Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

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Original Research Article

Comprehensive nutritional evaluation of popular rice varieties of Assam,

Northeast India
T. Longvah a, *, K. Mangthya a, K. Subhash a, Surojit Sen c, Sunayana Rathi b
a
ICMR - National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai Osmania PO, Hyderabad, 500 007 TS, India
b
Department of Biochemistry & Agricultural Chemistry, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, 785013, Assam, India
c
Department of Zoology, Mariani College, Dibrugarh University, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: High-yielding varieties (HYVs) of rice have benefited farmers and the public by increasing yields and reducing
High yielding rice varieties the cost to consumers. Yet the nutritive value, a pivotal trait of HYVs remains grossly under-investigated. In this
Brown rice nutrient variability work, efforts have been specifically focused on nutrients profiling of 20 popular HYVs from Assam as brown rice
Degree of milling
and its milled counterparts. The study has revealed several varieties that are a reasonably good source of either
Nutrient loss
protein, or fat, or zinc, or calcium. Substantial nutrient variability was observed in the 20 HYVs brown rice with
the largest variation observed in pyridoxine (49%cv), followed by pantothenic acid (36%cv), iron (24%cv),
protein (14%cv), and fat (13%cv). At 5 % milling substantial reduction of all nutrients occurred (40–58%) which
was further exacerbated at 10 % milling. Compared to 10 % milled rice, brown rice has a far better nutrient
profile and even limiting to 5 % milling can marginally increase rice nutrient content. A change in consumption
pattern from white rice to brown rice or even 5% milled rice will be nutritionally beneficial. The rice nutrient
data can also help in improving nutrient intakes through the use of nutritious cultivars and in conventional plant
breeding to develop superior nutrient varieties.

