o \y / \ f DEVEN ARANHAis 1g id he on CONTENTS Te ‘ont Preface Acknowledgements CHAPTER 1: INTERNAL COMBUSTION DIESEL ENGINES Concept of Internal Combustion Engines Stroke . Mean Piston Speed Advantages / Disadvantages of Diesel Engines Classification of LC. Engines...... Otto, Diesel, Dual and Actual Cycles 2-Stroke Cycle 4-Stroke Cycle 2-Stroke vs. 4-Stroke Engine: CHAPTER 2: ENGINE COMPONENTS Engine Structure Top Bracing ... Fatigue Failure Bedplate .... Entabulature, A-Frame, Tie-Bolts and Pinching Screws. 24 Holding Down Bolts and Chocks. 25 Resin, Resilient Chocks ..... Piston : Water cooled, Oil cooled, Oros, Composite 2-Stroke versus 4-Stroke Pistons, Defects, Piston Rings : Compression Rings, Oil Scraper Rings ...36 Failures, Running-in, Shapes, Coatings, s CPR Rings, Antipolishing Ring, SIPWA. ‘Stuffing Box Gland -...--scorsecvsesssneorereneerner Liner, Liner Weat ..-...cesnssees .setiiavipaiaes ousaiet Lubricating Quills and Accualaie eee fa aeMarine Diesel Ensines Cylinder Head Cover Exhaust Valve Valve Springs Valve Rotators Variable Exhaust Closing (VEC) Crankshaft Deflection: Chain Drive, Tightening and Inspection . Chain Elongation Camshaft Readjustment after Chain Tightening. Bearings : Plain Bush Journal, Pivot Pad Journal Main Bearings... Connecting Rod and its Bearings... Bottom End Failures and Bolt Design Crosshead Bearings Puncture Valve Engine Materials| Pa Nps eae? of Marine Diesel Engines CHAPTER 4: AIR COMPRESSORS Isothermal Compression ., 103 Adiabatic Compression and the Compression Cycle «nu 103 Multistage Compression . 104 Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors . Volumetric Efficiency and Bumping Clearance . Compressor Valve: Compressor Faults CHAPTER 5 : FUEL SYSTEM Fuel Types Fuel Properties Fuel Specification: Combustion Phase: Knock .... Factors Affecting Combustion Combustion Chamber and Piston Crown Designs Compression Ratio ... Residual Heavy Fuel O' Bunkering .. Fuel Injectors Injector types .... Injection MethodsCHAPTER 6: PURRICATION SYST HN Priction and Pretion Trpee Latetcatton Types Lake O81 Propertios Lake C8 Frertng, Miretiat Degretare Celinder Latercamon Tepee and Syateme eh al eed Degnemien Oehewier Latrication Specie OrMinder Pate ON Comermption Prnguemcy Conomiied Phecrte Motor Latricame Mirtieiieor® Crime U tew seen i Cometernd Litescsece 32 eee eee as 2Z2E99 FEGRFTETT UR PERGTETIORE ‘CHAPTER >: (COOLING SYSTEMS Pmt Bowe Coniied Liners 4 4 ICONTIStart Air Interlocks. Slow Turning . Scavenge Air Limiter Firing Order of Cylinder Reversing Methods .... Loss Motion and Gain Motion .. Running Direction Interlock. Crash Manoeuvring .. Manoeuvring Flow Chart Manoeuvring Diagram. Bridge Control System CHAPTER 9; ENGINE STRESSES, VIBRATION AND DYNAMICS Forces Acting in a Single Cylinder Engine. 205 Irregularity Factor..... 207 Static and Dynamic Balancing Primary and Secondary Imbalance . Vibration Definitions .... Torsional Crankshaft Vibration Critical SpeedMarine Diesel Engines Crosshead Bearing Removal .. Connecting Rod Bearing Removal Crosshead Pin Removal. Connecting Rod Removal .. ‘Thrust Bearing Pad Removal Bearing Clearances ..... Fuel Pump Setting and Adjustment Fuel Pump Cut-out Checks..... Fuel Pump Cut-out . Fuel Pump Lead .. 4-Stroke Medium Speed Engine Fuel Pump Timings .. Turbocharger Overhaul . Turbocharger Out of Operation Fuel Injector Overhau Tie-Rod Tensioning .... Air Compressor Overhaul .. 249 Testing of Materials 250 Heat Treatment .. 250 CHAPTER 11 : ENGINE DESCRIPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS Comparison of RD, RND and RTA Engines RTA Engines ONTENTS iaMarine Diesel Engines Liner .... 96, Cylinder Lubrication 297 Piston, Crosshead Engine Components CHAPTER 13 ; ENGINE EMISSIONS Engine Emissions... SOx Effects and Remedy NOx Effects and Remedy... Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbons, Particle Emission Soot ...... Smoke and Opacity. CHAPTER 14: ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND INDICATOR CARDS Engine Performance Definitions and Parameters .. Heat Balance Diagram Power Ratings .. ‘Testing of Marine Engines Test Bed and Sea Trials ..Lewd Shacng and The Necessity of Droop a5 Biecrema: Governor for Bridge Contmnt 7 CHAPTER 16> WATCHAKERPING AND SAFETY Taking Over An Bngine Roewn Watch With Three Cheeks of The Bingine Roomy Checks Deetag The Ragine Reon Watch Protons During The Bagine Ronn Watch Croce Brptowce and Refief Valve Saernpe Fors €£866653¢23: twa : : - ; 3 : »ES CONTEN Se Marine Diesel Engines Engine Tums on Air, Not on Fuel .. Engine Does Not Fire Violent Starting Engine Not Reversi Cracked Piston . Broken Piston Rin; Cracked Liner .. Piston Running Hot .. Cracked Cylinder Head Crankcase Inspection Individual Piston Knocking at TDC Bearing Temperature Increase Lube Oil Sump Level Rising Automatic Stopping of Engine Knocking in an Engine Cylinder Safeties in the Main Engine Safeties in the Start Air System Leaky Start Air Valves .. Start Air Line Explosion... Safeguard Against Overspeeding Bibliography Index fix}CHAPTER 1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION DIESEL ENGINES Concept of Internal Combustion Engines Marine diesel engines are basically reciprocating engines using heavy fuel oil or diesel oil in a Compression Ignition (C.L) system. Unlike a Spark Ignition system where a spark is used to ignite the fuel, a Compression Ignition system uses heat from compression to ignite the fuel in the combustion chamber. Fuel upon ignition in the combustion chamber gives a combustion force which pushes down the piston. i.e. work is done in the cylinder by combustive gases. This reciprocating motion of the piston due to the combustive gas forces, is transformed into rotary motion of the crankshaft. This is done by means of the connecting rod and crank mechanism. Stroke (S) Stroke is the distance covered by the piston between the top dead centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC). Stroke = 2 ( Crank Radius) ateMarine Diesel Engines Mean Piston Speed TOC. D =Bore of the cylinder S = Stroke of the piston Ve = Volume of compressionchamber Va = Volume of the cylinder Sweptvolume = Volume swept by the piston irom TDC to BDC = Vs = (Area) x length=(6D?) S$ 4 Since, Va= Vc+Vs Hence, Compression Ratio = Va = Ve+Vs = 1+Vs Ve Ve Ve Mean Piston Speed = (Piston distance in one revolution) x (Rate of crankshaft rotation) = 2Sn 60 3 Sn here, - neers = Distance covered by the piston during One revolution, N ® Number of revolutions per second.Significance of Mean Piston Speed The significance can be seen if we study the power equation. Power = Pmx (2 Sn)x Ax nx constant. where, mean piston speed = 2Sn Therefore, Power depends on Mean Piston Speed. Limitations of Mean Piston Speed The limitations of mean piston speed are: + The wear and life span of the rotating and reciprocating parts due to friction; high temperatures and pressures; and lubrication conditions. * Large forces due to rotating and reciprocating masses, which in turn give rise to stresses especially fluctuating stress; and moving parts due to inertia forces and dynamic forces. * Gas exchange-scavenge period and efficiency: Higher the mean piston speed, greater will be the resistance to gas flow and exchange, when hot exhaust gases have to be expelled and fresh air has to be taken in. Advantages of Diesel Engines over Steam Engines * High actual efficiency = Heat equivalent of actual work done Total Heat generated in the engine * Actual Efficiency, forsteamengines = 12 to 18% ~forsteam turbines = 22 to 32% + forgasturbines = 25 to 36% fordiesel Engines = 36 to 42% . High efficiency andrecovery of wast heat 3Marine Diesel Engines * Highest use of heat generated during combustion, Increased time period before refueling i.e. bunkering. * Increased maneuvering abilities. + Increased cargo carrying capacity since less space is required for the boiler, water storage, water consumption; and a smaller size of engine in comparison to a steam plant and auxiliaries. 5) * Increased standby reliability. Og Disadvantages of Diesel Engines * High inertia loads due to reciprocating and rotating masses. 6) * High capital cost, complicated design and construction. * Pressures and temperatures are always varying in the system. * High lube oil costs in medium and high speed engines. 2) * High idling speed of crankshaft and irregular rotation. 8 Classification of I. C. Engines : Classification can be done under various categories: : 1) 2-stroke or 4-stroke: Usually, 2-stroke is preferred for marine 10) engine propulsion while 4-stroke is preferred for auxiliary diesel generation. 2) Fuel used: Petroleum fuel ( gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil, diesel oil), heavy fuel ( motor oil, burner fuel), residual fuels, 1) gaseous fuels (natural or producer gas) and mixed fuel (liquid fuel for starting combustion and gaseous fuel for running). 3) Single or Double Acting: A single acting engine is one wherethe 4 ) Upper part of the cylinder is used for combustion. A double acting engine is one which uses both the upper and lower part of the 13) cylinder alternatively. e.g. Opposed piston engines.sis Internal Combustion Diesel Engines : 4) Naturally Aspirated or Supercharged: In naturally aspirated i engines, the piston itself sucks in air (e.g. 4-stroke engines) oris fed by a scavenge pump (2-stroke engines). In supercharged for engines, air under pressure is supplied to the cylinder which is rk i pressurized extemally by mechanical means or an exhaust blower. 5) Compression Ignition (marine diesel engines) or Spark Ignition i (carburetor and gas engines): In compression ignition, the fuel ignites with the air due to high temperature caused by compression of air. In spark ignition, an external electric spark is used forignition. 