aerospace
Article
Numerical Investigation on Hybrid Rocket Motors with
Star-Segmented Rotation Grain
Hui Tian 1,2, *, Xianzhu Jiang 1,2 , Yudong Lu 1,2 , Yu Liang 3 , Hao Zhu 1,2 and Guobiao Cai 1,2
Citation: Tian, H.; Jiang, X.; Lu, Y.;
Liang, Y.; Zhu, H.; Cai, G. Numerical
Investigation on Hybrid Rocket
Motors with Star-Segmented
Rotation Grain. Aerospace 2022, 9, 585.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
aerospace9100585
Academic Editor: Carmine
Carmicino
Received: 1 July 2022
Accepted: 1 October 2022
Published: 9 October 2022
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Aerospace 2022, 9, 585. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9100585
1 School of Astronautics, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
2 Key Laboratory of Spacecraft Design Optimization & Dynamic Simulation Technologies,
Ministry of Education, Beijing 100816, China
3 Shanghai Institute of Space Propulsion, Shanghai 201112, China
* Correspondence: tianhui@buaa.edu.cn
Abstract: A novel fuel grain configuration comprising two star-segmented grains is proposed. The
effect of the rotation, mid-chamber length, and segmented position on the fuel regression rate and the
combustion efficiency in hybrid rocket motors with star-segmented grains is investigated in this paper.
To this end, 90% hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) are
selected as the propellant combination in this research. Three-dimensional numerical simulations of
the star-segmented grain configuration are conducted. A firing test of a lab-scale hybrid rocket motor
was conducted to verify the accuracy of the numerical model, and the errors between simulation data
and experimental results are no more than 4.5%. The case without segmented grain configuration is
regarded as the base case. The simulation results demonstrate that the combustion flow field structure
of the motor could be ameliorated by the segmented rotation grain configuration. Compared with
the base case, the rotation of aft-section grain has little effect on the regression rate in the fore-section
grain, while the average regression rate in aft-section grain increases, with a maximum increase of
25.04%. The combustion efficiency of the motor with the segmented rotation grain configuration is
higher than the base case. Compared with the base case, the combustion efficiency of segmented
rotation grain case with mid-chamber length 40 mm and segmented position of 1/2 is raised by
4.06%. The average fuel regression rate and the combustion efficiency of hybrid rocket motors with
segmented rotation grains are higher than those in the base case during the entire period of operation,
and the combustion efficiency is increased by 1.40–4.21% during the motor operation. The research
findings of this paper can provide valuable guidance for the performance improvement of hybrid
rocket motors with star grain.
Keywords: hybrid rocket motor; segmented rotation grain; combustion efficiency; regression rate;
combustion flow field
1. Introduction
Hybrid rocket motors generally utilize solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer [1]. The solid
fuel is in the combustion chamber and the liquid oxidizer is stored in a tank; therefore,
they are not pre-mixed. This special structure provides hybrid rocket motors with multiple
advantages, such as safety, low cost, high reliability, restart characteristics, and a wide
range thrust regulation [2–5]. Because of these characteristics, hybrid rocket motors have
become a promising thrust system in numerous fields, such as suborbital vehicle propulsion,
sounding rockets, target drones, and interplanetary lander power systems [6–10]. However,
the combustion of hybrid rocket motors is governed by the diffusion process, which leads
to low fuel regression rates and low combustion efficiency [11]. Low regression rates can be
compensated by utilizing star fuel grain configurations to provide enough burning surface
area for sufficient thrust [11–13]. The burning surface of hybrid rocket motors with star
grain possesses good designability. In addition, low combustion efficiency is primarily
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 2 of 28

caused by the inadequate mixing of the propellants. Therefore, efforts should be made to
enhance the propellant mixing of hybrid rocket motors.
Multiple investigations have been conducted recently to improve the fuel regression
rate and combustion efficiency in hybrid rocket motors. One of the effective methods
is to adopt special fuel grain configurations. Changjin Lee et al. conducted a number
of tests to study the fuel regression rates in hybrid rocket motors with swirl and helical
configurations [14]. PMMA and gaseous oxygen were used for the propellants. The
test results showed that the grain with helical structure can cause an increase in the fuel
regression rate up to 50% without a swirl injector and of up to 250% with a modified swirl
injector. The regression rate behaviors of hybrid rocket motors with helical port grains were
investigated by Whitmore et al. [15]. The regression rates of helical grains were higher than
those of cylindrical grains, and the increases in fuel regression rates diminished with time.
Regression rate characteristics and flow field structure in the hybrid rocket motors that use
star swirl grain were numerically investigated by Zhang et al. [16]. The results exhibited
that, under the same port area and grain length, the spatially averaged regression rate of
the star swirl grain improved by about 60%, in contrast to that of the tube grain. In addition,
the star swirl grain configuration can improve the combustion efficiency compared with
tube grain. The fuel regression rate characteristics in hybrid rocket motors with helical
fuel grain were analyzed by Tian et al. [17]. The simulation results demonstrated that
the helical grain can enhance the fuel regression rate. Test results revealed that the fuel
regression rate improved with the increase in the groove width and groove depth. The
influence of rotation angles on the combustion efficiency and fuel regression rates in hybrid
rocket motors with two-hole segmented grains were investigated in [18]. The numerical
and test results showed that the regression rate in the aft-section grain increased, and the
combustion efficiency was higher than that in the base case. When the rotation angle was
45◦ , the combustion efficiency reached a maximum. Combustion characteristics in hybrid
rocket motors with multi-segmented grains were analyzed by numerical simulations in [19].
Both 90% H2 O2 and PE were adopted in the simulations. The results indicated that, for the
cases with two grain segments and three ports, the combustion efficiency was improved by
6–8.6%.
The research efforts mentioned above indicate that adopting helical grain configura-
tions or segmented grains can enhance the fuel regression rate and combustion efficiency
of hybrid rocket motors. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the investigations
are mainly focused on laboratory-scale motor (thrust is always no more than 1 kN) and
little research based on the full-scale hybrid rocket motors with star-segmented grain has
been conducted. In addition, the effect of rotation on the combustion performance in hybrid
rocket motors with star-segmented grain has not been extensively studied to date. On the
one hand, improving the average fuel regression rate can increase the total mass flow rate
of propellants, which can enhance the motor thrust. On the other hand, the increase in
combustion efficiency leads to the elevation of specific impulse, which is able to increase
the theoretical velocity increment and the range of the rocket.
In order to further improve the regression rate and combustion efficiency, a novel
fuel grain configuration comprising two segmented grains is proposed. Both the two
segmented grains are star grains, and the aft-section grain is installed at a certain rotation
angle with respect to the fore-section grain. A mid-chamber is located between the two
segmented grains to promote the mixing of the fuel and the oxidizer. Three-dimensional
steady numerical simulations are performed to investigate combustion performance of
hybrid rocket motors with star segmented rotation grain in this article. A 90% H2 O2 is
used as the oxidizer and HTPB is adopted as the fuel. In order to verify the accuracy of
the numerical model established in this paper, a firing test of a lab-scale hybrid rocket
motor with tube grain was carried out, and the errors between the simulation data and
experimental results are no more than 4.5%, indicating that it is feasible to predict the
motor performance by using the numerical model. The temperature distribution, species
mass fraction distribution, fuel regression rates, and combustion efficiency are obtained.
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3

fraction distribution, fuel regression rates, and combustion efficiency are obtain
influence
fraction of the aft-section
distribution, rotation,rates,
fuel regression mid-chamber length, and
and combustion segmented
efficiency positio
are obtained.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 regressionofrates
influence and combustion
the aft-section rotation,efficiency in hybrid
mid-chamber rocket
length, andmotor is analyzed.
segmented position
3 of 28 Inon
a
steady numerical
regression rates andsimulations
combustion at different
efficiency in working times
hybrid rocket are conducted
motor is analyzed.to In com
addi
full-time motor performances. The numerical results show that
steady numerical simulations at different working times are conducted to compare adopting star seg
The influence
rotation
full-time of the
grain
motor aft-section
isperformances.
an effectiverotation, mid-chamber
technique length,
to improve
The numerical results andfuel
the
show segmented
that position
regression
adopting ratesegme
star and t
on the regression rates and combustion efficiency in hybrid rocket motor is analyzed.
bustion efficiency
rotation grain is anof hybrid technique
effective rocket motors.
to improve the fuel regression rate and the c
In addition, steady numerical simulations at different working times are conducted to
bustion the
compare efficiency
full-timeof hybrid
motor rocket motors.
performances. The numerical results show that adopting star
2. Modelrotation
segmented Descriptiongrain is an effective technique to improve the fuel regression rate and
2.
the Model Description
combustion
2.1. Geometry efficiency
Models of hybrid rocket motors.
2.1. Geometry Models
TheDescription
2. Model structure of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor with star-segmented rotati
2.1. The structure
Geometry
is presented Models of the1.
in Figure full-scale hybrid
The grain rocket motor
is separated intowith
twostar-segmented rotation
sections and they are bg
is presented
The structure
grains. in Figure
The cross of section1. The
the full-scale grain
hybrid
of the isgrain
separated
starrocket motor
is shown intostar-segmented
with intwo sections
Figure and
thethey
rotation
2, and grainare both
characterist
grains.
is
are definedThe cross
presented in withsection
Figure lettersofa the
1. The to dstar
grain is grain is 2shown
separated
in Figure into two
for the inconvenience
Figure 2, and of
sections and they thediscussions
are characteristic
both star of po
s
grains.
are The cross
defined section
with of the
letters a star
to d grain
in is shown
Figure 2 in Figure
for the 2, and the characteristic
convenience of pointsof solid
discussions
regression rates. The relative rotation angle of the two star-segmented
are defined with letters a to d in Figure 2 for the convenience of discussions of solid fuel grains is s
regression
Figure 3.rates. rates.
Based The relative
onrelative rotation
the fore-section angle of the two star-segmented grains is show
regression The rotation anglegrain,
of the the two rotation anglegrains
star-segmented of the aft-section gr
is shown
Figure 3. Based on the fore-section grain, the rotation angle of the aft-section grain
22.5°.
in Figure The full-scale
3. Based on the hybrid rocket
fore-section motor
grain, is composed
the rotation angle ofofthepre-combustion
aft-section grain chamb
22.5°.
θsection, The
◦ full-scale
is 22.5 . mid-chamber, hybrid
The full-scale hybrid rocket motor
rocket motor is composed of pre-combustion
is composed of pre-combustion chamber,
chamber,
aft-section, post-combustion chamber, and conical noz
section, mid-chamber,
fore-section, aft-section,
mid-chamber, aft-section, post-combustion
post-combustion chamber,chamber, andnozzle.
and conical conical
Thenozzle.
main structure parameters of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor are illustrated in
main structure parameters of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor
main structure parameters of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor are illustrated are illustrated in Table 1. in Tab

Figure
Figure
Figure 1.
1.1. Full-scale
Full-scale
Full-scale motor
motor withstar-segmented
withwith
motor star-segmented
star-segmented rotation
rotationrotation
grain. grain.
grain.

Figure 2. The cross section in the middle of star grain.