1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the principal staple food crop in Assam,
where it plays a fundamental role in the state’s food security and socio-
economic development. As the climate and physiographic features are
favorable for rice cultivation, the states’ indigenous rice germplasm is
endowed with broad wide genetic diversity. However, indigenous rice
varieties provide a much lower yield than high yielding varieties (HYVs)
developed during the green revolution that also has shorter growth
duration and multiple resistance to diseases and insects (Mackill and
Khush, 2018). Pressed with the need to increase production to meet the
demand of the burgeoning population, the government actively pro­
moted HYVs, and most farmers replaced their traditional rice varieties
with HYVs. In terms of production, Assam ranks 9th among the ten top
rice-producing states in India.
Rice research post green revolution period, continued to focus on
improving production. Many factors, including, climate, geochemistry,
agricultural practices, post-harvest practices, and genetic makeup of the
cultivars, affect the nutrient composition of rice. Data suggest that rice
varieties’ nutrient composition differences can be substantial, with some
cultivars being far superior to others (Kennedy and Burlingame, 2003).
Given the importance of rice composition, the Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture recommended that the nutrient
content be among the critical criteria used for rice varieties’ selection to
improve food and nutrient security. However, in a production-driven
environment, varietal specific nutrient data generation remains mostly
ignored, explicitly so, with the rice varieties grown in Assam.
Milling is a critical step in the post-production of rice that firstly
removes the hull to produce brown rice. Further milling/polishing
removes the bran layers, including the germ, to yield broken rice and
milled head rice. Milling losses removed as bran and broken rice can be
as high as 40 %. Nutrients are more densely distributed in the bran than
the endosperm, which is removed as by-products of milling, resulting in
milled white rice’s diminished nutrient content. The degree of milling
(DoM) can control nutrient losses to a large extent as the nutritional
value, and head rice recovery reduces concurrently with a higher DoM.
Further, a good deal of scientific evidence points to the potential
health benefits of replacing white rice with brown rice (Sun et al., 2010;
Aune et al., 2016). There is a renewed consumer interest in brown rice
and partially milled rice because of increasing health consciousness in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tlongvah@gmail.com (T. Longvah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.103952
Received 26 July 2020; Received in revised form 28 April 2021; Accepted 30 April 2021
Available online 8 May 2021
0889-1575/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
T. Longvah et al.
the recent years. Such a change in consumption patterns would improve
food and nutrient security and improve health and prevent diseases as
rice is the staple food in Assam. Therefore, comprehensive nutritional
profiling of 20 popular rice varieties cultivated in Assam and the effect
of milling on the nutrient profile was carried out to assess the nutrient
variability and supply potentials as brown rice, partially milled rice (5 %
DoM), and milled white rice (10 % DoM).
2. Material and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, supplied dried paddy samples
(HYVs) of the 20 most popularly consumed rice varieties grown in
Jorhat district of Assam. All the paddy samples were de-husked by the
frictional action of rubber roller (Satake Engg. Corp. Tokyo, Japan) to
obtain brown rice. Subsets of brown rice grains of each HYV were sub­
jected to abrasive polishing up to 5 % and 10 % degree of milling (DoM)
using Kett Electric grain Polisher (Tokyo, Japan). The brown rice sam­
ples and the corresponding polished head rice samples were powdered
in a cyclone sample mill (UDY Corporation, USA) to obtain homoge­
neous rice flour, which was taken for analysis.
2.2. Reagents, solvents and standards
Analytical reagent or guaranteed reagent grade chemical procured
from standard suppliers were used for quantifying the different nutri­
tional components. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
grade solvents were used for extraction and in the mobile phase of liquid
chromatography. Lactobacillus casei (ATCC 7469) and Lactobacillus
plantarum (ATCC 8014), respectively, were procured from the National
Collection of Industrial Microorganisms (NCIM), Pune, India. Certified
reference material Rice flour (SRM) 1568b was procured from the Na­
tional Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST®), US Department of
Commerce. Gaithersburg, MD, USA. All reagents, solvents, and
authentic standards were procured from Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Ger­
many. Ultrapure water (Milli-Q water purification system, Belford, MA,
US) was used to prepare all aqueous solutions.
2.3. Principal nutrients, dietary fiber and energy
Moisture (AOAC 934.01), ash (AOAC 942.05) and fat (AOAC 963.15)
contents were determined gravimetrically according to the ’Official
Methods of Analysis of AOAC International’(AOAC, 2012). Total nitro­
gen was determined by the Kjeldahl method, and the value was multi­
plied by 5.95 (rice- specific conversion factor). The enzymatic
gravimetric method was used to determine the total dietary fiber (TDF)
as the sum of insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
(AOAC 991.43). Starch and free sugars were determined by AOAC
(2012) method using HPLC with a refractive index detector (AOAC
2013.12). The yielding energy components of crude protein, fat, and
carbohydrates were multiplied with respective Atwater’s conversion
factors to derive total energy potential.
2.4. Estimation of B-Vitamins
Thiamine content in the samples was determined from the fluores­
cence intensity of its oxidation product, Thiochrome (AOAC 942.23).
Microbiological assays were used to determine riboflavin and niacin
content using Lactobacillus casei (NCIM) 2364 (ATCC 7469) and Lacto­
bacillus plantarum NCIM 2083 (ATCC 8014) as test organisms, respec­
tively (AOAC 940.33, 960.46, and 985.34). Pantothenic acid was
extracted and analyzed following the method of Woollard et al. (2000).
Total vitamin B6 representing the sum of pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and
pyridoxamine were extracted by acidified organic solvent and quanti­
fied by liquid chromatography (AOAC 985.32).
2
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952
2.5. Mineral analysis
Rice flour was accurately weighed (0.5 ± 0.01 g) in duplicate and
digested with 3 ml of 65 % HNO3 and 1 ml of pure H2O2 in a microwave
oven (MARS 6, CEM Corporation) at 200 ◦ C for 20 min. The clear diges­
tate, thus obtained, was diluted with 3% HNO3 prepared with ultra-pure
water and analyzed using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (iCE
3000 Series AAS, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). Phosphorus content was
determined by the classical method of Fiske and Subbarow (1925).
2.6. Determination of phytate
Phytate or Myo-inositol hexakisphosphate in rice samples was esti­
mated by anion-exchange chromatography and subsequent spectro­
photometry (AOAC 986.11).
2.7. Amino acid profile
Briefly, the amino acid analysis was carried out after hydrolysis of
the sample with 6 N HCl at 110•C for 22 h as described by Peace and
Gilani (2005) in a Biochrom-30 (Cambridge, UK) Amino Acid Analyzer.
Cysteine and methionine were determined after performic acid oxida­
tion. Tryptophan was determined according to the method described by
Landry and Delhaye (1992). Authentic standards (National Institute of
Standards and Technology, SRM 2389) were used to identify and
quantify each amino acid. Calculation of amino acid score was carried
out according to the FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) suggested pattern of amino
acid requirement for preschool children (2–5 years).
2.8. Fatty acid profile
The fatty acid composition was determined after direct methylation
of the samples according to the method of O’Fallon et al. (2007). Fatty
acid methyl esters (FAME) were analyzed in an automated gas chro­
matography equipped with a flame ionization detector (Shimadzu 2010
gas chromatograph, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) using a
PhenomenexBPX-70 fused silica capillary column (30 m ×0.32 mm ID).
The individual fatty acid peaks were identified by comparing their
retention time with the help of external standard (certified reference
material SupelcoTM37 component FAME MIX). The amount of indi­
vidual fatty acid esters were expressed as percent of the total fatty acids.
2.9. Quality control
All samples were analyzed in duplicate. Reagent blank and certified
reference material from NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology, MD, USA). NIST 1568a Rice flour was used to check the
accuracy. Recovery of all minerals was within the limits of the certified
range of elemental concentrations and relative standard deviations,
respectively. Market rice was used as in-house quality control material
for all nutrients with every batch of analysis. Market rice does not have
certified values, but due to repeated analysis along with certified
reference material (CRM), over time, it develops its characteristic values
and consistent nutrient profile, which served as quality control for every
batch of analysis.
2.10. Statistical analysis
Data analysis was carried out using SPSS (Version 18: Chicago, IL).
Descriptive statistics, namely, Mean, Standard Deviation, Range and
Coefficient of Variation, were calculated. Pearson correlation co­
efficients were carried out among the different nutrients of interest.
Probability (P) values were two-tailed, and two significant levels (P =
0.05 and 0.01) were used for comparison across DoM.
 T. Longvah et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952

