A Comprehensive English Reference Book ‘COVERS THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH AND COMPLEMENTS ANY CLASS TEXT Senior Primary to Matric and Beyond BERYL LUTRIN AND MARCELLE PINCUSHeadings and Sub-headings Roles | Changes ond Emphasis | Emphasis Exceptions (*) SEE Edison - ideas, reminders and suggestions ‘opr RLU HOOKS CE 2002, 2004, 2007 Capri sain hs wos AIL NGS RESERVED. No port fh work mayb cop dope eroded, apc or ‘adn oy frm by ony mas grep sacha or machi ning phteepyig recog opin, information ‘erage end ial senor deal wih, wth he rir writen cane! f BERIT BOOKS Ci bing cies. ny sch wewhartd acs esis copyright ntiagemet cod exe th inkinge fe con ede ei lew end in eran COMMENT a TADLMARK ATTORNEYS: Sper her Sophen Goldberg (0126761111 golber@spoorcom ENGLISH HANDBOOK AND STUDY GUIDE? peter Soya BeRLUT BOOKS cc 0 bor 37172, Sram Pork 2015, South Aico Beryl Loin: 082-821-2358, Morel Pincus: 089-448-8845 ek {011) 884-7687 (mornings ony) Fox (011) 834-7406 a boryleluin.c.ze Website: wwanglishhandbook.co.20TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD. 3 7 460 6893 7 6 2 Phrases 8 2 Paragraphs 3 Clouses 9 | 3 Hints ta Enhance your Writing 4 Punctuation 10 4 Whatto Avoid 5 The Aposrophe 13 | 5 The Editing Process Ports of Speech 1S 8 Essay Writing 7 Nouns 16 7 Tronsoctonel Writing 8 Pronouns 198 Activities to develop O.8.E 9 lure 2 10 Arles 2a 11 Gender 261 literary Analysis 12 Diminutives 25 2 The iterary Ersoy 13 Animal Sounds 253 Poetry 14 Adjectives 26 4 Anolyis of Poary 15 Degrees of Comperison 275 Peat Forms 101 16 Verbs 28 17 Active ond Passive Vorbs/Voice 32 vost 1B Adverbs a |i fy 105, 19 Concord [Agreement 34 2 Cinematographic Elects 108 20. Conjunctions 353 Film Creators 109 21. Prepositions 36 4. Photographs, Pictures and Cartoons 110 22. Direct ad indirect Speech 38 5 The Value of Visual Literacy 0 23. Figures of Speech 40 24 Levels of Language ry ‘loRAi COMMUNICATION. nang 25. Prizes 48 1 Pablie Speaking Techniques na 26. Suffixes 47 2_The Prepared Speech na 27 Synonyms 48 | 2 Thelmpromptu [Unprepared] Speech 115 28 Strong Verbs 51 4 Deboting 6 29 Antonyms (Opposites) 52 | 5 _Teom Speaking 7 30 Words hen Confused 536 Presenting Poeky/Prose ne 31 Homonyms 54 | 7 Group Speaking/Choral Verse ng 32 Homophones 55 22. Figurtive Expressions /Idioms 56 34 Abbrevitions 38 35. Dictionary and Theseus Skis 60 o 61-66 1 Guidelines 62 2 Answering Techniques ry 2 Typos of Questions rey 4 Other Questioning Techniques 6 5 Additonal Skil 65 m6 DY {AsouT THE AUTHORS} inside bock over ete 2FOREWORD |The English Handbook an Sud Guide™ covers every cipect fhe Engl Lnguoge yu wil seed tam Srior Priory to Mai ond beyond so comprehensive rfrnce bok hat wil company you thoughout your school years and wil ten in he Diconary ond Taso on your becahall. This bosk may be ured in conjunction with anyother English Text Book or Urey Sud The presentation is simple, logical and colour-coded for easy understanding and recall Through constant usage, the information will became familiar and will be retoined, Lnlike photocopied notes, which are usually dacarded athe nd ef each year. The English Hondbook ond Swudy Guide™ will provide a ready-made, user-friendly schome cof work Nis not meont 1 be used in isolation, bt rather in conjunction with regular lstone tnd other tot book The basic structure of the English Longuage it constont, only the application will ifr between classes. This book will replace the notes you give of diferent levels every year Inwill save you the ime, effort and expense of compiling ond photocopying noes. You will have the security of knowing thot your students have comprehensive sa of no, which an be edd to or omited according to he lve beng tough. These oles may be ved in cost for irstution or revision, The book may also be used indepandantly by your stents for sell study and homework tsks. Once taught, each section con simply be revised ond updated ech year, reing you from hovng 0 reteach it The main bone i that you will be able o teach English in content. You will have the freedom to use whatever is current, relevant and of interest Yo your students. They will have 0 constontsoure of reference and you will therefore be able fo teach without having to stop for note-taking or loath explanations oo Bs ‘The English Handbook and Study Guide™ assumes o bosic knowledge of English ‘The user-iendly presentation will enable you to davelop ond extend your English language | skills. The Spelling and Vocabulary Sections, in particular, will prove invaluable 49 you ‘We wou ike tor ou ons fr ont spp ord wneauragement Our since | ton alo ge ot Adve) Prcheodes, Edi, Groplic Deine an Pte This book could not have been envisaged nor erect without our years in he clasrcom and cll our studens who have enriched our lives. It encapstltes the