agile horse, originating in Ireland. The
Earl of Pembroke had 500 Irish and 500 Northumbrian hobelars.
Although enormous numbers of foot levies might be summoned, especially by Edward I, the desertion rates amongst them
could be as high as 50%. The Welsh, whether levies or marcher subjects, often represented a discipline problem both at
home and abroad. At the battle of Falkirk, the Welsh were so disaffected that they stood aside until the Scots were defeated
and might easily have joined the Scots had things gone otherwise. For these reasons, a large proportion of this army can
potentially be raw, in TtS! terms. After the Falkirk campaign Edward I no longer relied on large numbers of Welsh, though
their use did return to favour under Edward II. Fewer troops were levied, with the emphasis being on the recruitment of
more reliable troops.
Although archers are recorded as having been present at battles in large numbers, and longbow staves were imported in ever
increasing quantities, there is no obvious record of formations of massed archers. It is therefore most appropriate to use
paired units of longbow-armed light infantry to represent those formations. Welsh longbows of the period were not the
well-crafted usually imported staves of the Hundred Years’ War but were rougher and, though powerful at shorter ranges,
were not ideal at longer ranges. Feudal logistics had not yet reached the efficiency of the later Hundred Years’ War. This
could lead to shortages, on campaign, and despite the often-great numbers of archers in armies there were no reserves of
arrows, only of crossbow bolts. This was likely the cause of a shortage of arrows at Falkirk. We know that during the early
period of the Hundred Years’ War, Welsh spearmen were used to flank Welsh archers, so this may have been common
practice.
Crossbowmen were of a higher status than archers, being mercenaries or Gascons, and often mounted. The veteran upgrade
represents those with up-to-date, superior-quality equipment. Other missile troops included slingers from the Midlands.
Irish troops, occasionally in their thousands, were brought over for the 1314 Scottish campaign which ended at Bannockburn
and for other Scottish campaigns.
At the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1332, towards the end of the period covered by this list, a Borders knight, Sir Andrew
Harclay, successfully employed formations of dismounted knights and spear-armed infantry arrayed in schiltrons in the

Scottish manner. These were supported on the flanks by units of what may have been formed bowmen. Following this
successful trial, English armies at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill used similar tactics to defeat the Scots.
The background and army notes were mostly written by Neil Grant but includes material previously written by Alan Easton.

Low Countries
This list covers the communal Low Countries armies from the rise of the guilds in the towns and cities around 1280 CE
until the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy in 1477.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
The banner of Saint Lambert
of Liege
Feudal or mercenary men–at– Knights, lance 1–2* 11
6+
arms Upgrade knights, lance to later knight, lance 0–1*/** 14
Knights, lance, raw 0–2 9
Burgher men–at–arms 7+
Upgrade knights, lance, raw to later knight, lance, raw Any** 12
Pike, deep, raw 4–10 8+ 10
Upgrade pike, deep, raw to pike, deep All** 7+ 13
Guildsmen
Upgrade pike with heroes (representing plançon à picot) 2–4*** – +1
Downgrade pike, deep to billmen 0–1***** – 7
White Hoods Mobs, deep 0–1**** 8+ 7
Longbowmen, 2HCCW 9
English longbowmen 0–1 7+
Upgrade longbowmen with extra stakes +1
Crossbowmen 1–2 7
Crossbowmen 8+
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises Any 8
Archers Light infantry other, bow 0–1*** 8+ 4
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1***** 8+ 4
Organ guns Artillery (organ guns) 0–2** 8+ 7
Wagon laager camp defences Fortifications 0–5 – 1
* Feudal/mercenary men-at-arms must be in a command of their own, led by a general.
** After 1330. Exception: guildsmen, who are acting as allies in either an Early Burgundian or Burgundian Ordonnance
army, remain as raw, due to their reluctance to serve.
*** Before 1410, only.
**** 1330 to 1410, only.
***** After 1410, only.
Allies
None
Notes
Knights may choose to start dismounted; in this case they replace their lances with 2HCCW.
Army Notes
The guildsmen of Liege set great store by their banner of Saint Lambert. This must be carried by a unit of guildsmen.
The wealthier burghers served as men-at-arms, sometimes riding barded horses. They were regarded as less efficient than
their feudal and mercenary peers, so have been rated as raw.
Guildsmen formed the core of Low Countries armies. They carried pikes and were formidable in defence, where they made
good use of terrain such as ditches. Over time, they became better trained and armoured.

The goedendag (Dutch for "good day") was a stout iron-shod club, with a baseball-bat-like shaft (length 1–1.5 m) and a vicious
steel spike protruding from the end. Like the plançon à picot, it was highly effective against armoured knights.
White Hoods were a self–defence militia, originally organised to resist the depredations of unemployed French mercenaries,
but later revisited as revolutionary mobs. Jean Froissart describes them as engaging in murder and looting rather than warfare.
They may have been armed with mixed weapons, such as halberds, maces, spears and wooden clubs.
Low Countries armies were generally short of missile support. "Brotherhoods of marksmen," however, provided trained
crossbowmen and were joined in the c. 15th by similar societies of arquebusiers. Organ guns provided artillery support.
An excellent 1845 book includes excellent images of Low Countries Guild flags and shield designs from Ghent- a link can
be found here.
Low Countries Militia from the city of Liege from the author’s collection. The banners are by Mats Elzinga.

Medieval Irish
This list covers the Irish during the gradual migration after 1300 CE from a tribal levy to mercenary Gallóglaigh and ends with
Ireland becoming an English Kingdom in 1541.

Attached general on foot 2–4* 2+ 4
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Light cavalry, javelin, veteran 1–2 6+ 6
Teaghlach (noble's households)
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to cavalry, javelin Any 7+ 9
Irish "spears" Light cavalry, javelin 1–4 7+ 5
Knights, lance 1** 6+ 11
Anglo–Irish allies
Cavalry, javelin 1** 7+ 9
Gallóglaigh (foreign warriors) Billmen, veteran 2–4 6+ 9
Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen as mercenaries
At least 1/2 7+ 7
such as bonnachts
Upgrade bonnachts with extra 2HCCW 0–4 – +1
Ceithern (kerns) and "rising out" Light infantry, javelin 4–10
7+ 4
Upgrade light infantry, javelin to light infantry, handgun 0–2***
At least 1/2 8+ 3
javelin, raw
Mobs, deep, raw 0–1 9+ 4
Archers Light infantry other, bow 0–2 8+ 4
* Generals must have a bodyguard of either Teaghlach, Gall Oglaich or if Anglo–Irish, knights.
** Minimum applies if any such are taken. They must be in a command of their own, led by an Anglo-Irish general.
*** After 1504.
Allies
Anglo-Irish, Medieval Scots.
Notes
Knights may not dismount. The option to upgrade bonnachts with extra 2HCCW represents the Irish axe.
Here is a brief list of some of the many interesting battles fought in Ireland during the period.
• 1151 The battle of Móin Mhór, fought between the armies of the kingdoms of Leinster and Thomond.
• 1169 The siege of Wexford. The first major battle of the Norman Invasion of Ireland.
• 1249 The first Battle of Athenry. Fought between the King of Connacht and Norman forces.
• 1257 The battle of Creadran Cille. Fought between the forces of Tyrconnell and a Norman army.
• 1406 The battle of Cluain Immorrais. Fought between the Kingdom of Uí Failghe and an army from Meath.
For wargamers there are a myriad of battles between Anglo Irish and local Irish armies to study and play out on the gaming
table and it would seem ideal for a larger campaign. Perhaps even involving the landing in 1315 and subsequent campaign
by Robert the Bruce’s younger brother, Edward.

Army Notes
During the period prior to that covered by this list, the multitude of petty kingdoms that made up Ireland had no standing
army and leaders would at best only have a personal bodyguard. In time of war, the King would need to call a ‘Rising Out,’
which was basically a summons of his subjects to war.
With the coming of the Anglo-Normans, such levy-style armies consisting largely of tenant farmers no longer had much
chance of battlefield success. Their only chance of winning was through ambush, which unsurprisingly became a common
tactic, but was not always viable. This was not a situation that could easily be changed, so Irish leaders started to become
somewhat reliant on mercenaries. At first, these were mostly Irish bonnachts (mercenaries billeted on the community) or
Vikings. In later centuries, though, the more powerful Lords looked to the Western Scottish Isles for Norse or Norse/Celtic
mercenaries who came to be known as gallowglasses (from the Irish gallóglaigh meaning “foreign warriors”).
It did no harm that Scots had a reputation in Ireland for brutality, fearlessness and martial proficiency. They were "pycked
and scelected men of great and mightie bodies, crewell without compassion. The greatest force of the battell consisteth in them, chosing rather to dye
than to yeelde, so that when yt cometh to handy blowes they are quickly slayne or win the fielde.” (c. 16th account quoted in the Irish
Archaeological Society, vol. ii., Dublin, 1843). They were better equipped than local troops, wearing heavy armour and well-
made weapons. They were particularly famous for the use of a large two-handed axe. Gradually, some gallowglass leaders
rose to become respected members of Irish society and through marriage and family became loyal to a particular leader,
often being rewarded with their own lands.
The few Irish who fought as cavalry were mostly nobles whose main weapon was a longish spear. This was used overarm,
both for throwing and stabbing. Unlike the Anglo-Normans, this was never used couched, probably because the Irish did
not use stirrups.
Many thanks to Derek Pearson for writing the historical background and notes for this list.

Hundred Years’ War French
This list covert the armies of the Kingdom of France between 1337 and 1445 CE when the first companies of Ordonnance
were established by Charles VII. The French army was famously defeated at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt but ultimately
prevailed and drove the English from France.
Generals Upgrade to mounted 2–4 – +1
Heroes 3–6 – 1
The Oriflamme (from Latin aurea
2 VP standard 0–1^ – 3
flamma, "golden flame")
Jeanne d'Arc 2 VP standard 0–1^^ – 3
Later knights, lance 2–5, 1–2**** 6+ 14
Nobles Upgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance,
0–2, 0**** 5+ 16
veteran
Other gens d'armes (men-at-
Knights, lance 2–5, 0–3**** 6+ 11
arms)
Knights, 2HCCW 1–2**** 6+ 11
Dismounted Scots men-at-
arms Upgrade knights, 2HCCW to knights, 2HCCW,
0–1 5+ 13
veteran
Brigans Spearmen 1–2 7+ 7
Pavisiers Shieldwall, veteran 0–1** 6+ 9
Voulgiers Billmen, veteran 0–1* 6+ 9
Longbowmen 2–4**** 8+ 8
Scottish archers
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any - +1
Francs-archers Bowmen 0–2 8+ 7
French and mercenary Crossbowmen 1–4 7
8+
crossbowmen Upgrade crossbowmen with pavise Any +1
Crossbowmen, veteran 0–1 9
Genoese crossbowmen 7+
Upgrade crossbowmen, veteran with pavise Any +1
Bidets Light infantry, javelin 0–1** 7+ 4
Other lights 8+
Light infantry other, handgun 0–1* 4
Ribauds, Pillards and peasants Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1** 8+ 6
Bombards Upgrade artillery (cannon), raw to artillery (cannon) 0–1*** 7+ 7
Artillery (cannon) 0–1*** 7+ 7
^ Only before 1356, when it was lost at Poitiers. It does not appear that its replacement was fielded at Agincourt.
^^ Only in 1429–1431.
* Only after 1385.
**** Only 1418–1429.