Figure
Figure 2. 2.
TheThe cross
cross section
section in the in the middle
middle of star
grain.
of star grain.
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 4 of 28

Figure3. 3.
Figure TheThe rotation
rotation angleangle
of the of
twothe two star-segmented
star-segmented grains. grains.
Table 1. Main structure parameters of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor.
Table 1. Main structure parameters of the full-scale hybrid rocket motor.
Name Values
Pre-combustion chamber inner diameterName dpre (mm) 286 Valu
Pre-combustion
Pre-combustion chamber
chamber length Lpre (mm) inner diameter dpre (mm) 200 286
Fuel grain star number 8
Pre-combustion
Fuel grain outer diameter Df (mm) chamber length Lpre (mm) 285 200
Fuel
Fuel grain thickness grain star number
e (mm) 25 8
Rotation angle of two segmented grains θ (◦ ) 22.5
Fuel grain outer diameter Df (mm)
Mid-chamber inner diameter dm (mm) 286
285
Fuel
Total grain length La +Lgrain
b (mm)thickness e (mm) 1000 25
Post-combustion chamber inner diameter dpost (mm) 286
Rotation angle of two segmented grains θ (°)200
Post-combustion chamber length Lpost (mm)
22.5
Mid-chamber
Nozzle throat diameter dt (mm) inner diameter dm (mm) 58 286
Nozzle exit diameter de (mm) 129.69
Total grain length La+Lb (mm)
Nozzle convergence half-angle (degree) 45
1000
Post-combustion
Nozzle divergence half-anglechamber
(degree) inner diameter dpost (mm) 15 286
Post-combustion chamber length Lpost (mm) 200
As can be seen in Figure 1, L
Nozzle throat
a is the fore-section grain
diameter dt (mm) length, L b shows the aft-section 58
grain length, and Lm indicates the mid-chamber length. With the value of Lm , θ, La , and Lb
Nozzle exit diameter de (mm) 129.6
changing, 49 simulation cases were set up and the details of the simulation cases are listed
Nozzle
in Table 2. The “no-seg” convergence
means that the grainhalf-angle (degree)
is not segmented, and it is set as the base case 45
for comparison. ForNozzle divergence
case “seg-1/2-10”, half-angle
the “seg” (degree)
indicates that the grain is segmented and 15
the rotation angle of the two sections is 0◦ . The “1/2” shows that the segmented position of
the fuel grain is 1/2, which is equal to La /(La +Lb ). It is worth mentioning that the sum of
As can be seen in Figure 1, La is the fore-section grain length, Lb shows the aft
La and Lb is 1000 mm for all cases in this article, which shows that the total burning surface
grain length,
area remains andAdditionally,
equal. Lm indicates thethe
“10”mid-chamber length.
demonstrates that With the value
the mid-chamber lengthofisLm, θ, L
changing,
10 49 simulation
mm. For case “rot-1/2-10”, cases
the “rot”were
meanssetthat
up the
andgrain
the isdetails of the
segmented andsimulation
the rotation cases a
angle of the2.aft-section grain is means◦
22.5 , relative to thegrain
fore-section
in Table The “no-seg” that the is notgrain. The meaning
segmented, andofitthe
is set as
“1/2” and “10” is the same as that described above.
case for comparison. For case “seg-1/2-10”, the “seg” indicates that the grain is seg
and the rotation angle of the two sections is 0°. The “1/2” shows that the segment
tion of the fuel grain is 1/2, which is equal to La/(La+Lb). It is worth mentioning that
of La and Lb is 1000 mm for all cases in this article, which shows that the total
surface area remains equal. Additionally, the “10” demonstrates that the mid-c
length is 10 mm. For case “rot-1/2-10”, the “rot” means that the grain is segmen
the rotation angle of the aft-section grain is 22.5°, relative to the fore-section gr
meaning of the “1/2” and “10” is the same as that described above.
 10 0 500 500 rot-1/2-10 10 22.5 500 500
30 0 500 500 rot-1/2-30 30 22.5 500 500
40 0 500 500 rot-1/2-40 40 22.5 500 500
50 0
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585
500 500 rot-1/2-50 50 22.5 500 500 5 of 28
60 0 500 500 rot-1/2-60 60 22.5 500 500
70 0 500 500 rot-1/2-70 70 22.5 500 500
90 0 500 Table 2. The
500 schemes of the simulation
rot-1/2-90 cases. 90 22.5 500 500
110 0 Lm 500 θ 500 La rot-1/2-110
Lb 110 Lm 22.5 500 La 500 Lb
Case Case θ(◦ )
(mm) (◦ ) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
10 22.5 166.67 833.33 rot-2/3-10 10 22.5 666.67 333.33(mm)
no-seg 0 - 1000 0
30seg-1/2-1022.5 10166.67 0 833.33500 rot-2/3-30
500 rot-1/2-10 30 10 22.5 666.67 500 333.33500
22.5
40seg-1/2-3022.5 30166.67 0 833.33500 500
rot-2/3-40 rot-1/2-30 40 30 22.5 22.5
666.67 500 333.33500
seg-1/2-40 40 0 500 500 rot-1/2-40 40 22.5 500 500
50seg-1/2-5022.5 50166.67 0 833.33500 rot-2/3-50
500 rot-1/2-50 50 50 22.5 666.67 500 333.33500
22.5
60seg-1/2-6022.5 60166.67 0 833.33500 500
rot-2/3-60 rot-1/2-60 60 60 22.5 22.5
666.67 500 333.33500
seg-1/2-70 70 0 500 500 rot-1/2-70 70 22.5 500 500
70seg-1/2-9022.5 90166.67 0 833.33500 rot-2/3-70
500 rot-1/2-90 70 90 22.5 666.67 500 333.33500
22.5
seg-1/2-110
90 22.5 110
166.67 0 833.33500 500
rot-2/3-90 rot-1/2-110 90 11022.5 22.5
666.67 500 333.33500
rot-1/6-10 10 22.5 166.67 833.33 rot-2/3-10 10 22.5 666.67 333.33
110 22.5
rot-1/6-30 166.67
30 22.5 833.33 166.67 rot-2/3-110
833.33 rot-2/3-30110 30 22.5 666.67 666.67333.33
22.5 333.33
10 22.5
rot-1/6-40 333.33
40 22.5 666.67 166.67 rot-5/6-10 rot-2/3-40 10
833.33 40 22.5 833.33 666.67166.67
22.5 333.33
rot-1/6-50 50 22.5 166.67 833.33 rot-2/3-50 50 22.5 666.67 333.33
30rot-1/6-6022.5 333.33
60 22.5 666.67 166.67 rot-5/6-30
833.33 rot-2/3-60 30 60 22.5 833.33 666.67166.67
22.5 333.33
40rot-1/6-7022.5 333.33
70 22.5 666.67 166.67 rot-5/6-40
833.33 rot-2/3-70 40 70 22.5 833.33 666.67166.67
22.5 333.33
rot-1/6-90 90 22.5 166.67 833.33 rot-2/3-90 90 22.5 666.67 333.33
50 22.5
rot-1/6-110 333.33
110 22.5 666.67 166.67 rot-5/6-50
833.33 rot-2/3-110 50 11022.5 833.33 666.67166.67
22.5 333.33
60rot-1/3-1022.5 333.33
10 22.5 666.67 333.33 rot-5/6-60
666.67 rot-5/6-10 60 10 22.5 833.33 833.33166.67
22.5 166.67
rot-1/3-30 30 22.5 333.33 666.67 rot-5/6-30 30 22.5 833.33 166.67
70rot-1/3-4022.5 333.33
40 22.5
666.67333.33 rot-5/6-70
666.67 rot-5/6-40
70 40
22.5 833.33 833.33166.67
22.5 166.67
90rot-1/3-5022.5 333.33
50 22.5 666.67 333.33 rot-5/6-90
666.67 rot-5/6-50 90 50 22.5 833.33 833.33166.67
22.5 166.67
rot-1/3-60 60 22.5 333.33 666.67 rot-5/6-60 60 22.5 833.33 166.67
110 22.5
rot-1/3-70
333.33
70 22.5
666.67333.33 rot-5/6-110
666.67 rot-5/6-70
110 70
22.5 833.33 833.33166.67
22.5 166.67
rot-1/3-90 90 22.5 333.33 666.67 rot-5/6-90 90 22.5 833.33 166.67
rot-1/3-110 The 110 22.5 333.33
geometry domain of the 666.67 rot-5/6-110 110
flow field of a hybrid rocket 22.5 833.33 166.67
motor with star-segmented
rotation grain is shown in Figure 4. Because the flow field possesses symmetry character-
istics, a half of a star isThe geometry
chosen domain
as the of the flow
calculation field of ainhybrid
domain orderrocket motor with
to reduce star-segmented
the grid num-
rotation grain is shown in Figure 4. Because the flow field possesses symmetry charac-
ber. A structured mesh was applied as described by Li et al. [13]. Figure 5 shows the
teristics, a half of a star is chosen as the calculation domain in order to reduce the grid
com-
putational mesh ofnumber.
the base grain in case
A structured meshno-seg, segmented
was applied grain
as described byinLi case
et al. seg-1/2-50,
[13]. Figure 5and
shows
segmented rotation thegrain in case rot-1/2-50.
computational mesh of the Forbasethe
grainpurpose of meeting
in case no-seg, the requirement
segmented grain in case seg-
of the turbulence 1/2-50,
model,and thesegmented
meshes rotation
near the grain
fuelinsurfaces
case rot-1/2-50. For thewere
and walls purpose of meeting
refined. The the
requirement of the turbulence model, the meshes near the fuel surfaces and walls were
thickness of the first layer grid near the fuel is 0.02 mm, which ensures that the dimen-
refined. The thickness of the first layer grid near the fuel is 0.02 mm, which ensures that
sionless wall distance parameter y+
the dimensionless wallisdistance
approximately
parameter1y+ [12]. The total number
is approximately 1 [12]. Theof total
compu-
number
tational meshes inofFigure 5 are 624,463,
computational meshes in748,702,
Figure 5and 750,035,
are 624,463, respectively.
748,702, and 750,035, Therespectively.
meshes atThe
the oxidizer inlet andmeshes at the oxidizerare
mid-chamber inletpresented
and mid-chamber are presented
in Figure in Figures
6 and Figure 6 and 7, respectively.
7, respectively.

Figure 4. Domain ofFigure

flow field of the
4. Domain motor
of flow with
field star-segmented
of the rotation grain.
motor with star-segmented rotation grain.
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW

base grain mesh

Aerospace 2022,9,9,585
Aerospace2022, x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 28
27
base grain mesh

base grain mesh

segmented grain mesh
segmented grain mesh
segmented grain mesh

segmented rotation grain mesh

segmented rotation grain mesh
segmented rotation grain mesh

Figure 5. Mesh of the calculation domain in different cases.

Figure
Figure 5.5.
Figure5. Mesh of the
Mesh
Mesh of the calculation
of calculation domaindomain
the calculation
domain in different
in different cases.
in cases.
different cases.

Figure 6. Mesh at the oxidizer inlet.

Figure
Figure
Figure 6. 6.
6.Mesh
MeshMesh atat
at the the
theoxidizer
inlet. inlet.
oxidizer
oxidizer inlet.

Figure 7. Mesh at the mid-chamber.

2.2. Numerical Models

The propellants utilized in this paper were 90% (mass fraction) H2O2 and HTPB. The
combustion in hybrid rocket motors involves numerous physical changes and chemical
reactions [20,21]. In order to reduce the difficulty of numerical simulations, the oxidizer
Figure 7. Mesh
atomization and at the mid-chamber.
vaporization process were neglected and only the gas phase was taken
into account in the simulations. Additionally, the radiative heat flux was considered to be
Figure
Figure
zero
2.2. 7. Mesh
7. Mesh
because
Numerical
at theat
there thenomid-chamber.
mid-chamber.
were
Models metal particles in the solid fuel grain. Because the fuel regres-
sion rate in hybrid rocket motors is quite low, the effect of the regression rate on the com-
The propellants utilized in this paper were 90% (mass fraction) H2O2 and HT
2.2. Numerical Models
combustion in hybrid rocket motors involves numerous physical changes and c
The[20,21].
reactions propellants utilized
In order in this
to reduce thepaper wereof90%
difficulty (mass simulations,
numerical fraction) H2O 2 a
the
combustionand
atomization in hybrid rocketprocess
vaporization motors involves
were numerous
neglected and onlyphysical changes
the gas phase w
reactions
into [20,21].
account In order to Additionally,
in the simulations. reduce the difficulty of numerical
the radiative simulation
heat flux was consider
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 7 of 28

2.2. Numerical Models

The propellants utilized in this paper were 90% (mass fraction) H2 O2 and HTPB. The
combustion in hybrid rocket motors involves numerous physical changes and chemical
reactions [20,21]. In order to reduce the difficulty of numerical simulations, the oxidizer
atomization and vaporization process were neglected and only the gas phase was taken
into account in the simulations. Additionally, the radiative heat flux was considered to
be zero because there were no metal particles in the solid fuel grain. Because the fuel
regression rate in hybrid rocket motors is quite low, the effect of the regression rate on the
combustion flow field is negligible [22]. Thus, steady state numerical simulations can be
performed. Three-dimensional numerical models were established with fluid dynamics,
turbulence, gas phase reactions, and solid fuel pyrolysis. The main simulation process was
carried out using ANSYS FLUENT solvers, while the fuel regression rate was calculated in
user-defined functions (UDFs). The numerical model details are as follows.

2.2.1. Gas Governing Equations

The gas-phase governing equations consist of the coupled mass conservation equation,
three-dimensional Navier–Stokes equations, energy conservation equation, and species
transport equations.