2.11. Dendrogram preparation

±0.28 ±0.29 ±0.62 ±0.06 ±1.81 ±6 ±28 ±39 ±113

11.68 112 224 261 713
11.37 117 264 316 626
519
651
685
618
610
880
620
604
604
620
649
630
614
810
401
764
528
437
571
IP6
The nutritional composition data were subjected to hierarchical
267 cluster analysis using SPSS Ver. 23. The nutrient values were input as
327
315
353
355
339
332
341
328
324
363
310
248
318
375
311
313
228
306
P

variables, and the HYVs rice names were input as cases. Between-group
214
293
279
292
271
275
286
269
255
276
231
263
239
265
289
299
300
214
240
linkage clustering method was followed using squared Euclidean dis­
K

tance as a measure of interval. The dendrogram was then generated to

108
115
121
116
124
122
122
117
120
114
110
117
106
120
125
123
119
106
117
Mg

cluster the rice varieties into groups.

13.44
10.79
13.25
12.19
12.66

12.05
11.32
13.14
13.99

10.78
14.23

11.10
12.08
8.29

8.50

9.06
9.51

9.53
9.82
3. Results and discussions
Ca

0.29
0.28
0.28
0.32
0.21
0.21
0.31
0.32
0.22
0.29
0.24
0.30
0.21
0.27
0.33
0.14
0.38
0.30
0.34
0.28
0.33
3.1. Proximate and dietary fiber content of brown rice
Cu
1C – Minerals and Phytate

The proximate composition of Assam brown rice varieties is presented

2.28
2.41
2.70
3.59
1.77
1.96
2.35
2.29
1.52
2.58
1.93
3.92
1.48
2.70
2.14
1.89
2.64
2.58
2.86
2.82
2.20
Mn

in Table 1A. The average moisture content was 11.44 %, very close to the
acceptable value of 12 % recommended for long-term storage (Cogburn,
⟵mg/100g→

2.26
2.67
2.52
2.44
2.83
3.05
2.88
3.01
2.93
2.51
2.90
2.90
2.54
2.54
2.89
2.44
2.88
2.83
1.92
2.61
2.51
Zn

1985). Protein is the second principal component in rice grain after starch,
and a key factor influencing rice’s eating quality. Assam brown rice pro­

0.82
1.20
1.12
1.25
1.13
1.40
1.20
1.52
1.23
1.49
1.23
1.24
1.84
0.83
1.53
0.95
1.30
0.96
0.68
1.10
1.26 tein content in the present study ranged between 7.48 % in BASUND­
Energy Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Pantothenic acid Pyridoxine Fe

HARA to 12.38 % in LUIT with a mean value of 9.39 % and 13 % CV. The
present study’s mean protein content was comparable to 9.1 % reported
for commercial Indian brown rice (Longvah et al., 2017); however, pro­
0.82
0.66
0.46
0.87
0.55
0.35
0.61
0.60
0.74
0.72
0.34
0.56
0.97
0.46
1.11
0.90
0.92
0.71
0.94
0.31
0.31

±34
tein content as high as 15.9 % has been reported in Asian rice varieties
(Kennedy and Burlingame, 2003). Rice varieties with >10 % protein
content have been classified by Resurrection et al. (1979) as high protein
rice. By this criterion, 5 Assam rice varieties, DUBORI BAO (10.12 %),
±0.44