6) Trunk type engines (4-stroke engines) or Crosshead engines (2-stroke engines): In trunk type engines, the piston has an extended skirt which acts as a guide. In crosshead engines, there . } is acrosshead which has shoes sliding over the crosshead guides. 7) Single or Multi cylinder: Modern marine engines use 4 to 12 i cylinders. 8) V, Wor X pattern of arrangement of the cylinders. 9) Main Propulsion use (Ship's propeller drive) or Auxiliary engine use (power generation & auxiliaries). 10) Low, Medium, and High Speed Low speed (100 to 350 rpm) Medium speed = (350 to 750 rpm) High speed (750 to 2500 rpm). 11) Mean Piston Speed Low speed (4.5 m/sto7 m/s) Medium speed (7 m/sto 10 m/s) High speed (10 m/s to 15 m/s). : 12)Uni directional (same direction) or Reversible Engines using a reversing mechanism. se 13) Ahead direction in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. aMarine Diesel Engines Cycles qe important cycles are discussed below. L Otto Cycle ( Constant Volume ) T Fig-2 2-3 Heat Added at Constant Volume 3-4 Air Expanded Isentropically 0-1 Charging of Fresh Air to Point 1 1-2 Air Compressed Isentropically 4-1 Heat Rejected at Constant Volume. A Ti Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure) in # T * 2223 3 v S$ 7 Fg3 Charging esInternal Combustion Diesel Engines +1 Charging of Fresh Air to Point 1 1-2 Air Compressed Isentropically ‘2-3 Heat Added at Constant Volume 3-4 Remaining Heat added at Constant Pressure 4-5 Air Expanded Isentropically 5-1 Heat Rejected at Constant Volume; Actual Cycle The Actual Cycle is slightly different from the theoretical ons in the following : * From / to 2, the curve is similar in the compression stroke. * From 2 to 3, compression is not done under constant volume because the piston is _ already moving during the Stroke. It is not completely adiabatic because of heat : oo the cylinderdtcrm, Tene. Eaec. sen un I eest sorcjecend with chaneesim mame Som, Spee weak. dwar ISSUES ANC LETIRETALLTS. Setteacnaiiowie thor ar umavoudabie thecmal, nydantlic and Teechemica! ines = Diearntminsti mete: ovine themmally smezacts with the hot ovine Ieee anc eas. antithere 1 heat ransfec = Scememamnae of works teaured to be done 1p overcome the ete te mic" ester thrower which the amas admmed ~ The amen Filime of ar mito the cyimder depends on as tenmecstore srendand inact of the sngine. enpine Construction 7 t € . 2 4 2 s 7 5Internal Combustion Diesel Engines ¢ The heat transfer at this stage is varying, since some of the fuel still burns in the expansion stroke, Even greater heat losses are involved owing to the unused energy lost by the compressed hot gases, when the exhaust ports are uncovered or exhaust valve opens before the piston arrives. + Actionarising out of reciprocating, rotating and rubbing components also contribute to losses. + Some energy is used to drive auxiliaries (lube oil pumps, jacket water, scavenge pumps, etc). + Cooling of the liner is imperative to the cylinder, but this is also a source of thermal loss. 2-Stroke Cycle 2 Strokes = 2 strokes of the piston Piston going up + Piston going down = Once compression and once expansion = | complete revolution gives 1 power stroke. As the name implies, the cycle is completed in two strokes of the engine piston : (1) The Compression (Scavenging and Suction) stroke (2) The Power (Expansion and Exhaust) stroke. ‘These actual timings differ from engine to engine with respect to design and construction features such as stroke/bore ratio, engine rpm, engine Tating, ratio of connecting rod length to crank length, etc. a:mere OSS fe. Scavenge ports are open Air is sucked in, which pushes out the residual exhaust gases Piston is at BDC Completion of scavenge process and filling with fresh air for combustion Scavenge ports are closed Post scavenging takes place Exhaust valve closes Compression of air Fuel injection commences Fuel ignition commences, near TDC Fuel injection and combustion completion Expansion of the heat energy from combustion, being converted into work energy to push the piston downwards Exhaust valve opens Blowdown of exhaust gases seen as a sudden rapid pressure drop onthe P.V.diagram, 10 Ur Th fe cle be an air Sa as Sisaiahediweieteariaa sii Sp ilieeciemanonatell Internal Combustion Diesel Engines xample of 2-stroke valve timings are : Anexamp! Inlet (scavenge) opens 42 deg. before BDC Inlet closes 42 deg. after BDC Exhaust opens 75 deg. before BDC Exhaust closes 60 deg. after BDC Injection starts 16 deg. before TDC Injection ends 20 deg. after TDC. Upstroke of the Piston (Compression Stroke ) Fig-7 scavenge and exhaust are uncovered and pressurized airs cece aft air does the scavenge ee cleans the cylinder of the exhaust gases from ee piston then travels upwards closing the exhi ee and starts compressing the air, Atthe end of the - oe a air pressure in the cylinder pan ag wae y eh ice Correspondingly, it’s temperature il NTT NatDownstroke of the Piston (Power Stroke) Fig-8 When fuel is supplied by the injector to the hot compressed air, i reaches its self ignition temperature and ignites. The combustion causes the expansion of gases, which push the piston downwards towards BDC. The piston being pushed downwards by the combustion gases is doing work and hence, the stroke is called the Power or Expansion stroke. The exhaust ports are uncovered at approximately 40 to 75 degrees of crank shaft rotation, just before BDC. This allows the exhaust gases to escape to the atmosphere and the pressure in the cylinder now falls to around 2 to 4 bar. The temperature is high duets the exhaust gases i.e. 250 to 500 deg. C. The exhaust ports are kep uncovered for approximately 118 to 130 deg. of crank rotation. The Scavenge ports are kept open for 100 to 140 deg. of crank rotation 4-Stroke Cycle 4 Strokes men so = 2 (Piston going up + Piston going down) ~ aplete revolutions give 1 power stroke. 12 (a) Q @) (4)Internal Combustion Diesel Engines Te 4 = Fig-9 1 Inlet valve opens —_1-2 Suction stroke 2 Inlet valve closes 2-3 Compression stroke 3 Injection begins 4 Injection ends 4-5 Expansion stroke 5 Exhaust valve opens 5-6 Exhaust stroke Anexample of 4-stroke valve timing is : Inlet valve opens 20 deg. before TDC Inlet valve closes 60 deg. after BDC Injection begins 10 deg. before TDC Injection ends 12 deg. after TDC Exhaust opens 42 deg. before BDC Exhaust closes 60 deg. after TDC. A4-Stroke engine operating cycle is completed in 4-strokes of the piston. These are : (1) Suction (induction) stroke (2) Compression stroke (3) Power (expansion) stroke (4) Exhaust stroke. 131 Exhaust value 9 Connecting Rod | 2 RockerAm 10 Piston | 3 Camshaft timing gear 11 Cylinder Liner | 4 Camshaft 12 Cylinder Head j 5 Ol 13. Rocker Arm | 6 Crankcase 14 Inlet valve | 7 Crankshaft 15. Fuel Injector ; 8 Path of crankpin j The piston is moving downwards and a pressure difference betweet the cylinder pressure and the atmospheric pressure is created above it. Atmospheric airis sucked inside through the open inlet valve. Th air admission is stopped when the inlet valve closes. The cylinder Pressure is now approximately 0.85 to 0.95 bar and the temperatu® 37 to 48 deg. C. (2) Compression Stroke This stroke includes the compression of air, mixing of the fuel anda charge, and the start of combustion The air inthe cylinders 0 14Suernal Combustion Diesel Engines compressed since inlet and exhaust valves are closed, and piston is moving upward: from BDC to TDC. z ‘The air is pressurized to 32 to 45 bar and correspondingly, its temperature rises to 600 to 700 deg. C. The fuel is injected at the end of the compression stroke at a fuel pressure of 200 to 1500 bar, depending on the type of fuel. This fuel is injected in the form of an atomized fine spray, which mixes with the high temperature air and self ignites. The fuel injection timing is around 10 to 35 degrees of crank shaft rotation. Fig-11 Optimum condition for fuel injection is when the fuel injection coincides with the peak air temperature in the cylinder for best combustion. At the end of combustion, the pressure in the cylinder is 60 to 80 bar, and 1600 to 2000 deg. C. (3) Expansion Stroke (Power Stroke) Inthis stroke, work is done by the expansion of gases, to push the piston down tothe crank pin through the connecting rod, converting penis fice man of x pon ini arotary motion of the crank shaft, therebyMarine Diesel Engines 4 Exhaust Stroke When the piston nears BDC, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust gases escape, since their pressure is more than the atmospheric pressure in the exhaust manifold. The exhaust gases are expelled and the piston now starts moving upwards. The pressure of the gases now decreases further to 1.1 to 1.2 bar, ata corresponding temperature of 430 to 530 deg. C. 2-Stroke versus 4-Stroke Engines * The whole cycle ( suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust) is completed in two strokes of the piston in a 2-stroke engine, as compared to four strokes of the piston in a4-stroke engine. * Acomparison should only be made between operating cycles ofa 2-stroke engine and 4-stroke engine, having cylinders of same geometrical dimensions and crankshaft speeds. Theoretically, the horsepower output of a 2-stroke engine is twice that of a4-stroke engine. In actual practice, the output of,a 2-stroke engine is 1.510 1.8 times of a4-stroke engine. This is due to the actual operating cycle being only a fraction of the total piston stroke, lasting betweet TDC and the instant of uncovering the exhaust ports. * Atthe sfart of the compression stroke, there are higher pressures and temperatures in a 2-stroke engine than in a 4-stroke eng (higher by 25 to 30%). This increase results in a 30 t0 40% stresses on the combustion chamber walls. 