Allies
None
Notes
Knights and later knights may choose to start a dismounted from 1356 onwards, in which case they replace their lances with
2HCCW. Generals must be attached to a unit of nobles or men-at-arms.
French pavisiers, Claymore castings painted by David Imrie

Henry Plantagenet made a treaty with King (Saint) Louis IX of France in 1259, ending a prior long war with France. Henry
got Aquitaine and the Channel Islands, the dower lands of Eleanor, while giving up any claims he had to Normandy, Anjou,
Maine, Touraine and Poitou and holding Aquitaine as a vassal of the King of France. Each King of England had to do
homage to the King of France. However, under Philip IV the French crown began to exert greater jurisdiction over
Aquitaine, which eventually resulted in war between 1294 and 1303 after Philip announced its confiscation.
Another war took place between 1324 and 1327 which resulted in France continuing to hold those parts of Aquitaine it had
conquered. Perceiving England to be in a weak position, Philip VI attempted to use lawyers to further erode Edward’s
position and to interfere in the Duchy of Flanders where England had extensive wool trade interests. Edward’s legal counter
was to contest Philip’s right to the French throne and to promote his own claim. When Philip attempted to use Edward’s
sheltering of a rebel lord to start military proceedings in Gascony, the game was afoot.
In what is commonly called the Edwardian phase of the War, England at first attempted with allies to campaign in Flanders
but to little avail. The French wished to invade England and assembled a fleet, but the English countered this and won a
naval battle at Sluys which ended the naval based threat at this time. France and England then contested the Breton
succession, each side supporting their candidate in a phase of the War which continued to 1365.
In 1346, the English landed in Normandy and set out on a chevauchée, or destructive raid, designed to bring the French to
battle. The French finally committed at Crécy where they blundered into a hugely significant defeat. In the aftermath, France
lost Calais to the English, which proved to be a crucial loss. Then came the onset of the Black Death, which ran rampant
through all of Europe, giving pause to the military efforts of both nations and causing the death of Philip VI.
In 1356, the English (who had recovered from the Plague more quickly) under the command of Edward the Black Prince,
while engaged in yet another grand chevauchée, were brought to battle at Poitiers. It proved to be a hard fought but
disastrous outcome for France with the French King Jean II captured along with many nobles. In 1360, the English invaded
again, approaching the suburbs of Paris before withdrawing. This brought both sides to the table, resulting in the Treaty of
Brétigny, which gave Edward III his Aquitaine lands without owing fealty. This was the reverse of the French aim to reduce
the power of the greater nobles. In 1364, John died and was succeeded by Charles V. Henry of Navarre sought to take
advantage of the confusion surrounding the succession and made an unsuccessful power play for the French throne.
At this point, to recap, France had signed a humiliating treaty which abrogated a quarter of French territory, had lost one
third to a half of its population to plague and had been consistently beaten when facing English armies. The conflict
continued in Spain, as an English army under the Black Prince and a French army under Bertrand du Guesclin championed

opposing candidates. The English- supported faction won the war but lost the throne. The Black Prince contracted a disease
which would see him off within a couple of years, whilst failing to recoup his expenses. Parts of France were overrun by
unemployed mercenary bands.
Upon his return to Gascony, the Black Prince alienated several Gascon lords; the war began anew, with Charles V declaring
Gascony forfeit. The English launched several chevauchées to try to force the French to battle, but several professional
French commanders adopted a new tactic of taking towns and castles whilst avoiding field battles. Between 1376 and 1380,
many of the current clutch of protagonists died, including the Black Prince, Charles V, Edward III, Chandos and Du
Guesclin. England was cursed with Richard II as King, but France did worse as the gene pool cast up Charles VI who was
to become mentally unstable, as would his grandson in future years, Henry VI of England. However, the policy of avoiding
pitched battles in favour of small-scale attacks and sieges paid off, and the English presence was reduced to a few coastal
pockets in France.
Now the great dukes began to battle for influence over King Charles; Burgundy and Orléans and their followers began to
squabble, until Burgundy had Orléans assassinated in 1407. This now civil war flickered on and off until Henry V of England,
whose father Henry IV had supplanted Richard II, invaded France yet again. In 1415 the French were once more trounced
by Henry’s English Army. In the following years Henry took back Gascony and, equally importantly, conquered Normandy,
allying himself closely with the Burgundians. Although a treaty was agreed whereby Henry was to succeed mad King Charles
and marry his daughter, taking and holding Paris, the Dauphin refused to accept this and, together with the Armagnac
successors to the Orléanist cause, held the rump of France.
Henry V died in 1423, leaving his brothers to bicker over the regency of his son, Henry VI. Despite a severe lack of funding,
the Dauphin had recruited large numbers of Scots (including two complete armies) and several mercenary Spaniards and
Italians, even though he was unable to pay them most of the time. The Franco-Scottish army was victorious at Baugé in
1421 but defeated at Cravant in 1423 and Verneuil in 1424. The Anglo-Burgundians laid siege to Orléans, but in 1429 Joan
of Arc nominally headed the French relief of the city. This proved to be the turning point of the final phase of the war, as
England increasingly failed to fiscally support the military effort in France at the same time as the French under Charles VII
became increasingly motivated and professional. Burgundy made peace with France in 1436, leaving depleted English forces
to continue alone. Normandy was retaken after the Battle of Formigny, with Gascony reconquered effectively after the last
English army under Talbot was crushed at Castillon.
Claymore Castings French painted by David Imrie

Army Notes

France began the war with a semi-feudal army based around the retinues and supporters of the great and good supported
by smaller numbers of allied and mercenary professionals. France could field an exceptionally large number of men-at-arms
with the best military reputation in Christendom. However, their performance was often handicapped by aristocratic
squabbling over rights of precedence, which could lead to impetuous, uncontrolled attacks such as those at Poitiers and
Crécy.
Both crossbowmen and archers were features in French armies throughout the Hundred Years’ War, though archers are
rarely mentioned. Neither were consistently able to outshoot English archers.
The French employed a system slightly inferior to the English system based on indenture, where captains were contracted
for periods of time which could be as short as two weeks. All troops in royal armies were supposed to be paid, including city
or town militias. France was also able to recruit mercenary companies, like those used by the English. Fiscal shortcomings
became worse during the Burgundian-Armagnac civil wars, and this affected the size of armies.
At the first major pitched battle, Crécy (1346), a noble in the French army started the battle the day before the King and his
commanders wished. We know that the Genoese crossbowmen had pavises that they were unable to use because they had
not yet been unloaded from the baggage train. The crossbowmen were outshot and then ridden down by their impatient
betters, who attacked a superior position in waves to ultimate defeat.
By the next great battle, Poitiers (1356), the French men-at-arms mostly dismounted to fight whilst retaining a body of
armoured horse to open the English line, which became a recurring tactic in French armies until the end of the war. During
the 1370s, French men-at-arms successfully used pavises as a counter to English archery, whilst in general armour for both
foot and horse became superior with the increased use of plate.
The next major battle between the two nations was Agincourt (1415), when once again small bodies of mounted troops were
assigned whilst the bulk of men-at-arms were dismounted. In each of these battles the French attacked positions suited to
the defender. It would be fair to point out that French historians frequently state that English armies outnumbered the
French armies.
Post-Agincourt, the French combined mercenary Scottish longbowmen and men-at-arms with companies of mercenary
crossbowmen and Italian heavily armoured cavalry. The quality of the French component of the Franco-Scottish armies was
often poor and they consistently collapsed before the English, leaving their harder-fighting Scottish brethren to be
surrounded and destroyed. However, bodies of mounted men-at-arms on barded horses proved capable of bursting through
archer lines.
After the relief of Orléans, the French became consistently better organised and regularised, being also more willing to
embrace gunpowder technology and once more adopting the policy of avoiding battle where possible.
Many thanks to Neil Grant who wrote the historical background and army notes for this list.

Hundred Years’ War English (Continental)
This list covers the English armies that fought outside Great Britain between 1337 and 1455 CE. The English won some
great victories but, nonetheless, lost the war. A separate list (to be written) will cover the English when fighting at home.
Generals
Upgrade an attached, heroic, senior general to great
0–1* – 9
leader(on foot) as Edward the Black Prince or Henry V
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Mounted men-at-arms Knights, lance 0–1 6+ 11
Hobelars 0–1**
3–4**, 2–3***,
Dismounted knights, 2HCCW 6+ 11
1–2****
English and Gascon men-at-arms Upgrade knights, 2HCCW to later knights, 2HCCW 0–1*** 6+ 14
and billmen Upgrade knights, 2HCCW or later knights, 2HCCW to
knights, 2HCCW, veteran or later knights, 2HCCW, 0–2 5+ +2
veteran
Upgrade dismounted knights with extra longbow 0–2 – +2
Welsh spearmen Spearmen 0–4** 7+ 7
German mercenary pauncenars Spearmen 7+ 7
0–1**
(spearmen) Spearmen, veteran 6+ 9
Gascon brigans Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
3–4**, 4–6***,
Longbowmen 8+ 8
5–8****
Upgrade longbowmen to longbowmen, veteran 1/3 to 2/3 7+ 10
English or Welsh longbowmen Upgrade longbowmen or longbowmen, veteran with
Any^^ – +1
stakes
Upgrade longbowmen or longbowmen, veteran to
At least 1/2^^ – +1
mounted infantry
Gascon crossbowmen Crossbowmen 0-1 8+ 7
Gascon bidets, Irish or Bretons Light infantry, javelin 0–1 7+ 4
Ribaldis Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1** 8+ 5
* Only between 1346-1376 (Edward the Black Prince) and 1403-1422 (Henry V). Great leaders are described in the Even
Stronger supplement.
*** Only 1350–1430
^ Only before or during 1415.

^^ Only after 1415.
Allies
Later Medieval German (1339–1340), Low Countries 1340, Valois-Burgundian (1420-1444).
The Hundred Years' War was waged between the English House of Plantagenet and its cadet House of Lancaster and the
French House of Valois. The Plantagenets were determined to hold or seize what they considered to be their own lands
(Aquitaine and Normandy) free of feudal duty to the French Crown whilst the House of Valois wished to reduce the power
of the nobility. It perceived the English holdings to be both the greatest potential threat to its authority and the most tempting
target for its armies.
The war continued due to the broadly consistent French pursuit of their goals which they achieved before the beginning of
the XV century. Whilst English kings proclaimed their right to the throne of France, this was a largely political expedient
which they were happy to forego to achieve their first aim, to hold Aquitaine and Normandy free of suzerainty to France,
though Henry V did come close to uniting the two dynasties.
The Hundred Years’ War consisted of three phases of warfare, punctuated by two long truces. Generally, each phase of the
war was won by the kingdom which had the stronger ruler combined with the best fiscal policy.
The Edwardian War 1337–1360
The first phase began with fighting in Scotland, the Low Countries and north-eastern France. In 1340 the civic authorities
of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges, who were closely tied to England as they imported a huge quantity of English wool, declared
Edward III of England to also be King of France. An English army ravaged the French countryside near to the border with
the Low Countries but proved unable to capture the well-fortified French cities. The French assembled an invasion fleet to
attack England, but this was destroyed by the English at the naval Battle of Sluys, after which the latter dominated the
Channel.
In 1341 the War of the Breton Succession began, with English and French factions battling for control of the region by their
proxies, which Edward managed to secure in 1364.
In July 1346 the English King Edward III landed in Normandy with around 10,000 men. He set out through Normandy on
a large-scale chevauchée (raid) which was intended to draw the French into battle. The French pursued and, near Crécy,
Edward turned to prepare for battle the next day. However, the French vanguard made contact and started the attack without
a plan. The English combination of longbows supporting men at arms repulsed continual attacks and the French were
decimated. The English won a decisive victory and, in the aftermath, following a long siege, obtained Calais as a base.
In 1356 an army led by Edward III’s son, also Edward, known as the Black Prince, met a larger French force led by King
John II at the Battle of Poitiers in Aquitaine. This time the French dismounted before attacking. This almost succeeded but
the English counterattacked and broke the French line. It was a disastrous defeat for France with King John II and perhaps
2,000 members of the French aristocracy captured. In the subsequent Treaty of Brétigny, in 1360, Edward III renounced
his claim to the French throne in exchange for the Duchy of Aquitaine.
The Caroline War 1369–1389
The second phase of the war was named after the French King Charles V (“the Wise”) the son of King John II who had
died in captivity. Under his command France went on the offensive and fighting took place in Scotland, Flanders, France
and in Castile and Portugal. Charles regained much of the territory it had lost in the earlier phase of the war.
The Lancastrian War 1415–1453
After a long period of relative peace, in 1415 Henry V landed in France with about 10,000 men. His first objective was
Harfleur, a port in north-western France. The siege lasted for about a month and eventually Henry marched into the town
victorious but with his army had severely depleted, mainly from illness. Henry then marched his force of perhaps 8,500
knights, archers and men-at-arms towards Calais but the much larger French army of 13,000 was able to position itself
between Henry and Calais, forcing a battle. In the battle of Agincourt, the French attacked impetuously and were famously
beaten thanks again to the storm of arrows and the muddy terrain.
In 1421 Thomas, Duke of Clarence, Henry’s brother, attempted to intercept the French and their Scottish allies, but his
forces were decimated when he attacked a larger army without substantial archer support and Clarence himself was killed.
Then in 1424, in one last attempt to dislodge the English from Normandy, about 15,000 French and Scottish forces attacked
the English army of 9,000 commanded by John, Duke of Bedford. The attack took place at Verneuil, about fifty miles west
of Paris. The French and Scottish forces charged, but despite having part of their line burst through, the English archers
outshot the large numbers of crossbow and Scottish longbow on the French side and an English counterattack defeated the
Franco-Scottish army, destroying half of it.