JALKUNWARI (10.16 %), PANINDRA (10.61 %), KONOKLATA (11.68

0.59
1.16
1.34
1.72
1.59
0.77
0.54
1.63
1.40
0.58
0.86
1.02
1.39
0.49
0.70
1.19
1.42
1.93
1.23
1.42
1.43

%), and LUIT (12.38 %) with over 10 % protein are high protein rice
varieties. In a long-term feeding trial in children, replacement of an
±0.49
1B - Water soluble vitamins

3.11
2.51
1.63
2.95
2.24
2.25
2.68
2.89
3.41
2.10
2.43
2.87
2.36
2.79
2.97
2.19
1.91
2.41
1.89
3.09
2.01

average 6%–7% protein rice with 10 % protein rice led to the improve­
ment in their nutritional status (Juliano, 1993). Therefore, using high
protein rice varieties can improve child health.
±0.01

The average fat content in Assam brown rice varieties was 2.63 %,
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.06
0.08
⟵mg/100g→

with a high variability of 13.6 % CV. The present study’s fat content was
comparable to 2.36 % reported in 269 Indian brown rice cultivars
±0.07
0.26
0.31
0.25
0.29
0.34
0.23
0.21
0.28
0.29
0.20
0.37
0.30
0.48
0.34
0.26
0.38
0.30
0.41
0.33
0.35
0.34

(Longvah et al., 2012). Over 85 % of the Assam brown rice varieties had
fat content between 2%–3%, and two varieties GOPINATH and SAMBHA
±0.36 ±0.10 ±0.30 ±0.07 ±0.29 ±1.08 ±2.57

MASURI had >3%. Dietary fiber encompasses those fractions of food

Kcal

71.31 345
70.62 346
343
345
345
344
344
348
338
344
346
347
347
346
347
346
343
349
345
347
351

that are not enzymatically degraded in the digestive tract of humans.

The mean total dietary fiber (TDF) content of 20 Assam brown rice va­
72.27
70.70
72.07
70.20
70.45
70.64
69.72
71.46
71.88
71.33
68.06
70.01
68.47
70.63
69.56
71.01
70.96
71.05
70.64
CHO

rieties was 4.75 %, with a variability of 6.1 % CV. Mean TDF content in
the present study was slightly higher than 4.41 % reported in Indian
5.11
4.75
4.73
4.63
4.38
5.05
4.62
4.91
4.99
4.38
3.97
4.90
4.65
4.62
4.76
4.69
4.99
5.06
4.91
5.05
4.54

brown rice cultivars (Longvah et al., 2012) or 4.43 % found in Indian

TDF

market brown rice samples (Longvah et al., 2017). The average insoluble
dietary fiber (IDF) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content was 3.86 %
0.94
0.89
0.99
0.83
0.97
0.89
0.81
0.85
0.92
0.95
0.93
0.85
1.02
0.78
0.81
0.85
0.86
0.91
0.85
0.88
0.83
SDF

and 0.89 %, with a variability of 7.9 % CV and 7.4 % CV. Dietary fiber
has a good deal of beneficial health properties; therefore, the amount
4.17
3.86
3.74
3.80
3.41
4.16
3.81
4.06
4.07
3.43
3.04
4.05
3.63
3.84
3.95
3.84
4.13
4.15
4.06
4.17
3.71
IDF

and variability observed in Assam brown rice are of health significance

mainly due to their physiological effects on glucose, lipid metabolism,
1A - Principle Nutrients & Energy

1.14
1.13
1.15
1.16
0.97
1.17

1.14
1.17
1.11
1.19
1.25
1.28
1.21
1.28
1.32
1.22
1.20
1.06
1.38
1.17
0.99

and mineral bioavailability.

Ash

The ash content of a food sample indicates the amount of minerals

present in the food. Ash content of Assam brown rice varieties differed
2.89
2.63
2.41
2.89
2.06
2.72
2.21
3.00
1.89
2.81
2.14
2.88
2.91
2.79
2.43
2.49
2.30
2.96
2.88
2.89
3.08
Moisture Protein Fat
Nutrient profile of Assam brown rice varieties.