2.2.2. Turbulence Model

The realizable k − ε turbulence model has been extensively applied in various flows,
such as channel flows, boundary layer flows, and separated flows [23]. The realizable
k − ε turbulence model is well suited to the numerical calculation of the vortex in the
mid-chamber [18]. Therefore, the realizable k − ε turbulence model [23] was selected as the
turbulence model in this paper. The transport equations for the turbulence kinetic energy k
and the dissipation rate ε can be expressed as:
" #
∂(ρk) ∂ ∂ µt ∂k k
+ (ρku j ) = (µ + ) + Gk + Gb − ρε − 2ρε 2 + Sk (1)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σk ∂x j a
" #
∂(ρε) ∂ ∂ µt ∂ε ε2 ε
+ (ρεu j ) = (µ + ) + ρC1 Sε − ρC2 √ + C1ε C3ε Gb + Sε (2)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σε ∂x j k + νε k

where theh constanti parameters are σk = 1.0, σε = 1.2,  C1ε = 1.44, C2 = 1.9,
q
η k 1 ∂u j ∂ui
C1 = max 0.43, η +5 , η = 2Sij Sij ε , and Sij = 2 ∂x + ∂x .
i j

2.2.3. Chemical Reaction Model

The experimental results of Chiaverini et al. [24] demonstrate that the main pyrolysis
product of HTPB is gaseous 1,3-butadiene (C4 H6 ). A global two-step chemical reaction
model was then chosen to describe the combustion of the gaseous propellants [25]. The
first step indicates the oxidation of C4 H6 , while the second step means the oxidation of CO,
which can be expressed as:

C4 H6 + 3.5O2 → 4CO + 3H2 O CO + 0.5O2 ↔ CO2

The combustion in a hybrid rocket motor with star-segmented rotation grain is con-
trolled by diffusion, which means that the reaction time is much shorter than the mixing
time of the propellants. Hence, the chemical kinetic rates can be ignored. In this paper, the
eddy-dissipation model [26] was used to solve the chemical reaction rate, which exhibits
superior performance for chemical reactions in which the mixing time determines the
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 8 of 28

reaction rate. In the eddy-dissipation model, the generation rate Ri,r of component i due to
the chemical reaction r is calculated by:
 
! ∑ Y P 
ε  Y
0
Ri,r = νi,r Mi Aρ minmin 0 R ,B P (3)
 
k νi,r MR N

 R 00
∑ νj,r M j

j

2.2.4. Fluid–Solid Coupling and Fuel Regression Rate Model

The pyrolysis behavior of solid fuel grain in hybrid rocket motors follows the law of
energy conservation and mass conservation. The law of energy conservation at the fuel
grain surface is expressed by:

Q gas + Qreg = Qsol + Q pyr (4)

where Q gas indicates the convective and radiative heat flux that is transferred from the flame
zone to the fuel grain inner surface, Qreg is the total enthalpy transmitted to the pyrolyzing
surface that is caused by the regression of grain surface, Qsol is the heat loss resulted from
the conduction into the solid fuel, and Q pyr is the total enthalpy taken away from the
pyrolyzing surface by the fuel pyrolysis products through bulk motion and diffusion.
Because the solid fuel grain adopted in this paper does not contain any metal compo-
nents, the radiation heat transfer was omitted, that is Qrad = 0. Then
 
∂T
Q gas = Qconv + Qrad = −λ g (5)
∂n g

where n is the outward normal direction of the flow field at the fuel surface, and the
orientation pointing out of the flow field is defined as the positive direction.
The Qsol can be described as:
 
∂T
Qsol = −λ f (6)
∂n s

With the radiative heat flux neglected, the temperature distribution inside the solid
fuel can be calculated by:
d2 T . dT
λ f 2 − ρ f rcs =0 (7)
dn dn
The boundary conditions of Equation (7) are:
(
n = 0 : T = Ts
n=∞: T = Tre f

where Ts represents the temperature at the grain inner surface, and Tre f is the reference
temperature (298.16 K), which is the initial temperature (aka room temperature) of the fuel
grain deep below the pyrolyzing surface. Thus, Qsol can be expressed as:
 
∂T .
 
Qsol = −λ f = ρ f cs r Ts − Tre f (8)
∂n s

Qreg is regarded as the total enthalpy of the HTPB at the temperature Ts and it can be
represented as:
. . Tre f
  
Qreg = ρ f rh THTPB
s
= ρ f r h HTPB + cs Ts − Tre f (9)
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 9 of 28

It is assumed that the diffusion velocity can be ignored compared to the bulk velocity.
Q pyr is considered to be the total enthalpy of C4 H6 , which can be calculated as:

Ts.
Q pyr = ρ f rhC4 H6
(10)

Substituting Equations (5) and (8)–(10) into Equation (4), the energy conservation at
the fuel grain surface can be written as:
   T
∂T . . .
   
− λg = ρ f cs r Ts − Tre f + ρ f rhCTs4 H6 − ρ f r h HTPB
re f
+ cs Ts − Tre f (11)
∂n g

which can be simplified as:

 
∂T . Tre f
 
− λg = ρ f r hCTs4 H6 − h HTPB (12)
∂n g

The law of mass conservation requires that

.
ρ g un = −ρs r (13)

The fuel regression rate of hybrid rocket motor was mostly determined by the temper-
ature at the solid grain inner surface. According to the work of Cohen et al. [27], the fuel
regression rate can be described as:
.
r = Ae− E/RTs (14)

where A expresses the pre-exponential factor and E represents the activation energy. Fol-
lowing the experimental investigations in [24], the pyrolysis performances of HTPB are
listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Pyrolysis performance of HTPB.

Parameters Value (T < 722 K) Value (T > 722 K)

Pre-exponential factor A (m/s) 3.9640 0.01104
Activation energy E (J/mol) 55,803.0 20,523.8

With Equations (12) and (14) combined, both the inner surface temperature of fuel
.
grain Ts and the fuel regression rate r can be calculated by the UDFs in the form of boundary
.
conditions. After the calculation of r, the corresponding source terms of mass, momentum,
energy, and species can be obtained and added into the meshes near the grain inner surface
in the process of simulation iteration.

2.2.5. Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions in the numerical simulations were mainly composed of
oxidizer inlet, solid fuel wall, other walls, symmetry plane, and nozzle outlet. The oxidizer
inlet was set as a mass flow rate inlet, and the total oxidizer mass flow rate of the hybrid
rocket motor was 2.0 kg/s. Due to the symmetry characteristic, only 1/16 of the flow field
was selected as the computational domain. It was assumed that the 90% H2 O2 is completely
decomposed before being injected into the pre-combustion chamber. Thus, the oxidizer
inlet was considered to be a mixture that contains 57.65% water vapor and 42.35% gaseous
oxygen at a temperature of 1024 K [28]. The initial pressure at the oxidizer inlet was set
as 1.4 MPa, according to the predicted value of combustion chamber pressure. At the fuel
grain surface, the fuel regression rate and fuel wall temperature were solved by fluid–solid
coupling and fuel regression rate model during the iterations. Other solid walls were set
as no-slip and adiabatic wall boundaries. At the symmetry planes, which are shown in
 Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 10 of 28

Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 8, the normal gradients and normal velocity component of flow variables were
zero [29]. The nozzle outlet was set as the pressure outlet.

Figure
Figure8. Schematic of symmetry
8. Schematic planes in the
of symmetry computation
planes in thedomain.
computation domain.
2.3. Model Validation
2.3. Grid
2.3.1. Model ValidationVerification
Independence
The simulation case was solved through two kinds of meshes to verify the grid
2.3.1. Grid Independence Verification
independency in the numerical simulations. Figure 5 presents the standard mesh in
The and
case no-seg simulation case
the total cell was was
number solved through
624463. two kinds
Much smaller of meshes
cells were adopted in to verify
the comparison mesh in case no-seg, in which the total cell number was 1,186,230. The
pendency in the numerical simulations. Figure 5 presents the standard m
comparison is shown in Figures 9 and 10. As can be seen from Figures 9 and 10, the
seg andtemperature
simulated the total cell numberand
distributions was 624463.
axial Much
distribution smaller
of fuel cellsrates
regression were are adopt
parison
nearly mesh
identical inboth
with casemeshes.
no-seg, in itwhich
Thus, the totalthat
can be concluded cellthe
number
influencewas 1,186,230.
of grid size T
applied here on the simulation results can be neglected.
is shown in Figures 9 and 10. As can be seen from Figures 9 and 10, the sim
ature distributions and axial distribution of fuel regression rates are nearly
both meshes. Thus, it can be concluded that the influence of grid size appli
simulation results can be neglected.

Figure 9. Temperature distribution with different meshes at the nozzle entrance.

Figure 9. Temperature distribution with different meshes at the nozzle entrance.

1.4
Regression rate with larger cells at point a
Regression rate with larger cells at point b
1.2 Regression rate with larger cells at point c
m/s)

Regression rate with larger cells at point d

Regression rate with smaller cells at point a
 Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 11 of 28

Figure 9. Temperature distribution with different meshes at the nozzle entrance.

1.4
Regression rate with larger cells at point a
Regression rate with larger cells at point b
1.2 Regression rate with larger cells at point c

Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

Regression rate with larger cells at point d
Regression rate with smaller cells at point a
1.0 Regression rate with smaller cells at point b
Regression rate with smaller cells at point c
Regression rate with smaller cells at point d
0.8

0.6

0.4

Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.2 11 of 27

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

X (m)
2.3.2.
Figure
Figure Numerical
Fuel
10.10. Fuel Model
regression rateVerification
regression distributions with two kinds
rate distributions with of CFD
two meshes.
kinds of CFD meshes.
In order to verify the
2.3.2. Numerical Model Verification
accuracy of the numerical model established in this paper, a
ground firing experimental test of a hybrid rocket motor with tube grain was conducted
In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical model established in this paper, a
The motor utilized 90% H2O2 and HTPB propellant combination. The fuel grain length
ground firing experimental test of a hybrid rocket motor with tube grain was conducted.
wasmotor
The 500 mm, the90%
utilized fuelHgrain port diameter was 50 mm, the nozzle throat diameter was 18
2 O2 and HTPB propellant combination. The fuel grain length was
mm, and the nozzle expansion
500 mm, the fuel grain port diameter area
wasratio wasthe
50 mm, 3. The
nozzleexperimental curves
throat diameter was obtained
18 mm, using
this lab-scale
and the nozzlemotor are shown
expansion in Figure
area ratio was 3. 11.
TheThe burn timecurves
experimental of the obtained
motor was approximately
using this
lab-scale
7.3 motor are
s. A steady shown
state in Figure
numerical 11. The burn
simulation time
of the of thethat
motor motor was approximately
adopted the same propellant
7.3 s. A steady and
combination statestructure
numerical as simulation
that used of the motor
in the that adopted
lab-scale firingthe same
test waspropellant
performed. The
combination and structure as that used in the lab-scale firing test
differences between the simulation results and test data are illustrated in Table was performed. The 4. The
differences between the simulation results and test data are illustrated in Table 4. The com-
comparison shows that the simulation results are in good agreement with the test results
parison shows that the simulation results are in good agreement with the test results. The
The main parameters differ by no more than 4.5%. Therefore, it is reasonable to investigate
main parameters differ by no more than 4.5%. Therefore, it is reasonable to investigate the
the combustion characteristics
combustion characteristics of hybridof rocket
hybridmotors
rocketusing
motors using themodel
the numerical numerical model estab-
established
lished in thisIn
in this paper. paper. In addition,
addition, the accuracytheofaccuracy of the model
the simulation simulation
adoptedmodel adopted
in this paper in this
paper
was was successfully
successfully verified verified
through thethrough the comparison
comparison of theregression
of the simulated simulatedrates
regression
and rates
and experimental regression rates conducted by Cai et al. [30].
experimental regression rates conducted by Cai et al. [30].

Pc
Oxidizer mass flow rate (kg/s)

. 0.3
Combustion pressure (MPa)

mo
2

0.2

0.1

0 0
0 5 10 15
Time (t)

Figure 11.Experimental
Figure 11. Experimental curves
curves of the
of the ground
ground firingfiring
test. test.

Table 4. Comparison between simulation results and test data.

Main Parameters Test Data Simulation Results Error

 o (kg/s)
Oxidizer mass flow rate m 0.351 0.351 -
Combustion chamber pressure pc (MPa) 2.449 2.344 4.29%
Average fuel regression rate rave (mm/s) 0.753 0.764 1.46%
∗
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 12 of 28

Table 4. Comparison between simulation results and test data.

Main Parameters Test Data Simulation Results Error

.
Oxidizer mass flow rate mo (kg/s) 0.351 0.351 -
Combustion chamber pressure pc (MPa) 2.449 2.344 4.29%
.
Average fuel regression rate r ave (mm/s) 0.753 0.764 1.46%
∗
Characteristic velocity c (m/s) 1507.01 1464.23 2.84%

3. Results and Discussion

The simulation cases shown in Table 2 were calculated in this paper. For the con-
venience of comparison and analysis, case no-seg, case seg-1/2-40, and case rot-1/2-40
were taken as the representative of the simulation cases. The effects of the rotation, mid-
chamber length, and segmented position on the combustion flow field characteristics, the
fuel regression rate, and the combustion efficiency are discussed in this section.