In 1428 5,000 English troops were besieging Orléans, when the French King Charles allowed Joan of Arc, the Maid of
Orléans, who had persuaded him to lead a relief force, to drive the English from their positions and abandon the siege;
military advantage now lay with the French.
In 1432 Henry VI of England was crowned as king of France in Paris but during his incompetent rule, France whittled away
the English holdings in France. After a French victory at Rouen in October 1449, Charles VII continued the French offensive
and pressed the English back. The English drew up for battle near the village of Formigny. After a hard fight, during which
the French artillery played an important role of the battlefield, for the first time, the English were roundly defeated and
mostly killed or captured. The Battle of Formigny marked the end of fighting in northern France.
After being driven out of Northern France over the previous few years, in 1453 Henry VI sent an army to Bordeaux, seeking
to retain at a foothold in France. The English army, under Talbot, advanced to relieve the besieged town of Castillon. The
Battle of Castillon was to be the final engagement of the Hundred Years War. The French besiegers were drawn up in a
well-fortified camp, bristling with artillery pieces and handguns. The English vanguard attacked them believing, mistakenly,
that the French were withdrawing. However, as the balance of their army arrived and attacked, they were shot to pieces, in
a sort of reverse-Crécy. Talbot was killed and the army routed. In the aftermath, the remainder of Gascony was lost and the
small area around Calais became the only remaining English possession in France. The Hundred Years’ War was over.
Northampton’s and Arundel’s’ command at Crécy. Claymore Castings painted by David Imrie.
Army Notes
Undoubtably the defining troop type of the English 100 Years War army is the Longbow armed archer. The tactics of missile
support which had proved so successful in the wars of Edward I against the Scots were replicated by Edward III in his Wars
against France. The English success was due to the regularisation of the method of assembling an army by indenturing paid
retinues for specific campaigns and areas of conflict. The plus side of this was the provision of highly self-confident
professional troops. The downside was these were often mercenary in attitude, which led to other issues during the periods
of peace and truce. Initially a mixture of mounted and dismounted bow, the norm became the mounted infantry archer.
These supported the heavier men at arms and knights who usually also fought mostly on foot. Further support was initially
provided by hobelars, who were mounted infantry spearmen, and Welsh spearmen or Irish javelinmen. However, these first
two ceased to be used overseas after the Edwardian phase of the war, with mounted archers increasingly used for scouting.
Gascon forces were more French in character, with fewer archers but more crossbowmen and close combat troops.
Proportionately, archers began the Edwardian phase of the Hundred Years’ War with an average ratio of less than 1:1 to
other troops. This proportion rose to 1 to 1 during the Caroline phase. The Lancastrian phase opened with a ratio of 2:1 or
3:1, but after the death of Henry V, it became increasingly hard to find men-at-arms and knights willing to serve and this
very quickly changed to 7–8 archers to each man-at-arms. As the balance changed, the lack of support for the archers became

critical, although they could still win major battles such as Verneuil (1424) with a ratio of 4:1, despite one wing being
successfully burst through by heavily armoured cavalry. Archers were increasingly sourced from allies, subject French or
immigrant English settlers from Normandy.
Although the troops were hired in retinues, we know that these retinues could be split up for different tasks. Archers seem
to have formed on the flanks and across the front of the men-at-arms until the enemy closed to contact. In the great victories
of the first two phases, the archers would either form using terrain such as hill slopes, thorn bushes or marshy ground for
defensive advantage, or behind field defences such as potholes and ditches. Only during the Lancastrian phase did they start
to use pointed stakes, firstly at Agincourt.
Finally, during the Caroline phase, it became common to utilise columns of mounted men to go on great raids or
“chevauchées”, a strategy which had been developed in the wars against Scotland. This created great swathes of destruction
across areas of France but had little effect on the progress of the war.
Hobelars were spearmen mounted on "hobby" ponies for mobility. Pauncenars were German mercenary spearmen who
fought in the Crécy campaign. The option to upgrade them to veteran represents their heavy coat-of-plates armour.
Suggested Reading
Trial by Battle: The Hundred Years War, Vol. 1-4 by Jonathan Sumption

Hundred Years’ War English (Home)
This list covers the English armies during the Hundred Year’s War when fighting in Great Britain against the Scots but also
occasionally against other English armies, between 1337 and 1455 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Standard 1VP Standard 0–1 – 2
Knights, lance, small unit 6+ 5.5
Mounted men-at-arms 0–1
Later knights, lance, small unit 6+ 7
Hobelars 0–1*
Cavalry, lance 7+ 9
Northern border horse 0–1**
Light cavalry, lance 7+ 5
Dismounted knights, 2HCCW 3–6 6+ 11
Upgrade knights, 2HCCW to later knights, 2HCCW 0–1** 6+ 14
English retinue men-at-arms and Upgrade knights, 2HCCW or later knights, 2HCCW to
billmen knights, 2HCCW, veteran or later knights, 2HCCW, 0–1 5+ +2
veteran
Upgrade dismounted knights with extra longbow 0–2 – +2
Longbowmen 2–4 8+ 8
Upgrade longbowmen to longbowmen, veteran 0–1 7+ 10
English retinue longbowmen Upgrade longbowmen or longbowmen, veteran with

Any*** – +1
stakes
Upgrade longbowmen or longbowmen, veteran to
2–4 – +1
mounted infantry
Longbowmen, raw 1–6 9+ 6
Shire levy longbowmen
Upgrade longbowmen, raw to longbowmen 0–1 9+ 8
Northern border spearmen Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
Welsh spearmen Spearmen 0–1 7+ 7
Welsh longbowmen Longbowmen 0–2 8+ 8
Crossbowmen Light infantry other, crossbow 0–1* 8+ 4
Irish Light infantry, javelin 0–1 7+ 4
* Only before 1380.
** Only from 1380 onwards.
Northern border spearmen and horse may not be taken if Welsh are taken, and vice-versa.
Allies
None.

During the period covered by this list many battles and skirmishes were fought in the Scottish border region and two
significant battles occurred in England following rebellions against the crown.
In 1346 the English met and defeated the army of the Scottish King David II who was trying to support his French ally at
the Battle of Neville's Cross. As in the battles earlier in the century, it was the power of the longbow that was the deciding
factor in the English victory. King David was wounded and captured and most of the Scottish military leaders were killed
or taken prisoner.
The Battle of Radcot Bridge was fought in Oxfordshire in December 1387 between troops loyal to Richard II, led by court
favourite Robert de Vere, and a rebel army captained by Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby. Advancing incautiously through
a thick fog, De Vere’s army was ambushed and routed by a flank charge.
The Scots defeated the English at Nesbit Moor in 1355 and Otterburn in 1388, where Sir Henry “Hotspur” Percy was
captured. Hotspur won an English victory at Homildon Hill in Northumberland in 1402. The Scots under Douglas, seeing
that their route back home from a raid into England was blocked by a large body of English, took position on a nearby hill
(now known as Humbleton Hill). Percy sent a body of archers to outflank them forcing Douglas to send a detachment
against the archers, but they merely fell back whilst maintaining a deadly fire. This forced the Scot’s hand, and they charged
downhill into the main body of the English through a hail of arrows and were swiftly defeated.
The Battle of Shrewsbury was fought in 1403 between a royalist army led by the Lancastrian King Henry IV and a rebel
army led by Hotspur. This battle, the first in which English archers fought each other on English soil, opened with a massive
arrow storm in which Percy’s Cheshire bowmen had the advantage. Hotspur then led a mounted charge which was initially
successful, but superior royalist numbers eventually told, and, in confused and protracted fighting, Hotspur was killed.
In 1448 the English were defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Sark (also known as the Battle of Lochmaben Stone) at the
mouth of the Solway Firth, their first significant loss to the Scots for over half a century. Again, the longbow was in evidence
but this time the Scots managed to close with the English main battle and inflict a defeat. Many routers drowned in the rising
waters of the tidal river mouth.
Army Notes
Home-service retinues seem to have included hobelars rather later than foreign service armies. It seems likely that northern
hobelars evolved into the northern horse.
The bulk of the longbowmen famously formed up on the flanks of the men-at-arms, but it appears that some formed up
directly in in front of them, in several battles, so I have included an option to add “extra longbows” to the men-at-arms.
Veteran longbowmen represent the likes of the elite yeoman archers who came from the Macclesfield Hundred and the
forest districts of Cheshire.
Some crossbowmen would be encountered in English armies especially early in the period, possibly intermixed with the
longbowmen. There were not enough to warrant modelling them as separate units, but you might like to include some
models alongside the longbowmen.
There are no reports of the use of stakes by archers during the fighting in England or Scotland, perhaps because they were
primarily intended for use against mounted men and the Scots usually fought on foot. However, since many of the same
soldiers would have used them when serving abroad, I have included them.
Many thanks to Andy Green and Neil Grant who helped me write this list, and Dave Soutar who wrote the historical background.

Free Companies
This list represents the various "Free Companies" formed by soldiers during truces in the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1455
CE) during truces between England and France.
This list does not represent the White Company in Italy or the Catalan Company in Greece, which have their own lists.
English mercenaries serving in Spain or Portugal are best represented by the Hundred Years War English (Continental) list.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
6+
French, Gascon, Spanish or Upgrade knights, lance to later knights, lance Up to 1/2 14
Navarrese men–at–arms Upgrade knights, lance or later knights, lance to
2–3 5+ +2
veteran
Knights, lance, veteran 1–2* 13
English men–at–arms Upgrade knights, lance, veteran to later knights, 6+
Up to 1/2 16
lance, veteran
Spearmen, mounted infantry 1–4 7+ 8
Billmen, mounted infantry 0–1 7+ 8
Gascon or other foot
Upgrade spearmen/billmen, mounted infantry to
At least 1/2 6+ 10
spearmen/billmen, mounted infantry, veteran
English longbowmen Longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 1–3* 7+ 11
Other longbowmen Longbowmen, mounted infantry 0–1 8+ 9
Crossbowmen Crossbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 0–1 7+ 10
Ribauds or pillagers Mobs, deep 4–6 8+ 7
Bretons or Gascons Light infantry, javelin 0–1 7+ 4
* Minima apply only if any English are taken.
** 1444 only.
Allies
None.
Notes
Any knights may elect to dismount prior to a battle replacing their lance with 2HCCW.
Should any Bretons be used, then they must all be within the same command. If English are used with Bretons, then all
English must be in the same command under an English general. English may not serve in 1444.
“Other longbowmen” are archers employed by non-English companies. They may be of various nationalities, including
some English, but are not treated as English for the purposes of this list.
This list covers the various grande compagnies (“Great Companies”) of mercenaries that formed following the Treaty of
Bretagne between France and England which ended the first phase of the Hundred Years War, when large forces were
effectively made redundant following what had been, for the English and Gascon mercenaries, some very lucrative war years.
Leaders formed routes comprised largely but not exclusively from their own country or area. Such men had cut their teeth
in the Breton Civil wars and on the borders of Gascony, often holding commissions but not serving for pay, only what they

could extract in the form of pâtis – “protection money.” There were 91 acknowledged “Great Companies.” 36 of these were
commanded by Englishmen, 19 by captains from Gascony, four from the Périgord, one from Poitou, one from the Limousin
and two from elsewhere in Aquitaine; all these coming from a compact geographical area. A further five were commanded
by captains from Bearn, one from the Pyrenees, one Norman, and one from Toulouse. Five were German, two were from
Provence and one was Scottish. The remaining captains were of unknown provenance. There were reckoned to be another
75 companies of lesser size, including 45 Bretons and Anglo-Navarrese.
The average strength of the Great Companies was 120 Lances; 120 well-armed men at arms, 120 lesser men-at-arms and
120 mounted infantry which could be archers, crossbowmen, or other infantry such as spearmen or just generic foot, all
well-armed veterans. In addition, each had perhaps 140 to 200 looters and hangers on, of low military value.
When operating together they only acknowledged leaders for specific operations, though some leaders could be recognised
as having dominance. Whilst the companies were generically called English by the French, a habit from the 1340s, most
were not, though it could be said that a majority had fought for the English Crown. The Breton Companies (which were
smaller) tended to work and move together; the only time they really worked with the English under the leadership of Sir
Hugh Claveley, was when supporting Enrique of Trastamara’s bid for the Castilian throne for a period of a few months.
They seem to have been utilised as a separate force, eventually being recalled by the Black Prince for his counter invasion.
The companies, when not employed, moved into areas and took them over, capturing castles and towns and plundering the
region. They often targeted places which controlled transport choke points. Bought out of strongholds, they would move
on to another and continue their depredations. Initially they ravaged Burgundy, then effectively laid siege to Avignon, home
of the Pope. The sums of money they extorted were astronomical for the time, which explains why they continued as they
did. When employed, they often proved brutally effective. Foolish was the employer who failed to pay them according to
contract, as then his lands would be treated as were those of the enemy whom he had hired them against.
Companies fought over much of Europe, being especially popular in Italy. The Company of the Hat, the Company of the
Rose and Hawkwood’s famous White Company (which appears within the Early Italian Condotta list). Indeed, one of the
first large companies to operate in France was Italian. Many of the companies were, with some justification, regarded as
tools of English policy and would often fight under contracts which stated that they would not act against English rulers.
By continuing border warfare and ignoring truces, they could be responsible for kickstarting full scale war. When this
happened, they initially returned to their traditional perceived rulers, though many Gascons moved over to the French.
However, given that some at least were willing to betray their new best friends, the French began to realise that a captured
and ransomed Captain would continue to be a problem and began to execute them. By the 1390’s, a generation of leaders
were gone, and their companies were gone, too, either reabsorbed into national forces, destroyed by the resurgent French,
retired or moved on.
During the later Hundred Years War mercenary companies became more a feature of French armies than of English,
continuing with the traditional bad habits but not reaching the same threat level as the earlier years until the end of the wars.
At times they were the only effective component in the French army, and many of them later evolved into the Ordinance
Companies. Those who did not do so, found themselves no longer welcome in France.
When the Hundred Years’ War ended, the French King Charles VII quickly disposed of both sides’ mercenaries before they
could become unruly. He hired 40,000 of them, the so-called "Armagnacs", out to the Habsburg Emperor Frederick III for
an invasion of Switzerland. Their final exploit was to destroy a heavily outnumbered Swiss force which rashly attacked them
at St. Jacob-en-Birs in 1444.
Army Notes
The core of a grande compagnie was its men-at-arms. It seems likely that those national companies of men-at-arms out with
the sphere of France and England were more effective when mounted as was the case in the later years of the Hundred
Years War. There is no indication that German companies operated in deep mounted formations.
The compagnies appear to have included a lower proportion of missile-equipped soldiers than the equivalent national forces,
except when several English companies were working together. Bretons seem to have used archers rather than crossbowmen.
When Bertrand du Guesclin was preparing for the conquest of Sardinia (which did not take place), he contracted for 1,200
lances and 400 archers with a possible additional 500 lances and 200 more archers. Crossbowmen were to be provided by
the Spaniards, the implication being that the Bretons had none. Gascon forces in the earlier stages of the war had far more
foot, being traditionally spear and crossbow armed, but later included low numbers of archers. At the Battle of Brignais,
because they lacked missile troops, they resorted to throwing stones.
Perhaps 40–60% of the total headcount of a grande compagnie would have been pillagers, specifically hired for that purpose.
These might be barefooted and poorly equipped.