significantly among varieties and ranged from 0.97 % (RANJIT) to 1.38

% (KONOKLATA) with a mean of 1.17 %. Mean ash content of brown
±1.23
10.12

10.16

11.68

12.38

10.61

7.90
9.39
7.48
8.63
9.18
9.19

9.10

7.74
9.46
8.56

9.92

9.91

9.03
8.46
8.68
9.65

rice observed in the present study was comparable to 1.04 % reported

⟵g/100g→

for Indian market brown rice samples (Longvah et al., 2017) but lower
than 1.39 % reported in 269 Indian brown rice cultivars (Longvah et al.,
±0.41
11.65
11.44
12.01
11.97
11.07
11.56
11.40
11.07
11.93
12.40
11.36
11.28
11.33
11.50
10.97
11.14
11.42
10.79
11.63
11.37
10.93

2012). The mean carbohydrate content in Assam brown rice varieties

was 71 %. The energy value among the 20 Assam brown rice varieties
SATYARANJAN
JYOTI PRASAD
BASUNDHARA

tested ranged between 338 kcal/100 g (JALKUNWARI) to 351 kcal/100

JALKUNWARI
BOKUL JOHA
Sl. No. Rice Varieties

DUBORI BAO

KONOKLATA
GOPINATH

PANINDRA
KON JOHA

g (SAMBHA MASURI) with a mean value of 346 kcal/100 g. Longvah

PRAFULLA

MAHSURI
DISHANG

SAMBHA
DIKHOW

KOLONG

KUSHAL

MOHAN

RANJIT
PIOLEE

et al. (2012) reported very similar mean carbohydrate and energy con­
Mean
LUIT

tent in 269 Indian brown rice cultivars.