16Internal Combustion Diesel Engines * There is more tuning of the crankshaft, since two idle strokes of ___ the 4-stroke engine are not present in the 2-stroke engine. High speed 2-stroke engines are less efficient due to less volumetric efficiency. ¢ Fuel consumption is more in 2-stroke engines, since the engine __ works on the Otto Cycle principle. _¢ Unlike 4-stroke engines where there are two separate piston strokes __ foreach of these purposes, 2-stroke engines have much less time available forexhausting and scavenging, Hence in 2-stroke engines, some of the combustion gases are left behind in the cylinder, which interfere with the normal cycle operations. Thus, 2-stroke engines appear to be less economical than 4-stroke. In the 2-stroke engine, two power strokes take place every two ___ evolutions, while in the 4-stroke engine, only one power stroke __ takes place every two revolutions. * 4-stroke trunk-piston engines have the advantage of requiring less __ headroom than 2-stroke crosshead engines. * Torque produced by a 2-stroke engine is less irregular than a 4- stroke engine, due to the number of operating cycles in a 2-stroke engine being twice that ina 4-stroke engine. The force applied to a piston of a 2-stroke engine coincides with __ the axis of the connecting rod at all times and never changes its __ direction during the cycle. Therefore, dynamic loads coming on the piston crowns in a 2-stroke engine are avoided unlike in a 4-stroke engine. . In marine applications, 2-stroke engines are used in low speed high-powered diesel main propulsion, wil ¢-ron engi are used in medium speed power generation. Tnmodem engines for main propulsion, fuel costs require cheaper quality fuel to be used. Thisis possible in 2-stroke low-speed large :. cromibead diene! engenes wtooh haee a very hong stroke. andimg mmant tine foe the scavenging and ethanet process Alea, ie Sheeroke creased enginee the cylinder epace cat he edated ewe the crank cane Thee goons the coneamenation of the crank cane of dow 80 the Rodis nredaet entering the crank came an ot aoke tread sype omnes Tae seed cont of Be exper et pate ctl fow chow: J atroke engines « ess tha é-snrnde cmigeren ¥en art peerCHAPTER 2 ENGINE COMPONENTS Engine Structure Itis the foundation of the main engine. Requirements 1. Strength to resist fatigue failure. > Rigidi a)to allow forcrankshaft stresses which can cause excess bending Joads on the main bearings. It allows uniform loading on the main bearings. b)to control the structure’s natural frequency and keep it away from the engine’s natural frequency. The engine will therefore be designed to run above or below the critical rpm. c) toallow fortrue alignment of the piston and the running geat, SO that no uneven loads fall over the crosshead guides, stuffingbox Engine Structure’s Transverse Strength oe “Theengine’s structural transverse strength is provided t * Thetransverse girder being rigidly fixed to the itu Itgives resistance to twisting.ee © The transverse girder’s strength which allows for inertia and combustion forces through the main bearing. e “The ‘A’ frame which transmits the guide forces to the bed plate. ° ‘The top bracing units which dampen the lateral structural vibrations, . The cylinder block units which provide strength against transverse flexing. . ‘The tie bolts which put the structure under compressive stress and reduces the tendency to separate. Engine Structure’s Longitudinal Strength The longitudinal strength is provided by: * Each ‘A’ frame unit : This also reduces the chances of fretting at bolted joints. * Rigid attachment to the stiffened tank top. Closely spaced framing of 750mm is the requirement for the double bottom construction. Flanges attached to the top and bottom of the longitudinal girder. ¢ Each cylinder block unit. Top Bracing ‘Thisis usually of mechanical or hydraulic type, fitted to the top part of the engine to provide stiffening and support against 2Amechanical top bracing consists of shims J between hydraulically fastened by a bolt 4. The bracing stffess two plates thereby attached to a strong support = plese Engine Structure Defect Areas ° Below the main bearing due to bending stresses. + Atany change of sections, where stress levels are concentrated e.g. crosshead guides and holding down sites . ¢ Bolt holes and welds due to shear stresses. + Anchor points for top bracing units. Engine Structural Cracks Cracks in the engine structure are usually caused by fatigue failure. Fatigue failures are discussed below. Fatigue Failure Itis the failure of the material which has undergone fluctuating stresses. Each fluctuation causes minute amounts of plastic strain. Fatigue cracks start at the point of maximum concentration of tensile or shear stress. The material fails at a point much below it’s elastic limit and therefore, _ there is no distortion of surrounding material. Factors Affecting Fatigue Life * Temperature: Increase in temperature lowers the endurance limit ofthe material (usually, the endurance limit= 108 cycles, ie. 48% of UTS for: Sian ate on epe Deel ae ‘© Concentrated stress areas depending on the groove geometry and : cs : 3 - ¥ * Sharp notches, surface finish, corrosion, direction of grain structure ‘and heat treatment of the surface. Fatigue Failure Causes * Incorrect tension and maintenance of holding down bolts, tie bolts and top bracing. * Wrong engine operation with respect to overload, imbalance of engine firing loads and imbalance of rotating masses (e.g. piston removal). Manufacturing defects and poor quality materials. Ineffective vibration dampening units. ‘Cold cracks due to the presence of dissolved hydrogen or high residual stress in the joint or a small triggering defect. * + . Fatigue Crack Detection Methods * Visual inspection at the stress concentration points. * Dye penetrant method. * Non destructive testing. * Magnetic particle inspection. * Checking of the tension of the surrounding bolts. Itis the base of the engine which carries the other components of the engine structure, Strength and stiffness are required for the bedplate ‘0 withstand the inertia loads of moving parts, dead loads of supported : elements and forces from the firing cylinder gases, eat esEngine Components Longitudinal girders, two in number, which form the side walls and a set of transverse I-beams or box girders strengthened with stiffness. ‘Transverse strength girders housing the main bearings. Lower part of the bedplate has flanges for seating onto the hull foundationMarine Diese! Engines Entabulature, A-Frame, Tie Bolts and Pinching Serews The position of the entabulature, A-frame and T-Bolts are shown in the figure. A-Frame As the name implies, these frames are ‘A’ in shape to provide support to the cylinder block. ‘A’. frames are usually produced as a Single unit, as this helps in stiffening of the engine. A welded ‘A’-frame contributes to 40% of the engine’s Structural stiffness. The material is fabricated steel plates.saa ' i ; } : i ; } ] : i i Engine Components firing pressure force of the piston is bearing and consequently to the support. directly transmitted to the main engine frame through the tie rod Holding Down Bolts and Chocks Holding down bolts along with chocks have the following functions : * Toprovide a clamping force through friction between bedplate, chock and the ship’s structure in order to resist the propeller thrust. * To provide stiffness to the engine. * Toposition the engine within the ship’s structure. * To provide good alignment of the engine and transmission shafting and, hence equal load on all bearings. 1 Protecting Cap 2 Spherical Nut 3 Spherical Washer 4 Distance Pipe 5 Round Nut © Holding down Bolt Slack Holding Down Bolts ee They cause feting between the bedplate chock andthe ote ignment of the bedplate will occur if these - Fig-19 5retightened. Stiffness of the holding down arrangements is decreased, whilst vibration of the engine and ship’s structure increases. Load on other chocks increase and this may also cause fretting in them. Holding down bolts may eventually shear in serious cases, although end-chocks are provided to prevent this shear failure. Recurrence of slackness may increase, as the tension of the bolt has now changed with respect to the whole holding down arrangement. Torsional stresses will increase as an effect of fretting and misalignment. There will be an imbalance of bearing loads.