Sources
The Great Companies: 1 (Medieval Mercenaries, Volume I) Fowler
Many thanks to Bevan Marchand who suggested and prepared the first draft of this list, Dave Soutar who wrote the original historical background,
and to Neil Grant who recently edited the list and wrote an extended historical background.

Valois-Burgundian
This list covers the armies of the Duchy of Burgundy from Phillip the Bold's appointment as Duke in 1363 CE to Charles
the Bold's Ordonnance of 1471.
Attached general on foot 2–4*** 2+ 4
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Royal standard 1VP standard 0–1 – 2
Later knights, lance 2–3 6+ 14
Burgundian men–at–arms Downgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance, 1/2 or
7+ 12
raw more*
Burgundian valets 1/2 or
Downgrade cavalry, lance to cavalry, lance, raw 8+ 7
more*
French or Italian men–at–arms Later knights, lance 0–1 6+ 14
English men–at–arms Knights, lance 0–1*** 6+ 11
Light cavalry, crossbow 1 8+ 5
Mounted crossbowmen Upgrade light cavalry, crossbow to light cavalry,
Any 7+ 6
crossbow, veteran
Low Countries pikemen Pike, deep, raw 1–3 8+ 10
Longbowmen, veteran 0–1*** 10
English longbowmen Upgrade longbowmen, veteran with 2HCCW Any 7+ +1
Upgrade longbowmen, veteran with stakes Any +1
Longbowmen 1–2 8
Picard longbowmen 8+
Upgrade longbowmen with stakes Any +1
Feudal or mercenary Crossbowmen 1–2 7
8+
crossbowmen Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises Any 1
Crossbowmen, raw 1 5
Low Countries crossbowmen 9+
Upgrade crossbowmen, raw with pavises Any 1
Bombards Artillery (cannon), raw 0–1 8+ 6
Organ guns Artillery (organ guns) 0–1** 7+ 7
* After 1419, following the Long Peace.
** Only after 1350.
*** Should any English be chosen, then they must be in a separate command under an English general.
Allies
Hundred Years’ War French, Hundred Years’ War English.
Notes
Knights may choose to start dismounted; in which case they replace their lances with 2HCCW. Generals must be attached
to a unit of men-at-arms.

Philippe le Hardi (Philip the Bold) (who was to become the first Duke of Burgundy) was the youngest son of the Valois King
Jean II of France. He was known as Philip the Bold due to his bravery when fighting alongside his father at the Battle of
Poitiers in 1356, where he was wounded, and they were both captured. They were released after the Treaty of Brétigny in
1360. In 1363, Philip was appointed Duke of Burgundy, thus founding the Valois-Burgundian dynasty.
In 1369 Philip married Margaret III of Flanders and, when her father, Count Louis II of Flanders died in 1384, she and
Philip inherited the County of Flanders. Together they initiated an era of Burgundian governance in the Low Countries. (See
the Hapsburg-Burgundian Netherland list). Future Burgundian monarchs would aspire to uniting the two separate regions
by conquering the lands between.
In 1380, Philip’s brother Charles V of France had died, and Philip had become one of a council of regents to Charles’s 11-
year-old son Charles VI. By 1392, Philip was the strongest of the regents and took power in France when Charles became
insane. He remained regent of France until his death in 1404.
Philip was succeeded by his son John the Fearless who, before his accession to the Duchy of Burgundy, was one of the
principal leaders of the French forces sent to aid King Sigismund of Hungary in his war against the Turkish Sultan Bayezid.
John fought in the battle of Nicopolis (1396) with such enthusiasm and bravery that he was given the nickname of John the
Fearless (Jean sans Peur). Despite his personal bravery, his impetuous leadership ended in disaster, and he was taken prisoner
but released in the following year, after the payment of a huge ransom by his father.
On becoming the Duke of Burgundy, John almost immediately began an open conflict with Louis, Duke of Orleans, the
younger brother of the increasingly disturbed King Charles VI of France. Both men attempted to fill the power vacuum left
by the demented king. In 1407, Louis was assassinated in the streets of Paris on the instructions of Duke John of Burgundy,
who admitted to the deed and declared it to be a justifiable act of "tyrannicide".
Charles, the son and heir of the murdered Duke of Orléans, was only 14 at the time of his father's death and was forced to
depend heavily on allies to support his claims for the lands that had been confiscated from him by the Duke of Burgundy.
Chief among these allies was his father-in-law Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac. Because of this alliance, their faction became
known as the Armagnacs in opposition to the Burgundians.
The rivalry between Burgundians and Armagnacs intensified after the shattering French defeat at Agincourt in 1415. John's
troops captured Paris in 1418, but not before the new Dauphin, the future Charles VII of France, had escaped. John then
installed himself in Paris and made himself protector of the King. Although not an open ally of the English, John did nothing
to prevent the surrender of Rouen in 1419. With the whole of northern France in English hands and Paris occupied by
Burgundy, the Dauphin tried to bring about a reconciliation with John. They met to agree to peace in 1419 but John was
betrayed and murdered by the Dauphin's companions.
Following this, John’s son and successor, Philip the Good formed an alliance with the English, an act which would prolong
the Hundred Years' War for decades and cause incalculable damage to France and its subjects. He was mainly involved
within his own territories and seldom took part directly in the Hundred Years' War, although he did play a role occasionally
such as in the campaign against Compiegne during which his troops captured Joan of Arc. Philip's alliance with England
was broken in 1435 when he recognised Charles VII as king of France, possibly with a desire to be considered the pre-
eminent duke in France.
In the years following, Philip obtained a loan for a war against France to ensure support for the succession of his son Charles
I to his now vast dominions. In 1465 and 1467, Philip crushed two rebellions in Liège, but died a few weeks later after the
end of the second.
From the beginning of his reign, Philip’s son Charles the Bold started to reorganise both his army and the administration of
his territories. He endeavoured to establish a system of rigid discipline among his troops that was strengthened by the
employment of foreign mercenaries, particularly English and Italians, and to increase his artillery arm. Charles also constantly
sought to expand the territories under his control. By 1471 the reorganisation of his military was complete; for details, see
the Burgundian Ordonnance list.
Army Notes
Valets are the lightly armed retainers of the Burgundian men-at-arms and were, on occasion, deployed independently. Low
Countries troops were unenthusiastic and Burgundian men-at-arms lost their edge during the long peace under Philip the
Good.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who very kindly wrote the historical background.

French Ordonnance
This list covers the French armies from the establishment of the first companies of Ordonnance by Charles VII in 1445 CE
until the beginning of the Italian Wars in 1494.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Ordonnance gens d'armes (men–
at–arms) and coustilliers Upgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance,
0–2 5+ 16
veteran
Feudal or Savoyard gens d'armes
(men–at–arms) Downgrade later knights, lance to later knights, lance,
All* 7+ 12
raw
Light cavalry, crossbow 0–1 8+ 5
Mounted crossbowmen Upgrade light cavalry, crossbow to light cavalry,
0–1**** 7+ 6
handgun, veteran
French spearmen Spearmen, raw 0–2* 8+ 5
Billmen 0–1 7+ 7
French partisan men
Upgrade billmen to pikemen, deep, raw 0–1 8+ 10
Longbowmen, mounted infantry 1–2 8+ 9
Upgrade longbowmen, mounted infantry to
Any*** 7+ 11
longbowmen, mounted infantry, veteran
Ordonnance archers
Upgrade any longbowmen with extra stakes Any – +1
Downgrade longbowmen, mounted infantry to Any**,
7+ 9
cavalry, lance all****
Francs archers Bowmen, raw 1–4 9+ 5
French crossbowmen
Gascons or Bretons 1–2
Handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1 8+ 4
Artillery (cannon) 0–2 7+ 7
Artillery
Artillery (organ guns) 0–1 7+ 7
* Only before 1465.
** Only during and after 1465.
**** Only during and after 1479.
Allies
Later Italian Condotta (Milanese)*, Swiss****, Later Italian Condotta (Milanese)*****
Notes

Before 1465, knights may choose to start a battle dismounted, in which case they replace their lances with 2HCCW. Generals
must be attached to units of men-at-arms.
In 1445 Charles VII issued a decree raising 15 'compagnies d’ordonnance' each consisting of 100 lances each of six mounted
men, although some accounts vary. These would include a knight, a coustillier (a less heavily equipped cavalryman) and
others including mounted archers. After 1465, these archers were sometimes employed as lance-armed cavalry. The men in
these units signed a contract which kept them in the service of the unit for periods of one year or longer. They were the first
professional armies available to the French Crown. The decree also gave the king the exclusive right to hire mercenaries who
could be supplemented by town militia and various regional forces. The first use of the new army was to hunt down those
free company mercenaries who refused to sign up to the Ordonnance. After 1480, Swiss mercenaries were included in
French armies.
It was the French Ordonnance army that fought against the English during the latter engagements of the Hundred Years’
War. These included the Battle of Formigny in 1450 when the English, after almost defeating the French, were taken in the
flank by the arrival of a force of Breton cavalry and soundly beaten. The French were also victorious at the Battle of Castillon
in 1453, the final battle of the wars.
In 1465, at the Battle of Montlhéry, just outside Paris, the Ordonnance army fought Valois-Burgundians led by Philip the
Good's son the Count of Charolais (later known as Charles the Bold). Both sides would claim victory in this battle. For an
excellent account see:
https://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/2013/07/12/the-battle-of-montlhery/
Following the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, control of the Burgundian Netherlands passed to his daughter Marie who
married Maximilian, the Hapsburg Archduke of Austria, in the following year. The growing threat posed by the Hapsburg
Netherlands prompted Louis XI of France to mount a series of incursions into the Low Countries where, in 1479, his forces
were defeated by Maximilian’s at the Battle of Guinegate.
Between 1485–1488 various French feudal lords rebelled against King Charles VIII’s authority in what became to be known
as la Guerre Folle (the Mad War). The revolt was supported by the enemies of the King of France: England, Spain, and Austria.
In 1488, the forces of King Charles VIII defeated the army of Francis II, Duke of Brittany at the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-
Cormier which signalled the end of Brittany’s independence from France.
Many thanks to Dave Soutar who added this historical background.

Wars of the Roses
This list covers the armies of the various contenders in the Wars of the Roses between 1455 and 1487 CE.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Royal bodyguard men-at-arms Later knights, lance, small unit, veteran 0–1 except S 5+ 8
Mounted men-at-arms Later knights, lance 0–1 except S 6+ 14
Currours Cavalry, lance 0–1 except S 7+ 9
Northern border staves Light cavalry, lance, extra javelin, raw 0–1 L/R 8+ 5
Billmen, veteran, mounted infantry 3-4**, 1-2 S 6+ 10
Upgrade billmen, veteran, mounted infantry to
0-1 5+ 16
dismounted later knights, 2HCCW, veteran
Upgrade billmen, veteran or dismounted later knights,
Retinue and indentured men All or none* – +2
2HCCW, veteran with extra longbow
Longbowmen 3–5, 1-2 S 8+ 8
Replace longbowmen with billmen, extra longbow All or none* 7+ 9
Upgrade to mounted infantry Any - +1
1–2^ except
Billmen, raw 8+ 5
S
1–2^ except
Shire levy Longbowmen, raw 9+ 6
S
Replace longbowmen, raw and billmen, raw with
All or none* 8+ 7
billmen, extra longbow, raw
Provide longbowmen or billmen, extra longbow with
Stakes Any - +1
stakes
French voulgiers Billmen, veteran 1–2 T 6+ 9
French archers Longbowmen 0–1 T 8+ 8
French crossbowmen Crossbowmen 8+ 7
0–1 T
French handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 8+ 4
Burgundian pike Pike, deep 1–2 S 7+ 13
Burgundian handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–2 Y, 0–1 S 8+ 4
Spearmen, raw 8+ 5
Northern border foot Longbowmen, raw 0–2 L/R 9+ 6
Spearmen, extra longbow, raw 8+ 7
Welsh spearmen Spearmen 7+ 7
0–2 L/Y/T
Welsh archers Longbowmen 8+ 8
Irish bonnachts Javelinmen 0–2 L/3-6 S 7+ 7
Irish kerns Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–2 L/1–2 S 8+ 3
Artillery Artillery (cannon) or Artillery (organ guns) 0–2 7+ 7
L = Only Lancaster.

