Cosmological Field Equations: Metric Formalism

Amornthep Tita
54411277

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Physics

B.S. (Physics)
and
Graduateship of the Tah Poe Academia Institute
(Grad. TP.)

The Institute for Fundamental Study

“The Tah Poe Academia Institute”
and
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science
Naresuan University
April 30, 2015
 Cosmological Field Equations: Metric Formalism

Amornthep Tita

The candidate has passed oral examination by member of examination panel. This
report has been accepted by panel as partially fulfilment of the course 261493 In-
dependent Study.

....................................................... Advisor
(Asst. Prof. Pornrad Srisawad, Ph.D.)

....................................................... Co - advisor
(Assoc. Prof. Burin Gumjudpai, Ph.D.)

....................................................... Member
(Attapon Amthong, Ph.D.)

...................................................... Director, The Institute for Fundamental Study

(Seckson Sukhasena, Ph.D.)

...................................................... Head of the Department of Physics

(Sarawut Thountom, Ph.D.)
 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my parents who have been teaching me and giving me every-
thing. I thank Dr. Burin Gumjudpai, who gave motivation to me to learn knowl-
edge I have never known. I thank him for clarifying difficult concepts and check-
ing my report. I thank Mr. Narakorn Kaewkhao and Mr. Rachan Rangdee for
spending his time discussing to me and for books he gave me. At last, I thank Dr.
Pornrad Srisawad, Department of Physics, the Institute for Fundamental Study and
Naresuan University for giving me opportunities.
Title: Cosmological Field Equations: Metric Formalism
Candidate : Amornthep Tita
Adviser: Asst. Prof. Dr. Pornrad Srisawad
Co-Adviser: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Burin Gumjudpai
Degree: Bachelor of Science Programme in Physics
Academic year: 2014

Abstract
General relativity – GR is a theory for gravity which Newton theory of gravity fails
to explain. Postulates in GR lead to the Einstein's field equation. We applying to
cosmological and local spherical bodies. Postulates in GR and cosmology are the
cosmological principle. These are symmetries of isotropy and homogeneity and
the existence of cosmic time. The postulates lead to the Friedmann–Lemaître–
Robertson–Walker metric ( FLRW metric ) which we show its derivation in de-
tail here. We apply FLRW metric to the field equation to obtain the Freidmann
equation. We as well show derivation of the static spherical case of Schwarzschild
metric.
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Expected Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Failure of classical mechanics 3

2.1 Inertial reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Introduction to general relativity 6

3.1 Tensor and curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.2 The metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.3 Covariant derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.4 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.5 Straight line or geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.6 Curvature tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 The equivalence principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Einstein's law of gravitational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 The energy - momentum tensor for perfect fluids . . . . . 14
3.3.2 Einstein's field equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Cosmological field equations 21

4.1 Schwarzschild metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.1 The general static isotropic metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 The Friedmann–Lemaître-Robertson–Walker metric and Friedmann
equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.1 The cosmological principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
 4.2.2 The maximally symmetric 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.3 Friedmann–Lemaître - Robertson–Walker metric . . . . . 39
4.2.4 The Friedmann equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5 Conclusion 51
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background
Classical dynamics is able to explain motions at low velocity, small scale dis-
tances or weak gravitational force. When the velocity reaches relativistic regime,
i.e. v → c, large scale distances where spatial curvature comes to play its role
or strong gravitation intensity, classical dynamics fails to be responsible for being
the description but general relativity - GR instead takes the role. Major conse-
quences of postulates in GR lead to the Einstein's field equation, when applying
to cosmology and local spherical bodies, it results in explicit equation of motion -
the Friedmann equation which governs dynamics of the large scale universe.

1.2 Objectives
• To derive in detailed of the FLRW metric and the Friedmann equation.

• To derive in detailed of the Schwarzschild metric.

1.3 Frameworks
• Standard general relativity

• Based on cosmological principles and Weyl's postulate and spherically sym-

metric space

1
1.4 Expected Use
• Obtaining detailed derivation of FLRW metric, the Friedmann equation and
the Schwarzschild metric

1.5 Procedures
• Studying tensor analysis and calculational skills

• Studying concepts of general relativity.

• Applying variational principle method to Einstein - Hilbert action

• Deriving FLRW metric and Friedmann equation

• Deriving Schwarzschild metric

• Conclusion

1.6 Outcome
• Detailed derivation of the FLRW metric and the Friedmann equation

• Detailed derivation of the Schwarzschild metric

2
Chapter 2

Failure of classical mechanics

2.1 Inertial reference frames

Newton introduced his three laws of motion as axioms of classical mechanics.
These laws introduce a frame of reference called inertial frame.
To measure velocity of a an object, we need a frame of reference. The Earth and
is not really inertial frame due it motion.
In the absence of gravity, if S and S ′ are two inertial frames then S ′ can differ
from S only by (i) a translation, and/or (ii) a rotation and/or (iii) a motion of one
frame with respect to the other at a constant velocity.

2.2 Special relativity

Consider inertial frames of reference moving with constant velocity to each other
x′ = x − vt
y′ = y
z′ = z
t′ = t (2.1)
that is so called Galilean transformation. Newton's law are invariant under Galilean
transformation
Fi = mẍi = mẍ′i = Fi′ . (2.2)
However electromagnetic wave equation is not invariant under Galilean transfor-
mation. Consider electromagnetic wave equation:
1 ∂2ϕ
∇ ϕ= 2 2
2
c ∂t
3
or
∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ
+ + 2 − 2 =0 (2.3)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z ∂t
Using chain rule and equation (2.1) to transform coordinate, the wave equation
become
c2 − v 2 ∂ 2 ϕ 2v ∂ 2 ϕ ∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ
+ + + − =0 (2.4)
c2 ∂x′2 c2 ∂t′ ∂x′ ∂y ′2 ∂z ′ c2 ∂t′2
This equation contradicts to Einstein's postulates in special relativity that physical
laws should be the same in all inertial frames. Therefore we require new transfor-
mation law, Lorentz transformation.
Einstein's principle of special relativity states that

• the laws of physical phenomena are the same in all inertial reference frames.
• the velocity of light is the same in all inertial reference frames.

Newtonian mechanics considers only three-dimensional space while special

relativity considers space and time as one single entity called spacetieme.

The spacetime interval in four dimensional spacetime is

ds2 = −c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 . (2.5)

The Lorentz transformation between two frames is written as

cdt′ = γ(cdt − vdx/c)

dx′ = γ(dx − vdt)
dy ′ = dy
dz ′ = dz. (2.6)

Using equation (2.5) and equation (2.6), we obtain

−c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = −c2 dt′2 + dx′2 + dy ′2 + dz ′2

ds2 = ds′2 (2.7)

since speed of light is the same in all inertial frame.