SD
Table 1

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

3
T. Longvah et al.
Fig. 1. Amino acid content of Assam brown rice varieties and the effect of 10 % milling.
TAA: Total amino acids; TEA: Total essential amino acids; AAS: Amino acid Score.
* p < 0.05 **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001.
3.2. Water-soluble vitamin content
The water-soluble/B-vitamin contents of Assam brown rice vari­
eties is presented in Table 1B. Thiamine content varied from 0.20 mg/
100 g in JYOTIPRASAD to 0.48 mg/100 g in KONOKLATA with an
average of 0.31 mg/100 g. Higher mean thiamine content of 0.45 has
been reported in 79 rice varieties (Kennedy and Burlingame, 2003).
The riboflavin content varied from 0.04 mg/100 g in PRAFULLA to
0.09 mg/100 g in BASUNDHARA with high variability of 24 % CV. In
the present study, the mean riboflavin was slightly lower than 0.08
mg/100 g reported in the literature (Kennedy and Burlingame, 2003).
Mean niacin content was 2.51 mg/100 g, and a 1.78 mg difference was
observed between the lowest and the highest values with 20 % CV. The
pantothenate content of Assam brown rice varieties analyzed varied
from 0.49 mg/100 g in KUSHAL to 1.93 mg/100 g in PIOLEE with an
average of 1.16 mg/100 g. Pyridoxine content in Assam brown rice
ranged from 0.31 (RANJIT) to 1.11 mg/100 g (LUIT). Padovani et al.
(2007) reported much lower levels of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and
pyridoxine in Brazilian rice than in the present study. Longvah et al.
(2017) reported comparable Thiamine and Riboflavin levels but lower
Niacin, Pantothenic, and Pyridoxine levels in commercial Indian
brown rice. B-vitamins had high variability ranging from 22 % CV in
thiamine to 38 % CV in Pantothenic acid showing scope for improving
its content through conventional plant breeding.
3.3. Minerals
The mineral content of Assam brown rice varieties is presented in
Table 1C. Iron content in Assam brown rice varieties ranged from 0.68
mg/100 g in PRAFULLA to 1.84 mg/100 g in KONOKLATA with a mean
content of 1.2 mg/100 g. The majority (75 %) of the samples had iron
content between 1–2 mg/100 g. Similar mean iron content of 1.23 mg/
100 g and 1.2 mg/100 g has been reported in Indian brown rice cultivars
(Longvah et al. (2012)) and in Vietnamese brown rice varieties (Phuong
et al., 1999) respectively. The coefficient of variation observed for grain
iron content in the present study was as high as 23 %, which shows
ample room for improving rice iron content for genetic enhancement
4
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952
using breeding strategies. Assam rice varieties’ zinc content ranged from
1.92 mg/100 g in PRAFULLA to 3.05 mg/100 g in DISHANG with 11 %
CV. 90 % of the samples had zinc content between 2–3 mg/100 g, while
one variety had >3 mg/100 g. A similar range of zinc content (1.67–3.01
mg/100 g) has been reported in advance breeding lines from India
(Chandel et al., 2010).
Manganese content ranged from 1.48 mg/100 g in KONOKLATA to
3.92 mg/100 g in KON JOHA with an average of 2.41 mg/100 g. Mean
copper content was 0.28 mg/100 g with high variability of 21 % CV.
High concentrations of the macro elements such as phosphorus (315
mg/100 g), Potassium (264 mg/100 g), Magnesium (116 mg/100 g) and
Calcium (11.37 mg/100 g) was observed in the Assam rice varieties.
Longvah et al. (2012) have reported similar levels of macro-elements in
236 Indian brown rice cultivars. The variations in different mineral
contents observed here maybe because of many factors such as genetic,
native mineral content of the soil, fertilizer application or other envi­
ronmental factors.
3.4. Phytate content
Phytate content: Phytate or myo-inositol-hexakisphosphate (IP6) is
considered an anti-nutritional factor as it chelates several mineral cat­
ions reducing their bioavailability. The mean Phytate content in Assam
brown rice varieties ranged from 401 mg/100 g in PANINDRA to 880
mg/100 g in GOPINATH with a mean of 626 mg/100 g. (Table 1C). A
higher mean phytate content of 742 mg/100 g has been reported in
commercial Indian brown rice (Longvah et al., 2017). Compared to the
present much higher range of phytate contents has been reported in Thai
brown rice (863–884 mg/100 g) and Chinese brown rice (780–1110
mg/100 g) by Banchuen et al. (2009) and Liang et al. (2008) respec­
tively. A slightly lower phytate content observed in Assam rice varieties
is of advantage for mineral bioavailability.
3.5. Amino acid composition and milling effect
Amino acid contents of Assam brown rice varieties are given in
Fig. 1. Glu and Asp render sweetness and pleasant aroma to the rice.
T. Longvah et al.
Fig. 2. Fatty acid profile of Assam brown rice varieties and effect of 10 % milling.
TSFA: Total saturated fatty acid; TMUFA: Total monounsaturated fatty acid; TPUFA: Total polyunsaturated fatty acid.
* p < 0.05 **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001.
These two amino acids made up a significant portion (27 %) of the total
amino acid contents in Assam brown rice varieties. Essential amino acids
are required in adequate amounts in the regular human diet, as it cannot
be synthesized inside the body. Mean essential amino acids made up 40
% of the total amino acids in Assam brown rice varieties. The mean
contents of essential amino acid expressed as g/100 g protein was
highest for leucine (8.23), followed by valine (6.26), phenylalanine
(5.29), isoleucine (4.27), lysine (3.83), threonine (3.52), histidine
(2.41), methionine (2.19), and tryptophan (1.34). The amino acid
pattern observed in the present study was comparable to that reported
for commercial Indian market brown rice samples (Longvah et al.,
2017). The amino acid score ranged from 62 in SAMBHA MASURI to 74
in PRAFULLA with Lysine as the first limiting amino acid, and threonine
as the second limiting amino acid. The Lysine content ranged from 3.58
g/100 g protein in SABHA MASURI to 4.32 g/100 g protein in PRA­
FULLA, while threonine content ranged from 3.32 g/100 g protein in
KONOKLATA to 3.7 g/100 g protein in PRAFULLA. Among all the rice
varieties analyzed, PRAFULLA appears to be an important cultivar as it
had the highest content of both the limiting amino acids. Based on a
critical analysis of published data, Barber and Barber (1985) developed
a typical amino acid profile of rice wherein values for both lysine and
threonine content the first and second limiting amino acids was 3.7
g/100 g protein. Comparatively, in the present study, the average lysine
content of 3.83 g/100 g protein is higher, but the average threonine
content of 3.52 g/100 g protein is lower. Generally, rice protein is
considered the best among all the cereals even though lysine is the
limiting amino acid for rice itself; its content is the highest among all the
cereals (Sotelo et al., 1994).
The effect of 10 % DoM showed varying changes in amino acid
contents. Compared to brown rice, significant (P < 0.05) loss of alanine,
arginine, glycine (P < 0.0001) and gain in glutamate (P < 0.05) content
was observed. More importantly, significant losses of the essential
amino acids of histidine (P < 0.0001), as well as the first and second
limiting amino acids, lysine (P < 0.0001) and threonine (P < 0.001) was
observed due to milling. The reduced content of lysine, the first limiting
amino acid in rice, is also reflected in the significant (p < 0.001)
reduction of the milled white rice’s amino acid score. Milling negatively
affects the protein quality of milled rice, but it remains the principal
source of protein for the population subsisting on rice. Based on the
5
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952
amino acid profile, brown rice’s protein quality is better than milled
white rice. Thus, utilizing brown rice appears to be a suitable option to
improve the diet’s protein quality.
3.6. Fatty acid composition and milling effect
The fatty acid profile of Assam brown rice varieties is presented in
Fig. 2. The predominant fatty acids in the Assam brown rice varieties
were linoleic (39.78 %), oleic (32.17 %), and palmitic (22.32 %) acids,
even though the coefficient of variation observed for these major fatty
acids was low (<7% CV). Minor fatty acids included myristic (0.82 %),
stearic (1.66 %) and α-linolenic acids (1.75 %) with higher variations of
35 % CV, 14 % CV and 18 % CV, respectively. The essential fatty acids
linoleic acid and linolenic acid together accounted for over 41 % of the
total fatty acids. Linoleic acid ranged from 37.43 % in RANJIT to 43.30
% in LUIT, while α-Linolenic acid ranged from 1.3 % in KON JOHA to
2.39 % in LUIT. The fatty acid profile of brown rice in this study is
comparable with those reported by other investigators (Kitta et al.,
2005; Verma and Srivastav, 2017; Longvah et al., 2017). It is interesting
to note that very tiny levels of capric acid (0.35), arachidic (0.32),
behenic (0.11), lignoceric (0.13), nervonic (0.08) and eicosenoic (0.32)
acids were also present in Assam brown rice. Total unsaturated fatty acid
content was 74 %, with linoleic acid as the chief unsaturated fatty acid.
Total saturated fatty acids content was 26 %, and palmitic was the
prominent fatty acid. Compared to other cereals, the lower level of total
saturated fatty acids in rice renders them a healthier and better choice.
Milling at 10 % DoM had a marked effect on the content of all the
fatty acids. Significant (p < 0.001) increase was observed in the major
fatty acids palmitic and linoleic acids, while Oleic acid reduced. Overall,
there was a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in TMUFA (32 %) and in­
crease in TSFA (17 %) and TPUFA (15 %). The essential fatty acids
linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid increased by 15 % (P < 0.001) and
17 % (P < 0.01) respectively, which is nutritionally important. The
changes in the individual fatty acid contents in rice due to milling can be
attributed mainly to the removal of the embryo, a rich source of fat
during the milling process.
T. Longvah et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 101 (2021) 103952