Y = Only York.
T = Only Tudor.
R= Only Richard III.
S = Only Lambert Simnel, Yorkist pretender, in 1487.
* If any units with extra longbow are taken, then all billmen must have extra longbow and no longbowmen may be
taken. n.b. This does not apply to continental foot, Welsh or border archers.
** The maxima and minima are reduced by one for each mounted man-at-arms (excluding Royal bodyguard) or French
voulgier unit that is taken.
^ Minima applies if any shire levy units are taken.
Allies
Feudal Scottish (may not be taken if any Welsh or Irish are taken).
Notes
Men-at-arms can be fielded either mounted or dismounted at the start of the battle. The small unit of men-at-arms represents
a mounted bodyguard, such as Richard III’s at Bosworth Field. The senior general must be attached to this unit, or to the
dismounted men-at-arms, if either are taken.
The Wars of the Roses are a term used to describe a loosely connected series of rebellions, usurpations and foreign-backed
invasions of England during the second half of the c. 15th. It should not be thought of as a continuous period of warfare.
Most campaigns did not last much beyond three weeks. Anthony Goodman estimates that there were only 428 days of active
campaigning during the entire thirty-year period, between the Yorkist lords gathering ahead of First St. Albans in 1455 and
the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.
The wars divide into five phases. The first phase featured Yorkist rebellions from 1452–1460. Because Henry VI was a child
when he came to throne, and suffered from mental health problems as an adult, during most of his reign England was ruled
by councils of Nobles. The Duke of York felt he was not given the authority and respect he deserved and so rebelled, not
so much to seize the throne but rather to force Henry VI to meet his grievances. This changed after the battle of
Northampton when, after having been declared a traitor and exiled, York made a claim to the throne. A settlement was
reached under which Henry VI remained king for life, but York’s heirs would succeed him after his death. This disinherited
the Prince of Wales and was therefore unacceptable to the Queen and many Lancastrian nobles, who fought on, resulting in
the death of York at the battle of Wakefield.
From 1460–1461 the wars entered a second phase which Goodman refers to as the War of Succession. The Yorkists had
proclaimed York’s son king as Edward IV. Henry VI’s Queen, the Prince of Wales and many leading supporters fled into
exile where they sought support from Scotland and France. This phase ended with a decisive Yorkist victory at Towton.
During the next phase lasting from 1461–1464 there were no major battles, but there was a Scottish invasion and many
castles in Northumbria were seized and held, for a time. Towards the end of 1464, France was drawn into a conflict with
the Duke of Burgundy and Lancastrian support from both Scotland and France fell-away.
The period 1469–71 saw some local rebellions against Yorkist rule. This time, the great man feeling slighted was the Earl of
Warwick, known as the Kingmaker. After rebelling and capturing Edward IV, and then reconciling with him again, Warwick
was declared traitor and fled into exile. but returned in 1470 with French support to further the Lancastrian cause, and
restored Henry VI to the throne. Edward, in turn, fled into exile, returning in 1471 with Burgundian support and a small but
well-equipped army. He narrowly defeated Warwick at the hard-fought battle of Barnet. The Queen arrived too late to raise
the western Lancastrians and support Warwick. Edward had enough time to recruit and re-equip his army before moving
west to meet her. Edward defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, killing the Prince of Wales and many senior
Lancastrians in the pursuit and subsequent executions. Shortly afterwards, following a failed attempt to rescue Henry VI
from the Tower, Henry died (presumably murdered), leaving Edward IV secure on the throne until his own death in 1483.
The final phase of the war lasted from 1483–97. After Edward’s death in 1483, his brother Richard became protector to
Edward’s infant heir and later, after the latter’s mysterious disappearance (also presumably murdered), was crowned Richard
III. After witnessing several failed rebellions from the side lines, Henry Tudor gauged that the time was right and, with
French support, invaded and defeated and killed Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Some historians consider the
accession of Henry VII in 1485 to mark the end of the Wars of the Roses but others argue that the two subsequent attempts
to topple Henry Tudor that followed, each by pretenders claiming to be one of Edward’s sons, should be included. The first
was nominally led by Lambert Simnel who, leading an army composed of English Yorkists, mercenaries and Irish, was
defeated at Stoke Field in 1487. The second was nominally led by Perkin Warbeck who was captured after a failed rising in

the West Country in 1497. Henry VII reigned for nearly 24 years and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII, in
1509.
Army Notes
Throughout the wars the English generally fought on foot at they had done since the time of Edward III. Retinues generally
rode to the battlefield, however. "Not that they are accustomed to fight from horseback, but because they use horses to
carry them to the scene of the engagement, so as to arrive fresher and not tired by the fatigue of the journey: Therefore, they
will ride any sort of horse, even packhorses. On reaching the field of battle the horses are abandoned, they all fight together
under the same conditions so that no one should retain any hope of fleeing." (Mancini, 1483) Later in the wars, men-at-arms
occasionally fought mounted, supported by the lighter currour horse.
In the English armies of the Hundred Years War, and later, during foreign expeditions, the ratio of men-at-arms to archers
was typically around 5:1 but could rise as high at 3:1. During the Wars of the Roses, however, it appears that the ratio of
non-archers to archers may have been closer to 1:1. This difference was perhaps because good archers were particularly
sought-after for foreign service. However, their overall numbers were limited - an expedition to France might involve a fair
proportion of the country’s better longbowmen. When fighting in England, on the other hand, well equipped non-archers
were useful to pack out the battle line.
Regarding the tactical deployment of the archers, there is, unfortunately, extraordinarily little detail to be found in the
accounts of the battles. Archers may have been organised in separate units, or as described by the historian Andrew
Boardman, formed part of an “all arms contingent” of men-at-arms, billmen and archers. I have provided for both options
in the list. Many battles opened with an exchange of archery. After this, it is likely that the archers fought, in melee, alongside
the dismounted men-at-arms and billmen, indeed some of them are listed in the muster rolls as owning a polearm as well as
their longbow.
Regarding the northern border staves, recent research indicates that they carried both lances and “lancegayes.” Lancegayes
follow lances in the lists of equipment and are clearly a different weapon. Javelins seem a more likely interpretation than
them being an alternate form of lance.
The first period of the Wars, when many of the commanders had participated in the wars in France, was noteworthy for the
use of artillery camps and wagon lagers. The use of gunpowder weapons gradually increased during the wars with artillery
and handgunners playing an important role.
Perry plastic shire bowmen from the author’s collection

Thanks to Bevan Marchand who did most of the work in the original version of the list, which I revised in October 2020 to include the mixed
units of billmen and archers. Thanks also to Andy Green for his many useful suggestions regarding the list and for writing the historical background.

Burgundian Ordonnance
This list covers the final campaigns of the armies of the Duchy of Burgundy from Charles the Bold's 1471 CE reforms,
based on the French ordonnance model, until his death at the Battle of Nancy in 1477.

Generals
Charles the Bold– Senior, heroic, mounted general 1 – 6
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Ordonnance gendarmes,
coustilliers and pages Upgrade a unit of later knights, lance to later knights,
0–1 5+ 16
lance, veteran (as Ducal Household)
Feudal men–at–arms Knights, no lance, raw 0–1* 7+ 7
Italian men–at–arms Later knights, lance 0–2 6+ 14
Italian mounted crossbowmen Light cavalry, crossbow 0–2 8+ 5
Household infantry Billmen, extra longbow, veteran 1 6+ 11
Ordonnance pikemen Pikemen, deep 0–1** 7+ 13
Low Countries pikemen Pike, deep, raw 0–3 8+ 10
Ordonnance (and English) Longbowmen, mounted infantry, stakes, veteran 7+ 12
1–4**
mounted archers Spearmen, extra longbow, mounted infantry, veteran 6+ 12
Ordonnance foot archers or Bowmen, stakes 8+ 8
0–1
crossbowmen Crossbowmen with pavises 8+ 8
Italian or other crossbowmen Crossbowmen with pavises 0–2 8+ 8
Ordonnance handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 0–2 7+ 7
Organ guns Artillery (organ guns) 1–3 7+ 7
Field fortifications Upgrade any artillery with stakes Any – +1
* Treated as knights but lacking a lance. Their cost has been decreased to reflect this.
** If pikemen are taken, then the Ordonnance (and English) mounted archers may not be taken as spearmen and must be
taken as longbowmen instead. Conversely, if longbowmen are taken, then pikemen must also be taken.
Allies
Low Countries.
Notes
Knights and later knights may choose to start a dismounted, in which case they replace lances, if they have them, with
2HCCW.
Feudal men-at-arms often lacked military experience, and in some case, armour! After a period of long peace, very few were
trained in the use of the lance.
Household infantry fought in a mixed formation and were armed with voulge pole-cleavers and longbows.
Ordonnance pikemen sometimes fought only four ranks deep, to protect their longbowmen. Since the pike protected the
archers, but the formations were too shallow to gain the special benefits of pike, they are best represented by spearmen,
extra longbow, veteran.

Upon his succession to the Dukedom of Burgundy in 1467, when his father Phillip the Good died, Charles le Téméraire (“The
Bold”) inherited a powerful state, the territories of which extended from Flanders on the North Sea to the Swiss Alps and
Savoy. It included lands owned directly by the Dukes of Burgundy as well as bishoprics and territories under Burgundian
influence.
However, these territories were not contiguous, and it was Charles’ ambition to link them that led him into conflict with
Archduke Sigismund of Austria, Duke Rene II of Lorraine and the Bernese, a canton of the Old Swiss Confederacy which
also had expansionist ambitions. King Louis XI of France was also opposed to Charles.
The Burgundian Swiss War was triggered in April 1474 when an uprising in Alsace led to Charles sending 6000 soldiers into
the area. In September, the Old Swiss Confederacy negotiated a treaty of neutrality with Louis X1of France, who also agreed
to finance the Swiss. On 25th October the Swiss declared war on Charles the Bold. The war was to last until 1477 and was
decided by four battles.
The first and perhaps least well known was Hericourt, 13th November 1474 where a Burgundian army of about 10,000 was
defeated by an army 18,000 of Swiss which included an Austrian contingent provided by Duke Sigismund.
The second battle at Grandson was fought on 2nd March 1476 where a Swiss army of 19,000 encountered a Burgundian
force of 15,000.
Charles subsequently laid siege to the town of Morat (Murten) with an army of 10–15,000 men. It was here, on the 22nd of
June 1476, that an army of 25,000 Swiss infantry and 1,800 mounted troops surprised and overran a second Burgundian
army.
The final engagement of the war took place at Nancy on 5th January 1477 where a Burgundian force 8,000–10,000 men
strong was destroyed by a 20,000-strong Swiss army. As his army routed around him, and pursued by Swiss infantry, Charles
was thrown from his horse as it attempted to clear a stream. He was then struck behind the ear with pick on the reverse side
of a halberd which penetrated his brain.
Perry Burgundian crossbowmen painted by Lionel Bechara and the author.

Army Notes
Charles’ achievements in military organisation and administration were much superior to his strategy and tactics on the
battlefield. Between July 1471 and October 1473, he implemented three ordonnances that restructured and reorganised the
Burgundian into his famous compagnies d’ordonnance (“order”), which the above list seeks to represent. He made extensive use
of seasoned mercenaries, particularly those from England and Italy. He also modernised and increased the artillery element
of his army- he was reported to have over 300 pieces.
Interestingly, the death of Charles did not mark the end of the compagnies d’ordonnance. Some companies had not been
present and they, and presumably the remnants that survived Nancy, fought for Maximillian I against Louis X1 at Guinegate
as represented in the Hapsburg-Burgundian Netherlands list.
Sources
When writing this list, I referred to Luke Ueda-Sarson's excellent Later Burgundian army list and Ian Heath's Armies of the
Middle Ages.
Thanks also to Phil Hamer who assisted with the list and who wrote the historical background.