3.1. Combustion Flow Field Characteristics

Streamlines of case no-seg, case seg-1/2-40, and case rot-1/2-40 are illustrated in
Figure 12. It is evident that vortices exist in the post-combustion chamber in all three cases.
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 27
In case no-seg, the streamlines in the combustion chamber are relatively straight and no
vortex is found in the fuel grain port. In case seg-1/2-40, there are vortex zones in the
mid-chamber due to the sudden expansion caused by the mid-chamber. These vortex zones
can
canpromote
promotethe themixing
mixingofofthethepropellants
propellants and increase
and thethe
increase combustion
combustionefficiency. However,
efficiency. How-
the
ever,vortex zones zones
the vortex in caseinseg-1/2-40 are limited
case seg-1/2-40 withinwithin
are limited the mid-chamber,
the mid-chamber,whichwhich
have little
have
influence on theon
little influence inner flow field
the inner flow of theof
field aft-section grain.grain.
the aft-section In caseIn rot-1/2-40, owing
case rot-1/2-40, to the
owing to
sudden
the suddenexpansion produced
expansion producedby thebymid-chamber
the mid-chamber and and
the obstacle caused
the obstacle by the
caused byfront-end
the front-
face
end of the
face ofaft-section grain,
the aft-section the the
grain, vortexes
vortexesareare
captured
capturedin in
the mid-chamber.
the mid-chamber.InInaddition,
addition,
these vortices affect the flow in the aft-section grain port and
these vortices affect the flow in the aft-section grain port and therefore therefore further promote
further the
promote
mixing of the combustion gas, which makes the combustion process
the mixing of the combustion gas, which makes the combustion process more complete. more complete.

Symmetry 1-a

no-seg
Symmetry 2-a

Symmetry 1-b

seg-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-b

Symmetry 1-c

rot-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-c

Figure12.
Figure 12.Streamlines
Streamlinesof
ofsymmetry
symmetryplanes
planesin
indifferent
differentcases.
cases.

Figures
Figures13–15
13–15showshowthe thecross-sectional
cross-sectionaltemperature
temperaturedistributions
distributionsininthe
thehybrid
hybridrocket
rocket
motor
motorin incase
caseno-seg,
no-seg,case caseseg-1/2-40,
seg-1/2-40, andand case
case rot-1/2-40,
rot-1/2-40, respectively.
respectively. AsAs can
can be
be seen
seen in
in
Figure
Figure13,13,the
theflame
flamezone zoneprofile
profileisisclose
closetotothe
the grain
grain port
port profile,
profile,and
andthe
the distance
distance between
between
the
the flame
flame andand the
thefuel
fuelinner
innersurface
surfaceincreases
increases withwith the
the increase
increase in
inthe
theaxial
axialdistance
distancedue due
to the
to the depletion of the oxidizer. In addition, the flame is near the fuel wall
of the oxidizer. In addition, the flame is near the fuel wall at the star root at the star
root
(point(point
a in aFigure
in Figure
2), and 2), and the thickness
the thickness is theissmallest.
the smallest.
Both Both the distance
the distance to thetofuel
thegrain
fuel
grain
inner inner
surface surface
and the and the thickness
thickness of thelayer
of the flame flameincrease
layer increase in the
in the slot slot
of the of (points
star the starc
(points
and d in c and
Figure d in2)Figure
by looking2) by ahead
looking toahead
Figureto18. Figure 18. The temperature
The temperature distributiondistribution
in Figure
in
13Figure
is quite13similar
is quite tosimilar to the temperature
the temperature distributions
distributions of hybrid of hybrid
rocket rocket
motors motors
with with
star grain
star
in references [11,12,31]. The temperature peak point is approximately 3030 K in caseKno-
grain in references [11,12,31]. The temperature peak point is approximately 3030 in
case no-seg. In Figures 14 and 15, it is obvious that the temperature distributions
seg. In Figure 14 and Figure 15, it is obvious that the temperature distributions in both the in both
pre-combustion chamber and fore-section are almost identical to those in case no-seg,
which indicates that the segmented rotation grain configuration has little influence on the
combustion flow field in the fore-section. The temperature distribution in aft-section in
case seg-1/2-40 is not significantly changed when the mid-chamber is set up in the hybrid
rocket motor. The highest temperature in case seg-1/2-40 reaches about 3030 K. However,
 inner surface and the thickness of the flame layer increase in the slot of the star (points c
and d in Figure 2) by looking ahead to Figure 18. The temperature distribution in Figure
13 is quite similar to the temperature distributions of hybrid rocket motors with star grain
in references [11,12,31]. The temperature peak point is approximately 3030 K in case no-
seg.
Aerospace 2022, In Figure 14 and Figure 15, it is obvious that the temperature distributions in both the
9, 585 13 of 28
pre-combustion chamber and fore-section are almost identical to those in case no-seg,
which indicates that the segmented rotation grain configuration has little influence on the
combustion flowthefield pre-combustion chamber and
in the fore-section. Thefore-section
temperatureare almost identical to
distribution inthose in case no-seg,
aft-section in
which indicates that the segmented rotation grain configuration has little influence on the
case seg-1/2-40 is not significantly changed when the mid-chamber is set up in the hybrid
combustion flow field in the fore-section. The temperature distribution in aft-section in
rocket motor. The highest
case temperature
seg-1/2-40 in case changed
is not significantly seg-1/2-40
when reaches about 3030
the mid-chamber K.up
is set However,
in the hybrid
when the two sections of grains
rocket motor. are offset
The highest with a rotation
temperature angle ofreaches
in case seg-1/2-40 22.5° in case3030
about rot-1/2-40,
K. However,
◦ in case rot-1/2-40,
the flow field in aft-section is disturbed by the front-end face of the aft-section grain. The
when the two sections of grains are offset with a rotation angle of 22.5
flame shifts towardsthe flow
thefield in aft-section
central core flow, is disturbed by the front-end
which suggests face oxidizer
that more of the aft-section grain. The
participates
flame shifts towards the central core flow, which suggests that more oxidizer participates
in the chemical reaction. In addition, the highest temperature in case rot-1/2-40 is about
in the chemical reaction. In addition, the highest temperature in case rot-1/2-40 is about
3113 K, demonstrating the positive the
3113 K, demonstrating effect of the
positive segmented
effect rotation
of the segmented grain
rotation configuration
grain configuration on
on combustion completeness. Therefore,Therefore,
combustion completeness. the combustion efficiency
the combustion can be
efficiency canimproved
be improved due
due to
to segmented rotation grains.
segmented rotation grains.

,, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 13
13 of
of 27
27

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Temperature
Temperature distribution
distribution in
in the
the motor
motor for
for case
case no-seg.
no-seg.
Figure 13. Temperature distribution in the motor for case no-seg.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Temperature
Temperature distribution
distribution
Figure 14.
in the
the motor
indistribution
Temperature motorinfor
for case
thecase
seg-1/2-40.
seg-1/2-40.
motor for case seg-1/2-40.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Temperature
Temperature distribution
distribution
Figure 15. in the
the motor
indistribution
Temperature motorinfor
thecase
for case rot-1/2-40.
rot-1/2-40.
motor for case rot-1/2-40.

The The temperature distributions of planes

symmetry planes in(shown in Figure 8) in case no-seg,
The temperature
temperature distributions
distributions
case seg-1/2-40,
of
of symmetry
and case symmetry
rot-1/2-40 areplanes
(shown
shown(shown
in Figurein
Figure
16.Figure
8) in case
There is8)a in case no-seg,
diffusion no-seg,
flame zone
case
case seg-1/2-40,
seg-1/2-40, and
and case rot-1/2-40 are shown in Figure 16. There is aa diffusion flame zone
close to the grain inner surface in case no-seg and it extends to the centerline ofzone
case rot-1/2-40 are shown in Figure 16. There is diffusion flame the fuel
close
close to
to the
the grain
grain inner
inner
grain surface
In case in
surface
port. in case
case no-seg
seg-1/2-40,no-seg and
and it
the temperatureit extends
contourto
extends toofthe
the centerline
the centerline of
of the
motor with segmentedthe fuel
fuelgrain
grain port. In caseis seg-1/2-40,
close to that inthe
casetemperature
no-seg. However,contour
under of
thethe motor
influence
grain port. In case seg-1/2-40, the temperature contour of the motor with segmented grain ofwith
the segmented
segmented grain
rotation grain
is
is close
close to
to that
that in
in case
case no-seg.
no-seg. However,
configuration, the
However, under
combustion
under the
gas is
the influence
influence of
barricaded by the
of the
the segmented
front-end
segmented rotation
face of the aft-section
rotation grain
grain and the resident time ofgas the is
combustion gasby in the
the combustion chamberthe is extended. In
grain configuration,
configuration, the
the combustion
addition, combustion
the flame layergas is barricaded
barricaded
is closer to the motorby
front-end
theline,
axis front-end face
face of
of the
which is consistent
aft-sec-
aft-sec-
with Figure 15.
tion
tion grain
grain and
and the
the resident
resident time
time of of the
the combustion
combustion gas gas in
in the
the combustion
combustion chamberchamber is is ex-
ex-
tended. In addition, the flame layer is closer to the motor axis
tended. In addition, the flame layer is closer to the motor axis line, which is consistent line, which is consistent
with
with Figure
Figure 15.
15. These
These are are beneficial
beneficial forfor the
the combustion
combustion efficiency
efficiency in in the
the hybrid
hybrid rocket
rocket mo-mo-
tor. Figure 17 presents the mass fraction of O 2 distributions of symmetry planes in several
tor. Figure 17 presents the mass fraction of O2 distributions of symmetry planes in several
 close to the grain inner surface in case no-seg and it extends to the centerline of the fue
grain port. In case seg-1/2-40, the temperature contour of the motor with segmented grain
is close to that in case no-seg. However, under the influence of the segmented rotation
grain configuration, the combustion gas is barricaded by the front-end face of the aft-sec
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 tion grain and the resident time of the combustion gas in the combustion chamber 14 of 28 is ex
tended. In addition, the flame layer is closer to the motor axis line, which is consisten
with Figure 15. These are beneficial for the combustion efficiency in the hybrid rocket mo
tor. Figure
These 17 presents
are beneficial thecombustion
for the mass fraction of O2 distributions
efficiency of symmetry
in the hybrid rocket planes17
motor. Figure in severa
cases. Inthe
presents contrast with case
mass fraction of Ono-seg and caseofseg-1/2-40,
2 distributions more oxidizer
symmetry planes in severalincases.
the central
In core
contrast
region inwith case
case no-seg and
rot-1/2-40 case seg-1/2-40,
is consumed, whichmore oxidizerthat
indicates in the central
the core region
utilization of the in oxidize
case rot-1/2-40 is consumed, which indicates that the utilization of the oxidizer increases.
increases.

Temperature (K): 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Symmetry 1-a

no-seg
Symmetry 2-a

Symmetry 1-b

seg-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-b

Symmetry 1-c

rot-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-c
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 2

Figure16.
Figure 16.Temperature
Temperature distributions
distributions in symmetry
in symmetry planesplanes for different
for different cases. cases.

Mass fraction of O2: 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Symmetry 1-a

no-seg
Symmetry 2-a

Symmetry 1-b

seg-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-b

Symmetry 1-c

rot-1/2-40
Symmetry 2-c

Figure17.
Figure 17.Mass
Mass fraction
fraction of2 distributions
of O O2 distributions in symmetry
in symmetry planesplanes for different
for different cases. cases.