Table 2
Nutrient losses due to milling of Assam rice varieties.
Brown rice 5 % DoM 10 % DoM 0− 5% 0− 10% 5− 10%
a a a
Protein g/100 g 9.39 8.97 8.8 − 4.47 − 6.28 − 1.90
Fat g/100 g 2.63a 1.59b 1.07c − 39.54 − 59.32 − 32.70
Ash g/100 g 1.17a 0.64b 0.4c − 45.30 − 65.81 − 37.50
IDF g/100 g 3.86a 2.33b 1.52c − 39.64 − 60.62 − 34.76
SDF g/100 g 0.89a 0.64b 0.38c − 28.09 − 57.30 − 40.63
TDF g/100 g 4.75a 2.97b 1.9c − 37.47 − 60.00 − 36.03
Carbohydrates g/100 g 70.62a 74.33b 76.4c 5.25 8.18 2.78
Thiamine mg/100 g 0.31a 0.13b 0.07c − 58.06 − 77.42 − 46.15
Riboflavin mg/100 g 0.06a 0.04a 0.02a − 33.33 − 66.67 − 50.00
Niacin mg/100 g 2.51a 1.37b 0.9c − 45.42 − 64.14 − 34.31
Vitamin B6 mg/100 g 0.71a 0.54 b 0.39c − 24.18 − 45.18 − 27.70
Iron mg/100 g 1.2a 0.56b 0.33c − 53.33 − 72.50 − 41.07
Zinc mg/100 g 2.67a 2.13b 1.94c − 20.22 − 27.34 − 8.92
Manganese mg/100 g 2.41a 1.38b 1.09c − 42.74 − 54.77 − 21.01
Copper mg/100 g 0.28a 0.22b 0.2b − 21.43 − 28.57 − 9.09
Magnesium mg/100 g 116.68a 70.84b 39.81c − 39.29 − 65.88 − 43.80
Calcium mg/100 g 11.37a 7.86b 6.58c − 30.87 − 42.13 − 16.28
Potassium mg/100 g 263.67a 154.2b 108.07c − 41.52 − 59.01 − 29.92
Phosphorus mg/100 g 315.74a 191b 134.63c − 39.51 − 57.36 − 29.51
Phytate mg/100 g 6.26a 3.71b 2.23c − 40.73 − 64.38 − 39.89

Different superscripts in the same row denote significance (p<0.05).