Problem of Newton's theory of gravity is that the theory permits action at a dis-
tance. A point mass at one place may then act instantaneously on a point mass
at another remote position. According to the special theory of relativity, instanta-
neous action at a distance is impossible, because the limitations on speeds faster

4
than the speed of light c is not possible at arbitrary distances.
Considering at strong gravitational force(i.e. closer to the Sun), Newton's the-
ory of gravity is not acceptable, the theory needs to be modified to general rela-
tivistic case where curvature effect comes to play the role. Example, As it orbits
the Sun, this planet follows an ellipse but Mercury to the sun does not always occur
at the same place but that it slowly moves around the sun.This rotation of the orbit
is called a precession. Newton's theory does not fully explain the precession of
Mercury's orbit but General Relativity provides full explanation for the observed
precession of Mercury's orbit. As Mercury moves toward closer to the Sun, it
moves deeper into the Sun's gravity well. Its motion into this region of greater
curvature of space-time.

5
Chapter 3

Introduction to general relativity

3.1 Tensor and curvature

A knowledge of tensor is needed for understanding general relativity. Vectors and
scalars are subsets of tensors indicated by rank of tensor. Tensors are defined
on manifold µ which is n-dimensional generalized object that locally looks like
Euclidian space.

3.1.1 Vectors
Vectors are expressed in general form A⃗ = Aα eα where Aα is components of
vector and eα is a basisvector.
We can write vectors in frames S and S' as
⃗ = Aα eα = Aα′ eα′ .
A (3.1)
These express the frame-independent nature of any four-vectors. We can trans-
form vectors from frames S to S' by
′
α′ ∂xα β ′
A = β
A = Λαβ Aβ (3.2)
∂x
′
where Λαβ is a general transformation metric.
We call vectors which transforms in this way, "Contravariant vector" or "tan-
gent vector Aα "
′
Consider a scalar differentiate ϕ with respect to xα
we obtain
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂xβ β ∂ϕ
α ′ = β α ′ = Λ α′ . (3.3)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xβ
These quantities are called "Covariant vectors" or "one-forms"

6
3.1.2 The metric tensor
Metrices are used to define distance and length of vector.
Consider a scalar product,
⃗·B
A ⃗ = Aµ B µ (3.4)
⃗·B
A ⃗ = gµν Aν B µ (3.5)

gµν are components of a tensor called " metric tensor ". We define the inverse of
gµν as g µν whereas

gµν g να = δµα . (3.6)

The metric tensor and inverse metric tensor, gµν and g µν can be used to lower
and raise any given index of tensor,

Aµ = gµν Aν (3.7)
Aµ = g µν Aν . (3.8)

The square of the infinitesimal distance distance or interval in special relativity.

Consider scalar product

ds2 = dxµ dxµ (3.9)

ds2 = ηµν dxν dxµ (3.10)

where
 
−1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
ηµν =
 0
 (3.11)
0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

ηµν is a flat Minkowski metric.

In general relativity we are interested in curved space. We write gµν instead of ηµν
to obtain

ds2 = gµν dxν dxµ (3.12)

7
3.1.3 Covariant derivative
Suppose the vector field V⃗ (x) is defined over some region of a manifold, We will
consider derivative of vector field.
Consider of contravariant components of V⃗ = V µ eµ we thus obtain

∂ V⃗ ∂V α α ∂eα
= e α + V . (3.13)
∂xβ ∂xβ ∂xβ
In the second term, the coordinate basis vector varies with the position in the
manifold, and hence can be expanded over the basis
∂eα
β
= Γγαβ eγ (3.14)
∂x
where the Γγαβ are a set of coefficients depending on position.
They are call "connection coefficients" or "Christoffel symbols". In flat space
Γγαβ = 0. But in curve space it is impossibleto make all the Γγαβ vanish over all
space.
From (3.13),
∂V ∂V α
= eα + V α Γγαβ eγ (3.15)
∂xβ ∂xβ
Interchanging indices α and γ, we obtain
( )
∂ V⃗ ∂V α ∂V α
β
= β
eα + V γ Γαγβ eα = α
+ Γγβ V γ
eα (3.16)
∂x ∂x ∂xβ
so
∂V α
+ Γαγβ V γ (3.17)
∂xβ
are the components of a tensor, call the covariant derivative of a tensor. The com-
ponent is expressed as

∇β V α = ∂β V α + Γαγβ V γ (3.18)

The notation ∂β is introduced by ∂β ≡ ∂/∂xβ

Next, we considering the derivative of V⃗ = Vα eα

∂ V⃗ ∂Vα α ∂eα
= e + Vα (3.19)
∂xβ ∂xβ ∂xβ

8
The derivatives of the dual basis vectors with respect to the coordinates are given
by
∂eα
= ∂β eα = −Γαγβ eγ . (3.20)
∂xβ
We obtain

∂ V⃗ ∂Vα α ( α γ)
= e + Vα −Γγβ e . (3.21)
∂xβ ∂xβ

Interchanging indices γ and α, we obtain

∂ V⃗ ∂Vα α ( γ α) ( ) α
= e + Vγ −Γ αβ e = ∂ β V α − Γγ
αβ Vγ e . (3.22)
∂xβ ∂xβ
Covariant derivative for covariant vector is hence

∇β Vα = ∂β Vα − Γγαβ Vγ . (3.23)

Covariant derivative of the metric tensor vanishes,

∇β gαγ = 0 (3.24)

and

∇β g αγ = 0. (3.25)

Considering the Cristoffel symbols we can shows that it can be expressed with
the metric.

1
Γαγβ = g αδ (∂γ gδβ + ∂β gγδ − ∂δ gγβ ) . (3.26)
2
The Cristoffel symbols are necessarily symmetric under interchanging of lower
indices

Γαγβ = Γαβγ (3.27)

9
3.1.4 Parallel transport
This is extended to the curved spacetime of GR by the notion of parallel transport
in which a vector is moved along a curve staying parallel to itself and of constant
magnitude.
Consider the change of a vector V⃗ along a line parameter by λ

dV⃗ dV α deα
= eα + V α . (3.28)
dλ dλ dλ
We can write
deα ∂eα dxβ
= . (3.29)
dλ ∂xβ dλ
Using definition of the connection
∂eα
β
= Γγαβ eγ , (3.30)
∂x
hence

dV⃗ dV α dxβ
= eα + V α Γγαβ eγ (3.31)
dλ dλ dλ
swapping indices α and γ in second term
( )
dV⃗ dV α dxβ dV α α dx
β
= eα + V γ Γαγβ eα = + Γγβ V γ
eα (3.32)
dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ

vector components is

DV α dV α dxβ γ
= + Γαγβ V (3.33)
Dλ dλ dλ
where U α = dxα /dλ is the " tangent vector " pointing along the line.
Considering covariant derivative

∇β V α = ∂β V α + Γαγβ V γ , (3.34)

the component DV α /Dλ is similar to the covariant derivative,

( )
DV α ∂V α dxβ α dx
β
∂V α
= β
+ Γγβ Vγ = β
α
+ Γγβ V γ
Uβ (3.35)
Dλ ∂x dλ dλ ∂x

10
where
dxβ
Uβ = . (3.36)
dλ
Therefore
DV α
= ∇β V α U β . (3.37)
Dλ

If a vector V⃗ is " parallel transported" along a line then

dV⃗
= 0, (3.38)
dλ
or in component form
DV α
= ∇β V α U β = 0 (3.39)
Dλ
or
dV α dxβ γ
+ Γαγβ V = 0. (3.40)
dλ dλ

3.1.5 Straight line or geodesics

A line is " straight " if it parallel transports its own tangent vector.