sum tool of our teaching experience. We have loved writing this book. We hope that you, in ten, wll enjoy using i BERYL LUTRIN, BA (Wis)-H. Dip Ed. (CE) MARCEILE PINCUS —TTHD UCE) LICL nity College London) TLSD [UNISA) 3 ete tesLANGUAGE SUMMARY OF CONTENTS SenTENcES 1 Types ofsentences a Sutera 5, Qieston «. Exdorations 4. Connands 2. Fore Cluicoon «. The Simple Sentence 1. The Compovnd Serene The Complex Sra 3. Sbjec od Preise 4 Obj Draco nde PHRASES Adjecival Phrases Noun hres ‘Ader Pros + Adria Prose of Manner + Adve Prose of Tne + Adwertol Prose of Pace + Advil Pro of Reazon + Advartial Prot oF Conesion cunuses 1 Main Coase 2 Subordinate Close «New lowe 1 acct Cowe © Advert Close 2 Adve Cle of Tine 5 Acre Clone of ace + Avil Clue of omer + Advil Clu of Reson 5 eid Cline of Concern + Adie Clune of Ret + Advil Clue of arose + Adil Chun of Conon PUNCTUATION Copiers Full Sop Commas Sem Calons Calne uetion Marks Eaclamason Marks Quottion Mork vce Carens) Porenhess Bracks) Hyphen| Das 67 6 12 3 “4 v 2 a a v 2 3 ules Bliss te THE APOSTROPHE Contrtions Position or Ownenhip PARIS OF SPEECH NOUNS Comman Nouns Proper Nouns ‘Abo Nouns Callectve Nouns PRONOUNS Personal Pronoun Powetsve Pronouns Relive Pronouns Interogtive Pronoune Demensiraive Pronouns Indefinie Proncune Relative Pronouns Common Errors PURALS ARTICLES Definite Arties Indie Ailes ENDER DiMunuives ANIMAL SOUNDS ADJECTIVES Kinds of Adjctives Descriptive Adiecves Proper Adjectives ‘Adjectives of Guetiy ‘Adjcives of Order Demonsrtve Adjectives Posesive Adjeaives Interogoive Adjectives Compound Adjectives Degrees of Comparison 2 2s 7waNeonon vere The Thre Tenses Frit Verbr The inf Ausiary Verbs “he tnking Varo “Tonite ond inkansive Vos The Mood ofthe Vero Porc Gerunds = Verba Nuns leregular Verbs ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS VOICE -ADveRas Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner 1. Adverts of lace , Advets of Tine Adverbs of Degree ©. Adverbs of Frequency Sentence Modif: Comparative Adverbs ‘CONCORD [AGREEMENT ‘CONJUNCTIONS. Corrinaing Conjunetons Suborinating Conjuncons Reloive Pronouns Connecing/Urking Words Pealion PREPOSITIONS DIRECT AND INDIRECT REPORTED) SPEECH FIGURES OF SPEECH Comparisons . Siile . Metophor © Peronifcton 4. Aposrophe «Allison Sound Devices «.Alierson bs Aworance ‘= Onomatgpesio Rhyme Conrodisions ‘. Antheis b. Oxymoron 3637 38.39 40-43 a ayaa 3 4 5 6 7 «,Parodex ony Soren 1 Satie 9-Porody Appropriation (Berowing oer Exoggeration ond Understatement 42-43 2. Hyperbole tote «, Eaphemism 4. Innvondo © Cinax 1 sina (Baths) Others a ©. Pins 1, Bhaorical Questions € Sypecdoche 4. Mtorymy «2: Malopropism £. Speenerim LEVELS OF LANGUAGE auas Fermel Longuoge 44 Informal Languoge 44 3. Callen Slang Jorgen Buzzwords) 4 Poiiealy Cored onguoge 4s Eat Language 45 «2. Sbjetvity and Objectivity 'b.Foct ond Opinion « Danottion ond Connotton| 4 Bias/Prjudico « Propogonda { Senaionalm VOCABULARY EXTENSION, oot Words Pree ond Sulfioe 46-47 Spoons 48:50 @. Synonyms for eversed wards! 49 . Syronyms for ‘rice 50 Aajctvesiteod of very” 50 Sirong Verbs 31 Antonyms 2 Words of confued 53 Homenyms 54 Homophones 55 FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS/IDIOMS 56:57 ABBREVIATIONS 58-59 DICTONARY AND THESAURUS SKILS 60THE SENTENCE A sentence is « group of words which expresses a complete thought. + sentence begins with «copitl letter ond ends wih oul sop, a question mark or an ‘exclamation mark, depending on the neture and moaning ofthe sentence. + sentence must contin subject and a finite verb. eva 2812 In order to check whether you have 0 whjec, ask who or what before the vr ‘This subject may be replaced wih © pronoun e.g he, she oi The boy plays. > Who plays? He plays. THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES IN ENGLISH 9, _ STATEMENTS ‘These supply information. Shaun is going te schoo b. QUESTIONS There ok for information, Where is Soon going? &. EXCLAMATIONS These express emotions such or surprise, feo, olarm or anger Ws ghostl This work isunoceeptalal 4. COMMANDS (IMPERATIVES) These ore used 1o give orders or insrucions Do not enter trough hat dace Leave th room immediatly! neo r ers 2. _ THE SIMPLE SENTENCE This hos one finite verb ond deals with one ideo [Anne reads o book THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Tiss two or more Finite verbs. may be made up of Wo or more simple sentences joined by @ co-ordinating conunetion. on plays soccer at schoel and works on his computor at home THE COMPLEX SENTENCE This contains one main clause or thought and one or more subordinate avs which provide ‘ediional information. They are joined by subordinoting conjunctions. Conde received her resls/while she wes recuperating in hospitol/fter she had broken her leg Oot ate ‘6(AE ered aes a THE The Subject reflects who or