‘These are commonly used with the advantage of less ma P goditime. They ae very useful for re-chocking repairs on hotel at gneven foundation plates. Advantages © Cheaper installation and less skill for installing. © Nodependence on comect hand-fitting. * Noncorrosive and chemical resistant. * 100% comtact on uneven surfaces. Disadvantages + Maximum: limit of temperanre is 80 deg. C. # Incase of overstressing of holding down bolts, the chocks mayEEE * Dams are prepared using @ metal sheet and putty the chocking resin liquid. — © Noheavy work during the cure period. Cure period is around 18 to 36 hours, depending on ambient temperature. Ambient temperature should be from 20 to 25 deg. a @ Limit forchock thickness is 25 mm, or else use more steps. Tighten the holding down bolts after the cure period is completed, © The hardness of the chock is checked. sealant to hold Resilient Chocks © These are normally used in case of medium speed engines (¢.g. 4- stroke engines for power generation). Basically, they help to dampen the vibrations transmitted from the medium speed engine to the tank top. * 2-stroke main propulsion engines are heavy in weight and, therefore, have high rotational and static masses causing higher out-of-balance forces which preclude the use of resilient chocks, whose design would also have to take into consideration the heavy weight of the engine. * 4-stroke engines for power generation plants are smaller and lighter incomparison. Therefore, they have lower out-of-balance forces, whose natural frequency will be from 6 to 25 Hz for 400 to 1500 rpm speeds. The natural frequency of the engine can be changed, but not the natural frequency of the hull (2 to 5 Hz) or the bulkheads! decks (10 to 15 Hz) or the stern (4 to 7 Hz). * Resilient ee number of flexible rubber vertical mounts used on under-slung engines, have main mounts a well as side and end mounts, ect Gs nanan engine crank shaft center will move +/- | mm and the top of the engine approximately +/- 5 mm, during start up, depending on the 28All mounts are loaded to the mmis given forconical mount these heights. same amount. The tolerance of 2 ts. Using shims, one can further adjust Piston Requirements + Towithstand the mechanical stresses of. combustion gas pressure and inertia forces. + Towithstand the thermal stresses during combustion. Pistons are designed to take into consideration the following: * The crown is directly exposed to heat and gas load and hence, has a tendency to deform. Hence, the material should not only be thick for mechanical strength, but also thin enough to minimize thermal stress. * The cyclic loading causes the top and the sides of the crown to flex which can lead to fatigue failure. * The shape of the combustion space also depends on the shape of _ the crown. Concave or convex pistons are used. * Wall thickness can be reduced with strength provided for by intemal _Tibs of radial or concentric designs. . * The topmost ring undergoes the brunt of the direct flame andit is __ Mhuch higher in position than the others. + The material of the crown should take into consideration the "Working temperature, the hardness ofthe ring groove nding Oe” as __ thecorrosiveness of the gas mixtures and the cooling “on and moving the Ahigh top land helps in more effective ee ‘ting pack to a cooler zone. 2»Water Cooled Pisior™ designs) have internal support webs cas in the crown for mechanical strength, but are prone to th sls at Li is done by the ‘Cocktail Shaker effect’. = (—o1. Fig-22 Oil cooled pistons employ a spray nozzle plate. Cooling oil (common to bearing lube oil) is fed through swinging arm links into the crosshead, which provides a ‘jet shaker-effect’ as the piston moves up and down, Increased cooling of the crown is provided by a number of spray nozzles which direct the cooling oil into the blind bores of the crown at all crank angles, When the piston is at TDC, the ‘shaker’ cooling effect of the oil takes place. When the piston is going towards BDC, Jettype cooling takes place, Advantages of Bore Cooled Pistons over Conventional Pistons — * Lower thermal stresses and strain. jFig-23 1 Curve of maximum temperature of piston crown in conventional type piston 2 Curve of maximum temperature of. piston crown in bore water cooled piston 3 Conventional internal support webs or ribs 4 Conventional piston 5 Self supporting bores 6 Bore water cooled piston. Flow of Piston Cooling Oil The flow is from the main bearing lube oil to the crosshead pin, then through slots in the piston rod. It then flows through the inlet oil pipe in the piston rod which leads to the cooling bores through spray nozzles in the spray plate. The oil then returns through the outlet piping in the Piston rod into the crosshead pin, where it emerges sideways to the Skit ~ Si-Aluminium alloy (4-stroke) orcastifon. Rod - Forged steel. 31L222 Fig- 24 SSSI LD. heat load at the piston erowes of the piston at 100% low ! AY vitesse of table “OROS’ Piston Anew desi reduction in following is a“onventional Gas side Mean Temp. 500. deg. C Max. Temp. 510 deg. Coolingoil side Mean Temp. 197 deg.C Max.Temp. 209 deg. Composite Pistons Composite pistons (fig - 25) are those pistons that are made up of ‘composite’ materials i.e. two or more parts (crown, skirt, etc.) of different materials. Medium speed engines use these pistons. The crown withstands the high cylinder pressure gas loads as well as it limits the inertia forces. Applications forheavy fuel oil use are suitable. They are of self supporting type. Concave or convex crowns are used which have internal support. Gudgeon pins are free floating type at the operating temperature of the piston. The trunk or skirt is separate from the crown. Hence, the name trunk-type piston is given. The trunk or skirt provides the following advantages: * Better thermal conductivity. * Reasonable strength. * Alow relative mass in comparison with the crown to reduce piston weight. : Better radial and vertical contact due to the elliptical barrel shape : Better pansion cold clearances. : Berns snes este oe _ Better skirt stiffness. aeMarine Dieset &53"— 1 Crown (Cast steel) 2 Skirt or trunk (Al-Si-Alloy ‘or nodular C1.) 3 Bearing (Lead bronze) 4 Gudgeon pin (Carburised steel) 5 Keep plate 6 Connecting rod (Forged steel). Fig-25 Differences Between 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Pistons 2-Stroke Pistons 4-Stroke Pistons * (2) It is of crosshead type i.e. piston It is of trunk type i.e. the skirt rod connected to the crosshead (no piston rod) is connected to bearing both reciprocate along the the connecting rod by means of axis of the piston. a gudgeon pin and bearing. (2) The crosshead slipper transmits the Trunk or ‘extension’ piece or connecting rod angularity thrust to _—_extended ‘skirt’ takes the connecting the crosshead guides. rod angularity thrust and transmits it to the side of the cylinder liner. 3) More height for same power and _Less height for same power and speed : "speed. (4) Higher engine manufacturing costs. Lower engine manufacturing costs. (5) It has compression type piston rings. . It has compression as well as oil scraper ‘rings. (6) More head room. Headroom is limited. (7) Usually, used in low speed engines. Usually, used in medium speed engines 34oe ee eee Piston Defects ¢ Deformation or burning of the crown top surface due to direct impingement of firing gas, poor injection or bad fuel. + Cracks on the internal or external surfaces due to built up thermal ormechanical stresses. The reasons for these stresses are poor injection, bad fuel quality, poor cooling due to insufficient coolant ot fouled cooling spaces, corroded material, poor lubrication, and bad operations like an overloaded engine. + Scuffing due to overheating or poor lubrication. ¢ Wom ring grooves due to poor lubrication , overloaded or incorrect operation, poor combustion, worn liner or piston rings, etc. * Cooling spaces deterioration due to corrosion; coking or scale build up caused by poor cooling water treatment; or low oil coolant flow or overheating. + Fretting due to incorrect tensioning and assembly of studs; damaged studs; or overheating. Rotating Pistons These pistons are employed for medium speed 4-stroke engines. An exampleis the SulzerZ40 series. Rotation of the piston is accomplished by using a spring loaded pawl and ratchet. It has the disadvantage of ahigh initial cost. It has the advantages of lower specific bearing loads; lower risk of edge loading; lower risk of piston seizing; smaller clearances between piston and liner; lower vibration of oil on the piston and the liner; and a symmetrical crown and skirtSl al! - ee ae Piston Rings There are usually scraper rings. Compression Rings Their purpose is to prevent blow-by. They should provide an effective seal of the combustion chamber space. The initial ‘compression’ of the ring i.e. ring tension, puts a radial pressure onto the liner wall. Further sealing is provided by the gas pressure itself entering the ‘back clearance space’ between the piston and ring. They transfer a large portion of heat from the piston to the cylinder liner, which in turn, has jacket cooling. High piston speeds require less compression rings, since there is a less possibility of blow-by. three to six compression rings and one or two oj], Fig-26 The figure shows the gas pressure “p’ entering the back clearance Spaces of each compression ring and causing the ring sealing pressures PI. p2, p3, p4, p5 to provide a sealing effect by pushing the rings tightly against the liner. Ituses the labyrinth principle of decrease it pressure. Therefore, the gas pressure that is leaked in behind each 36Engine Components compression ring is successively decreased in steps with each ri : 'y ng, to, equal the pressure which acts on the underside of the piston Hence, radial pressure changes with the position of each compression ring It ishighest at the top. Oil Scraper Rings They are rings which eliminate the possible ingress of oil into the combustion chamber. They are fitted lowermost of the rings on the skirt in trunk type pistons. The oil is scraped by the rings whilst the piston goes downwards, and is retumed to the crank case via oil drains in the piston on the upstroke. The ring’s beveled side surfaces slide over the oil film without dragging them upwards. The figure shows the pumping action of the compression rings when the liner bore of trunk type pistons becomes over lubricated. When the piston is going down, the piston compression rings are pressed against the upper sides of the ring grooves and oil enters the spaces below the rings. When the piston is traveling upwards, the ring presses upon the lower sides of the ring grooves and oil isPiston Ring Failures a ie ane’ i.e. inward push of the rin, eB sn Cc body due to gas pressure build up against the “running face of ee Itis caused by the pressure build up against ring running face and’ ner wall due to reduced axial clearance; poor ring and groove sealing; rings not free to move in the groove; or poor lubrication on sealing surfaces, A B C Fig - 28 In Fig. A, the reduced axial