The
Thetemperature
temperature contours in cross
contours sections
in cross at the front
sections endfront
at the of aft-section grain port are
end of aft-section grain por
illustrated in Figure 18. It is worth noting that there is only a single fuel
are illustrated in Figure 18. It is worth noting that there is only a single fuel grain in cas grain in case no-seg
and therefore the cross section shown in Figure 18 is taken at the same axial position as that
no-seg and therefore the cross section shown in Figure 18 is taken at the same axial posi
in case rot-1/2-40. In case no-seg, the flame in the same slot of the star is separated into two
tion as by
sections thattheinfront-end
case rot-1/2-40.
face of theInaft-section
case no-seg, grain.the flame
Then, thein twothe same
parts slot ofenter
of flame the two
star is sepa
rated into two sections by the front-end face of the aft-section
adjacent slots of the star, respectively, and they distribute along the sides of the star slots, grain. Then, the two part
of flame
which enter in
is evident two
caseadjacent
rot-1/2-40 slots of the18.star,
in Figure As therespectively,
combustion gas andmoves
they downstream,
distribute along th
sides
the of the star
temperature slots, which
distribution is evident
of central cross in case of
section rot-1/2-40 in Figure
the aft-section grain18.portAs is the combustion
formed,
which
gas moves downstream, the temperature distribution of central cross sectionthe
is shown in case rot-1/2-40 in Figure 19. It can be seen that the flame is closer to of the aft
fuel wall grain
section at the port
star root (point a which
is formed, in Figure is 2), and itin
shown is case
thinner in case rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40 in Figurecompared
19. It can be seen
to thatthe
that in flame
case no-seg. In contrast
is closer withwall
to the fuel pointat bthein case no-seg,
star root pointa bininFigure
(point case rot-1/2-40
2), and itinis thinne
Figure 19 is farther from the flame layer. In addition, the temperature of flow field near
in case rot-1/2-40 compared to that in case no-seg. In contrast with point b in case no-seg
point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in the same position in case no-seg.
point
As b in case
is clearly rot-1/2-40
illustrated in Figure
in Figure 20, the 19O2 is
infarther
the slot from
of the the
star flame
in caselayer.
rot-1/2-40In addition,
is greatly the tem
perature of flow field near
depleted and this agrees with Figure 17. point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in th
same position in case no-seg. As is clearly illustrated in Figure 20, the O2 in the slot of th
star in case rot-1/2-40 is greatly depleted and this agrees with Figure 17.

Temperature (K) no-seg rot-1/2-40

2900
2800
2700
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
 section grain port is formed, which is shown in case rot-1/2-40 in Figure 19. It can be see
that the
that the flame
flame is
is closer
closer to
to the
the fuel
fuel wall
wall atat the
the star
star root
root (point
(point aa in
in Figure
Figure 2),
2), and
and itit is
is thinne
thinne
in
in case rot-1/2-40 compared to that in case no-seg. In contrast with point b in case no-seg
case rot-1/2-40 compared to that in case no-seg. In contrast with point b in case no-seg
point b
point b in
in case
case rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40 inin Figure
Figure 1919 is
is farther
farther from
from the
the flame
flame layer.
layer. InIn addition,
addition, the the tem
tem
perature
perature of flow field near point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in th
of flow field near point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in th
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 15 of 28
same position
same position in
in case
case no-seg.
no-seg. AsAs is
is clearly
clearly illustrated
illustrated inin Figure
Figure 20,
20, the
the O
O22 in
in the
the slot
slot of
of th
th
star
star in
in case
case rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40 isis greatly
greatly depleted
depleted and and this
this agrees
agrees with
with Figure
Figure 17.17.
Temperature (K)
Temperature (K) no-seg
no-seg rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40
2900
2900
2800
2800
2700
2700
2600
2600
2500
2500
2400
2400
2300
2300
2200
2200
2100
2100
2000
2000
1900
1900
1800
1800
1700
1700
1600
1600
1500
1500
1400
1400
1300
1300
1200
1200
1100
1100
1000
1000

Figure
Figure
Figure18.18. Temperature
Temperature
18. comparison
comparison
Temperature of theof
comparison the
ofcross cross
cross sections
the sections at
at the
at the front
sections front
end
the end
end of
of aft-section
of aft-section
front grain port.grain
aft-section grain port.
port.

Temperature (K)
Temperature (K) no-seg
no-seg rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40
2900
2900
2800
2800
2700
2700
2600
2600
2500
2500
2400
2400
2300
2300
2200
2200
2100
2100
2000
2000
1900
1900
1800
1800
1700
1700
1600
1600
1500
1500
1400
1400
1300
1300
1200
1200
1100
1100
1000
1000
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of
Figure
Figure
Figure 19.
19.19. Temperature
Temperature
Temperature comparison
comparison
comparison ofcentral
of theof the central
the central cross sections
cross sections
cross sections of aft-section
of aft-section
of aft-section grain port.
grain port.grain port.

Mass fraction of O2 no-seg rot-1/2-40

0.39
0.36
0.33
0.3
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.18
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.06
0.03

Figure
Figure 20.20. Mass
Mass fraction
fraction of Oof O2 comparison
2 comparison of theof the central
central cross sections
cross sections of aft-section
of aft-section grain port.grain port.

3.2. Regression Rates

3.2. Regression Rates
The fuel regression rate is an important parameter that plays a considerable part in
The fuel regression rate is an important parameter that plays a considerable part i
the internal ballistic performance and the design of hybrid rocket motors. Therefore, the
theregression
fuel internal ballistic performance
rate distribution and the should
characteristics designbe ofanalyzed.
hybrid rocket
Figuremotors.
21 shows Therefore,
the th
fuel regression rate distribution characteristics should be analyzed. Figure
fuel regression rates at various characteristic points along the motor axis in case no-seg and 21 shows th
fuelrot-1/2-40.
case regression rates
It can beat various
clearly seencharacteristic points
that the regression ratealong the motor
distributions axis in case no-se
in fore-section
and in
grain case
caserot-1/2-40.
rot-1/2-40 Itarecan be clearly
almost seen
identical that the
to those regression
in case rate indicates
no-seg. This distributions
that in for
the segmented rotation grain configuration has very little effect on the regression
section grain in case rot-1/2-40 are almost identical to those in case no-seg. This rates in indicate
fore-section grain, whichrotation
that the segmented can be explained by the temperature
grain configuration has verydistributions in Figures
little effect on the13,regressio
15 and 16. As mentioned in Section 3.1, the temperature distributions in fore-section grain
rates in fore-section grain, which can be explained by the temperature distributions i
in case no-seg and case rot-1/2-40 are almost the same, and thus the temperature gradient
Figures 13, 15 and 16. As mentioned in Section 3.1, the temperature distributions in for
and heat flux to the fuel wall are quite similar. This contributes to the similar fuel regression
section
rates, grain
while in case
the fuel no-segrate
regression anddistributions
case rot-1/2-40
in theare almost the
aft-section grainsame, and
in case thus the tempe
rot-1/2-40
ature gradient and heat flux to the fuel wall are quite similar. This contributes to the sim
ilar fuel regression rates, while the fuel regression rate distributions in the aft-section grai
in case rot-1/2-40 are different from that in case no-seg, this can be analyzed according t
Figure 19. At point a, the fuel regression rate in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in cas
no-seg. This is because the flame layer is closer to the grain surface and the temperatur
 section grain in case no-seg and case rot-1/2-40 are almost the same, and thus
ature gradient and heat flux to the fuel wall are quite similar. This contribute
ilar fuel regression rates, while the fuel regression rate distributions in the aft-s
in case rot-1/2-40 are different from that in case no-seg, this can be analyzed
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 16 of 28
Figure 19. At point a, the fuel regression rate in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than
no-seg. This is because the flame layer is closer to the grain surface and the
gradient
are differentisfrom
higherthat in caseno-seg,
in case rot-1/2-40,
this can which leadsaccording
be analyzed to a larger heat flux
to Figure 19. At to the fu
point a, the fuel regression rate in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that
the regression rate is enhanced. From the curves in Figure 21, it is apparent in case no-seg. This is
because the flame layer is closer to the grain surface and the temperature gradient is higher
regression rates of point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 are also greater than
in case rot-1/2-40, which leads to a larger heat flux to the fuel wall, and the regression rate
same
is characteristic
enhanced. points
From the curves in case
in Figure 21, no-seg. Thethat
it is apparent reason is regression
the fuel that the temperature
rates of
point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 in Figure 19 are higher than those at the
point c and point d in case rot-1/2-40 are also greater than those at the same characteristic
points in case no-seg. The reason is that the temperature gradients at point c and point d in
in case no-seg. Due to the longer distance between the flame layer and the
case rot-1/2-40 in Figure 19 are higher than those at the same points in case no-seg. Due
surface
to at point
the longer distance b,between
the fuel theregression
flame layer and ratetheingrain
caseinner
rot-1/2-40 is point
surface at lower than that
b, the
caseregression
fuel no-seg.rate It can berot-1/2-40
in case seen from Figure
is lower 22 at
than that that both
point the no-seg.
b in case segmented
It can begrain c
seen
(case seg-1/2-40) and the segmented rotation grain configurationand
from Figure 22 that both the segmented grain configuration (case seg-1/2-40) the rot-1/2
(case
segmented rotation grain configuration (case rot-1/2-40) can improve the regression rates
prove
in the regression
the aft-section rates in the
grain. Furthermore, theaft-section grain. Furthermore,
rotation configuration the rotation c
improves the aft-section
improves
grain therate
regression aft-section grain regression rate significantly.
significantly.

no-seg at point a
1.4 no-seg at point b
no-seg at point c
no-seg at point d
Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

1.2 rot-1/2-40 at point a

rot-1/2-40 at point b
rot-1/2-40 at point c
rot-1/2-40 at point d
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW X (m) 16

Figure Regression
Figure21.21. rates at
Regression various
rates at positions
variousalong the motor
positions axis.the
along motor axis.

1.2
no-seg
seg-1/2-40
1.0 rot-1/2-40
Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

X (m)

Figure 22.Fuel
Figure 22. Fuel regression
regression ratesrates of point
of point c (defined
c (defined in Figurein
2) Figure 2)motor
along the alongaxis
theinmotor
variousaxis in various
cases.
cases.

Figure 23 shows the fuel regression rate distributions at point c along the motor
in cases with various segmented positions. The regression rates in the fore-section g
are similar, which indicates that the segmented position rarely affects the fore-section
 Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 17 of 28

Figure 23 shows the fuel regression rate distributions at point c along the motor axis
in cases with various segmented positions. The regression rates in the fore-section grain
are similar, which indicates that the segmented position rarely affects the fore-section fuel
regression rates. In the aft-section grain, the general change tendency of the fuel regression
rates is that it decreases rapidly and then reduces slowly. The vortices in the mid-chamber
can strengthen the heat transfer; hence, the regression rate is very high at the front edge
of the aft-section grain. As the axial location increases along the aft-section grain, the
influence of vortices in the mid-chamber weakens rapidly, which leads to a sharp drop in
the regression rate. With the flow developing downstream, the distance between the flame
layer and the fuel wall increases gradually, resulting in a reduction in the temperature
gradient. Therefore, the regression rate decreases slowly. In addition, the regression rate at
the leading edge of the aft-section grain in case rot-1/6-40 in Figure 23 is higher than that
at the front edge of the aft-section grain in the other cases. This is because the fore-section
grain length is the shortest in case rot-1/6-40, which means that the flame at the front
edge of the aft-section grain in case rot-1/6-40 is the closest to the grain inner surface. The
increased temperature gradient causes the increase in the local regression rate. In the same
axial location of the aft-section grain, the fuel regression rate increases with the increase in
segmented position. Figure 24 shows the regression rates of point c along axial locations in
cases with various mid-chamber lengths. It can be seen that the mid-chamber length has
little influence on the regression rate of the fore-section grain. In the aft-section grain, the
regression rate in case rot-1/2-10 is the lowest. The main reason is that the mid-chamber
length in case rot-1/2-10 is the shortest and the effect of the mid-chamber on enhancing
propellants mixing is comparatively small. Therefore, the heat transfer to the grain surface
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is relatively low. In the front part of the aft-section grain, the fuel regression rate increases
with increasing mid-chamber length. However, distributions of regression rates are similar
in the aft end of the aft-section grain.

1.4
rot-1/6-40
rot-1/3-40
1.2 rot-1/2-40
Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

rot-2/3-40
rot-5/6-40
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

X (m)
Figure
Figure Fuel Fuel
23. 23. regression rates of point
regression c along
rates ofthepoint
motor axis in casesthe
c along withmotor
various segmented positions.
axis in cases with var
positions.

1.2
rot-1/2-10
rot-1/2-30
1.0 rot-1/2-50
egression Rate (mm/s)

rot-1/2-70
rot-1/2-90
rot-1/2-110
0.8

0.6
 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

X (m)

Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 Figure 23. Fuel regression rates of point c along the motor axis in cases with var
18 of 28
positions.