Hapsburg-Burgundian Netherlands
This list covers the post-Charles the Bold Burgundian rump state in the Netherlands, initially co-ruled by Mary, Duchess of
Burgundy and her husband Maximilian I of Habsburg from 1477 until 1482 CE, and later by their son Philip IV ("The
Handsome") until his death in 1506.
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Later knights, lance 1–3, 1–2** 6+ 14
Ordonnance gendarmes, coustilliers
and pages Upgrade a unit of later knights, lance to later knights,
0–1 5+ 16
lance, veteran as Ducal Household
Pike, deep, raw 2–6 8+ 10
Upgrade pike, deep, raw to pike, extra deep Any** 7+ 17
Replace pike, deep, raw with pike, deep (as 1/2 or
Low Countries militia and, 13
landsknechts) more****
later, landsknecht pike
Upgrade landsknecht pike, deep to pike, extra deep Any 7+ 17
Upgrade landsknecht pike, deep or extra deep with a
hero representing a verlone haufe (forlorn hope) of Any**** +1
halberdiers.
Swiss mercenary pikemen Pike, extra deep, veteran 0–1*/** 6+ 21
Longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 1–2 11
7+
Upgrade longbowmen with extra stakes Any +1
Ordonnance mounted archers
Downgrade longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry
0–1 8+ 8
to crossbowmen, mounted infantry
English mercenary Longbowmen, veteran, mounted infantry 11
0–1*** 7+
longbowmen Upgrade longbowmen with extra stakes +1
Bowmen 0–1 7
Ordonnance foot archers 8+
Upgrade bowmen with extra stakes Any +1
Crossbowmen 0–1 7
Militia or mercenary
Upgrade crossbowmen with pavises 0–1 8+ +1
crossbowmen
Militia/mercenary handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 0–1 8+ 4
Swiss/German crossbow Light infantry other, crossbow 1–2* 8+ 4
Swiss/German handgunners Light infantry other, handgun 1–2* 8+ 4
Bombards Artillery (cannon) 1–2 7+ 7
Light and organ guns Artillery (organ guns) 0–2 7+ 7
* Only in 1478 and 1479.
** Representing the army at Guinegate in 1479. Should any pike, raw be upgraded to pike, extra deep, then the
maximum number of mounted knights is reduced to 1–2 (since some men-at-arms have dismounted to stiffen the pike
squares), the Swiss mercenary pike may not be taken (also stiffening the squares), and at least one dismounted general
must be taken. Extra deep pike may fight in field squares, as described in the Even Stronger supplement.

*** Only in 1480 and 1481.
**** Only from 1480 onwards, as landsknecht pike progressively replace Low Countries militia pike.
Allies
None.
Notes
We have classed the Ordonnance foot archers as bowmen since Duncan Head suggests that their bows may have been less
powerful than longbows. Knights may choose to start dismounted; in this case they replace their lances with 2HCCW.
Following the death of Charles the Bold at Nancy in January 1477, control of the Burgundian Netherlands passed to his
daughter, Marie. In the following August, the heiress married the Hapsburg Archduke of Austria, Maximilian, son of
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal. Charles’ death prompted Louis XI of France to mount a
series of attacks and incursions into the Low Countries. Maximilian undertook the defence of his wife's dominions.
During 1477, the army that defended the Low Counties was composed of militia, mostly from the cities of Flanders with
smaller contingents from Brabant and other provinces. Subsequently, Maximillian issued an Ordonnance that created a
professional army of Ordonnance companies on a similar model to Charles the Bold’s. Maximillian defeated the French
forces at Guinegate (the modern Enguinegatte) on 7 August 1479.
Army Notes
In 1479, the temperamental morale of the Flemish militias seems to have been overcome and their confidence boosted by
the presence of their generals and several hundred nobles fighting alongside them on foot. Perhaps the Swiss mercenaries
played a part, too, as the pike formed up in unusually deep Swiss-style formations. This practice was probably introduced by
Jan van Dadizeele who, as Captain General, reorganised the Flemish forces. While it probably saved the day at Guinegate,
it did not prevent the militias from disbanding and returning home soon after the battle. Consequently, Maximilian gradually
replaced the militias with more reliable mercenaries who were to become known as landsknechts.
Many thanks to Phil Hamer who wrote this interesting list, with my assistance, based on some suggestions by Duncan Head at
http://www.massey.ac.nz/~bjmoyle/dbm/bm/p402.html

Prayer Book Rebellion – Loyalists
This list represents the loyalist armies of the Prayer Book or Western Rebellion of 1549.
Generals
Upgrade to senior (as Sir John Russell) 0–1 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Burgundian, Italian and
German mercenary and county Cavalry, lance 1–2 7+ 9
levy demi–lancers
Stradiots and county light
Light cavalry, javelin 1 7+ 5
horse
Dorset, Gloucestershire and Billmen, raw 6–12 8+ 5
Welsh militia Upgrade billmen, raw to billmen, extra longbow, raw 1/2–2/3 8+ 7
Italian arquebusiers Light infantry other, handgun, mounted infantry 1 8+ 5
Artillery Artillery (cannon) 1 7+ 7
Allies
None.
See the equivalent rebel list.
Army Notes
Lord Russell, the Earl of Bedford, had an advantage over the rebels since his shire levies included a greater proportion of
archers. He also had some access to some professional mercenaries. The Privy Council had originally planned to deploy
landsknechts in Devon, but in the event, these were diverted to the other regions.
The levied horse would include gendarmes, and the mercenaries included some ritters but for the effect of the overall force
are best represented as demi-lancers.
Many thanks to Steve Cooper who wrote this interesting list. It is our intention to revisit it, later, to include the Loyalist forces involved in the
fighting in Norfolk. This list will at some stage be moved into a Renaissance book.

Prayer Book Rebellion – Rebels
This list represents the rebel armies of the Prayer Book or Western Rebellion of 1549.
Upgrade to senior (as Sir Humphrey Arundell) 0–1 – +1
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Five Wounds of Christ banner 1VP standard 1 – 2
Devon and Cornwall militia
Upgrade billmen, raw to billmen, extra longbow, raw 1/3–1/2 8+ 7
Civilian defenders Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 5
Skirmishers Light infantry other, longbow or sling 0–2 8+ 4
Artillery Artillery (cannon) 1–2 7+ 7
Any foot or
Field fortifications Upgrade with stakes – +1
artillery
Allies
None.
The summer of 1549 became known as The Commotion Times, due to Kett’s Rebellion at Norwich against enclosure, the
Prayer Book or Western Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall against Edward VI’s hard-line protestant reform of the Church
of England, and uprisings in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire that were probably a mixture of both.
On the 6th of June 1549 Mayor Bray of Bodmin convened a town meeting at which resolutions were put containing the gist
of the rebels eventual demands. Humphrey Arundell, a local gentleman with previous military experience (who had fought
with distinction at the siege of Boulogne in 1544) somewhat reluctantly agreed to lead the Cornish rebels.
Following a confrontation over the introduction of the new prayer book on Whit Monday (10th June), a group of parishioners
from Sampford Courtenay in Devon decided to march on Exeter. As the rebels moved through Devon, they gained large
numbers of Catholic supporters and became a significant force. From 2nd July onwards, Exeter was under full siege by the
Devon rebels, who were later joined by the Cornish rebels who had been delayed by the need to defeat the loyalist local
gentry.
In London, King Edward VI and his Privy Council became alarmed by the news from the West Country. Lord John Russell
was instructed by the Duke of Somerset, the Lord Protector, to take an army to impose a military solution if the rebels could
not otherwise be pacified. Russell marched out of Dorset on 19th July.
By 27th July the rebels, emboldened by the outcome of skirmishes, advanced against the loyalists at Fenny Bridge where the
government forces only prevailed due to a lack of leaders amongst the defenders.
The arrival of a mercenary contingent strengthened the loyalists, and on August 4th they attacked Bishop’s Clyst. The village
was barricaded and fortified and garrisoned by numerous rebels. Sir Thomas Pomeroy, a rebel, took a drummer and
trumpeter to the flank of the royal force and set his musicians playing. The government troops believed a whole force was
arriving, and routed, leaving their artillery train behind, which the rebels used to augment their existing battery. However, a
second assault saw the village stormed and the occupants massacred with minimal loyalist casualties. The rebel survivors fell
back to the adjacent Clyst’s Heath where a pitched battle on the following day saw another rebel defeat after fierce resistance.
Exeter was relieved on the 6th of August, and 18th August saw the full government force crush the depleted but still
formidable rebels at Sampford Courtenay, where the first blood of insurrection had been spilt. In his splendid book The
Commotion Time: Tudor Rebellion in the West, 1549, Ed Fox writes:
‘…the battle at Sampford Courtenay was, in terms of the number of combatants at least, bigger than the battles of Edgehill and Sedgemoor and
at least comparable with Bosworth, all of which have received thousands and thousands of pages’ worth of attention from military historians.’

Thereafter it was mop-up and reprisal. The final casualty of the ‘Commotions’ was the Lord Protector Somerset, himself,
whose inept leadership probably caused the uprising. In October 1549, he was forced out of power, imprisoned in the Tower
of London and executed in January 1552.
Army Notes
At the time of the “Commotions” militia-preparedness was required of all English men. All were supposed by law to be
practicing with the great bow; but only a proportion were, in fact, longbow-owners. Billhooks, however, were cheap, and
even the minority who presented at musters with no equipment could be supplied with them from arsenals. This meant that
when the West Countrymen revolted against the hard-line Protestant impositions of Edward VI, far from being a ramshackle
‘pitchfork rebellion’, they were able to field a “bows and bills” English force equivalent to any shire levy of the c. 15th or c.
16th.
The rebels were well supplied, and their army included a respectable artillery train with competent gun crews. Cornish tin-
miners were able to efficiently erect ‘great rampires’; barricades and ditches which were to inconvenience the forces of the
Crown in several engagements.
The rebels, however, had only a smattering of arquebuses and no cavalry. However, the dense West Country terrain made
this dearth of mounted troops less of a handicap than it might at first appear, although the inability to pursue retreating
loyalists was to cost the rebellion any chance of ultimate success. Rebel banners included the emblem of the Five Wounds
of Christ.
Further Reading
The Commotion Time: Tudor Rebellion in the West, 1549, Dr. E. T Fox Helion and Company 2020.
Many thanks to Steve Cooper who wrote this interesting list, which we hope later to edit to include John Kett’s revolt in Norfolk. This list will at
some stage be moved into a Renaissance book.
The Prayer Book campaign is relatively little known, but now that The Assault Group, Steel Fist, Wargames Foundry and Wargames Atlantic
providing suitable 28mm figures, surely this era deserves some table time!

VIII Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa
This chapter includes all those medieval army lists to the south of the sea of sand.
East African
This list covers the armies of East Africa from 500 CE to the first contact with the Portuguese during or after the 1480’s.
General, attached, on foot 2–4 2+ 4
Generals Upgrade attached general to heroic 2–4 3+ –
Heroes 3–5 – 1
Replace warriors, deep with warriors, deep,
0–2 8+ 10
Warriors fanatics (as cannibals)
Replace warriors, deep with javelinmen All or none* 7+ 7
Mount any warriors on oxen as mounted infantry 0–2 – +1
Subject tribesmen
Replace warriors, deep, raw with javelinmen, raw All or none* 8+ 5
Scouts and hunters Light infantry other, bow, raw 9+ 3
0–4
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Camps 1–3 – 1
Other Dry stone or thorn boma fortifications, per 1
0–5 – 1
box–side length
* As Southern Sudanese (such as Dinka or Shilluk).
Allies
Zanj City States, Waqwaq, Portuguese (after 1490), Christian Nubian, Ethiopian or Somali (Southern Sudanese only)
Notes
An East African army may be Southern Sudanese, or other.
Geographically this covers many different peoples and cultures who occupied territory stretching from modern Kenya,
through Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi to Zimbabwe and South Africa. The domestic economy was most often pastoral,
based on cattle with wealth concentrated in the healthier inland uplands. However, parts of East Africa were fully connected
to the well-developed Indian Ocean trading network and exported gold, ivory, copper, animal pelts and slaves for luxuries
and manufactured goods, including Chinese porcelain and Indian cloth via Arabic and Indian middlemen.
Some East African Kingdoms were small. Others were very substantial – including Mapungubwe (circa 1000–1200), the
Shona kingdoms of Zimbabwe “Houses of Stone” (circa 800–1450), Butua (circa 1450–1700), and Mwenamutapa “Lord of
Lands” (circa 1430–1730). In the north, the Shilluk and Dinka faced Sudanese and Ethiopian expansion and resisted both.
Army Notes
East African armies were usually well equipped with iron weapons and relied entirely on infantry. Horses were not available
due to environmental factors, although there are references in Arabic sources to warriors riding oxen. Bows were employed

to some extent, often by youths and the elderly, and perhaps by recent arrivals to the region. However, most mature warriors
were protected by large shields and fought at close quarters with javelin, spear and club.
Northern armies relied primarily on volleys of javelins, though backed up by stabbing spear and club for close combat.
Southern armies focused on aggressive, fast moving and often well-disciplined infantry formations equipped with spear and
shield and are best represented in TtS! As warriors, deep.
Periodic eruptions by migrating and sometimes cannibalistic tribes such as the Zimba and Segeju threatened both more
settled societies, as well as the cities of the Zanj. To reflect the terror that cannibals may have caused, they be treated as
fanatics.
Many thanks to Nicholas Stock who wrote this list and the historical background.