clearance reduces the gas pressure P/, building up behind the ring to form a reduced P2 ring pressure. In Fig. B, as P2 increases slowly, PJ gets between the liner and the ting, In Fig, C, the ring collapses against the piston groove body. (2) Flutter Flutter is the oscillation movement of the piston ring along its own Plane. Itis caused by a radially worn ring leading to a reduction in radial areas, or pounding of piston rings in the grooves when the piston changes its direction.Se sy eR i accra a ay = In Fig. A, pressure P1 decreases at the same rate as the cylinder pressure, while ring pressure P2 falls at a slower rate than the cylinder pressure. i In Fig. B, when P2 suddenly becomes more than Pl, u movement occurs since P2 changes and this causes a flutter. In both figures, observe the first piston ring fluttering andmoving up and down in its own place. Ps Fig-29 (3) Excess wear This is due to poor clearances, corrosion, abrasion, scuffing or improper lubrication. (4) Jammed or sticking piston rings This is due to the build up of carbon deposits or poor clearances. (5) Scuffing Itis the overall damage on the sliding contact surfaces, caused by the formation of local welds. These welds occur due to high local temperature (800 deg. C+), which hardens the base metal, forming hardened particles at that point. Scuffing depends on : ‘ * Oil film quantity, oil retention and countered rings to promote ofl - Rotating pistons moving around any of the dry hot spots which are prone to welds. F ¢ High temperatures due to poor sealing or poor heat transfer by bore cooling. g« Running-inof new piston rings or liner. * Correct scuff resistant materials used i.e. soft copper or molybdenum forrunning in, and hard chromium or nitriding alloys for normal use. Running-In It consists of = i . A purposeful wear on the piston ring profile to match the liner surfaces for proper gas sealing and lubrication. When the liner is rough, the ring is not properly sealed, and a matching profile is ¢ A wearrunning-in coating layer is used which is meant to be wom out, thereby creating a correct profile of the piston ring to match ith the liner wall. * Theengine load is increased during the running-in period to promote increased wear of the running-in layer. * LowerTBN cylinder lube oil is used to provide corrosive wear of the rings. * Fuel of high sulphur content (more than 0.5% sulphur) is used to increase acid corrosive wear during the running-in period. * Cylinder lube oil feed rate should be increased. Piston Ring Material The piston ring is made of Cast Iron. * Grey Cast Iron gives better wear and scuffing resistance. * Nodular chromium-plated malleable Cast Iron gives better fatigue resistance. 2s Carbidic malleable Cast Iron gives better fatigue x and wear resistance. * RVK with AL-Bronze asa running-in coating. opiston Ring Manufacture pot Casting is done in oval pots or by drum casting in stati ° ig in static sand moulds; or by centrifugal casting. Machining is carried out in acam- turing lathe and later, 8 gap is cut out or the ring is split. Tensioning is done by hammering the inner surface to induce residual stress or by inserting a distance piece in acut ring and heating in an oven torelieve stress. Piston Ring Shapes k Different types of piston rings have different cross sections, as shown | inthe figure. 1, Plait is simpl id :) in type is simple an WS WW ay 1 4 * inexpensive. 2. Barrel faced chrome-plated cooling type. The barrel QQQY enables better and faster ASS WV aw bedding-in with liner profile. ? 5 8 Chrome-plating is a hard Sy coating given for increased AS life. Fig-30 3. Inlaid type where the inner laid material (molybdenum or electroplated chrome) provides scuff resistance, while the outer laid provides edge protection and oif 4, Taper running face provides faster bedding-in. 5, Stepped scraper provides oil scraping and gas sealing. 6, Beveled undercut provides downward oil removal, — 7. Slotted oil passages for oil scraping. ae 8, Conformable oil scraper for consistent oil contro! 4Piston Ring Coatings i e coatings ee Contina (using a plasma spraying method where a as mixture is directed through an electric arc generated between g tungsten electrode anda water cooled copper tube to create 4 ‘plasma state’ at 10,000 to 1 5,000 deg. C). This plasma state melts and fuses any metal, with gas molecules and atoms disassociating. * Chrome plating: Itis a hard outer galvanic chrome layer. Double chrome plating is done on both sides of the ring. This increases the wear and corrosion resistance. * Tungsten carbide coating which gives a better wear resistance. Running-in Coatings These are soft coatings such as copper, graphite or phosphate which are meant to wear quickly and give the ring a similar profile as the liner. Controlled Pressure Relief (CPR) Rings In CPR type, the topmost ring has one double-lap ‘S” seal and six controlled pressure relief grooves cut across the face. This ensures even pressure distribution and decrease of thermal load to the second piston ring as well as the liner. Other piston rings have an Al-bronze coating and oblique cuts. Fig-31i se sore nem nn piston Ring Life Ring wear rate (around 0.1 mm/1000 hrs) depends on: « Fouling of the turbocharger. @ Reduced scavenge air pressure due to more dirt in the ring pack area, # Overloaded engines or excessive pressure rise. « Poorclearances. + Poor fuel injection or poor fuel quality. * Poor lubrication. * Poor water shedding in scavenge air which produces water drops on the cylinder liner affecting lubrication and causing scuffing. * Poor maintenance of grooves or incorrect fitting of rings. Piston Cleaning Ring Itis the ring which is embedded in the top edge of the liner just below the cylinder head level. Its purpose is to remove the excessive carboneous deposits at the top-land portion of the combustion chamber wall which would otherwise contaminate and affect lubrication. Anti-Polishing Ring - It is the ring / which reduces the polished effect of the liner wall, which is formed due to the hard deposits from combustion in contact with the liner. Polishing is unwanted, since it does not allow oil film retention on the liner wall, and the oil passes over the ring pack portion to the combustion area when it is burnt and wasted. Polishing depends on oil feed rate, excessive peak pressures, ring and finer materials, and an increase in combustion hard Fig-32 products at liner-ring interface, 43SIPWA (Sulzer’s Integrated Piston Wear Analysis) Tt is a method using a continuous online feedback measurement of the piston ring wear condition. The piston ring has incorporated a wear-band (shaded section). As wear down of the piston ring takes place, a corresponding wear down of the copper wear-band takes place. A sensor in the cylinder liner senses the wear of the copper wear-band and transmits this signal toan online electronic unit, which records and prints any wear down, which can be used as a pre-waming. Piston Rod Stuffing Gland 1 Casing in two parts 2. Spacer ring 2 3,5 Oil scraper rings 4° Sealing ring 6,8 Screws 9 Ring in two parts 10 Piston rod 1 O-ring 12 Locating pin va: Fig-33 X-dx{tis aseal between the scavenge spaces and the crankcase in the area of the piston rod penetration. It seals the crankcase oil entering into the scavenge space, and scavenge deposits or cylinder oil entering the crankcase. It is made of two sections. Each section consists of segmented metal rings held against the piston rod by garter springs. Materials : Housing — Cast iron or cast steel. Rings — Cast iron or brass or bronze or PTFE Lamellas — Cast iron orcarbon. Stuffing Box Problems . Poor sealing caused by wom out rings, badly aligned ring joint sticky rings, closed butt joints, weak springs, excessive axia clearance or scoring/wearing of the piston rod. - . Consequences of stuffing box not performing properly is.a loss ¢ crankcase oil, higher costs, contamination of crankcase wit scavenge deposits and unbumt cylinder oil. * Indications of poor stuffing box gland sealing : (Crankcase oil contamination test giving poor results. Acase of nooil replenishment - Increasing TBN or viscosity. Reduced piston cooling effect. Poor lubrication.Itis a seal between the scavenge spaces and the crankcase in the area of the piston rod penetration. It seals the crankcase oil entering into the scavenge space, and scavenge deposits or cylinder oil entering the crankease. It is made of two sections. Each section consists of segmented metal rings held against the piston rod by garter springs. Materials Housing — Castiron or cast steel. Rings ~ Cast iron or brass or bronze or PTFE Lamellas — Cast iron or carbon. Stuffing Box Problems * Poor sealing caused by worn out rings, badly aligned ring joints, sticky rings, closed butt joints, weak springs, excessive axial clearance or scoring/wearing of the piston rod. ‘ * Consequences of stuffing box not performing properly isa loss of crankcase oil, higher costs, contamination of crankcase with scavenge deposits and unburnt cylinder oil. * Indications of poor stuffing box gland sealing : Crankcase oil contamination test giving poor results. Acase of no oil replenishment . Increasing TBN or viscosity. Reduced piston cooling effect. Poor lubrication. Liner Manufacture ; Liners are usually sand cast (above 300 mm diametersize). They May be of split type to avoid distortion of bore shape due to ; heat deformation, Split type is usually seen in 2-strokee there is a difference in liner temperature near the sea) ‘exhaust valve region. Liners are press fitted into the of the cylinder block. eeof nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, is used. Cast Iron with alloys copperand titanium is Cast Iron is Material smooth sliding surface due to graphite