V α = Uα (3.41)

where V α is parallel transports and U α is a tangent vector

d2 xα β
α dx dx
γ
+ Γ γβ = 0. (3.42)
dλ2 dλ dλ
This equation is known as the geodesic equation. These are force-free equation of
motion.

11
3.1.6 Curvature tensor
An important concept of general relativity, is Riemannian geometry which is de-
ρ
scribed in tensorial form. The Riemann curvature tensor Rαβγ is defined by the
commutator of covariant derivatives

[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = Rαβγ
ρ
Vρ . (3.43)

Consider commutator of covariant derivatives

[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = ∇γ ∇β Vα − ∇β ∇γ Vα . (3.44)

The first term in right hand equation

∇γ (∇β Vα ) = ∂γ (∇β Vα ) − Γσαγ ∇β Vσ − Γσβγ ∇σ Vα (3.45)

( ) ( )
= ∂γ ∂β Vα − Γσαβ Vσ − Γσαγ ∂β Vσ − Γρσβ Vρ
−Γσβγ (∂σ Vα − Γρασ Vρ ) . (3.46)

Interchanging the indices β and γ

( ) ( )
∇β (∇γ Vα ) = ∂β ∂γ Vα − Γσαγ Vσ − Γσαβ ∂γ Vσ − Γρσγ Vρ
−Γσγβ (∂σ Vα − Γρασ Vρ ) , (3.47)

We obtain
( ) ( )
[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = ∂γ ∂β Vα − Γσαβ Vσ − Γσαγ ∂β Vσ − Γρσβ Vρ
−Γσβγ (∂σ Vα − Γρασ Vρ )
( ) ( )
−∂β ∂γ Vα − Γσαγ Vσ + Γσαβ ∂γ Vσ − Γρσγ Vρ
+Γσγβ (∂σ Vα − Γρασ Vρ ) . (3.48)

The Cristoffel symbols are symmetric

Γαγβ = Γαβγ , (3.49)

thus
( ) ( )
[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = ∂γ ∂β Vα − Γσαβ Vσ − Γσαβ ∂β Vσ − Γρσβ Vρ (3.50)
( ) ( )
−∂β ∂γ Vα − Γαγ Vσ + Γαβ ∂γ Vσ − Γσγ Vρ
σ σ ρ

= ∂γ (∂β Vα ) − ∂γ (Γσαβ Vσ ) − Γσαγ ∂β Vσ + Γσαγ Γρσβ Vρ (3.51)

−∂β (∂γ Vα ) + ∂β (Γσαγ Vσ ) + Γσαβ ∂γ Vσ − Γσαβ Γρσγ Vρ .

12
 Use the commutativity of partial differentiation, all the terms with derivatives
of the V⃗ cancel out,

[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = −∂γ Γσαβ Vσ + Γσαγ Γρσβ Vρ + ∂β Γσαγ Vσ − Γσαβ Γρσγ Vρ . (3.52)

Rename indices ρ to σ in ∂β Γσαγ Vσ and ∂γ Γσαβ Vσ

[∇γ , ∇β ] Vα = ∂β Γραγ Vρ − ∂γ Γραβ Vρ + Γσαγ Γρσβ Vρ − Γσαβ Γρσγ Vρ

[ ]
= ∂β Γραγ − ∂γ Γραβ + Γσαγ Γρσβ − Γσαβ Γρσγ Vρ
ρ
= Rαβγ Vρ . (3.53)

We have Riemann tensor expressed in term of Cristoffel symbols

ρ
Rαβγ = ∂β Γραγ − ∂γ Γραβ + Γσαγ Γρσβ − Γσαβ Γρσγ . (3.54)

ρ
Rαβγ it is anti-symmetric on its last pair of indices
ρ
Rαβγ = −Rαγβ
ρ
. (3.55)

Lowering the first index with the metric, the lowered tensor is symmetric under
interchanging of the first and last pair of indices

Rραβγ = Rβγρα . (3.56)

The tensor is anti-symmetric within its last pair of indices as

Rραβγ = −Rραγβ . (3.57)

We can use the curvature tensor to define Ricci tensor

γ
g ργ Rραγβ = Rαγβ = Rαβ , (3.58)
Rαβ = ∂γ Γαβ − ∂β Γγαγ + Γσαβ Γγσγ − Γσαγ Γγσβ .
γ
(3.59)

Contraction of Ricci tensor then also defines Ricci scalar

g αβ Rαβ = R. (3.60)

These two tensors can be used to define Einstein tensor

1
Gαβ = Rαβ − gαβ R. (3.61)
2
13
3.2 The equivalence principle
According to Newtonian gravity, when gravity acts on a body, it acts on the grav-
itational mass mG .The result of the force is acceleration of the inertial mass mI
In a small laboratory falling freely in gravitational field, mechanical phenom-
ena are the same as those observed in an inertial frame in the absence of gravi-
tational field, This implies mI = mG .That is to say ⃗a = ⃗g and hence there is no
distinct between inertial frames and freely falling frames.

3.3 Einstein's law of gravitational

3.3.1 The energy - momentum tensor for perfect fluids
A perfect fluid is a fluid with (i) no heat conduction (ii) no viscosity (iii) no an
isotropic stress. We write the energy - momentum tensor for perfect fluids in a
rest frame as
 2 
ρc 0 0 0
 0 p 0 0 
Tαβ =   0 0 p 0 
 (3.62)
0 0 0 p

where ρ is the energy density and p is the pressure.

This can be written as well as
( p)
Tαβ = ρ + 2 uα uβ + pgαβ . (3.63)
c
The four-velocity uα defined as uα = (c2 , 0, 0, 0) for rest frame.
In the limit p → 0, perfect fluid reduces as :

Tαβ = ρuα uβ . (3.64)

This equation is simplest kind of matter field, that is non-relativistic matter or

dust .