Christian Nubian
This list covers the Christian kingdoms of the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia) from 550 CE onwards. These merged
to form the Kingdom of Nubia that survived until the end of the c. 15th.
Generals
Upgrade to heroic 2–4 +1 –
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, lance, veteran 6+ 11
Court cavalry 0–1
Cavalry, lance, veteran, extra bow 6+ 13
Light cavalry, lance 7+ 5
Light cavalry, riding mares Light cavalry, bow 1–2 8+ 5
Light cavalry, lance, extra bow 7+ 6
Camelry, lance, raw 1–4 8+ 7
Nubian or Beja camelry
Upgrade camelry, lance, raw to camelry, lance Up to 1/2 7+ 9
Bedouin Light cavalry, lance, raw 0–1** 8+ 4
Spearmen, raw 2–6* 8+ 5
Warriors 3–6** 7+ 10
Nubian warriors
Upgrade spearmen, raw or warriors to mounted
0–2 – +1
infantry (on camels)
Bowmen 5–15*, 3–6** 8+ 7
Upgrade bowmen to bowmen, veteran Up to 1/4* 7+ 9
Replace bowmen with light infantry other, bow Up to 1/2 8+ 4
Nubian archers Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
Up to 1/4* 7+ 5
other, bow, veteran
Upgrade any bowmen or light infantry other, bow to
0–4 – +1
mounted infantry (on camels)
Nubian javelinmen Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–1 8+ 3
Thorny acacia boma Fortifications, per one box-side length 0–5 – 1
* Before 1175 CE.
** From 1175 CE, onwards.
Allies
Bedouin (to be written), Blemmye or Beja, Mamluk Egyptian.
By the middle of the sixth century, three small Christian states had replaced the former Meroitic Kushite Kingdom. In the
north was Nobatia, in the centre, Makuria and to the south, Alodia. By 652, the three had merged to form the Kingdom of
Nubia, ruled from its capital, Dongola.
Soon after the Muslims ejected the Byzantines as rulers of Egypt, the Nubian kingdom was invaded by Muslim Arabs of the
Rashidun Caliphate. In 642 an army of 20,000 marched south but seems to have been unable to bring on a field battle,
instead being harassed by Nubian hit-and-run tactics and highly accurate archery until forced to retreat. In 652 a second
invasion in which the Muslims besieged the Nubian capital, Dongola, was also repulsed with heavy losses. After this the two
neighbouring kingdoms signed a truce known as the baqt, under which the Nubians traded 360 slaves a year for wheat, barley,
wine, horses and linen. The treaty lasted for six hundred years during which time relations were generally good.

In 1265, the Mamluk ruler Baybars launched an invasion of northern Makuria, declared himself sovereign over half of Nubia
and forced the Nubian king to become a vassal. In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in
1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of ‘Aydhab. In 1275, the Mamluk governor of Qus, with Bedouin allies, launched an
expedition against Makuria, defeating King David near Dongola in 1276, and imposed another vassal king and set an annual
tribute. The conquest of Nubia was not permanent, however, and the process of invading the region and installing a vassal
king would be repeated by Baybars' successors. Over time, Islam gradually supplanted Christianity within Nubia. Cathedrals
were replaced by mosques. The last Nubian kingdom collapsed around 1500 CE.
Army Notes
The army included cavalry of the court who were well equipped and richly dressed. Other cavalry may have been light; the
Arabs considered that Nubian horsemen were superior to Muslim cavalry in hit-and-run tactics. It is likely that the Nubians
used bows from horseback: “Their king rides a fine bred horse, but the people are mounted on mares of small size. They fight with curiously
shaped bows, and it was from them that the tribes of the Hijaz and Yemen and the other Arab tribes adopted the use of the bow.” al Mas’udi c.
10th.
Camel riders fought against the Arabs in 850 and the Mamluks in 1276, but with limited success, so I have required some of
these be fielded as raw.
The Arabs most feared the Nubian bowmen, who they nicknamed the “pupil-smiters” because so many of their men were
blinded by their accurate shooting. "One day they came out against us and formed a line; we wanted to use swords, but we were not able to,
and they shot at us and put out eyes to the number of one hundred and fifty." For this reason, a proportion of the bowmen in the earlier
period of the list may be upgraded to veteran. In later times, the most common weapons became a spear, javelin and sword
used with a small round shield.
Sources
• The Military of Ancient Nubia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia

Waqwaq Madagascan
This list covers the armies of the mysterious Madagascan-based Waqwaqs from 600 to 1500 CE.

Heroes 3–5 – 1
Javelinmen 6–12 7
Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, extra bow 0–3 7+ 9
Waqwaq warriors Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, 2HCCW 0–3 8
Upgrade javelinmen to javelinmen, veteran,
0–1 6+ 10
2HCCW (as king's guard or similar)
Javelinmen, raw 0–4 5
Allied tribesmen or Vazimba Upgrade javelinmen, raw to javelinmen, extra bow, 8+
Up to 1/2 7
raw
Warriors, deep, raw 8+ 7
Bantu Settlers 0–6
Upgrade warriors, deep, raw to warriors, deep 7+ 10
Spearmen, veteran 6+ 9
Khmer or Turkish mercenaries 0–1
Bowmen, veteran 7+ 9
Bowmen 8+ 7
Waqwaq archers 2–4
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Skirmishers
Camps 1–3 – 1
Other
Palisades – Fortifications, per 1 box–side length 0–5 – 1
Allies
East African
The Waqwaqs were migrants from Indonesia who settled along the coast of East Africa and Madagascar after 500 CE. The
origin of their name is uncertain. It may be based on the name of their distinctive outrigger canoes (wakas) or the Malay
word for crew (awak-awak). It is likely that there were several waves of Waqwaq settlement to around 1100 and that contact
with the homeland was initially maintained through trade. They were joined in Madagascar by small numbers of Arab, Tamil
and Persian settlers, along with a much larger influx of Bantu, initially probably as slaves acquired through extensive raiding.
The Waqwaq settlements in mainland Africa seem to have fallen to African and Arab counterattacks, so they appear to have
concentrated in Madagascar, settling the interior, and engaging in trade, piracy and raiding of the Zanj Confederacy and the
African coast. An Arab account describes one of these attacks, launched against Pemba in 945. The Waqwaq armada
consisted of 1,000 ships, presumably mostly smaller outrigger vessels. The raiders had previously attacked Sofala (the centre
of the gold trade), and candidly explained they were after high value trade goods (ivory, tortoiseshell, panther skins and
ambergris) and slaves. After 1200, political power seems to have shifted away from the coast and towards the central
highlands, and the Waqwaqs may have become less of a threat to their neighbours.
Army Notes
Information about Waqwaq armies is very scares but it is assumed they would have been similar to those of their Zanj
confederate opponents and may have added some traits from their homeland. The 2HCCW upgrade represents great swords
or kris. Intriguingly, some Arab sources refer to the appearance of Turkish or Khmer mercenaries in Waqwaq forces but
provide few other details. Possibly these were recent arrivals from southeast Asia.
Many thanks to Nicholas Stock who wrote this list and the historical background.

West African Forest Kingdoms
This list covers the armies of the West African coastal and inland forests south from the Gambia to the Congo.

General, attached on foot 2–4 2+ 4
Upgrade to mounted 2–4* 2+ 5
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Light cavalry, javelin 0–6* 7+ 5
Cavalry Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to cavalry, lance,
0–2* 6+ 11
veteran
Warriors Upgrade warriors, deep, raw to warriors, deep Up to 1/2 7+ 10
Skirmishers or hunters Light infantry other, bow 2–8 8+ 4
Light infantry other, handgun 0–2** 8+ 4
Portuguese sailors, adventurers
Spearmen with extra crossbow 0–1** 7+ 9
and ne'er-do-wells
Camps 1–3 – 1
Other
Stockades, fortifications, per 1 box-side length 0–5 – 1
* Oyo Empire only
** Only after 1450
Allies
West African Forest Kingdoms, West Sudanese, Mossi, Later Medieval Portuguese (after 1450)
Armies covered by this list include the Serer and Jola of Senegal, the Bainuk, the Akan of Ivory Coast and modern Ghana,
the Fon and Aja of modern Benin, the Yoruba, Nupe and Igala of Nigeria, the Edo or Benin Empire, the So around Lake
Chad, the gold-wealthy Bure and Bambuk, the Kingdom of Kongo after about 1350, and others in West and Central Africa.
In contrast with the more arid Sahel to the north, the West African coast from the Gambia to the Congo is a mixture of
tropical coastal forests and mangrove swamps, with, further inland, mixed forest and savannah. There were many different
peoples in this area throughout this period, some forming quite large kingdoms, others organized on a tribal basis.
Economies relied on agriculture and trade, including gold, textile, ivory, and, particularly later in the period, slaves. Trade
routes ran north across the Sahel and Sahara, until the appearance of the Portuguese after the 1440s triggered a reorientation
towards the Atlantic.
The Oyo Empire (modern Benin and Nigeria) was founded by Yoruba tribes in the c. 12 th and had become a substantial
regional power by the c. 14th.
Army Notes
Armies relied primarily on infantry, which European observers recorded as defending wooden stockades. Infantry fought
with spears and swords and carried shields of elephant or ox hide.
The Oyo kingdom, although landlocked, had access to the Savannah and as a result fielded a strong cavalry arm, led by a
military aristocracy called the eso. These included both heavy lancers mounted on horses imported from the north, and lighter
horsemen on local ponies.
This list and the background were kindly written by Nicholas Stock and edited by Simon Miller.

West Sudanese
This list covers Western Sudanese armies from the foundation of Ghana ca. 700 through to the end of the defeat of the
Songhai Empire at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. It includes the armies of Wagadou (also known as the Ghana Empire), the
Kanem and succeeding Bornu Empires, the Mali Empire, the Jolof Empire and the Songhai Empire, along with regional
powers such as the Hausa and Takrur.

Upgrade to mounted At least 1/2 - 5
Generals
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Cavalry, lance, veteran 0–2(1– 6+ 11
Yan lifida (nobles)
Cataphract 3**/^) 6+ 11
Yan kwarbai (lesser-armoured
Replace cavalry, javelin with cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 9
cavalry)
Replace cavalry, javelin with light cavalry, javelin 0–2 7+ 5
Tuareg mercenaries Camelry, lance 0–1 7+ 9
Horse archers Light cavalry, bow 0–1***** 8+ 5
Stampeding cattle Scythed chariots, raw 0–2 8+ 4
Bowmen, raw 7–14^^^ 9+ 5
0–1/2(1/2 to
Upgrade bowmen, raw to bowmen 8+ 7
all****/^)
Yam baka (archers) Downgrade bowmen, raw to light infantry other, 9+ 3
Up to 1/2
bow, raw or light infantry other, bow 8+ 4
Replace bowmen, raw with sparabara, deep, raw All*/***** 9+ 9
Replace bowmen, raw with shieldwall, deep 4–8*** 7+ 10
Yam lifida baka (guard archers) Javelinmen, extra bow, veteran 0–1 6+ 11
Yam mashi (javelinmen) Javelinmen 0–2 7+ 7
Yam assigiri (spearmen) Spearmen 0–2 7+ 7
Yam fate fate (swordsmen) Warriors, deep 0–1 7+ 10
Zagi Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–3 8+ 3
Yam bindinga (handgunners) Light infantry, handgun 0–2^^ 7+ 4
Camps Camps 1–3 – 1
Palisade, or thorny acacia boma Fortifications, per 1 box–side length 0–5 – 1
* Wagadou 700–1100.
** Hausa 800–1528.
*** Kanem or Bornu 700–1380 only.
**** Mali 1235–1670
***** Jolof 1350–1600.
^ Songhai 1430–1591.
^^ Only after 1480, and not Songhai.
^^^ Minimum applies only when any infantry is taken
Allies
West African Forest Peoples, Tuareg, Almoravid Berber (Takrur from 1040, Ghana from 1080–1147), Later Medieval
Portuguese (Jolof Confederacy after 1450).