1.2
rot-1/2-10
rot-1/2-30
1.0 rot-1/2-50

Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

rot-1/2-70
rot-1/2-90
rot-1/2-110
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

X (m)

Figure
Figure24.24.Fuel
Fuelregression rates rates
regression of point
of cpoint
along cthe motorthe
along axismotor
in cases with
axis invarious mid-
cases with variou
chamber lengths.
lengths.
The simulation cases and computed average fuel regression rates are listed in Table 5,
. .
where Ther f or issimulation
the average fuel cases and computed
regression average
rate in fore-section fuel
grain, r aregression
f t is the average rates are
.
fuel regression rate in aft-section grain, and r ave is the average fuel regression rate of the
5, where rfor is the average fuel regression rate in fore-section grain, raft
whole fuel grain. The average fuel regression rates in fore-section grain are presented in
fuel regressionthat
Figure 25. Notice ratethein aft-section
average grain, rate
fuel regression andin rtheave is the average fuel regress
fore-section grain in case
no-seg is higher than those in other cases. When the segmented position increases (from
whole
1/6 to 5/6),fuel thegrain.
averageThe average
regression rate in fuel
the regression
fore-section grain rates in fore-section
increases gradually and grain ar
Figure
the growth25. rateNotice
becomesthat theThe
slower. average
case no-seg fuel canregression
be regarded as rate in the
a special fore-section gr
circumstance
whose segmented position is 1. Figure 25 shows
seg is higher than those in other cases. When the segmented position that the average regression rates in the incre
fore-section grain in cases seg-1/2 are extremely close to those in cases rot-1/2. This shows
to 5/6),
that the average
the rotation angle of the regression
two sections rate hardlyin the fore-section
influences grain increases
the average regression rates in grad
growth rate
fore-section grain.becomes
Additionally, slower. Theregression
the average case no-seg rates in can
the be regarded
fore-section grainas a specia
vary
slightly
whosewith the increaseposition
segmented in the mid-chamber
is 1. Figure length.25 The
shows averagethat fuelthe regression
average rates
regressi
in the aft-section grain are shown in Figure 26. It is apparent that the average regression
fore-section
rates graingrain
in the aft-section in cases
in casesseg-1/2 are extremely
with segmented grains areclose higherto than those
thosein incases
case rot-1
that the
no-seg. When rotation angle
the relative of the
rotation angletwo of thesections
two grainshardlyis 0 , theinfluences
◦ average regression the average
rate re
in the aft-section grain increases as the mid-chamber length
in fore-section grain. Additionally, the average regression rates in the fore increases. However, when
the rotation angle of the two grains is 22.5◦ , the average regression rates in the aft-section
vary slightly with the increase in the mid-chamber length. The average f
grain are greater than those in cases with the rotation angle of 0◦ . This demonstrates
rates
that thein the aft-section
disturbance caused by grain are shown
the front-end face in Figure
of the 26. Itgrain
aft-section is apparent
plays a more that the a
important rolein inthe
enhancing fuel regression rates. For cases ◦
sion rates aft-section grain in cases withwith a rotation angle
segmented grainsof 22.5
are, highe
the average regression rate in the aft-section grain increases with increasing segmented
case no-seg. When the relative rotation angle of the two grains is 0°, the aver
position. When the segmented position is lower than 5/6, the average regression rate in
rate
the in the grain
aft-section aft-section grain
increases first andincreases
then decreases as with
the the mid-chamber
increase in mid-chamberlength increa
length when the rotation angle is 22.5 ◦ . This is probably because, when the mid-chamber
when the rotation angle of the two grains is 22.5°, the average regression r
length increases, the mixing of propellants is more sufficient, and more heat is released. On
section grain are greater than those in cases with the rotation angle of 0°
the other hand, a longer mid-chamber makes the flame farther from the fuel wall in the
strates that
aft-section. These thetwodisturbance
reasons resultcausedin the trend bynoted
the front-end face ofthethe
above. In addition, aft-section
average
regression
more importantrate in the aft-section grain in case fuel
role in enhancing rot-5/6-10 is the highest,
regression rates. whichForiscases
increasedwith a ro
by 25.04%, compared to that in case no-seg. The average fuel regression rates of the whole
grain are illustrated in Figure 27. The change tendency of the average regression rates of
the whole grain in cases seg-1/2 is similar to that in the aft-section grain in cases seg-1/2.
For cases with the rotation angle of 22.5◦ , the average regression rates are the lowest, and
this may be due to the smallest burning surface area that is influenced by the segmented
 Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 19 of 28

grain configuration. When the variation of the segmented position is 1/6-2/3, the average
regression rate increases first and then decreases as the mid-chamber length increases. The
average fuel regression rate in case rot-1/6-50 is the highest at 0.4963 mm/s.

Table 5. Average area regression rates of the simulation cases.

. . . . . .
rfor raft rave rfor raft rave
Case Case
(mm/s) (mm/s) (mm/s) (mm/s) (mm/s) (mm/s)
no-seg - - 0.4593
seg-1/2-10 0.4474 0.4739 0.4607 rot-1/2-10 0.4479 0.5124 0.4801
seg-1/2-30 0.4484 0.4759 0.4622 rot-1/2-30 0.4488 0.5220 0.4854
seg-1/2-40 0.4486 0.4770 0.4628 rot-1/2-40 0.4486 0.5326 0.4906
seg-1/2-50 0.4484 0.4778 0.4631 rot-1/2-50 0.4486 0.5317 0.4901
seg-1/2-60 0.4485 0.4792 0.4639 rot-1/2-60 0.4481 0.5303 0.4892
seg-1/2-70 0.4484 0.4829 0.4656 rot-1/2-70 0.4486 0.5296 0.4891
seg-1/2-90 0.4481 0.4913 0.4697 rot-1/2-90 0.4485 0.5256 0.4870
seg-1/2-110 0.4486 0.4945 0.4716 rot-1/2-110 0.4486 0.5173 0.4830
rot-1/6-10 0.4134 0.4888 0.4762 rot-2/3-10 0.4527 0.5387 0.4814
rot-1/6-30 0.4177 0.5065 0.4917 rot-2/3-30 0.4537 0.5410 0.4828
rot-1/6-40 0.4181 0.5099 0.4946 rot-2/3-40 0.4539 0.5436 0.4838
rot-1/6-50 0.4182 0.5120 0.4963 rot-2/3-50 0.4538 0.5434 0.4837
rot-1/6-60 0.4177 0.5087 0.4936 rot-2/3-60 0.4539 0.5381 0.4819
rot-1/6-70 0.4173 0.5060 0.4912 rot-2/3-70 0.4537 0.5369 0.4814
rot-1/6-90 0.4178 0.5004 0.4867 rot-2/3-90 0.4538 0.5322 0.4800
rot-1/6-110 0.4178 0.4957 0.4827 rot-2/3-110 0.4538 0.5271 0.4782
rot-1/3-10 0.4373 0.4960 0.4764 rot-5/6-10 0.4561 0.5743 0.4758
rot-1/3-30 0.4381 0.5133 0.4883 rot-5/6-30 0.4572 0.5714 0.4762
rot-1/3-40 0.4382 0.5181 0.4915 rot-5/6-40 0.4572 0.5647 0.4751
rot-1/3-50 0.4376 0.5198 0.4924 rot-5/6-50 0.4571 0.5742 0.4766
rot-1/3-60 0.4382 0.5177 0.4912 rot-5/6-60 0.4571 0.5685 0.4757
rot-1/3-70 0.4382 0.5170 0.4907 rot-5/6-70 0.4569 0.5677 0.4754
Aerospacerot-1/3-90
2022, 9, x FOR PEER
0.4378REVIEW 0.5117 0.4871 rot-5/6-90 0.4570 0.5646 0.4749
rot-1/3-110 0.4382 0.5036 0.4818 rot-5/6-110 0.4569 0.5613 0.4743

0.46
Average Fuel Regression Rate (mm/s)

0.45

0.44

no-seg
seg-1/2
0.43 rot-1/6
rot-1/3
rot-1/2
rot-2/3
rot-5/6
0.42

0.41
10 30 50 70 90 110
Mid-chamber length (mm)

Figure
Figure 25.25. Average
Average fuel regression
fuel regression rates
rates in the in the fore-section
fore-section grain
grain for various for
cases. various cases.

no-seg
0.58 seg-1/2
ession Rate (mm/s)

rot-1/6
rot-1/3
0.56 rot-1/2
rot-2/3
rot-5/6

0.54

0.52
 0.42
0.42 rot-5/6

Aver
Ave
0.41
0.41
10
10 30
30 50 50 70 70 90 110
Mid-chamber
Mid-chamber length
length (mm)90
(mm)
110
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 20 of 28
Figure25.
Figure 25.Average
Averagefuel
fuelregression
regressionrates
ratesin
inthe
thefore-section
fore-sectiongrain
grainfor
forvarious
variouscases.
cases.

no-seg
no-seg
0.58
0.58 seg-1/2
seg-1/2

(mm/s)
rot-1/6

Rate(mm/s)
rot-1/6
rot-1/3
rot-1/3
0.56 rot-1/2
0.56 rot-1/2
rot-2/3
rot-2/3

RegressionRate
rot-5/6
rot-5/6
0.54
0.54
FuelRegression
0.52
0.52

0.50
0.50
AverageFuel
Average

0.48
0.48

0.46
0.46

10
10 30
30 50
50 70 70 90 110 130
Mid-chamber
Mid-chamber length90
length (mm) 110
(mm)
130

Figure
Figure
Figure 26.
26.
26. Average
Average
Average fuelregression
fuel fuel regression
regression rates
rates in rates
the inthe
theaft-section
aft-section
in aft-section grain
grain for various
grain forvarious
cases.
for variouscases.
cases.

0.500
0.500 no-seg
no-seg
seg-1/2
seg-1/2
(mm/s)

0.495 rot-1/6
Rate(mm/s)

0.495 rot-1/6
rot-1/3
rot-1/3
rot-1/2
0.490 rot-1/2
0.490 rot-2/3
rot-2/3
rot-5/6
RegressionRate

rot-5/6
0.485
0.485
FuelRegression

0.480
0.480

0.475
0.475
AverageFuel

0.470
0.470
Average

0.465
0.465

0.460
0.460

10
10 30
30 50 50 70 70 90 110
Mid-chamber
Mid-chamber length
length (mm)90
(mm)
110

Figure
Figure 27.27. Average
Average fuel regression
fuel regression rates
rates of the of the
whole whole
grain graincases.
for various for various
cases.
Figure 27. Average fuel regression rates of the whole grain for various cases.
3.3. Combustion Efficiency
3.3.The
3.3. Combustion
Combustion Efficiency
Efficiency
combustion efficiency η can be calculated from:
Thecombustion
The efficiency ηη can
combustionefficiency can becalculated
∗ be calculatedfrom:
from:
csim
η= (15)
c∗th

where c∗th indicates the theoretical characteristic velocity, which is determined according
to the combustion chamber pressure and the oxidizer to fuel ratio by thermodynamic
calculation, and c∗sim is the simulated characteristic velocity.
The simulated characteristic velocity c∗sim can be calculated from:

pc At
c∗sim = . (16)
m
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 21 of 28

.
where pc represents the combustion chamber pressure, At is the nozzle throat area, and m
is the propellant mass flow rate. Values for the three parameters can be obtained from the
simulation cases.
The average oxidizer to fuel ratio O/F can be expressed by:
.
mo
O/F = . (17)
mf

The performance parameters obtained from numerical simulations are shown in

Table 6. Figure 28 presents the oxidizer to fuel ratio in the simulation cases. By comparing
Figures 27 and 28, the change trend in the oxidizer to fuel ratio is associated with that of
the average fuel regression rate. This is because the oxidizer mass flow rate and the total
burning surface area are invariant in all cases, and therefore the value of the oxidizer to
fuel ratio is determined by the average regression rate.

Table 6. Performance parameters obtained from the numerical simulations.