3.3.2 Einstein's field equation

Einstein's field equation told us that the metric is correspondent to geometry and
geometry is the effect of an amount of matter which expressed in energy-momentum
tensor.
This section we introduce the Einstein's field equation derived by variational

14
principle method in order to get the field equation.
The least action principle is

δS = 0 (3.65)

Consider action
∫
S= Ld4 x (3.66)

where L is Lagrangian density.

√
The well definition of Lagrangian density is L = −gR, therefore

∫
√
SEH = −gRd4 x (3.67)

is known as the Einstein - Hilbert action.

We derive field equation by variation of action
∫
√
δSEH = δ −gRd4 x
∫
√
δSEH = δ −gg αβ Rαβ d4 x
∫ ∫
√ √
δSEH = −gg δRαβ d x +
αβ 4
−gδg αβ Rαβ d4 x
∫
√
δ −gg αβ Rαβ d4 x. (3.68)

The first term is

∫
√
δSEH(1) = −gg αβ δRαβ d4 x. (3.69)

Considering variation of Ricci tensor

γ
Rαβ = Rαγβ = ∂γ Γγαβ − ∂β Γγαγ + Γγγρ Γρβα − Γγβρ Γραγ
δRαβ = ∂γ δΓγαβ − ∂β δΓγαγ + Γγγρ δΓρβα + δΓγγρ Γρβα − δΓγβρ Γραγ − Γγβρ δΓραγ
δRαβ = (∂γ δΓγαβ + Γγγρ δΓρβα − Γραγ δΓγβρ − Γρβγ δΓγαρ ) −
(∂β δΓγαγ + Γγβρ δΓραγ − Γρβα δΓγγρ − Γρβγ δΓγαρ ) (3.70)

Consider covariant derivative formula

∇γ δΓγαβ = ∂γ δΓγαβ + Γγγρ δΓρβα − Γραγ δΓγβρ − Γρβγ δΓγαρ (3.71)

15
and
∇β δΓγαγ = ∂β δΓγαγ + Γγβρ δΓραγ − Γρβα δΓγγρ − Γρβγ δΓγαρ (3.72)
Substituting equation (3.70) and (3.71) to (3.69) to get
δRαβ = ∇γ δΓγαβ − ∇β δΓγαγ . (3.73)
Substituting equation (3.72) to (3.68)
∫
√
SEH(1) = −gg αβ (∇γ δΓγαβ − ∇β δΓγαγ )d4 x (3.74)
∫
√
= −g[∇γ (g αβ δΓγαβ ) − δΓγαβ ∇γ g αβ − ∇β (g αβ δΓγαγ ) (3.75)

+δΓγαγ ∇β g αβ ]d4 x. (3.76)

That the covariant derivative of metric is zero

∇γ g αβ = 0. (3.77)
Therefore we get
∫
√
δSEH(1) = −g[∇γ (g αβ δΓγαβ ) − ∇β (g αβ δΓγαγ )]d4 x
∫µ
√
= −g[∇γ (g αβ δΓγαβ ) − ∇γ (g αγ δΓβαβ )]d4 x
∫µ
√
= −g∇γ [(g αβ δΓγαβ ) − (g αγ δΓβαβ )]d4 x
∫µ
√
= −g∇γ J γ d4 x. (3.78)
µ

Where we introduce
J γ ≡ g αβ δΓγαβ − g αγ δΓβαβ (3.79)
If J γ ia a vector field over a region µ with boundary Σ
Using Gauss-Stoke theorem.
∫ I
√
∇α A −gd x =
α 4
Aα dΣα (3.80)
V ∂V

Consider equation (3.77) we obtain.

∫ I
√
∇γ J −gd x =
γ 4
J γ dΣγ (3.81)
µ Σ

16
 √ √
where dΣγ = nγ |h|d3 x, nγ is a unit area vector and d3 x |h| are the size of the
area.
therefore we get
∫ I √
√
−g∇γ J d x =
γ 4
J γ nγ |h|d3 x. (3.82)
µ Σ

Where hαβ is induced metric on hypersurface defined by

hαβ = gαβ + nα nβ . (3.83)

Therefore the first term of the action becomes

I √
δSSH(1) = J γ nγ |h|d3 x. (3.84)
Σ

This equation is an integral with respect to the volume element. Using Gauss-
Stoke theorem, this is equal to integral over all boundary.
From equation (3.78) δΓ = 0 at all boundaries, we have the first term as

δSSH(1) = 0. (3.85)

Variation of the metric

Consider metric gαβ since the contravariant and covariant metrics are symmetric
metrics then

gγα g βα = δγβ . (3.86)

Inverse of the metric

1
g αβ = (Aαβ )T , (3.87)
g
where g is determinant and Aβα is the adjoint of the metric gαβ ,
inverse metric becomes
1 1
g αβ = (Aαβ )T = Aβα . (3.88)
g g
Contracting with metric

gg αβ = Aβα (3.89)
g(gγα g αβ ) = gγα Aβα
gδγβ = gγα Aβα
g = gβα Aβα (3.90)

17
Using property in symmetric of gαβ = gβα ,
we have
g = gαβ Aαβ (3.91)
If we perform partial differentiation on both side with respect to gαβ ,
∂g ∂gαβ αβ
= A = Aαβ . (3.92)
∂gαβ ∂gαβ
Consider variation of determinant g using chainrule
∂g
δg = δgαβ
∂gαβ
δg = Aαβ δgαβ
δg = gg αβ δgαβ (3.93)
consider
√ 1
δ −g = δ(−g) 2 = (−g)− 2 (−1)δg
1 1

2
√ δg
δ −g = − √
2 −g
√ 1 g
δ −g = − √ g αβ δgαβ . (3.94)
2 −g

We shall convert δgαβ to δg αβ ,

consider
δδαd = δ(gαγ g γρ ) = 0
g γρ δgαγ + gαγ δg γρ = 0
g γρ δgαγ = −gαγ δg αγ
gβρ g γρ δgαγ = −gβρ gαγ δg γρ
δβγ δgαγ = −gβρ gαγ δg γρ
δgαβ = −gβρ gαγ δg γρ . (3.95)
Substituting (3.94) to (3.93)
√ 1 g
δ −g = − √ g αβ (−gβρ gαγ δg γρ )
2 −g
√
1 g −g
= √ √ δρα gαγ δg γρ
2 −g −g
1√
= − −ggργ δg γρ
2
1√
= − −ggγρ δg γρ . (3.96)
2
18
Renaming indices γ to α and ρ to β
√ 1√
δ −g = − −ggαβ δg αβ . (3.97)
2
Hence variation of the Einstein - Hilbert action becomes

δSEH = δSEH(2) + δSEH(3)

∫ ∫
√ √
= −gRαβ δg d x + g αβ Rαβ δ −gd4 x
αβ 4

∫ ∫
√ 1√
= −gRαβ δg d x − g αβ Rαβ δ(
αβ 4
−ggαβ δg αβ )d4 x
2
∫
√ 1
= −g[Rαβ − Rgαβ ]δg αβ d4 x. (3.98)
2
From the least action principle δS = 0
∫
√ 1
δSEH = −g[Rαβ − Rgαβ ]δg αβ d4 x = 0
2
δSEH √ 1 δg αβ
= = −g[R αβ − Rg αβ ] =0
δg αβ 2 δg αβ
1 δSEH 1
√ = R αβ − Rgαβ = 0. (3.99)
−g δg αβ 2

This is Einstein's field equation in vacuum.