Notes
Zagi may support yan lifida or yan kwarbai. Yan lifida may be modelled either as cavalry, veteran or as cataphracts.
This Western Sudanese list covers the kingdoms and empires of the vast area of open forest and savannah that stretches
southwards from the southern edge of the Sahara to the tropical forests along the shores of the Atlantic. It was known to
the Arabs as bilad as-sudan (“the land of the blacks”). After the introduction of the camel after 100 CE, these states engaged
in profitable trade with Northern Africa and Egypt, involving iron, copper, gold, textiles, hides, ivory and slaves. Major states
emerged along the main river and lake systems, particularly the Niger, Senegal, Gambia and Lake Chad.
Early in the period, major city states such as Gao, Jenne, Tadmekka, Timbuktu and Niani emerged. Several of these states
fielded significant forces and temporarily exerted control over or extracted tribute from neighbours. At some time after 700
CE, enriched by gold, iron and copper, the kingdom of Wagadou grew to become the Ghana Empire, which extended from
the mid-Senegal and Gambia Rivers along the Niger probably as far as Timbuktu. Prolonged conflict with the city states of
Takrur on the lower Senegal may have drawn in the Almoravids, who possibly invaded Ghana in 1076–7. Wagadou declined
during the c. 12th and became a province of Mali in the c. 13th.
The Kanem Empire emerged to the east of Lake Chad in the c. 8th in the area corresponding to modern
Niger, Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria. By the c. 13th the Mai of Kanem was using an army of 41,000 cavalry to raid
surrounding territories for slaves and to push his control north into the Fezzan area of what is now Libya. Civil discord and
unsuccessful war against the So and Bulala saw the capital moved to Bornu where, after 1470, a new period of expansion
commenced.
The Hausa established several powerful kingdoms in the area corresponding to modern northern Nigeria and southern
Niger, between the Western Sudanic kingdoms of Ancient Ghana and Mali and the Eastern Sudanic kingdoms of Kanem-
Bornu, from the c. 9th onwards. Although the Hausa kingdoms frequently fought against each other, they could unify for
short periods to face an external threat. They seem to have fought, generally with success, against Songhai in the late c. 15th
and c. 16th and retained their independence until the c. 19th.
Sundiata Keita, also known as Manding Diara (“The Lion of Mali”) is credited with founding the Malian Empire following
his victory over the Susu warlord Soumaoro at the battle of Kirina in 1235. Sundiata and subsequent rulers extended Malian
control along the Niger as far as Gao, and over Ghana and Takrur, reaching the Atlantic coast. His descendant Mansa Musa
conducted a fabulously wealthy pilgrimage through Egypt to Mecca in the 1320s. After Musa’s rule, however, Mali entered
a period of gradual decline.
The Jolof (or Wolof), initially vassals of the Malian Empire, seized the opportunity presented by a Malian civil war in the
1360’s to form an independent empire along the Senegal and the adjacent Atlantic coast. They encountered the Portuguese
in the early c. 15th and entered into a lucrative trade arrangement with them. This trade, though, later undermined the
cohesion of the empire, as the wealthier coastal states broke away. By 1600 Jolof had been reduced, again, to a kingdom.
The Kingdom of Songhai formed south of Gao in the early c. 15th and grew to dominate the western Sahel. In 1464, Sunni
Ali seized power and embarked on an energetic program of conquest. Initial targets included the major trading centres of
Timbuktu (which Mali had lost to the Tuareg) and Jenne. Later campaigns conquered much of the Malian Empire, and
punitive wars were conducted against the Mossi. Sunni Ali died in 1492, possibly following a palace intrigue by Askia
Muhammad Ture. Askia Muhammad defeated Sunni Ali’s son, Baru by 1493 and established himself on the throne. Askia
ruled until 1528, introducing significant civil reform and further extending Songhai’s empire far to the north and east,
although his attempts to overrun Hausaland were not entirely successful.
Army Notes
West Sudanese armies, particularly those operating in the north of the region, including the Sahara, could be largely or even
entirely mounted, although this might not have been normal around the cities which might have large infantry garrisons. At
Tondibi in 1591 Tarik al-fattash recorded the Songhai army as being 18,000 cavalry and 9,700 infantries strong, while al-Sadi
records 12,500 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. These armies relied on fierce cavalry charging with a short lance. A minority of
riders on the best (often imported) horses were fully protected by mail and colourful, thickly quilted lifida cotton armour.
Some armour was imported from Europe and the Mediterranean (via the Sahara); other armour was made locally, since there
was plenty of iron and a tradition of smithing going back to the bronze age. These “textile knights” were often held back as
a shock reserve. Other, more lightly armoured cavalry rode locally bred steeds and were mainly javelin-armed. Cavalry might
be supported by a cloud of lightly armed skirmishers on foot known as zagi. Mali and Songhai employed slave soldiers,
similar to contemporary ghulams and mamluks; slavery does not seem to have reduced their effectiveness.
The Songhai employed herds of cattle against the Moroccans at the battle of Tondibi. Frightened by the noise of the latter’s
arquebuses and cannon, however, these stampeded back though the Songhai’s own lines.

Yam baka (unarmoured archers armed with weak bows shooting poisoned arrows) were perhaps the most typical troop type
in West Sudanese armies. We have graded the archers as raw because of the lack of protection and weak bows. However,
since they are sometimes described as valiant, brave or bold, we have included optional upgrades. At Tondibi the "Songhai
archers valiantly stood immobile, other infantry, seeing them remain firm, fight with great courage and would not run away."
There are also references to archery being a Malian and Songhai specialty - although this likely implies expertise compared
with that of their neighbours. Wagadou and Jolof archers were protected by shield-bearers, and it seems appropriate to
represent these as raw sparabara (see Even Stronger). Other archers (yam lifida baka) were armoured and protected by
spearmen. The Kanem and succeeding Bornu Empires relied on deep masses of spearmen with large shields, and these
replace some of the archers that would otherwise be available to them.
Handguns were not introduced until late in the period covered by this list. Songhai resisted this innovation until well into
the c. 16th, and at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591 were decisively defeated by a much smaller Moroccan army equipped with
modern arquebuses.
This list and the background were written by Nicholas Stock and edited by Simon Miller.

Tuareg
This list covers the Tuareg tribes from the approximate 750 CE date of their migration into the Sahara, until the introduction
of rifled firearms in 1880.
General, attached, mounted 2–4 2+ 5
Heroes 2–4 – 1
Camelry, lance 7–14 7+ 9
Tuareg imajaghan "the proud and Replace camelry, lance with cavalry, lance 0–2 7+ 9
free" (nobility) and imyad
(vassal/herdsmen). Upgrade camelry, lance to camelry, veteran, lance 0–2 6+ 11
Upgrade camelry with a single extra javelin Up to 1/3 – +1
Tuareg marabouts ("holy people") Camelry, lance, fanatics 0–2 8+ 9
Tuareg scouts Light camelry, javelin 0–1 7+ 5
Tuareg from mountainous areas Javelinmen 7+ 7
0–2*, 0–6**
or imyad (vassals) on foot Javelinmen, raw 8+ 5
Ikelan (slaves) Light infantry, javelin, raw 0–1*, 0–3** 8+ 3
* Before 1000 CE.
** From 1000 CE onwards.
Allies
West Sudanese, Berber, Almoravid Berber, Mossi (1328–1477)
The Tuareg are a large Berber ethnic confederation of semi-nomadic pastoralists. They inhabit the Sahara and the semi-arid
Sahel region to its south. They are known as the "blue people" because the indigo-dyed clothes they wear often stain their
skin or "the veiled ones", because the men usually wear veils.
During the period covered by this list the Tuareg controlled the valuable caravan routes through the Sahara Desert along
which gold, slaves and other products flowed from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports and Egypt. Camels carried loads
of trade goods and gave their armies great mobility.
Army Notes
Tuareg society was hierarchical. It included the noble imajaghan ("proud and free") class, the clerical marabout caste, the imyad
vassal/herdsman caste and the ikelan slave caste. Before 1000 CE, warriors generally came from the noble caste, but later
craftsmen and slaves sometimes fought as infantry. The nobles fought mounted on camels or sometimes on horses, armed
with a short iron lance called an allagh, a long-bladed sword called a takouba and a small round shield. Their imyad vassals
fought with javelins, or sometimes, when mounted, with a lance. Their ikelan slaves were armed only with javelins or daggers.
Many thanks to Nicholas Stock who wrote the list, edited by Simon Miller.

Zanj City States
This list covers the armies of the Zanj city states along the African coast south of Somalia from 900 CE to the start of regular
contact with the Portuguese around 1500 CE.
Generals Upgrade attached general to heroic 0–4 3+ -
Heroes 1–4 – 1
Emir or Sultan's guard, corsairs, Auxiliaries 1–2 6+ 8
slavers, exiles etc Upgrade auxiliaries to auxiliaries, extra bow Any 6+ 10
Spearmen 5–10 7
7+
Upgrade spearmen to spearmen, extra bow Up to 1/2 9
Militia or mercenary spearmen Downgrade spearmen to spearmen, raw 5
Downgrade spearmen with bow, to spearmen, Up to 1/2 8+
7
extra bow, raw
Labourers or city levy Mobs, deep 0–2 8+ 7
Warriors, deep, raw 8+ 7
Unassimilated coastal warriors 0–8
Bowmen 1–4 8+ 7
Militia or mercenary bowmen
Skirmishers, dhow crew and Light infantry other, bow 1–4 8+ 4
similar Upgrade light infantry other, bow to light infantry
0–2* 8+ 4
other, handgun
Bombard from the city walls Artillery, other 0–1* 7+ 7
Camps 1–3 – 1
Other
Fortifications, per 1 box–side length 0–5 – 1
* After 1450
Allies
East African, Somali, Umayyad, Abbasid, Mamluk
Arab and Persian traders established control over parts of the East African coast from around 650, although some
archeological finds suggest there may have been earlier settlements. Intermarriage with the local Bantu created a distinctive
Swahili (“coast dwellers”) ruling class. Traders sought slaves, ivory, animal pelts, gold and ambergris. Zanj cities were situated
to take advantage of the monsoon trade routes with India, Indonesia and China as well as with the Islamic world around the
Red Sea and Persia.
Early settlements were little more than wooden villages protected by palisades but increasing wealth saw construction in
coral and stone. Locations were chosen for their defensive properties – many were located on islands, such as Zanzibar,
Mozambique and Pemba, or were well protected by cliffs and fortifications.
Major cities included Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Qanbulu, Mozambique and Kilwa and stretched as far south as the gold
entrepots of Sofala and Chibuene. Settlements were also established on the Comoros Islands, together with a few outposts
in Madagascar.
Zanj cities were economic rivals of each other, and of other Arab, Persian, Indian and Indonesian traders. They were
perennially exposed to attacks from the African mainland and Madagascar. However, they could cooperate to deal with an
external threat or commercial rival. At a safe distance from the center of the Arabic and Persian world, they also offered a
refuge for migrants and adventurers.

One such adventurer, a Persian named Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, set up himself as Sultan of Kilwa between 960 and 1000.
Through a combination of wealth, position, and ruthless politicking, Kilwa became the leading city of the Zanj coast until
its decline in the mid c. 15th.
Army Notes
Confederacy armies would not have used horses. Infantry could include allied African forces and city militia and mercenaries
equipped in typical Arab fashion.
Many thanks to Nicholas Stock who wrote this list and the notes.

Mossi
This list covers the Mossi kingdoms, situated in what is now Burkina Faso, from their emergence ca. 1050 until their
assimilation by the Songhai Empire around 1575 CE.
Upgrade to mounted At least 1/2 – 5
Generals
Upgrade a general to heroic 0–4 3+ –
Heroes 2–6 – 1
Nakombse (descendants of the
Mossi founders)
Upgrade light cavalry, javelin to light cavalry, lance,
Up to 1/2 7+ 6
extra javelin
Bowmen, raw 9+ 5
Tengbiise (subject tribes) 4–10*
Forest and mountain tribes Warriors, deep 0–3* 7+ 10
Light infantry, javelin, raw 8+ 3
3–6*
Skirmishers Light infantry other, bow, raw 9+ 3
7+/8
Upgrade light infantry, raw to light infantry Up to 1/2 4
+
Camps Camps 1–3 – 1
Thorny acacia boma Fortifications, per 1 box-side length 0–5 – 1
* Minima apply only if any infantry are taken.
Allies
Hausa Kingdoms, West African Forest Kingdoms, Tuareg (1328–1477)
After 1050 CE, the Mossi established several kingdoms along the upper Volta, in what is now Burkina Faso. Traditionally
the main centers were in Ouagadougou, Tenkodogo, Fada N'gourma, and Zondoma, with Yatenga and Rizim breaking away
from Ougadougou in the late c. 12th.
Although their kingdoms frequently fought each other, the Mossi were also a threat to the wealthier cities to their north and
were also the target of attacks from their neighbors, particularly Mali and Songhai. Following the collapse of Malian rule,
Yatenga sacked Timbuktu in the c. 14th and campaigned far to the north and west of the Niger. It is unclear whether these
attacks were primarily for plunder or for conquest. Under its ruler, the Mossi-Koi Komdao, Yatenga rivalled Songhai for
influence, although it was eventually defeated at the decisive Battle of Kubi in 1483.
Songhai launched a jihad against the Mossi in the 1490s, and Yatenga seem to have been absorbed into the Songhai Empire.
However, endemic warfare continued between Songhai and other Mossi kingdoms. Independence was regained in the 1590’s
following the Moroccan destruction of Songhai and the Mossi remained a strong regional power until the end of the
nineteenth century.
Army Notes
With good access to the open savannah, Mossi armies relied heavily on cavalry. Indeed, they have been compared to the
Tartars in terms of their ability to cover ground. Raiding forces could be entirely mounted, but it is likely that armies
campaigning closer to home would have included infantry. Campaigning would take account of season to ensure sufficient
grazing for the mobile horsemen. Allies may have been provided by Hausa kingdoms to the west, forest and mountain tribes
to the south. It is conceivable the Mossi cooperated with the Tuareg during their raids along the Niger from the early c. 14th
to the late c. 15th.
This list and the background were written by Nicholas Stock – thanks! – and edited by Simon Miller.

I very much hope that you
enjoyed these lists.
If you have spotted any errors,
have a suggestion, or would like
to help with adding historical
background material to a list or
even writing a new list, please
email me at
simonmiller60@gmail.com.
Other lists, scenarios and the To
the Strongest! rules, themselves,
can be found in the
BigRedBatShop.

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Updated 5/09/2023

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Philippe Bernard (Order #32496754)

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31/08/2020 Reorganised the lists into chapters on a regional basis.

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Unit Description Number Save Cost

"Saxon" knights Knights, lance, veteran 0–1 5+ 13

Croat cavalry Knights, lance 0–1 6+ 11

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Stradiotti – Perry miniatures, painted by Shaun Watson.

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Albanians from the collection of Liam Entwhistle

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