. ∗ (m/s) ∗ (m/s)
Case pc (MPa) O/F m csim cth η
no-seg 1.2561 3.201 2.6208 1266.26 1454.09 87.08
seg-1/2-10 1.2562 3.192 2.6226 1265.54 1453.16 87.09
seg-1/2-30 1.2567 3.182 2.6246 1265.03 1451.99 87.12
seg-1/2-40 1.2571 3.177 2.6256 1265.02 1451.42 87.16
seg-1/2-50 1.2582 3.177 2.6256 1266.08 1451.42 87.23
seg-1/2-60 1.2589 3.169 2.6271 1266.11 1450.50 87.29
seg-1/2-70 1.2600 3.158 2.6295 1266.05 1449.11 87.37
seg-1/2-90 1.2643 3.129 2.6351 1267.64 1445.70 87.68
seg-1/2-110 1.2650 3.118 2.6375 1267.22 1444.31 87.74
rot-1/6-10 1.2716 3.088 2.6438 1270.76 1440.50 88.22
rot-1/6-30 1.3025 2.991 2.6648 1291.41 1427.74 90.45
rot-1/6-40 1.3078 2.975 2.6684 1294.95 1425.54 90.84
rot-1/6-50 1.3098 2.965 2.6705 1295.87 1424.25 90.99
rot-1/6-60 1.3019 2.978 2.6675 1289.51 1426.08 90.42
rot-1/6-70 1.2961 2.995 2.6638 1285.54 1428.32 90.00
rot-1/6-90 1.2863 3.021 2.6580 1278.59 1431.91 89.29
rot-1/6-110 1.2771 3.048 2.6521 1272.29 1435.45 88.63
rot-1/3-10 1.2673 3.087 2.6439 1266.44 1440.41 87.92
rot-1/3-30 1.3016 3.013 2.6598 1292.96 1430.80 90.37
rot-1/3-40 1.3082 2.992 2.6645 1297.14 1427.89 90.84
rot-1/3-50 1.3064 2.988 2.6654 1294.97 1427.36 90.73
rot-1/3-60 1.3044 2.993 2.6642 1293.60 1428.12 90.58
rot-1/3-70 1.3035 2.997 2.6633 1293.15 1428.63 90.52
rot-1/3-90 1.2992 3.021 2.6581 1291.36 1431.80 90.19
rot-1/3-110 1.2883 3.051 2.6514 1283.74 1435.88 89.40
rot-1/2-10 1.2786 3.066 2.6483 1275.62 1437.76 88.72
rot-1/2-30 1.2984 3.031 2.6559 1291.64 1433.14 90.13
rot-1/2-40 1.3125 2.996 2.6635 1302.00 1428.55 91.14
rot-1/2-50 1.3072 3.000 2.6627 1297.10 1429.02 90.77
rot-1/2-60 1.3067 3.004 2.6617 1297.11 1429.63 90.73
rot-1/2-70 1.3053 3.012 2.6600 1296.45 1430.64 90.62
rot-1/2-90 1.3016 3.021 2.6579 1293.81 1431.92 90.35
rot-1/2-110 1.2914 3.044 2.6530 1286.14 1434.94 89.63
rot-2/3-10 1.2846 3.057 2.6503 1280.66 1436.56 89.15
rot-2/3-30 1.3101 3.047 2.6523 1305.01 1435.33 90.92
rot-2/3-40 1.3100 3.039 2.6541 1304.07 1434.27 90.92
rot-2/3-50 1.3086 3.041 2.6536 1302.92 1434.55 90.82
rot-2/3-60 1.2984 3.053 2.6512 1293.91 1436.01 90.10
rot-2/3-70 1.2997 3.057 2.6503 1295.70 1436.56 90.19
rot-2/3-90 1.2928 3.065 2.6486 1289.64 1437.61 89.71
 rot-2/3-30 1.3101 3.047 2.6523 1305.01 1435.33 90.
rot-2/3-40 1.3100 3.039 2.6541 1304.07 1434.27 90.
rot-2/3-50 1.3086 3.041 2.6536 1302.92 1434.55 90.
rot-2/3-60
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 1.2984 3.053 2.6512 1293.91 1436.0122 of 28 90.
rot-2/3-70 1.2997 3.057 2.6503 1295.70 1436.56 90.
rot-2/3-90 1.2928 3.065 2.6486 1289.64 1437.61 89.
Table 6. Cont.
rot-2/3-110 1.2852 3.076 2.6461 1283.27 1439.09 89.
. ∗ ∗
rot-5/6-10 1.2826
Case 3.093
pc (MPa) O/F 2.6427
m csim1282.26
(m/s) cth (m/s)1441.16η 88.
rot-5/6-30 1.3088
rot-2/3-110 3.088
1.2852 3.076 2.6438
2.6461 1307.92
1283.27 1439.091440.52
89.17 90.
rot-5/6-10 1.2826 3.093 2.6427 1282.26 1441.16 88.97
rot-5/6-40 1.3023
rot-5/6-30
3.095
1.3088 3.088
2.6423
2.6438
1302.18
1307.92 1440.52
1441.43
90.80
90.
rot-5/6-50 1.3052
rot-5/6-40 3.086
1.3023 3.095 2.6441
2.6423 1304.18
1302.18 1441.431440.34
90.34 90.
rot-5/6-50 1.3052 3.086 2.6441 1304.18 1440.34 90.55
rot-5/6-60 1.2980
rot-5/6-60
3.091
1.2980 3.091
2.6431
2.6431
1297.51
1297.51 1440.92
1440.92
90.05
90.
rot-5/6-70 1.2964
rot-5/6-70 3.095
1.2964 3.095 2.6422
2.6422 1296.31
1296.31 1441.471441.47
89.93 89.
rot-5/6-90 1.2924 3.098 2.6416 1292.67 1441.81 89.66
rot-5/6-90 1.2924
rot-5/6-110
3.098
1.2856 3.103
2.6416
2.6405
1292.67
1286.38 1442.48
1441.81
89.18
89.
rot-5/6-110 1.2856 3.103 2.6405 1286.38 1442.48 89.

3.20

3.15
Oxidizer-fuel ratio

3.10

3.05

no-seg
3.00 seg-1/2
rot-1/6
rot-1/3
rot-1/2
2.95 rot-2/3
rot-5/6

10 30 50 70 90 110
Mid-chamber length (mm)

28.Oxidizer
Figure 28.
Figure Oxidizerto fuel ratio in
to fuel various
ratio cases. cases.
in various
The combustion efficiency of the hybrid rocket motor is illustrated in Figure 29. It
can beTheseencombustion efficiency
that the combustion of the in
efficiency hybrid rocket motor
cases seg-1/2 is higheris than
illustrated in Figure 2
that in case
no-seg. This indicates that the segmented grain configuration with the rotation angle of 0◦ in case
be seen that the combustion efficiency in cases seg-1/2 is higher than that
has a positive
This indicates effect
that onthe
the segmented
combustion efficiency, but the effect iswith
grain configuration relative
thesubtle.
rotationAs the
angle of
mid-chamber length increases, the combustion efficiency in cases seg-1/2 keeps increasing.
positive effect on the combustion efficiency, but the effect is relative subtle. As t
When the rotation angle is 0◦ , the combustion chamber pressure (listed in Table 6) maintains
chamber
the trend oflength
increasingincreases, the combustion
with the increase in mid-chamber efficiency
length, whichin cases seg-1/2
leads to keeps inc
an increase
When the rotation
in the combustion angleWhen
efficiency. is 0°,the
therotation
combustion chamber
angle is 22.5 ◦ pressure efficiency
, the combustion (listed inis Table 6
tains the trend of increasing with the increase in mid-chamber length,
significantly improved, and this demonstrates that the disturbance caused by the which lead
front-end
face of the aft-section
increase in the combustion grain can promote the
efficiency. increase
When in
thecombustion
rotation efficiency.
angle is For cases
22.5°, the com
with the rotation angle of 22.5◦ , the general change tendency of combustion efficiency
efficiency is significantly improved, and this demonstrates that the disturbance ca
is that it first rises and then declines with the increase in the mid-chamber length. The
main reason is that when the mid-chamber length is relatively small, the disturbance
created by the front-end face of the aft-section grain is gradually strengthened as the mid-
chamber length increases, which can promote the mixing of the species. With the further
increase in the mid-chamber length, the disturbance does not significantly increase but
the combustion chamber volume enlarges, which causes a decrease in the combustion
chamber pressure and of the combustion efficiency. The effect of the segmented position on
the combustion efficiency is related to the mid-chamber length. When the mid-chamber
length is not larger than 30 mm, the cases with the segmented position of 2/3 achieve
higher combustion efficiency. When the mid-chamber length is greater than 60 mm, the
cases with the segmented position of 1/2 reach higher combustion efficiency. Among all
 bustionchamber
bustion chamberpressure
pressureand andofofthe thecombustion
combustionefficiency.
efficiency.The Theeffect
effectofofthe theseg
seg
positionon
position onthe
thecombustion
combustionefficiency
efficiencyisisrelated
relatedtotothe themid-chamber
mid-chamberlength. length.WhenWhent
chamberlength
chamber lengthisisnot notlarger
largerthanthan30 30mm,
mm,the thecases
caseswithwiththethesegmented
segmentedpositio positio
achievehigher
achieve highercombustion
combustionefficiency.
efficiency.When Whenthe themid-chamber
mid-chamberlength lengthisisgreater
greater
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 mm, the cases with the segmented position of 1/2
mm, the cases with the segmented position of 1/2 reach higher combustion eff reach higher combustion
23 of 28 ef
Amongall
Among allsimulation
simulationcases casesininthisthispaper,
paper,the thecombustion
combustionefficiency
efficiencyinincase caserot-1
rot-
thehighest,
the highest,atat91.14%,
91.14%,and andititisis4.06%
4.06%greater
greaterthanthanthatthatinincase
caseno-seg.
no-seg.Because
BecauseCO C
simulation cases in this paper, the combustion efficiency in case rot-1/2-40 is the highest, at
finalproduct
final productofofthe thecombustion
combustionprocess,process,the themass
massfraction
fractionofofCO CO2 2cancanreflect
reflectthethedd
91.14%, and it is 4.06% greater than that in case no-seg. Because CO2 is the final product
ofcombustion
combustion
the combustion completeness.
completeness.
process, the mass The
The massof
mass
fraction fraction
fraction
CO2 canof of CO2the
CO
reflect 2inindegree
thenozzle
the nozzle entranceisissh
entrance
of combustion s
Figure30.
Figure 30.The
completeness. The area
Thearea with
masswith low
low
fraction mass
ofmass
CO fraction
fraction
2 in the nozzleofofentrance
CO2 2ininis
CO case
case rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40
shown issmaller
in Figureis30. smaller
The tha
than
caseno-seg,
area
case no-seg,and
with low andthe
mass thearea
fraction areawith
of with
CO in relativelyhigh
case highmass
rot-1/2-40
2 relatively is massfraction
smaller fractionofofCO
than that in CO2 2inincase
case no-seg,caserot-1
rot-
and the area
larger than with
thatrelatively
in case high mass
no-seg. fraction of the
Therefore, CO2 mass
in casefraction
rot-1/2-40of is
CO larger
in than
the nozzle
larger than that in case no-seg. Therefore, the mass fraction of CO2 in the nozzle e 2
that in case no-seg. Therefore, the mass fraction of CO2 in the nozzle entrance in case
incase
in caserot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40 isishigher
is higher than
higherthanthan
that in case
thatin
that
no-seg,
incase
which
case no-seg,
no-seg,
indicates
which
which
that
indicates
indicates
the segmented
thatthe
that
rotation
thesegseg
rotation
rotation
grain grainconfiguration
grain
configuration configuration canmake
can
can make the combustion makeprocess
thecombustion
the combustion
more efficient. processmore
process moreefficient.
efficient.

91.5
91.5

91.0
91.0

90.5
90.5
(%)
efficiency(%)

90.0
90.0
Combustionefficiency

89.5
89.5 no-seg
no-seg
seg-1/2
seg-1/2
89.0
89.0 rot-1/6
Combustion

rot-1/6
rot-1/3
rot-1/3
88.5
88.5 rot-1/2
rot-1/2
rot-2/3
rot-2/3
88.0
88.0 rot-5/6
rot-5/6
87.5
87.5

87.0
87.0

1010 3030 5050 7070 9090 110

110
Mid-chamberlength
Mid-chamber length(mm)
(mm)

Figure
Figure
Figure 29.29.
29. Combustion
Combustion
Combustion efficiency
efficiency ininvarious
in various
efficiency variouscases.
cases. cases.

no-seg
no-seg rot-1/2-40
rot-1/2-40
Mass
Mass fraction
fraction of of
CO CO2
2

0.32
0.32
0.30.3
0.28
0.28
0.26
0.26
0.24
0.24
0.22
0.22
0.20.2
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.10.1
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02

Figure
Figure
Figure 30.30.
30. Mass
Mass
Mass fraction
fraction 2of
of COof
fraction at
COCO
the atthe
theentrance.
nozzle
2 2at nozzleentrance.
nozzle entrance.
3.4. Full-Time Motor Performances
3.4.Full-Time
3.4. Full-TimeMotor
Motorthe
In order to acquire
Performances
Performances
performance parameters of the hybrid rocket motor at different
working time
Inorder andto
order compare
acquirethethe
performances
performanceduring the whole period
parameters ofthe of operation,
the steady motor
hybridrocket
rocket
In to acquire the performance parameters of hybrid
numerical simulations on different working time were conducted. The combustion con-
motor a
entworking
ent
ditionworking time
time
in next time and
and
step compare
wascompare theusing
simulatedthe
by performances
performances during
during
the calculated thewhole
the whole
fuel regression period
rateperiod
in ofop
the of op
current time step. The cross sections of the fuel grain at t = 10 s, 20 s, and 30 s are shown in
Figure 31. The history of combustion chamber pressure, thrust, average fuel regression rate,
and combustion efficiency was obtained, and full-time motor performances are discussed.
 steady numerical simulations on different working time were conducted. The combustion
condition in next time step was simulated by using the calculated fuel regression rate in
the current time step. The cross sections of the fuel grain at t=10 s, 20 s, and 30 s are shown
in Figure 31. The history of combustion chamber pressure, thrust, average fuel regression
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 rate, and combustion efficiency was obtained, and full-time motor performances are24dis- of 28

cussed.