The full field equation

We assume that there is other Lagrangian presenting beside the gravitational field.
The action is then
1
δS = δSEH + δSM (3.100)
16πG/c4

SM is the action for matter field,

1 √ 1
δS = 4
−g[Rαβ − gαβ R]δg αβ + δSM
16πG/c 2
δS 1 √ 1 δg αβ δSM
= −g[Rαβ − g αβ R] + αβ
δg αβ 16πG/c 4 2 δg αβ δg
1 δS 1 1 1 δSM
√ = [Rαβ − gαβ R] + √ =0 (3.101)
−g δg αβ 16πG/c 4 2 −g δg αβ

19
define the energy - momentum tensor
1 δSM
Tαβ = −2 √
−g δg αβ
1 δSM 1
√ = − Tαβ (3.102)
−g δg αβ 2

we obtain
1 1 1
4
[Rαβ − gαβ R] − Tαβ = 0
16πG/c 2 2
1 ( )1
Rαβ − gαβ R = 16πG/c4 Tαβ .
2 2
This allows us to recover the complete Einstein's equation
1 8πG
Rαβ − gαβ R = 4 Tαβ . (3.103)
2 c

20
Chapter 4

Cosmological field equations

4.1 Schwarzschild metric

We discuss the exact solution to Einstein's equation here. The Schwarzschild so-
lution represents the spacetime geometry outside a spherically symmetric matter
distribution.

4.1.1 The general static isotropic metric

A static spacetime is one for which some timelike coordinate x0 with following
properties
(i) the metric component gµν are independent of x0
(ii) line element ds2 is invariant under transformation x0 → −x0 .
Considering from the line element
ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (4.1)
Which is invariant under x0 → −x0 . Hence the metric is static, and ds2 depends
only on rotational invariant of the spacelike coordinates xi
Consider first the Minkowski interval in spherically coordinates (t, r, θ, ϕ)
ds2 = −c2 dt2 + dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ) (4.2)
A general isotropic metric can be written as
ds2 = −Adt2 + Bdtdr + Cdr2 + D(dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ) (4.3)
• Expect symmetry under ϕ → −ϕ, θ → π − θ.
• A, B, C and D cannot depend on θ or ϕ. (functions of r and t only)
Define a new radial coordinate by r̄2 = D
ds2 = −Adt2 + Bdtdr̄ + Cdr̄2 + r̄2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ). (4.4)

21
Introduce a new timelike coordinate t̄ define by
[ ]
1
dt̄ = Φ(t, r̄) A(t, r̄)dt − B(t, r̄)dr̄ , (4.5)
2
where Φ(t, r̄ is an integrating factor and
( ( )2 )
1 1
dt̄2 = Φ2 A2 dt2 − 2Adt Bdr̄ + Bdr̄
2 2
( )
1 2 2
dt̄2 = Φ A dt − ABdtdr̄ + B dr̄
2 2 2
4
2
dt̄ 1
−A2 dt2 + ABdtdr̄ = − 2 + B 2 dr̄2
Φ 4
2
dt 1 B2 2
−Adt2 + Bdtdr̄ = − 2 + dr̄ (4.6)
ΦA 4 A
dt̄2 B2 2
ds2 = − 2 + dr̄ + Cdr̄2 + r̄2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 )
Φ
( A )4A ( )
1 B2
ds2 = − 2
2
dt̄ + C + dr̄2 + r̄2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 )
ΦA 4A
ds2 = −Ādt̄ + B̄dr̄ + r̄ (dθ + sin2 θdϕ2 ).
2 2 2 2
(4.7)
1 B2
Where we define a new function Ā = Φ2 A
and B̄ = C + 4A
Dropping the bar we get

ds2 = −A(t, r)dt2 + B(t, r)dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ).

We require the metric function gµν to be independent of the timelike coordinate,

i.e. A and B must be function of r only. Thus we have the general form of an
isotropic metric.

ds2 = −A(r)dt2 + B(r)dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ) (4.8)

We are interested in the spacetime geometry outside a spherical mass distribution.

The empty space field, the Ricci tensor vanishes,

Rµν = 0 (4.9)

From the metric we get

 
−A 0 0 0
 0 B 0 0 
gµν =
 0
 (4.10)
0 r 2
0 
0 0 0 r2 sin2

22
and
 
− A1 0 0 0
 0 1
0 0 
g µν =
 0
B
1

 (4.11)
0 r2
0
1
0 0 0 r2 sin2 θ

The non-zero elements of gµν and g µν are

1
g00 = −A g 00 = −
A
1
g11 = B g 11 =
B
1
g22 = r2 g 22 = 2
r
1
g33 = r2 sin2 θ g 33 = .
r2 sin2 θ
Recall (3.26), the connection coefficients.
1
Γσµν = g σρ (∂ν gρµ + ∂µ gρν − ∂ρ gµν ) (4.12)
2
hence, non-zero component are
( )( )
1 11 1 1 d(−A) 1 dA
Γ100 = g (∂0 g10 + ∂0 g10 − ∂1 g00 ) = − = ,
2 2 B dr 2B dr
( )( )
1 00 1 1 dA 1 dA
Γ001 = g (∂0 g01 + ∂1 g00 − ∂0 g01 ) = − − = ,
2 2 A dr 2A dr
( )( )
1 11 1 1 dB 1 dB
Γ111 = g (∂1 g11 + ∂1 g11 − ∂1 g11 ) = = ,
2 2 B dr 2B dr
( )( )
1 11 1 1 dr2 1 r
Γ122 = g (∂2 g12 + ∂2 g12 − ∂1 g22 ) = − = − 2r = − ,
2 2 B dr 2B B
( )( )
1 11 1 1 d(r2 sin2 θ) 1
Γ133 = g (∂3 g13 + ∂3 g13 − ∂1 g33 ) = − = − 2r sin2 θ
2 2 B dr 2B
r sin2 θ
= − ,
B ( )( )
1 22 1 1 dr2 1 1
Γ221 = g (∂2 g21 + ∂1 g22 − ∂2 g21 ) = = (2r) = ,
2 2 r2 dr 2r 2 r