Fig. 3. Linkage among Assam rice genotypes as determined by nutrient composition.

3.7. Effect of milling on principle nutrients, vitamins and minerals
The nutrient contents of Assam brown and milled (5% and 10 %
DoM) rice and the extent of nutrient changes are given in Table 2. Except
for moisture and protein, all other nutrients showed significant losses (P
< 0.05) due to milling at either 5% or 10 % DoM compared to brown
rice. Only carbohydrates showed a small degree of net gain due to the
overall loss of all other nutrients. At 5% DoM, the greatest loss among
proximate nutrients was observed for ash (-45 % between), followed by
fat (-40 %) and total dietary fiber (-38 %). Among vitamins, the greatest
loss was observed for Thiamine (-58 %), followed by Niacin (-46 %) and
Riboflavin (-33 %). Among minerals, the greatest loss was observed for
iron (-53 %) followed by manganese (-43 %), potassium (-42 %),
phosphorus (-40 %), magnesium (-39 %), calcium (-31 %), copper (-21
%) and zinc (-20 %). A further additional loss of around 20 % was
observed at 10 % milling for all nutrients except manganese (12 %),
calcium (11 %), copper (7%), and zinc (7%). The loss of minerals due to
milling was in the order of iron > manganese > potassium > calcium >
zinc, similar to those reported previously by Itani et al. (2002) and
Lamberts et al. (2007). Loss due to 10 % DoM for different nutrients
vary, but the losses observed in the present study are comparable to
those reported by other investigators (Antoine et al., 2012; Liu et al.,
2017). Phytate content reduced by 42 % and 67 % at 5% and 10 %
milling, respectively. Milling is an important step in the post-production
of rice, and rice bran, the by-product of rice milling, reportedly contains
12–17 % protein, 13–23 % fat, 34–54 % carbohydrates, 6–14 % fiber and

6
T. Longvah et al.
8–18 % ash (Saunders, 1985) which reflects nutrient loss from rice due
to milling. Thus, controlling milling can significantly improve nutrient
content and its intake through rice. Thus reducing the DoM to 5%, like
hand-pound rice, can overcome lower shelf life and consumer accept­
ability and improve nutrient intakes.
3.8. Cluster analysis
The dendrogram of 20 Assam brown rice varieties based on nutrient
composition is presented in Fig. 3. Two major clusters (A and B) were
observed at a similarity coefficient of 25 %. Cluster A was the smallest
with seven varieties (Dubori Bao, Jyoti Prasad, Dishang, Kushal, Kon
Joha, Kolong, Sambha Mahsuri). Thirteen varieties were grouped in
Cluster B and were subdivided into three sub-clusters (B1, B2, and B3).
The sub-cluster B1 comprises seven genotypes (Dikhow, Bokul Joha,
Konoklata, Prafulla, Jalkunwari, Satya Ranjan, Luit). The sub-cluster B2
comprises three genotypes (Ranjit, Basundhara, Panindra). The sub-
cluster B3 comprises three genotypes (Mohan, Piolee, Gopinath).
Dendrogram of Assam brown rice depicts the extent of nutritional
heterogeneity.
4. Conclusion
The study has revealed that even within the 20 Assam rice varieties,
there are varieties that are a reasonably good source of either protein, or
fat, or zinc, or calcium. The study of the effect of DoM confirmed that all
the nutrients decreased with increasing DoM turning milled rice into a
simple carbohydrate-rich food. The far richer macro- and micro-
nutrients in brown rice than milled white rice can potentially mitigate
nutritional deficiencies in populations where rice is the staple food. A
change in consumption patterns from white rice to brown rice or even
partially (5 %) milled rice will supply more nutrients, provide health
benefits, and have positive economic and ecological effects. While
brown rice or partially milled rice cannot meet all the nutrient re­
quirements, it is a step in the right direction to increase nutrient intake
through rice. Generating varietal level nutrient information for Assam
rice varieties is a step forward to fill the rice data gap for nutritional
surveys and improve nutrient intakes through the popularization and
use of superior varieties. The data can also be used to develop nutrient-
enhanced rice through conventional plant breeding and to understand
diet-related morbidity and mortality in Assam.
Author statement
Surojit Sen and Sunayana Rathi carried out the sample selection and
collection. B Sreedhar, K Mangthya, P Anita Chouhan and K Subhash
carried out analysis of the different parameters. All authors contributed
to the manuscript preparation. TL initiated the study, reviewed the
manuscript, provided critical inputs and approved the manuscript in the
current form.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
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