(a) 10 s (b) 20 s (c) 30 s

Figure
Figure31.
31.Cross
Crosssections
sectionsofoffuel
fuelgrain
grainatat10
10s,s,20
20s,s,and
and30
30s.s.

Table
Table77 shows the the simulation
simulationresults
resultsat at different
different times.
times. TheThe pressure
pressure history
history and
and thrust
thrust history are shown in Figure 32 and Figure 33, respectively. As
history are shown in Figures 32 and 33, respectively. As can be seen in Figure 32, the can be seen in Figure
32, the combustion
combustion chamber chamber
pressurepressure
decreasesdecreases
with thewith the increase
increase in the working
in the working time.is
time. This
This is because,
because, duringduring the motor
the motor operation,
operation, themass
the fuel fuel flow
massrateflowgradually
rate gradually decreases,
decreases, which
can becan
which seenbeinseen
Table
in7,Table
and the oxidizer
7, and mass flow
the oxidizer rateflow
mass is constant. Therefore,
rate is constant. the mass flow
Therefore, the
rate of
mass propellants
flow reduces, which
rate of propellants causes
reduces, the drop
which causesof the
the drop
chamber pressure.
of the chamber In pressure.
addition, In
the
combustion
addition, the chamber
combustion pressure
chamberin case rot-1/2-40
pressure is higher
in case thanisthat
rot-1/2-40 in case
higher thanno-seg, and
that in the
case
pressure
no-seg, increases
and by 0.023
the pressure MPa–0.056
increases by MPa.
0.023 Figure 33 shows
MPa–0.056 MPa.that the thrust
Figure also decreases
33 shows that the
with the working time increasing, and this is due to the reduction
thrust also decreases with the working time increasing, and this is due to the reduction in the total mass flowin
rate
the andmass
total specific impulse
flow rate and(affected
specificby oxidizer-fuel
impulse (affectedratio). The thrust inratio).
by oxidizer-fuel case rot-1/2-40
The thrustis
inhigher than that is
case rot-1/2-40 inhigher
case no-seg, andin
than that it case
increases by and
no-seg, 96 N–256.7 N. by 96 N–256.7 N.
it increases

Simulationresults
Table7.7.Simulation
Table resultsatatdifferent
differenttimes.
times.
. .
Case
Case o o(kg/s)
mm f f(kg/s)
mm pp
c c(MPa) FF (kN)
(kN)
(kg/s) (kg/s) (MPa)
no-seg-0s
no-seg-0s 2.0000
2.0000 0.6238
0.6238 1.2561
1.2561 3.9169
3.9169
no-seg-10s 2.0000 0.5445 1.1993 3.6653
no-seg-10s
no-seg-20s 2.0000
2.0000 0.5445
0.4287 1.1993
1.1299 3.6653
3.3617
no-seg-20s
no-seg-30s 2.0000
2.0000 0.4287
0.3556 1.1299
1.0639 3.3617
3.0649
no-seg-30s
rot-1/2-40-0s 2.0000
2.0000 0.3556
0.6665 1.0639
1.3125 3.0649
4.1397
rot-1/2-40-10s
rot-1/2-40-0s 2.0000
2.0000 0.5847
0.6665 1.2607
1.3125 3.9176
4.1397
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEWrot-1/2-40-20s 2.0000 0.4589 1.1923 3.6184
rot-1/2-40-10s 2.0000 0.5847 1.2607 3.9176
rot-1/2-40-30s 2.0000 0.3671 1.0867 3.1609
rot-1/2-40-20s 2.0000 0.4589 1.1923 3.6184
rot-1/2-40-30s 2.0000 0.3671 1.0867 3.1609
1.35

no-seg
Combustion chamber pressure (MPa)

1.30 rot-1/2-40

1.25

1.20

1.15

1.10

1.05

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t (s)

Figure Combustion
Figure32.32. chamber
Combustion pressure
chamber history inhistory
pressure cases no-seg and rot-1/2-40.
in cases no-seg and rot-1/2-40.

4.2
no-seg
rot-1/2-40
4.0
 1.10

Combu
1.05

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 t (s) 25 of 28

Figure 32. Combustion chamber pressure history in cases no-seg and rot-1/2-40.

4.2
no-seg
rot-1/2-40
4.0

3.8
Thrust (kN)
3.6

3.4

3.2

3.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t (s)

Figure33.33.
Figure Thrust
Thrust history
history in no-seg
in cases cases no-seg and rot-1/2-40.
and rot-1/2-40.

Figures 34 and 35 show the average fuel regression rate and combustion efficiency at
Figures
different times in34cases
andno-seg
Figure and35rot-1/2-40.
show the average
It is obvious fuel regression
that the rate and
average regression combust
rate
ciency atdecreases
gradually different times
with in cases
the increase in no-seg
the working andtime,
rot-1/2-40.
which is It istoobvious
due thatinthe ave
the increase
gression
grain rate gradually
port diameter. decreases
In addition, the averagewith
fuelthe increase
regression rate in the rot-1/2-40
in case workingistime,
higherwhich i
than that in case no-seg, and this indicates that the fuel regression
the increase in grain port diameter. In addition, the average fuel regression raterate can be improved
by adopting segmented rotation grain configuration during the entire period of operation.
rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in case no-seg, and this indicates that the fuel regress
For case no-seg, when the working time increases, the grain inner surface regresses and it
can
is be improved
gradually by the
farther from adopting
oxidizer.segmented
Thus, the mixingrotation
of thegrain configuration
fuel and during th
oxidizer is worse,
period of operation. For case no-seg, when the working time increases, the gra
which decreases the combustion efficiency. For case rot-1/2-40, when the working time
increases, the disturbing
surface regresses andeffect
it isofgradually
the front-end face offrom
farther the after-section
the oxidizer.grainThus,
weakens,
theand
mixing of
thus the mixing of the propellants is gradually insufficient. This reduces the combustion
and oxidizer is worse, which decreases the combustion efficiency. For case ro
efficiency. The combustion efficiency in case rot-1/2-40 is higher than that in case no-seg,
when
and the working
it improves time increases,
by 1.40–4.21%. Therefore, the disturbing
a conclusion effect
can be drawn ofthat
thethe
front-end
combustion face of th
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
section grain
efficiency weakens,
of hybrid and thus
rocket motors the mixing
with segmented of the
rotation propellants
grain is gradually
can be increased in the insu
whole motor operation.
This reduces the combustion efficiency. The combustion efficiency in case rot-1
higher than that in case no-seg, and it improves by 1.40–4.21%. Therefore, a con
can
0.50
be drawn that the combustion efficiency of hybrid rocket motors with segme
no-seg
Average fuel regression rate (mm/s)

tation grain can be increased in the whole motor operation.

rot-1/2-40

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t (s)

34.Average
Figure 34.
Figure Averagefuel fuel
regression rates atrates
regression different times.
at different times.

92
no-seg
90 rot-1/2-40
efficiency (%)

88

86

84
 Avera
0.30

0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 t (s) 26 of 28

Figure 34. Average fuel regression rates at different times.

92
no-seg
90 rot-1/2-40

Combustion efficiency (%)

88

86

84

82

80

78

76

74
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t (s)

Figure Combustion
Figure35.35. efficiency
Combustion at different
efficiency times.
at different times.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Three-dimensional steady state numerical simulations of hybrid rocket motors with
star-segmented rotation grainsteady
Three-dimensional were carried
state out. The effects
numerical of the relative
simulations of grain
hybridrotation,
rocket mot
mid-chamber length, and segmented position on the combustion characteristics
star-segmented rotation grain were carried out. The effects of the relative grain r were
discussed in detail. The main conclusions obtained in this paper are as follows:
mid-chamber length, and segmented position on the combustion characteristics w
1. The segmented rotation grain configuration has little influence on the combustion flow
cussed in detail. The main conclusions obtained in this paper are as follows:
field in fore-section, while the flow field in the aft-section is disturbed by the front-end
1. Theofsegmented
face the aft-sectionrotation
grain. Thegrain flame inconfiguration has towards
the aft-section shifts little influence
the centraloncorethe com
flow
flow field in fore-section, while the flow field in the aft-section isThe
and the oxidizer in the slot of the star in the aft-section is depleted more. disturbed
highest temperature in case rot-1/2-40 increases by about 83 K in comparison with
front-end face of the aft-section grain. The flame in the aft-section shifts tow
that in case no-seg.
2. central
The core flowrate
fuel regression and the oxidizer
distributions along inthethemotor
slot ofaxisthe starfore-section
in the in the aft-section
grain is d
more.
are only The highest
slightly affectedtemperature
by the segmented in case rot-1/2-40
rotation increases bywhile
grain configuration, about the83 K in c
segmented
ison withrotation
that ingrain
caseconfiguration
no-seg. can enhance the average fuel regression rates
in the aft-section grain. When the segmented position increases (from 1/6 to 5/6),
2. The fuel regression rate distributions along the motor axis in the fore-sectio
the average regression rate in the fore-section grain increases gradually. The average
are onlyrates
regression slightly affectedgrain
in fore-section by the
varysegmented
little with therotation
increase ingrain configuration, w
the mid-chamber
segmented
length. rotation
As for cases with grain configuration
the rotation angle of 22.5can ◦ , theenhance the average
average regression rate fuel
in theregressi
in the aft-section grain. When the segmented position increases (from 1/6 to
aft-section grain rises with the increase in segmented position. The average regression
rate in aft-section
average grain rate
regression in case inrot-5/6-10 is the highest,
the fore-section grainwhich increases
increases by 25.04%The ave
gradually.
compared with that in case no-seg. The average fuel regression rate of the entire grain
gression rates in fore-section grain vary little with the increase in the mid-c
in case rot-1/6-50 is the highest, with a maximum regression rate of 0.4963 mm/s.
3. length.
The As for
segmented casesgrain
rotation withconfiguration
the rotation hasangle of 22.5°,
a positive theon
influence average regression ra
the combustion
◦
aft-section
efficiency. For grain rises
cases with thewith
rotationtheangle
increaseof 22.5in, the
segmented
general changeposition. Theofaverage
tendency
combustion efficiency is that it increases at first and then declines
sion rate in aft-section grain in case rot-5/6-10 is the highest, which increases with the increase
in mid-chamber length. When the mid-chamber length is not larger than 30 mm,
compared with that in case no-seg. The average fuel regression rate of the enti
the cases with the segmented position of 2/3 achieve higher combustion efficiency.
in case
While therot-1/6-50
mid-chamber is length
the highest,
is greaterwith
thana60 maximum
mm, the cases regression rate of 0.4963 m
with the segmented
3. position of 1/2 reach higher combustion efficiency. In comparison with the base case,on the c
The segmented rotation grain configuration has a positive influence
the
tioncombustion
efficiency. efficiency
For cases in casewithrot-1/2-40 increases
the rotation 4.06%.
angle of 22.5°, the general change te
4. The combustion chamber pressure, thrust, average fuel regression rate, and combus-
tion efficiency decrease with the increase in the working time, and they are improved
by adopting segmented rotation grain configuration during the entire period of opera-
tion. The combustion efficiency increases by 1.40–4.21% during the motor operation.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 585 27 of 28

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.J. and H.Z.; methodology, H.T. and G.C.; software,
H.T. and X.J.; validation, X.J. and Y.L. (Yudong Lu); formal analysis, H.T., X.J., and Y.L. (Yu Liang);
investigation, H.T. and G.C.; resources, H.T. and H.Z.; data curation, X.J. and Y.L. (Yudong Lu);
writing—original draft preparation, H.T. and X.J.; writing—review and editing, X.J., Y.L. (Yudong Lu)
and Y.L. (Yu Liang); visualization, H.T. and Y.L. (Yudong Lu); supervision, H.Z.; project adminis-
tration, H.T. and G.C.; funding acquisition, G.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Please turn to the CRediT taxonomy for the term explanation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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