23
 ( )( )
1 22 1 1 d(r2 sin2 θ)
Γ233 = g (∂3 g23 + ∂3 g23 − ∂2 g33 ) = −
2 2 r2 dθ
1
= − 2 sin θcosθ = − sin θ cos θ,
2 ( )( 2 2 )
1 33 1 1 d(r sin θ) 1
Γ331 = g (∂3 g31 + ∂1 g33 − ∂3 g31 ) = 2 = ,
2 2 r sin θ
2 dr r
( )( 2 2 )
1 33 1 1 d(r sin θ)
Γ332 = g (∂3 g32 + ∂2 g33 − ∂3 g32 ) = 2
2 2 r2 sin θ dθ
1 cos θ
= 2 (2 sin θ cos θ) = = cot θ.
2 sin θ sin θ

The components of Rµν Ricci tensor are non-zero

Rµν = ∂σ Γσµν − ∂ν Γσµσ + Γρµν Γσρσ − Γρµσ Γσρν (4.13)

Finding R00
R00 = ∂σ Γσ00 − ∂0 Γσ0σ + Γρ00 Γσρσ − Γρ0σ Γσρ0
The 1st component, ∂σ Γσ00
( ) ′′
d 1 dA A A′ B ′
σ = 1, ∂1 Γ100 = = −
dr 2B dr 2B 2B 2
The 2nd component
−∂0 Γσ0σ = 0
The 3rd component, Γρ00 Γσρσ
′ ′ ′
A A A2
ρ = 1, Γ100 Γσ1σ = Γ100 Γ010 = =
2B 2A 4AB
1 1 ′ 1 ′ ′
= Γ100 Γ111 = A B = AB
2B 2B 4B 2
′
1 ′1 A
= Γ100 Γ212 = A =
2B r 2Br
′
1 ′1 A
= Γ100 Γ313 = A =
2B r 2Br
The 4th component, -Γρ0σ Γσρ0
′
1 1 ′ Á A2
σ = 1, −Γρ01 Γ1ρ0 = −Γ001 Γ100 =− A =−
2 A 2B 4AB
′2
A
= −Γ100 Γ010 =−
4AB
24
 We find the diagonal component are
′
1 ′′ 1 ′ 1 ′ ′ 2A A′ B ′
R00 = A − A2+ A B + −
2B 4AB 4B 2 2Br 2B 2
′′ ′2
A A A′ B ′ A′ A′ B ′
= − + + −
2B 4AB( 4B 2 ) Br 2B 2
′′ ′ ′ ′ ′
A A B A A
R00 = − + + . (4.14)
2B 4B B A Br

Finding R11
Consider the the component, R11 ,

R11 = ∂σ Γσ11 − ∂1 Γσ1σ + Γρ11 Γσρσ − Γρ1σ Γσρ1 .

Consider the 1st term ∂σ Γσ11

( ) ′
d B′ 2BB ′′ 2B ′ B ′ B ′′ B2
σ = 1, ∂1 Γ111 = = − = − .
dr 2B 4B 2 4B 2 2B 2B 2

The 2nd term −∂1 Γσ1σ

( ) ′
d A′ 2AA′′ 2A′ A′ A′′ A2
−∂1 Γ010 = − =− + =− + ,
dr 2A 4A2 4A2 2A 2A2
( ) ′
d B′ 2BB ′′ 2B ′ B ′ B ′′ B2
−∂1 Γ111 = − =− + =− + ,
dr 2B 4B 2 4B 2 2B 2B 2
( )
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ212 = − = 2,
dr r r
( )
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ313 = − = 2.
dr r r

The 3rd term Γρ11 Γσρσ

B ′ A′ A′ B ′
ρ = 1, Γ111 Γσ1σ = Γ111 Γ010 = = ,
2B 2A 4AB
′
B B′ B2
= −Γ111 Γ111 = = ,
2B 2B 4B 2
B′ 1 B′
= −Γ111 Γ212 = = ,
2B r 2Br
B′ 1 B′
= −Γ111 Γ313 = = ,
2B r 2Br
25
The 4th term, −Γρ1σ Γσρ1
( )2 ′
−A′ −A 2
σ = 0, −Γρ10 Γ0ρ1 = −Γ010 Γ001 = = ,
2A 4A2
( )2 ′
−B ′ −B 2
σ = 1, −Γρ11 Γ1ρ1 = −Γ111 Γ111 = = ,
2B 4B 2
1
σ = 2, −Γρ12 Γ2ρ1 = −Γ212 Γ221 = − 2,
r
1
σ = 3, −Γρ13 Γ3ρ1 = −Γ313 Γ331 = − 2.
r
so we get the R11 component
′ ′
A′′ A2 A2 A′ B ′ B′
R11 = − + − + +
2A 2A2( 4A2 )4AB Br
A′′ A′ B ′ A′ B′
R11 = − + + + . (4.15)
2A 4A B A Br

Finding R22
Consider the Ricci tensor R22
R22 = ∂σ Γσ22 − ∂2 Γσ2σ + Γρ22 Γσρσ − Γρ2σ Γσρ2 .
The 1st term ∂σ Γσ22
( )
d −r B rB ′ 1 rB ′
σ = 1, ∂1 Γ122 = =− + = − + .
dr B B2 B2 B B2
The 2nd term −∂2 Γσ2σ
d
σ = 3, −∂2 Γ323 = − cot θ = − sec2 θ.
dθ
The 3rd Γρ22 Γσρσ
ρ = 1, Γ122 Γσ1σ
( )( ′ )
−r A rA′
σ = 0, Γ122 Γ010 = =− ,
B 2A 2AB
( )( ′ )
−r B rB ′
σ = 1, Γ122 Γ111 = = − 2,
B 2B 2B
( )( )
−r 1 1
σ = 2, Γ122 Γ212 = =−
B r B,
( )( )
−r 1 1
σ = 3, Γ122 Γ313 = =− .
B r B

26
The 4th term −Γρ2σ Γσρ2
( )( )
1 −r 1
σ = 1, −Γρ21 Γ1ρ2 = −Γ221 Γ122 =− = ,
r B B
( )( )
−r 1 1
σ = 2, −Γρ22 Γ2ρ2 = −Γ122 Γ212 =− = ,
B r B
σ = 3, −Γρ23 Γ3ρ2 = −Γ323 Γ332 = − cot2 θ.

So we get Ricci tensor R22 component

1 rB ′ rA′ rB ′
R22 = 1 − + 2 − − ,
B (B 2AB
) 2B 2
1 1 rB ′ rA′
= 1− + 1− − ,
B 2 B2 2AB
1 1 rB ′ rA′
= 1− + 2
− ,
B 2 B( 2AB )
1 r B ′ A′
= 1− + − . (4.16)
B 2B B A

Finding R33
Consider the Ricci tensor R33

R33 = ∂σ Γσ33 − ∂3 Γσ3σ + Γρ33 Γσρσ − Γρ3σ Γσρ3 .