what we are talking about. ‘tis the person ortho thing who/thar/whichis performing the ction. + The word that fllows the linking ver tobe snot the object: itis hnown os the complement. {the complement enlarges on the subject - se pg 29) 2g. The race was exciting The author became forous THE PREDICATE The Predicate is the rest ofthe sentence. + expands onthe subject and alwys begins with he verb. it the sondeas “he boys in Grade 7 ‘were hoppy 10 90 to High School ANALYSING THE PREDICATE Ina fuller analysis, the predicate con be divided inte: Verb, Direct Object and Indirect Object. + Direct Object - answors who or what after th verb, + Indirect Object - obvoy alls you to whom /what or for whom /what oer the Direct Object. sussect ven ‘mmect INDIRECT owecT ——OBleCT (what The dog brought the boll tohismaster, ‘Matric || opens doors for the fre.PHRASES A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb. ‘+ -Aphraseis sensibly arranged within the sentence and conveys 0 single ideo, + -Aphrase con never stand alone, but is always part of «sentence. + Aphraseiselso referred 1 05 fragment’ of sentence. The shop eround the corner is open twenty-four hous 2 doy. The company, specialising in travel, recived the award ASE V BE CU i [ADJECTIVAL PHRASES These qualify (tellus more about) the noun. The model with the dazzling smile came fom Durben, NOUN PHRASES Thave answer (Wha stood when the judge entered?) ADVERBIAL PHRASES These modify the verb and answer the questions as indicated. + -Advorbial Phrase of Manner (How?) The gil entered th room happily o (How did she enter the room?) confidently, + Adverbial Phrase of Time When?] The girl entered the room at nine 0! lock, (When did she enter the room) + -Adverbial Phrase of lace (Whore?) The gil inthe room wes reading a book (Where wos het) + -Adverbio! Phrase of Reason (Why?) Th girl, wanting 1 reed, entered the room. (Why did she enter th room?) + -Advetbial Phrase of Concession (Although, even though.) The gi, although tired, read her book (Even though she wos tired, whet did she det) The Adve ee pa 39) end the Adverbial Phrase are aves ADVERBIAL PHRASE sngry non angry manner tomorrow the following doy here inthis pceCLAUSES 19 0 finite verb, wil ell you how mony clauses there or in each sentence to clossical music. ee 1, THE MAIN CLAUSE (elso known as the Independent Clause) + The Main Clouse isthe main idea of he sentence. + iis able to stond alone and makes complete sense, The von come to @ altar it had run out of petra. 2. THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE (elso known os the Dependent Clause) + This always contains a verb but cannet stand alone. + Wi dependent on the Main laure for is meaning, + A.comma often separates the Main Clause from is Subordinate Clouse. ‘While the engine wos running, the man jumped out ofthe cr. RII 2, NOUN CLAUSES *+ Noun Clauses perform the same functions as Nouns, They con be replaced by i rth 1+ Thay may be the subject or abject ofthe sentence and answer to who or what. What they eornt at school helped them inthe work ploce ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES ‘+ An Adjectival Clause always qualifies a word or words inthe Main Clause. + Inusualy begins with who, which, that, whom ond whose * Iti similar to adltonal information that is found in parenthesis The git who had the longest hale won the beauty competion & ADVERBAL CLAUSES ‘Adverbil Clauses perform the same functions as Adverbs They may be classified os follows: 1 Time (When?) wen the sun set + Place (Where?) where it hung suspended + Manner (How?) 5 Fst as she could ‘+ Reason (Why?) because it wes rining + Concession (though, although and however) although the weather wos threatening Result (0.-thet) ‘She wos 40 ill hat she was hospitalised. 1 Purpose (so thot +0 thot he could hove a beter view Condition (if, unless) if you choose the correct numbersPUNCTUATION Punctuation marks make the written text easier to read and understand. Without punctuation, writing would not make sens ‘A. CAPITAL LETTERS: always stort with copitl letters. 2. Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives need capital letters 3. The main words ints of books, ims or ploy ore writen in capital leer. 4. The fiat word in diet speach ie "Ym petrified!” whispered the frightened women, [QUOTATION MARKS {INVERTED COMMAS) |. Quotation marks ore ved to indicate Direct Speech ‘Quotation morks are used to quote (repeat) someone else's words Single quotation marks were todtionally ‘sed to indicate the fils of books and films. In medern usoge, however, these tiles are cohen underlined. ‘Qvotation marks are ved to “excuse? ‘oneself for using slong or foreign words. Quotation marks indicate metaphoric soge ‘Me Thompson sid, “There will bene homework over his weekend.” Mortn her King sod, “Ihave a reo ‘Vile Women’ by Lovize M. Alco may now be ‘writ os litle Women by Lovisa M. Alc. ‘Our new station wagon is used for ‘schlepping” the soccer teom. om the "baby’ ofthe foil A pocraton ms ell wii the inated conmes. “Ope te windows fing in bre.” PARENTHESIS (BRACKETS) (_) When something is writen in parenthesis cor brackets, itis usvlly an explanetion, ‘on aside or some additional information. is often possible o use commas oF doshes instead of brackets + The Chihuahue the smallest dog inthe word) con fitintoo teacup. + The Chihuahuo, the smallest dog in the word, con fitintoo teacup. + The Chihuchve = the smllst dog in the world = confit ino.0tacop.HYPHEN [-] ‘Aliyphen links prefixes fo word ‘ho words in order to form compound words 2, Ihelps to diferentiote mesnings. 3. Inorder to facilitate speling ond pronunciation, « hyphen i inserted fo prefix ends in a vowel andthe word joined to the prefix begins withthe some vowel ‘A. Words that connot be completed on one line inked tothe next hyphen. K. DASH [=] {the dos ines silyl 1. dash serves siilor purpose to @ comme, | eelon ore semi-colon I separates pars of @ sentence and forces uso pause. In order to give addtional information, the dash con be ured inthe some way oF commas or brackets. 3. I separetes a comment or afterthought from the rest of he sentence. 4. tt exeates a dramatic pause, leedng to | elimox oF anti-limax. ‘nti-dandra shampoo pre-school wwalldeservad| eshreotening She had to remake the gorment The remake of Gone wth the Wind is mos enjyeble coop! reexamine no-one delightul or daight-ful The hyphen may ony be sed athe end of the hyphen fined @ ‘heres more to schoo thon @ syllabus ~ fess, Friendships ond sponsmanship ore gained cong the wey. Next week we are gong 1 Port Elizabeth ~ the Windy City | checked ond there war no-one there ~ or 20 thought ran tothe window; | ocked out and sow — the cll L BULETS (+) processors, ‘esuled in the popular use ofthe bullet format. ‘Although not necessarily correct English the use of bullets ison effective way t: mise pons in a simple and visual manner + avoid using ltrs, b el or numbers (1 2,3) + ue portil sentences o save ime ond space + omit punetation ot sentences are incomplate 1, The three elipsis dots indicate thot. sentence is incomplete or that something hes been omitted 2. We can vvelly guess the meoning from the context ofthe senten ITAUCS (sloping waiting) alc is used to highlight ond emphasise Certain words or phrases such ites ond foreign words 2. With the ease of computer etng, inserting italics has become very popular. He walked fo the edge ofthe cif and {To be continued. You had beter tidy your room or elie. + A burrcone is 0 wind of erremevilenes «2 tornado iso violent ropicel thunderstorm + Déid wie theillcion of having experienced something previously @ TITLES, i hondwriten, usually oppear in inverted commes or under Hi ween on a computer, ais or beld font mey also be used. 2THE APOSTROPHE The Apostrophe indicates Contraction or shows Posse: : ‘+ We often jon two words for informality ond inthe proces, one or more eters are omited. 0 “+ The opostrophe shows where these letters have been remov n (Ownership). We've boon here = Wehave been here x Ididn't know = id not know *+ Contractions should not be used informal writing. ‘COMMON CONTRACTIONS 1 loom shod 1 shal atm avd =" Yous yous ore you + howe you + had you + wall = you're “you've = you'd = you'll Wes wo + ore we + have we shod we + shall = were we've we'd ll They + they + ore they + have they + hod they + wil they're = they've = they'd = they'll + Not hove + not rust + ot could + not would + not = haven't = must = couldn't ‘would “SNot will not do + not (exceptions = won't = don't + Hove should hove Remeber sould bone vg = should've shouldat x The apostrophe i ke the souvenir of holiday. When we lok ot photographs, ards or keying, we are reminded tht the holiday i gone but na forgotten. ‘Words thot contain apostrophes tll us thot the 13 en‘Madonna's song = the song of Madonna 1. Af the owner is singular the apostrophe comes immediately afer the singular form ofthe novn, The cor af he Fry = the family's cor ‘he thoal of the boy = the boy's shoo! 2. tthe owners are pra, the apostrophe is placed after he poral form of he noun. The school of he boa =the boys’ school ‘Tha scoters ofthe boys = the boys scooters [Note the pla scoters ot writen with on apostrophe.) @ ee z RT ia eel (seri = 4. fe Biblical or Classico! nome ends. Hercules’ strength wos legendary ons, we simply add on opostrophe 5. fe common noun ends ins, we add ans. There re many bose in the frm but Hilary is the head boss's wife 6, Ifthe word is already in plural frm, wo edd an 's. women’s clathing children’ rights man's clubs foe sid eps do ene tt ck yore. Hie RES Tngcrca seats and tcl are Seti . G The gids diary Did you