content surface which retains oil as well ag ause its high strength; refined grain structure chosen bec! with inclusions of alloys; a fresh surface in case of for improved lubrication; porous s exposes: SSS SSNS SSS SSS HSCS NI PILI eS scuffing or scoring; and wear and : zLiner Wear There are three types of liner wear, Corrosive Wear Itis the wear on the liner surface due to low temperature i sulphur. Sulphur oxides in the gaseous state combine with ames has formed due to the condensation or sweating, when the temperature is low. Thus, acids are formed which lead to corrosion, Remedy * Increase liner wall temperature above the dew point of the water - acid mixture. ¢ Use of an alkaline cylinder lube oil to neutralize the acid content at the liner wall. * Use ofa low sulphur content fuel with a limit on the sulphur value. Abrasive Wear Itis due to hard particles of ash deposits and catalytic fines, which continuously cut, scratch and plough the liner surfaces. Friction or Adhesive Wear Mechanical friction wear is due to the piston ring friction on the liner wall. This wear takes place usually where the oil film has depleted or broken down. Clover Leaf Wear : Itis the uneven wear in the shape of a clover leaf on the liner surface in the radial mode. Reason i Uneven distribution of cylinder lube oil causes the depletion of its TBN, before it has completely covered the liner surface. High corrosive _ wear occurs on the liner surface between oil injection points. oeFig-36 Effects Inextreme cases, combustion gas blow-by takes place past the piston rings, or failure of the liner can occur. Lubricating Quills These are non-return valves passing through the jacket water space, which supply cylinder lube oil under pressure to the liner surface. Lubricating Accumulator Itis fitted at the outer end of the quill. It delivers oil through a non-retum ball valve, only when the cylinder pressure falls below the accumulator pressure. The accumulator is sealed against the oil space by a flexible diaphragm. This diaphragm is pressed downwards by the spring force. This builds up an oil pressure, which is somewhat higher than the charge air pressure of the engine in the combustion cylinder. When the charge air pressure of the engine or the cylinder pressure falls below the accumulator pressure, oil flows into the cylinder. When the accumulator Pressure is less than the cylinder pressure, the ball valve of the accumulator Closes. If the accumulator fails, oil delivery still continues, controlled by the cylinder lubrication pump’ delivery stroke. 48>on mee COU AVELN— ORE Liner Failure Areas Areal Excessive, incorrect or uneven tightening of cylinder head studs causes cracks. Area2 Poor liner support shows hoop stress cracks. ‘Area Upper ring area is prone to wear ridge i ial cracks. shaped cracks. Jacket water leaks at the lube oi quill piping causes star shaped cracks. Scayenge port areas due to scavenge fires or overloaded engine operation.Cylinder Head Cover The cylinder head is a cover for the cylinder liner and block, which also seals the combustion chamber at the top. It sustains dynamic and mechanical loads caused by the combustion pressure and temperature, It houses the exhaust value, fuel injectors, starting air valve, safety valve, indicator cock and cooling water passages. Cylinder head Nut Cylinder head stud ‘Cooling water outlet Leak oil outlet Exhaust valve cage ‘Stud of exhaust valve CaM AER ee wn — Connection for hydraulic oil 10 Indicator valve 11 Relief valve 12. Airinlet for valve spring 13 Water guide jacket R_ Bye screw Materials Requirements . Good casting characteristics (Cast Iron is good, while Cast Stee! is prone to defects). * High strength, high thermal resistance and high corrosive resistance. Cylinder heads are made of : * Composite structure i.e. Grey Cast Iron which tensile nas Grey has a good 50cnn nt Conpraneney + Molytuienum Steel for elasticity and strength (0:3 % C,Mo 1 © Stel casting of 5%), Sera ertine of deep section, singe pee, bre cooled Cylinder Head Defects . ‘Cracks due to thermal changes in the cooling water temperature oo am legge eae ‘* Distortion due to temperature variations. * Cooling space fouling due to poor water treatment; and scale or sludge ‘* Corrosion on the lower side being exposed to the combustion chamber. © Gaserosion and acidic corrosion due to leaking exhaust valve cageoe oa jc Exhaust Valve Working Htmulic pressures provided by th cA operated hydric ng | — = Jic piston of the hydraulic actuator. Lube oj} from. | shaft system is used to actuate the hydraulic actuatorto open aust valve by moving itdownwards. Control air at bar presse is supplied to the sirpiston to use it as an air spring, which closes the | faust valve when the pncumatic air force is greater than the hydrau, | oil force. Exhaust Valve Types They are usually poppet mushroom shaped valves. Opening and closing are done by mechanisms such as valve springs and push tod-tocker arm arrangements, or hydraulic operation using camshaft lube oj] toopen and spring air to close the valve. ‘ead construction andeasier valve operation. Small size multiple valves have lower inertia forces, lighter weight, better volumetric efficiency, lower temperature of valve materials, less distortion of valve lid at operating temperature and a smaller valve lift. The exhaust valve consists of the valve, valve stem, valve face, valve seat, valve cage, valve rotator and valve gas deflector. Valve Materials Requirements are creep resistance at high temperatures; corrosion and oxidation resistance; wear resistance; erosion resistance; materials; impact resistance and surface hardness. Valve * Nickel based alloy (0.1 C, 0.1 Fe, 15 Cr, 1.0 Ti, 5 Al, 20Co -4Mo,remainderNi) * Precipitation hardened steel (0.5 C, 25 Cr, 5 Ni,3 M0) single valves have simpler valve construction, simpler cylinder | |i | I * Austenitic steel (Cr & Ni 25%) * Si-Chrome stee] Si, 9 Cr. Valve Face A ‘Stellite’ layer is welded to Provide superior hardness, corrosion resistance, good surface finish and high temperature strength. This portion is subjected to very high temperatures and thermal and Valve Seats ‘Stellite’ coating, since seats are also Prone to corrosion and erosion. Valve Cages Cast Iron provides easy manufacture and compatibility with guide material, Valve Guide “Pearlite’ Cast Iron. Valve Springs ; They provide support to the valve in the cylinder head as well as provide a spring force toclose the valve. Single Spring type is simple, has a lower natural frequency of vibration and a reduced risk of valve bounce. There is a buckling risk for long single springs, while large diameter springs have higher bending movements and stresses.Series springs have less buckling and bending stresses, but their designs are complex. Anexample is shown in Fig - 41. Springs are shown in series numbered / and 2. Parallel springs are employed to alter the natural frequency. There is noaxial vibration, and less breakage due to resonance. The safety factors increased in case of the failure of one spring. An example ig ‘shown in Fig - 42. Springs are shown in parallel numbered / and 2. Exhaust Seat Profile Change During Load | Rig t shows the inner contact area when exhaust valve is not loaded. 1 Fig 2 shows the effect of thermal joadon the exhaust valve seat.eee Engine Components Valve Rotators (ROTOCAP, Spring, not compressed Valve guide Stationary body Dise spring Spring Cotter Spring retainer Steel ball B Cylinder head Exhaust valve Spring compressed COBANRYUDH zs Inclosed position (Fig. A), the ‘Belleville’ washer disc is pushed against the body with slight force and disc spring is not deflected. When the valve opens (Fig. B), the ‘Belleville’ washer disc gets pushed against the body with a higher force. This load is transferred to the balls, which causes the balls to be pushed to the deeper recesses and induce rotation. Relieving of pressure when valve closes, causes the balls and the springs to return to the original position. Valve Rotation Benefits There are less deposits on seat passages and sealing faces. Corrosion and erosion is reduced. Overheating of a single spot is prevented as the valve is rotating. Temperatures of the valve seat and sealing faces are reduced. Rotation is needed when burning heavy fuel oils. Rotating methods are : ; ; * Rotating vanes e.g. used in hydraulically operated exhaust valves. * Rotocaps e.g. mechanical rotators used in mechanical spring operated exhaust valves as in 4-stroke engines. 5SVariable Exhaust Closing (VEC) VEC = Variable Exhaust Closing = Exhaust Valve closed earlier to increase the compression, and consequently, Peomp and Pmax. When the exhaust valve is open, less amount of compression is done by the piston. When the exhaust valve is closed earlier, the piston can start compression earlier , resulting in a longer period for compression, VEC is carried out during 70 to 85% MCR load. VEC Operation Incase of a hydraulically operated exhaust valve, some of this hydraulic ‘oil pressure for opening the valve is leaked off, when the valve is stil] in the open position. This results in the valve closing slightly when ‘open. and the valve fully closing earlier. 