The 1st term, ∂σ Γσ33

( ) ( ) ( )
d −r sin2 θ B rB ′ 1 rB ′
σ = 1, ∂1 Γ133 = = − sin θ
2
+ 2 =− + 2 sin2 θ,
dr B B2 B B B
d
σ = 2, ∂2 Γ233 = (− sin θ cos θ) = − sin θ(− sin θ) − cos θ(cos θ) = sin2 θ − cos2 θ.
dθ
The 2nd term, −∂3 Γσ3σ

−∂3 Γσ3σ = 0.

27
The 3rd term, Γρ33 Γσρσ
( )( ′ )
−r sin2 θ A rA′ sin2 θ
ρ = 1, Γ133 Γσ1σ = Γ133 Γ010 = =− ,
B 2A 2AB
( )( ′ )
−r sin2 θ B rB ′ sin2 θ
= Γ133 Γ111 = =− ,
B 2B 2B 2
( )( )
−r sin2 θ 1 sin2 θ
= Γ133 Γ212 = =− ,
B r B
( )( )
−r sin2 θ 1 sin2 θ
= Γ133 Γ313 = =− ,
B r B
( )
cos θ
ρ = 2, Γ233 Γσ2σ = Γ233 Γ323 = (− sin θ cos θ)(cot θ) = − sin θ cos θ = − cos2 θ.
sin θ

The 4th term, −Γρ3σ Γσρ3

( )( )
1 −r sin2 θ sin2 θ
σ = 1, −Γρ31 Γ1ρ3 = −Γ331 Γ133 =− = ,
r B B
cos θ
σ = 2, −Γρ32 Γ2ρ3 = −Γ332 Γ233 = − (− sin θ cos θ) = cos2 θ,
sin θ
( )( )
−r sin2 θ 1 sin2 θ
σ = 3, −Γρ33 Γ3ρ3 = −Γ33 Γ13 = −
1 3
= ,
B r B
( )
cos θ
−Γ233 Γ323 = −(− sin θ cos θ) = cos2 θ.
sin θ

We get the R33 component as

( )
sin2 θ 1 rB ′ sin2 θ rA′ sin2 θ
R33 = − + sin θ + 1 −
2
− ,
B 2 B2 2AB
( )
1 rB ′ rA′
= − +1+ − sin2 θ,
B 2B 2 2AB
( ( ′ ))
1 r B A′
= 1− + − sin2 θ
B 2B B A
= R22 sin2 θ. (4.17)

Remember the empty - space field

Rµν = 0 Hence R00 = R11 = R22 = R33 = 0

28
 Multiply B/A to equation (4.14) - (R00 component)
( )
A′′ B A′ B B ′ A′ A′ B
− + + = 0,
2B A 4AB B A rBA
( )
A′′ A′ B ′ A′ A′
− + + = 0. (4.18)
2A 4A B A rA

Add equation (4.18) to (4.15) - (R11 component)

( ) ( )
A′′ A′ B ′ A′ A′ A′′ A′ B ′ A′ B′
− + + − + + + =0
2A 4A B A rA 2A 4A B A Br
′ ′
A2 A′ B ′ A′ A2 A′ B ′ B′
− 2− + + + + =0
4A 4AB rA 4A2 4AB rB
A′ B′
+ =0
( rA rB
)
1 A′ B ′
+ =0
r A B
A′ B ′
+ =0
A B
AB ′ + BA′
=0
AB
AB ′ + BA′ = 0

Which implies AB = constant. Denote this constant with α, AB = α . Hence

α
B= . (4.19)
A
Substituting B = α/A into (4.16)-(R22 component)
( )
A rA B ′ A A′
1− + − =0
α 2α α A

29
from A′ B + AB ′ = 0, B ′ = −A′ B/A = −A′ /A (α/A) = −A′ α/A2
( )
A rA −A′ αA A′
1− + − =0
α 2α αA2 A
( ′)
A rA 2A
+ =1
α 2α A
rA2A′
A+ =α
2A
A + rA′ = α
d(rA)
=α
∫ dr ∫
d(rA) = αdr
rA = α(r + k)

where k is another integration constant.

Thus the functions A(r) and B(r) are given by
( )
α k
A(r) = (r + k) = α 1 + , (4.20)
r r
( )−1
α α k
and B(r) = = = 1+ . (4.21)
A α(1 + k/r) r
It can be seen that the integration constant k must in some way represent the mass
of the object producing the gravitational field.
Consider the weak - field limit
A(r) 2Φ
2
→1+ 2 . (4.22)
c c
Where Φ is the Newtonian gravitational potential. We thus have Φ = −GM /r
Consider
A(r) 2Φ 2GM
= 1 + = 1 − ,
c2 ( c 2
) c 2r

2GM
A(r) = c 1 − 2
2
,
cr
( )
k
A(r) = α 1 − , (4.23)
r
thus we conclude that
−2GM
α = c2 and k= . (4.24)
c2
30
Therefore the Schwarzschild metric for the empty spacetime outside a spherical
body of mass M is
( ) ( )−1
2GM 2GM
ds = −c 1 − 2
2 2
dt + 1 − 2
2
dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdϕ2 .
cr cr

31
4.2 The Friedmann–Lemaître-Robertson–Walker met-
ric and Friedmann equation
4.2.1 The cosmological principle
The universe is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic in large scale. It is said
to following the cosmological principle.
Homogeneity : at any particular time the universe looks the same everywhere
at a particular time. The property of homogeneity is invariant under translational
coordinate transformation.
Isotropy : all directions in space from any points are equivalent. The property
of isotropy is invariant under rotational coordinate transformation.

The former demands that all points on particular spacelike hypersurface are
equivalent. The spatial separation on the same hypersurface t = constant of the
two nearby inertial observers can be found from a root of
dσ 2 = gij ∆xi ∆xj (4.25)
Moreover, homogeneity requires that the magnification factor must be independent
of the position in the 3-space so that the ratios of small distance are the same at
everrywhere hence the metric must take the form
ds2 = −c2 dt2 + S 2 (t)hij dxi dxj = −c2 dt2 + S 2 (t)d2 σ (4.26)
where S(t) is a time - dependent scale factor and hij are function of the coordinate
(x1 , x2 , x3 )

4.2.2 The maximally symmetric 3-space

We require the 3-space spanned by the spacelike coordinates to be homogeneous
and isotropic and also independent of time. This requires that curvature at any
point must be a constant. This lead us to study the maximally symmetric 3-space.
A maximally symmetric space is specified by just one number the curvature K,
which is independent of the coordinate. such constant curvature space must be
homogeneous and isotropic.
The symmetric of the Riemann tensor reveals that there is a unique possibility
Rαβγδ ∝ gαγ gβδ − gαδ gβγ
The simplest expression that satisfies the various symmetry properties and identi-
ties of Rαβγδ and contains just K is given by
Rαβγδ = K(gαγ gβδ − gαδ gβγ ) (4.27)

32
where gβδ is the metric tensor and K is a function called the Gaussian curvature.
The Ricci tensor is given by.