want 1 s0y the dior of he git? The gi’ diets id you wont 1 sy oth g THE FOLLOWING CASES DO NOT TAKE APOSTROPHES: Possessve pronouns Thi is ours, yours, the Abbreviations ‘Allthe VIPs PMs, MPe, CEOs and MDs - were there. Plorol Does The 1960s and 1970s produced some af he bes! music eb take 14PARTS OF SPEECH Every word in a sentence is named according to its function. [NOUN Naming Word Common Noon Neer era the ‘There oe desks ond chairs everyday thing in every classroom Proper Noun Names of Copia et My toocher, Mrs Jones, places es. comes from England Collective Neun Names collecion Replaces ‘ots of." Atal ofteochors er group ‘Adlass of students Abstract Noun Something which is not visible or tangible PRONOUN Stands in place of ‘Mary is given homework the noun very day ond Mary (shel oes homework it igor ADIECTIVE Describing Word The folonted teacher rotivated the enthusiastic students vers, Doing Word We work inthe merings swe play sport inthe cernoont: wo study inthe evenings. ADVERB Modifies (ells you Tells you when, where or He ron fas (how! atthe ‘more about the verb. how something is dane. athletics meeting (hors) yesterday (when. CONJUNCTION Joining Word Joins two words, She wea! to schoo! although phrases or clavier she was falng il PREPOSITION “Smell words’ which Usually precede nouns, The techer satan the choir wswaly relate hwo warde pronouns or articles behind hor table inthe lor phrases to one classroom and spake te her nother. student “ARTICLE The words 'o", ‘an’ or Jeho won a prize for History, "the which precede Undine - nonspecfie) nouns or adjectives. Por won the History Prize [Definite - specific)NOUNS ‘noun is a naming word. identified with 2 neme, without which we would not be oble ‘onother rmmon Nouns, Proper Nouns, Collective Nouns and + Every person, place or thing to communicate or understand + There ore four types of nouns Abstract Nouns. 1, COMMON NOUNS Common Nouns are names given to ordinary objects + Common nouns are usully identified by the, @ or an preceding them the #00, 0 fy, an orange + They follow portessive adjectives: bis book, her hondbog, it ti + They donot begin wth capital eters weles they stort sentence Books ae found in brie, + They are usualy the Fit words tought in ony language: table, chai, book + There are ste of common nouns Fruits pricots, honanas, cher + Thace are phrotes thot contin Wo commen nouns the roof of a house, the hae ofthe gle + There are common nouns thot porta ane another: hoese ond earviage, fish and chips ‘+ Common nouns ela! what people ore doctor, tsacher. ‘+ noun has gender ond is wther masuline prince, feminine (princess, common (teacher) cexneuter book). (seeps 24) @ ‘+ Two nouns together, are krown os compound nouns: hond + bag = handbag book + shell = bookshelf 2. PROPER NOUNS ©, Proper Nouns always begin with CAPITAL LETTERS. 'b. Proper Nouns ore the names given ‘+ Persons ~ Shaun, Professor Jones + Placer London, University of California + Days Tuesday, New Yeor, Easter, Hunan Rights Day + Months - Jonvory, Decomber «Ideologies and educational subjects ore writen wth copitel laters inorder to eccord thom respect ~ Anthropology, Philosophy, History, English <4. Titles of books, films, songs ord plays re Proper Nouns and always begin wih Capital laters ~ One More River by Lynne Reid. 1 Note hat in fitles such os Rll of Thunder, Hear my Cry only the first ler of each noun i coptlise. ‘a common noun forms part ofthe nome, the frst eter ofboth nouns must be capitlised: * Sounders Stee, the Donubo River | Q bnemei ears is usualy writen without cpt lters:engiries@englithendbock.oz0 eb ts 63. ABSTRACT NOUNS + An Abstract Noun usually refers to something that we cannot se, touch oF mecsure 12s epposed to a Common Noun which is concrete + is eft a feeling or an emotion. ©. These indicators wil help you to identify absiro 1. You can give ‘i 1 someone, but no in @ box She gave her son love and he responded with resp&Gh Gnd abedionce, someting | ofthe git /boy. 2. Heishlof something 2. The b. Many abstract nouns end with the fellowing sulixes: [Not how thee fit nto the shove ndcotors | “ege courage ‘optimism ‘ance nulsance Helis reading. He was reading He will be reading I poricipota. = lem pertcpating.. Iwas participating I shall be participating. (OTHER WORDS ENDING IN ING: ] + GERUNDS {verbal nouns! When @ word ending in ing is used os « noun, itis called o gerund. {the gornd is eal indested by the word of. ‘The understanding of the teacher wor opprcioted The eying ofthe child alarmed vs. She has for of fying. | + aonscrves Ard may oligo vd ox fe The underoading wore we opprecie by he ceo, vying child olormed us The sy was darkaned by Aying ons, b. PAST PARTICIPLES They help to moke the post lense ofa verb and usally end in ed, den orn + They follow varbs sich 0: has, had, have, was and