7 a 2Exhaust Valve Failures * High temperature corrosion by molten salts (sodium and calcium soars and compounds from the fuel due to sulphur, vanadium, ° Eien at the seat area and sealing faces. * Dents and scratches caused by harder particles. * Solid deposits of molten salts causing leakage and cracks. Overheated spots due to after burning, poor cooling, improper combustion or overload. * Reseating failures due to incorrect tappet clearances, incorrect expansion clearance, overheating, jamming in the guide, distortion of valve or spindle, and creep failures. * Mechanical impact loading due to banging, heavy seating, uneven surfaces or hard deposits. * Abrasive action by products from fuel combustion or cylinder lube oil. * Fouling of valve or valve passages which limit the air or exhaust gas flow rates. i * Valve mechanism failures of springs or rotating mechanisms. . * Valveliftreduction. Leaky Exhaust Valve Itcauses a high exhaust gas temperature and increased smoke. Peomp and Pmax reduce. The turbocharger may surge. Fouled Inlet Valve Ttcauses a restriction in the air flow. Hence, scavenge efficiency reduces and thermal stresses increase. The exhaust passages get fouled = result and there is more smoke from the exhaust. 7Fouled Exhaust Valve : Itcauses a reduction in the exhaust gas flow; and fouling of the exhaust passages, the turbocharger and the exhaust gas economizer, The scavenge efficiency decreases, while exhaust temperatures increase, Exhaust gas may leak back into the cylinder and get recycled. Crankshaft The crankshaft is a very important and heavily stressed component. [t is subjected to fluctuating loads due to the inertia forces of Totating masses, combustion gas pressure loads and high bending and torsion loads. The crank angle for the angular arrangement of each crank with respect to the other depends on the number of strokes and cylinders of the engine. Balanced weights are fitted to the webs to balance inertia forces of rotating and gyrating masses. Types: (1) Fully Built (2) Semi-built (3) Solid single piece (4) Fully welded type. Fully Built Up Crankshafts They have all parts separately manufactured by steel casting or forging, and then fully built up i.e. assembled using a shrink fit (1/600 of pin diameter). Shrink fitis the friction between the pin and web sufficient enough to transmit the torque without stressing the pin and web. Itis done by cooling the pin in liquid nitrogen rather than heating the web. ‘Very few engines use fully built up crankshafts. Itis only used on some very large slow speed engines. Advantages Their construction and design is simple; easy replacement of damaged parts; easy handling and machining of parts; any part of the crankshaft can be repaired in sections if damages take place; and most of the machinery can be completed during the manufacturing stage itseif befor assembly.g e ‘ Engine Components Disadvantages The webs should have considerable strength to allow two shrunk fits. Since there is a lack of grain flow, there is no benefit of the same. y Y Fig -46 1 Webs 2 Journal pin 3 Crank pin Semi Built Up Cranshafis They are shrunk fit assemblies of complete crank throws (one crank pin and web together) and separate journal pins. They are widely used on slow speed 2-stroke engines and large 4-stroke medium speed engines. ai ToT y WS \" S SN] Nis \\ \ 1 One crank throw 2 Journal pinAdvantages : : — Bach crank throw is forged by continuous grain method which maintaing path for the grain flow along the crank throw axis. Hence it can use the benefit of grain flow. It has a better fatigue resistance, less shrink fits, smaller webs and a lighter shaft weight. Larger pin diameters can be used. Solid Single Piece Crankshafts They are those crankshafts where the whole crank shaft is forged or cast as one single piece. Ithas a better fatigue resistance, lesser stresses, a smaller and lighter ‘shaft, continuous grain flow throughout shaft and no need for shrink fits. Balanced counter weights can be fitted as shown in the figure. Fully Welded Crankshafts They are full, half forged, or cast crank throws joined to the journal pins by continuous feed narrow gap, submerged arc welding. Advantages Here, there are no shrink fits or restrictions on the pin diameter. Smallet and lighter shafts can be used,= : * : a i 1 Halfcrank throw 2. Fullcrank throw 3. Two half crank throws welded leaving a small gap at the mating faces 4 Dummy piece backing. Fig-49 Materials * High carbon steel (0.35 to 0.45 C) for slow speeds. ¢ High carbon steel with alloys for medium high speeds. * Chromium, tungsten, nickel and magnesium alloys are used in percentage of 1.5 % each. Crankshaft Failures Fatigue and cyclic stress failures are mostly due to high frequency low loads or low frequency high loads. The areas of crankshaft failures are: * Shrink fit stress raisers at dowel pins or keys. * Any sharp changes in section where stresses get concentrated. * Severe operating conditions and overload. Lube oil passages, holes and drilling sections. The radii of the lube cil hole should be ample to reduce the stress concentration. * Pinto web fillet section should have ample radii. * Surface defects and sharp edges. * Incorrect manufacture like slag inclusion and poor heat treatment. * Torsional stresses giving a helical-shaped crack at 45 degrees to the axis of the pin. * Misalignment of main bearings. ° 61© Slippage of shrink fits are seen when engine timings change over oe of the engine only, with an increase in vibration at that section and a shift in the ‘markings’ embossed at the pin/weh interface. This slippage can be due to piston seizure; hydraulic lock in cylinder during starting; starting the engine with tuming gears engaged (in case of no interlock on smaller engines); bottom end bolt failure; etc. If minor slippage occurs, adjust timings and monitor If major slippage (greater than 4 degrees) occurs, then return to original position using hydraulic jacks, strong backs and liquid nitrogen. No heating is to be done to avoid stresses. * Corrosion fatigue due to lube oil turning acidic caused by lube oil contaminated by combustion products. ¢ Lubrication failures. ¢ Poor support from bedplate foundation and tie rods. Crankshaft Stresses 1. Variable combustion gas load : The radial component causes the pin and webs to bend and twist. The tangential component causes bending stress in webs and torsion stress in the journal. 2. Torsional vibration stress in web pins is due to the shaft being wound up under torsional load and unwound due to its own stiffness. 3. Axial vibration stress due to the repeated in-plane flexing of webs and the reaction the intermittent propeller thrust. 4. Misalignment of the main bearings leading to cyclic opening and closing of the crank throw causing in-plane bending and tangential bending stresses. Misalignment can be caused by: (a) Wear or distortion of the bedplate or excessive bending of the (b) Wor main bearings due to incorrect adjustments, overloading, vibration, or poor lubrication.Sanaa win Crankshaft Deflections The crankshaft will deflect i.e. webs open and close as the engine turns, in the vertical as well as horizontal directions. Mia. ara Fig-50 Fig- ‘ Closing of crank throw is a negative reading as shown in Fig. 50-A. Deflection Procedure Place a dial gauge opposite the crank pin on the port side and set the pointer to zero as shown in Fig. 51-C. Looking in the forward direction, read the dial gauge readings as shown Fig. 50-B. a Nos. Of crank throw { ioc aeee AA te ee Toros TD.C. postion HR] or Ding cantina f‘actors affecting Deflections ‘ ‘ : vote shaft and nota stiff one is desirable. A stiff crank shaftig one where the crank shaft is stiff enough to support itself across g span including a low bearing i.e. the journal may not be sitting on the bearing. Check by using a feeler gauge or jack the shaft onto the bearing. ¢ Ambient temperature near the engine. ¢ Movements of the ship as in rough weather. Incorrect load condition i.e. hogging or sagging. Chain Drive Chain drive is used to transmit the power drive from the crankshaft to the camshaft. An intermediate wheel (for fuel pump and exhaust cam drives) serves as a guide, while an adjuster wheel serves to adjust the chain. The intermediate wheel may be connected to a separate chain for driving motion to the lubricators, governor, air distributor, etc. 1 Fitting tool 2 Outer link plate 3 Pin 4 Bush 5. Roller Chain Tightening Checking Tightness ‘Tum the engine so as to slacken the longest free lengths of the At the middle of the longest face length of the chain, pull the ches chainaway from the guide bar, The limit of slackness is half to one chain pitch link. If too slack or too tight, adjust the chain tension. Adjustment is done for slackness of | pitch length. Camshaft Chain Intermediate wheel Adjusting whee! Adjusting unit Crankshaft ABCD Nuts Anko wm Tightening Procedure 7 Lock washers 8 Thrust 9 Spring ABCD Nuts Fig-55 * The engine is turned so that slackness is on the same side as the tightener unit. * Loosen nuts A, B,C and D. * Tighten the nut C till the free length is reduced by the dimension as perthe manufacturer’s guide book. * Chain tightener bolt is moved and the chain is tightened. 65Ee ; i nut B against pivot shaft face, while checking that 2 as tee sos further since compression reduc «Tighten nut And lock with Jock nut and tab washer. ‘Tighten nut C until the spring thrust disc bears against the distance pipe of the bolt. eee + Thespringis further but this tension is not transmitted tothe chain on account of the already tightened nuts A and B. . When the thrust disc presses tightly against the distance pipe, the nut Cis further tightened to manufacturer’s dimension setting D2’. . Tighten lock nut D, locking both nuts with tab washer. Chain Inspection Check chain teeth wear at point J, as shown in the figure. Place a short straight edge plate, cover the points A and B, and measure wear at point J. Scratches on teeth sides due to the side plates are normal. Check for cracks on the possibly defective rollers and side plates. Check for seizure. Check the rollers run freely and links move freely on pin and bush. Check for one complete revolution. Check bolt, screw and nut connections. Check lube oil pipe for damage and jet nozzle for deformations. Check rubber track of guide-ways for cracks. Chain Materials = Link plates : Cr-Mo stee! i _ : Hardened steel fit into outer link Oma oan Gnterference fit intof E i E . TSHR rreaNetreeerCeaN Chain Drive Advantages Easy timing adjustments are possible. Maximum flexibility exists for positioning the gap between driven equipment. Its cost is economical and very few spares are required. Ithhas a very high drive efficiency (98 %) and can cope with a certain extent of misali ignment due to axial movement of shafts. Chain Elongation Elongation or stretch of the chain is due to the wear between pins and bushings, roller and sprocket wheel, and between bushing and rollers. Elongation changes the camshaft position with respect to the crankshaft. Fuel and valve timings depend on the camshaft position and are altered due to chain elongation, Maximum elongation allowed is 2%. At 1.5% elongation renew the chain. Elongation is checked on a ‘taut’ chain by measuring the length of a number of links from pin centre to pin centre. Itis the difference between measured length and new chain length. Slack Chain Itresults in excess strain during, Starting and reversing. There is a greater shock loading during normal running and retarding of timings in both directions due to backlash, especially during maneuvering and load changes. Vibration in addition to cyclic stresses may cause possible fatigue failure, Tight Chain Itresults in overloading of the chain wheel bearings. This gives rise to wear on rollers, links and bearings; and can cause cracking of links. 67Camshaft Readjustment After Chain Tightening ” ition will be requi justment of the camshaft 's angular position wi Tequired to be as origaentctatn tightening, as this causes the position to be altered with respect to the crankshaft. The limitis a> degrees increase in lead angle over the initial angular position. 1 Pin gauge 2. Spanner ] 3 Removable screw plugs 4 Snap-on hydraulic pipe connectors. Procedure Tumcrank throw of No. 1 cylinder to TDC. Check camshaft angular position using the pin gauge and marking. Remove plug screws fr ic oil connection in the coupling flange. Mount snap-on hydraulic nectors and piping to the hydraulic pump. Apply hydraulic oil Pressure to float the coupling ( coupling floats when oil seeps ou along shaft below coupling flange). Tum and adjust coupling with2 special spanner and check position with pin gauge. Re oil after finishing. Wait for 15 minutes before plugging oil holes sos? allow the coupling flange to set again. 68LENT I NN TT RR! Bearings A bearing ina marine diesel engine is uired to support the journal; tofloat the journal so tha there is no metal to metal onmoctins eg the load via the lubricant; and to reduce rotational friction. Material properties required are anti-friction resistant; Tunning-in and grinding- in ability; noncorrosive by lubricants; should not scratch or score the journal; build up adhesive oil films under boundary lubrication; allow abrasive particles to be embedded in it without major functional disability; tensile and compressive strength; fatigue resistant; thermal conductivity; high melting point especially when running hot; load carrying capacity; and ductility. Bearing Materials (1) White Metal Bearings : Anti friction, tin-based, white metal alloys (called Babbitt) consist of : Tin (Sn) 88% Soft matrix to allow for small changes in alignment between bearing and journal. Antimony (Sb) 8% Hard wear resistant cubes to absorb and transmit load. Copper (Cu) 4% To segregate and hold antimony cubes in a tin matrix. (2) Thin Wall Sheli Bearings : ‘These bearings are usually of tri-metal type, having 3 main layers and a steel backing shell. 1" layer (Flash) 1 cece fitter 2 layer (Overlay) i fick whit : 3" layer (Interlay) ‘4% layer (Lining) Shell (Bottom)=a , Plain Bush Journal Bearing During the rotation of the shaft, an oil wedge pressure is fe due to oil being drawn into the divergent section by the motion of the journal. This oil pressure separates the journal and the bearing metal. In plain bush type, only one-third of the bottom half bush area is effective, while the remaining two-thirds carries negligible load, but still causes the oil film to shear. This results in heat and friction loss. Pivot Pad Journal Bearing In this type of journal bearing, the plain bush is replaced by a series of journal pads, each pad being pivoted and free to tilt, generating its own oil pressure film. Advantages Itis designed to eliminate oil whirl. The capacity and efficiency is improved. The radial load is distributed through many oil films and not just one oil film. It has a higher overload capacity. The tilt of the pivot pads automatically adjusts to suit the load, the feed and theeen Bearing Faults and Defects + Abrasive wear due to fine scoring by hard particles and impurities inthe lube oil. + Corrosive wear due to acidic lube oil. The lube oil becomes acidic due to oxidation, contamination from combustion products, or water ingress, + Erosive wear due to cavitation. * Adhesive wear due to galling, scoring or scuffing. In galling, the softer metal tears due to the adhesive force which is a reaction of the rubbing metal surfaces. * Fatigue failure cracks at areas of stress concentration. * Overheating due to poor lubrication supply or contaminated oil, misalignment, incorrect clearances, uneven load distribution, poor surface finish and overloading. + * Misalignment of the bearing due to distorted bedplate, adjacent bearing failure, or imbalanced cylinder pressures. * Incorrect clearances or incorrect tensioning of bolts. * Poordesign, manufacture or low strength. * Housing dimensions not perfectly suitable for bearing shells, especially during replacement. Bearings In the Engine ‘The following bearings in the engine are discussed below. Main Bearing Main Bearings are the bearings which support the crankshaft of the engine. The lower shell part of the bearings are cut into the transverse : Strength members of the hedplate, The upper shell cap is held in place by special jack bolts or secured by wasted studs. Thin shell babbitt — n- (white metal) with a steel back is used forthe main bearing. Babbitt hag alow fatigue strength and hence, pressures and temperatures are limited, Hydraulic nut Top cover cap Wasted stud Upper bearing shell Crank shaft Lower bearing shell Bedplate transverse cylinder BAnNeoNe Connecting Rod and Bearings Connecting rod is the rod connecting the top-end bearing (crosshead bearing in 2-stroke slow speed engines or the piston gudgeon bearing in4 stroke medium speed) and the bottom end bearing (crank pin bearing). Its purpose is to convert reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft. It is the most highly stressed component of a diesel engine. Itis subjected toa high purely compressive force. It links the piston rod and crosshead to the crankpin. 2-Stroke Connecting Rods ( Slow Speed ) They are of split type i.e. two halves foreach small and big end bearings. This helps in easy fitting and tepair. The round mid section changes to a rectangular palm section at the bearing ends by Means of the elliptical fillet shape. A round section is cheaper to manufacture. Examples are shown in Fig - 61 and Fig - 62. 729 Ss —— failures occur in very few Cases, except due to slight buckling, when starting the engine if Oil or waterliag Jeaked into the cylinder space. In medium and high speed 4-stroke engines, fatigue cracks or fractures can Occur in high stress concentration areas. Thin walled steel back shell bearings have more ilities to fail rather than white metal bearings. Transverse buckling isusually caused by crank pin bearing seizures. Bottom End Failures In 4-stroke engines, the bottom end of the connecting rod is more susceptible to failure. The forces acting on bearings and bolts are : 1. Constantly fluctuating inertia loads from reciprocating parts swinging ina ‘whip’ motion. 2. Tensile load caused by the centrifugal forces of the mass of connecting rod and crankpin. 3. Shear force tending to separate the two halves of the bearing housing. Bottom End Bolt Design . A pretension is given to the bolt while fitting. Incorrect pretension is the most important cause of fatigue failure of the bolt which is initiated at a mechanical defect. ° The resilient material used for the bolt should be less stiff than the bearing housing. . The diameter of the shank sections should be smaller than the threaded root portion so that this ensures greater stresses act at the shanks rather than the threaded portion. ‘The yield of threads is prevented by a portion of the shank having tight clearance in the hole bore. Here, the nuts tightened ‘square’carmeomarreseree Large fillet radii are given, since fillets are stress tration as there is a change in the cross-section. 08 ro + Resilience of bolts is increased by designing the housing part as long as possible. Large End Bolt Defects Ifthe large end bolts are defective, then they should be discarded in case of overspeed failure, piston seizure, exceeded tolerance, completed designated life, acidic lube oil corrosion and mechanical damage like cracks and fractures to the surfaces of land faces. Crosshead Bearing Unlike the main bearings, big end bearings and camshaft bearings, where motion is only rotational, crosshead bearings have to —S take into account oscillatory motion at high Fig-64 1 Rail 2 Shoe 3 Pin 4 Plate In2-stroke engines, acyclic unidirectional combined gas and inertia load acts continuously on the bearing in a downward direction. Hence, the bottom half of the crosshead bearings are more prone to wear. In 4-stroke engines, the bottom half has some load relief during the suction and exhaust stroke where the inertia force is greater than the gas force. Lubrication at this time is ideal. 15