were to form new tenses: The present was give tthe child The fngerorints were matched to he suspect He had received o warning but ignored i. 1+ There ore excepions eg, buy = have bought. (os Ieguar Verbs 31) @ ‘A csetl way to form o Past Porticipe i imagine | he offer my services, >| have offered my service, before the verbs ‘OTHER WORDS ENDING IN ED: The post perticipla wey sla be wid ot on adjective, The search por cone sro fhe deserted vilage the village which hod ben deserted @ alates 30IRREGULAR VERBS Snail verbs do not follow the usual patterns. tal el olen feed one Wien | pend bean ba” | oi vm one vo ‘ies biel tae Se aoe trove | Se) Seah sr been ton wld old vroaht Tol a beim re a waa teow ~ [Ly eo toot Wemed | Sed ma cout | Se ‘len Som | oo ma a ten | top on = ae a oul Wed | he ae seat tar | ote ae os md a ia era os al Soon a [ae = eal SIT eee ee Sreoned fol | the ven Soa Mam | teach ‘owt en eee = Sool mo | a wu oa = pee ‘out ‘en ai wee a ta Se ae eee a aE oe fot a beet olen | Seep Men cep town = (soln for | Sa Wile To feet fore! franen ie |[we wre ae feet ees ae ht ty ied ted iat (ae = eee = @ Sed gomd yal at a BT | tee wethametconme Soy Rage herged mt sal ronieryes (pans vad iat) = ts =ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS (VOICE) In the Active Voice the subject of the sentence does the action. In the Pas: Voice the object becomes the subject and is having the action done k A ‘Subject ‘Verb Object - Subject heel Thoboy tds heb eb! rkthad by they Pow Thebey tied heb, Te bl washed by heb ftw Thay wlliek heb, Te bell wl hed bythe by EIEN CN (ea ' sentence may only be ved in drat obec see 9029 ‘2, THE GENERAL RULE 1. Underline the verb. 2. Divide he centonce into: Subject Verb Object 2. Bogin wah the object. a ties et shine ‘he magician / performs / the trick The Wik i performed by the magicon. b. PRONOUNS (see po 191 Pronouns change from the subject Form tothe objec form: He/they completed the enry form.» The enry form wos completed by him/her. subjeet subject object 1st person ' we us 2nd parson you yeu you you Sed person —_he/she/it io hee they them In some postive sentences, the agent (det) is not mentioned * This is the case when i is understood and it would be clumsy to mention the doer. + This is especialy tue ifthe agent ita pronoun, We keep ove coflee cups here, = Our affee cups are kept here. (byw They wil toke « decision soon.» —Adecision willbe ken soon. (by them) COMMANDS Read the bok by Tuesday! = The book must be read by Tuesday. 4. QUESTIONS Who wrote the once? = By whom wor the orice writen? Eo oad tie more natralto use the active voice, but the posive voice is often used for eect: + "hon it isnot necesory to mention the subject [doer] Refreshments will be served + hen we ar ot sure who did the action The diamonds were stolen ‘+ when demends are made cnonymously Smoking is not permitted inthe cinoma, + han nameless accusation is mode This shirt hot been ruined inthe workADVERBS Adverbs are words that modify or tell us more about Verbs. They may also modify Adjectives, other Adverbs or even the tone of the whole sentence. Peo [Adverbs may be identified by their functions: (0, MANNER (how?) quill, hungry imaginatively, at, wal (svolly end in hy) Refer 2 Adveril Phrases pp 8 Ss Adverbil Cowes pg 9 1b. PLACE (where?) here, ther, nowhere, up, down, home, fer, near TIME (hon?) today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, soon, immediatly DEGREE_ to what extent?) very, quite, ther, 29, almost, fairly, rodialy, hardly, extremly, wel, ely, ju FREQUENCY {how often?) ‘lays, never, ofe, seldom, once, usvlly, occasionally, Frequently Se The insertion ofthese words changes the nature ofthe sentnce and usvlly expresses the speaker’ opinion: ‘cially, cortoily, definitely, frtuntely, honestly luckily, netualy, obviously, perhaps, surly unfortunately + They ore ustally placed a the begining of the sentence Naturally, nobody owned vp tothe deed Pd As with odjectves, adverbs hove degrees of comparison es fast faster: Sthefoset 1100, nearly Two or more syllabh carefully ‘most carefully “teguler Cty (exceptions) @ lie uch a | He ton quickly. (Regul Form) He gorns less than his brother [Comparative Form comporing to ations '¥ you work harder, you will ern more, (Comparative Fem - comparing two actions] (fel his hobbies, be likes chess the best. (Superlative Form comparing mee thon two ions) Be carl af incorect usage Theyspokelovd. Hong on ight. ¥ wos very fon, He moved quick, They spoke loudly. ¥ Hong on tight. v war umCONCORD (ALSO CALLED AGREEMENT) The words in a sentence must match or agree with one another. Pe ed Te decide whether the verb should be singulr o plural: 1 Find the subjee., ‘+ Decide whether itis singular or plural ‘Match the verb 1 the subject. 1118 person singular eat We (1s perton plural) eat You (2nd person singular] eat Ail oF you (2nd perion plural eat Joe the [rd person singular eas Joe and Bobby (they) (3rd person poral) eat The subject may consist of «group of word ‘Acommon example is he collective noun, which refers to the group asa single wni The class of students was kept in ater school, (The subject isthe cass not the students My beaher and sister ere coming fro visi, The abject my brather ond sister) © ‘& _ The subject may govern more than one verb. All there verbs most agree with the subject. The film deal with the dangers of dug abuse and is targeted o eenagers (The abject singular therlore el the verbs or singular) @® z CI Ts mr 12. A pronoun must ogree with the noun thet its replacing in number and in gender: ‘The woman paid for her ticket. The women paid for her tickets. Some pronouns ate peired with singular pronouns: ‘onyone, everyone, nobody, no-one, somebody, someone, each, every, sither, neither... nor Everyone is doing his bet. v- [No-one moy hond ins / her work ote. is doing thie best 5 No-one moy hand in their worklote. x {A group of teenager is planing a trip othe Orange River. lertng tthe grovel Roger ond | have been invited o lao this excursion [Neither of ur is afraid of his responsibil, (On behalf of Roger and me, I woud like to thank the team fr its confidence in us. The cot ofthe canoes ie expensive ‘They wil spend many hous rowing in thelr conces. Every boy i looking forward fo water-rating with his frends onthe Orange River: {All the boys ore expaced to do their bes Every one ofthe boys has possed his First Aid Examination ‘The vse ofthese sills often saves lives. (ne has to make sure that one's Ks comet and upto standard, (Ones vay llowedby ene orone's) @ NNovone is exerp rom wearing his ifejackt My silhiend, Poy, jcovs when she heors ofthese outings, but they would no sit her personaly. Fish and chips is special rat for these rafters Fc end chips regarded os single uit) Experiences of ths notre ore unforgettable Sasol a4CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are connecting words that join two or more sentences into a single sentence. They also join words, phrases or clauses. Examples of conjunctions fend although but becouse for however if or since so hen though unless until when whether while yet 1. CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Co-ordinating conjunctions join hwo words or ideas of equal weight fish and chips tired but happy He completed the course and received a celica, ‘he car wos repoired but itil gave rouble, Ibis your choice fo goto the movies er othe restaurant. He wos in grat pain, yet he never complained 2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Subordiratng conjunctions join a mon clause to @ subordinate clos They played a soccor match although a storm threatened. ‘You may not vst Indio unless you hove hod Yellow Fever njction 3, _ RELATIVE PRONOUNS AS CONJUNCTIONS. Relative pronouns also perform the functions of conjunctions: Who, whom and whose are used for persons/people: ‘The boy could not complete his homework. He lef his school bag on the bus, ‘he bey whose schoo bog was let onthe bus, could not complete his homework, what reploe hi) Thot, which and what refer to onimols ond inanimate objects Hedovig isthe owl. He oppears inthe Hory Potter books, Hedwig i the ow thet appears inthe Horry Potter books. het replaces he 4. CONNECTING UINKING WORDS inking words often add flow and meaning othe sentences tht follow them. late, meanwhile, othe some time, finaly, before, oext, 2 100m as, now, afor showing ronoopzal order) @ couse/etfoct therefore, becouse, 0 «resvt, consequently furthermore, its leer thot similery,cernaively, in contrat, on the one/other hand, ‘however, meanwhile, in he zame way, comparatively specking, cof equal importance ‘comporsson/contrs 5. POSITION metons ere usually found inthe middle of sentences, lowever, cersin conjunctions may be used 1 begin a sentence: Although he had ne chance of winning, he enter the race, When wring or speaking, ty to vary your conjunctions ‘Avoid he repetitive use of conjunctions such ox and, then or 80PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are the ‘small words’ that usvolly relate two words or phrases to one another. | 1. Prepositions are words that show th relationship of one thing to another. The computer son the tobe, [Wheres he computa in elation othe tbl? Prepositions vsvally precede nouns, proncuns, ates or gerund | went with Petor/him/the boy. His lve of fishing kept him ocupi ‘&Prepositions are often confused with adverbs of ime ond place. Remember « noun or pronoun must fallow a preposition, otherwise its on adverb The dog wor borking outside the house, (reposition) We pul the dog outside, (adver of poe) She promised todo it efter the event. She promised te doit ofterwords (erepsiton (oder fine 4. Prepositions may be used iiomatcally (figuratively) Hels.a man after my own heat It goes agent! the grin for met ride when | can wok ‘6. Phrases moy contain more than one preposition. {am writing on behalf of my frend who iil "You must playin eecordance withthe ues Avoid ending @ sentence witha preposition What ae yu storing at? > At what ore you saring? DM ‘There ore certain recognised combinations of 2. Adjectives + Prepositions om olridof —proudof—fondof —_—diflerontfrom god afer bad ot/for been on roty for tired of opposed to sored of inspired by intrested in satisied with sorry about/for b. Verbs + Prepositions (I. believe in approve of object to insist on wot for scan in carefor —ralyon espoir of agree/dizogroe with accuse somabody of Something is shored between two persons Semthing is shored among several persons. ‘the Ford parked beside the Valswagen. Everyone besides the Grade 8s wos there Kiaoiodn 36 My money isin my wallet He jumped int the swimming pool The book i ifferen from the fle. ‘The book is diferent tothe fim.PREPOSITIONS USUALLY REFER TO PLACE, POSITION, TIME, MANNER OR REASON The wlrs are aboard he ship. | By noon she ha rived. He weot ont High Sheol She rovele by bus He cinbed onto the rook Pleos ink ebout he moter. _ he wos inspired by he each. Don't beat kur te bush ‘We prove coe by voccnonon, | Thelawyerloked over he contre. Tomsory aboot he mss, He ok over the lore. We ake down the posters He locked over his shoulder. The hy i above the earth He'came down wth fa He ithe bal over the ne. Thisis'above her ably. Santo came down the chimney. | He over is pin ‘The sade! thes over the lesson, She wolked cero he rood Sivas leap dering wine. eles ghana ood, . ele pot te sos ‘Al except Joan were hee twos pont mihigt when she cme She reed afer the mea. hoe Hovokes sles fer ee sory for baagor He isemanaiermy own heort | Sweet ore bod for your eth. The mountains hove ben there Sho wos oody for fer guess. | since ime immemorial She sood ogeint the wal Time wats for no mn, Skee ben on fia snc May. This goes opens my principles, | Voglbles are good For you The dauginr care forhormother | He welled tthe cole She walked clna the poh He come round her woy of She weed clngside her iver. This pockogearved fom Austia. | thinking. From fine 1 ine he vised her. She was tld t stp smeking Thetooks wr dvd among ihe cher areingated rom Fone. Compared Tomon err chiden Fie provented the fre from The Finis slr Yo the novel. Tepe mck lent amongst the apenigy | Bros exports cll fo te word rockers. Boye ore diferent from girk(N.B.) Everyone s opposed thigh foxes “ . Feber to your rudeness ‘They ron ord the fl, Koyleearved inher new cor. The rebel came fo his senses, Therumour ws spread oround Tha concer iin he evening. town, She isin Grade 10, The rece! lew towards Mors The clothes are the suitcase, | Towards evening Il ale, ‘We met ot cirprt Shei inerered in oeroogy She ot o dif sage Do you baler n ghosnt The only entrance is hreugh the She act loggerhwoss wih we, He toceaded in ding job. nna {he wo courier are ct war” They ned Toke in th facts | He seed by me through hick ond He's good a por but weak ot thin Mote The cot flint the stream. Thar it through he gropevine. Theale sprinted int ft place. The bride was before her etn, Her spars were under the bed Dovirn belore you con welt Jone Austen isan auhor afrenown. He fees under the weather. She ood belo fe eater | herd f your wind yxordoy. Hejogs daly before breodfst, | She wos avin crime. The porents waited up for he chil Tam proud of your ccs, The Belson sored up chove the The dustin is behind the door. || Wa ered of your complains. bulings. Tm behind in. work The French are nd of mail” She waked up andl down the rood He worked behind he scenes. || Mostofus oe scared of sakes, The houses up for sal We approve of your oie. ‘She wos up in ams over he runout First floors blow second floor. | Hen bean gezied of sealing, Ths remark below ihe Bek” || Fatber kos o lve a ishing. ‘She came with me. This works Blow standard, | She aso loro Bing She et clang wh he propo Wit eleronce to your suey Moles live beneath the ground, the lock el ofthe pedestal. He wa dsoppined wth hs Tis enecth my din. ‘She went fn oh Bonus Sho shor her icecraom wit The ruse stood beside the bed. | the portit hongs onthe wal am aiid wth he resus Sho ebesdeberalfwih giel || The Wein oived on fine ‘helish doesnot agree with me, The wove inate ble Fe disagrees wih he nding. This is benwoen you ond ne Ihplyed on his eoacone. tiwor divided befween te wo. | Hews cngrahloted on his The meanings win he exo ‘Thecorporkad bobween eines. | cen Initia your power t succeed Fe aes on his ineligence. ‘The ship sale beyond he horizon. | He ivery heen on go Theiabepond myandertording, He insit on punky They lwbeyend mans He eon nw lng