Rβδ = g αγ K(gαγ gβδ − gαδ gβγ )

Rβδ = K(g αγ gαγ gβδ − g αγ gαδ gβγ )
= K(δγγ gβδ − δδγ gβγ )
= K(3gβδ − gβδ ) ∵ δγγ = δ11 + δ22 + δ33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
= 2Kgβδ (4.28)

The curvature scalar is thus given by

R = g βδ Rβδ = −2Kg βδ gβδ

R = −2Kδββ = −6K (4.29)

The metric of an isotropic 3-space must depend only on the rotational invariants
define by.

dσ 2 = B(r)dr2 + r2 d2 θ + r2 sin2 θd2 ϕ (4.30)

where B(r) is an arbitrary function of r .

From the metric we get
 
B 0 0
gµν =  0 r2 0  (4.31)
2 2
0 0 r sin θ

and
 1

B
0 0
g µν =  0 1
r2
0  (4.32)
1
0 0 r2 sin2 θ

The non zero component are

g11 = B g22 = r2 g33 = r2 sin2 θ

1 1 1
g 11 = g 22 = 2 g 33 = 2 2
B r r sin θ
Recall the connection coefficients.
1
Γσµν = g σρ (∂ν gρµ + ∂µ gρν − ∂ρ gµν )
2

33
 We show that only non-zero connection coefficients are
( )( )
1 11 1 1 dB 1 dB
1
Γ11 = g (∂1 g11 + ∂1 g11 − ∂1 g11 ) = =
2 2 B dr 2B dr
( )( 2
)
1 11 1 1 dr r
Γ122 = g (∂2 g12 + ∂2 g12 − ∂1 g22 ) = − =−
2 2 B dr B
( )( 2 )
1 11 1 1 dr2 sin θ r sin2 θ
1
Γ33 = g (∂3 g13 + ∂3 g13 − ∂1 g33 ) = − =−
2 2 B dr B
( )( 2 2 )
1 22 1 1 dr sin θ
Γ233 = g (∂3 g23 + ∂3 g23 − ∂2 g33 ) = 2
− = − sin θ cos θ
2 2 r dθ
( )( 2)
1 22 1 1 dr 1
2
Γ12 = g (∂2 g21 + ∂1 g22 − ∂2 g12 ) = =
2 2 r2 dr r
( )( 2 2 )
1 33 1 1 dr sin θ 1
Γ313 = g (∂3 g31 + ∂1 g33 − ∂3 g13 ) = 2 =
2 2 r sin θ
2 dr r
( )( 2 2 )
1 33 1 1 dr sin θ cos θ
Γ332 = g (∂2 g33 + ∂3 g33 − ∂3 g32 ) = 2 = = cot θ
2 2 r2 sin θ dθ sin θ
Since the Ricci tensor is given in term of the connection coefficient
Rµν = ∂σ Γσµν − ∂ν Γσµσ + Γρµν Γσρσ − Γρµσ Γσρν
we fined that its non - zero components are

Finding R11
Ricci tensor R11
R11 = ∂σ Γσ11 − ∂1 Γσ1σ + Γρ11 Γσρσ − Γρ1σ Γσρ1
The 1st term ∂σ Γσ11 is
( )
d 1 dB
∂1 Γ111 =
dr 2B dr
The 2nd term −∂1 Γσ1σ is
( )( ) ( )
d 1 dB d 1 dB
−∂1 Γ111 = − =− ,
dr 2B dr dr 2B dr
( )
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ212 = − = 2,
dr r r
( )
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ313 = − = 2,
dr r r

34
The 3rd term Γρ11 Γσρσ is

ρ = 1, Γ111 Γσ1σ ,
( )2
1 dB
σ = 1, Γ111 Γ111 = ,
2B dr
( )( )
1 dB 1
σ = 2, Γ111 Γ212 = ,
2B dr r
( )( )
1 dB 1
σ = 3, Γ111 Γ313 =
2B dr r

The 4th term −Γρ1σ Γσρ1 is

( )2
1 dB
ρ = 1, −Γρ11 Γ1ρ1 = −Γ111 Γ111 =− ,
2B dr
1
ρ = 2, −Γρ12 Γ2ρ1 = −Γ212 Γ221 = − ,
r2
1
ρ = 3, −Γρ13 Γ3ρ1 = −Γ313 Γ331 =− 2
r
Combining all term therefore,
1 dB
R11 = . (4.33)
Br dr

Finding R22
Ricci tensor R22 is

R22 = ∂σΓσ22 − ∂2 Γσ2σ + Γρ22 Γσρσ − Γρ2σ Γσρ2 .

The 1st term ∂σΓσ22 is

d ( r) B r dB 1 r dB
∂1 Γ122 = − =− 2 + 2 =− + 2 .
dr B B B dr B B dr
The 2nd term −∂2 Γσ2σ is

dcotθ
−∂2 Γ323 = − = − sec2 θ.
dθ

35
The 3rd term Γρ22 Γσρσ is

ρ = 1, Γ122 Γσ1σ
( )
−r 1 dB
Γ122 Γ111 = ,
B 2B dr
( )
−r 1 1
Γ122 Γ212 = =− ,
B r B
( )
−r 1 1
Γ122 Γ313 = =− .
B r B

The 4th term −Γρ2σ Γσρ2 is

1( r) 1
σ = 1, −Γρ21 Γ1ρ2 = −Γ221 Γ122 = − − = ,
r B B
( r ) (1) 1
σ = 2, −Γρ22 Γ2ρ2 = −Γ122 Γ212 =− − = ,
B r B
σ = 3, −Γρ23 Γ3ρ2 = −Γ323 Γ332 = − cot θ.
2

Combining all term

1 r dB r dB
R22 = 1 − + 2 − ,
B (B dr ) 2B 2 dr
1 1 r dB 1 r dB
= 1− + 1− 2
=1− + ,
B 2 B dr B 2B 2 dr
1 r dB
= 1− + . (4.34)
B 2B 2 dr

Finding R33
Ricci tensor R33 is

R33 = ∂σ Γσ33 − ∂3 Γσ3σ + Γρ33 Γσρσ − Γρ3σ Γσρ3

The 1st term ∂σ Γσ33 is

( ) ( )
d −r sin2 θ 1 r dB
1
∂1 Γ33 = = − sin θ
2
+ ,
dr B B B 2 dr
d
∂2 Γ233 = (− sin θ cos θ) = − sin θ(− sin θ) − cos θ(cos θ) = sin2 θ − cos2 θ.
dθ

36
The 2nd term −∂3 Γσ3σ = 0
The 3rd term Γρ33 Γσρσ is
( )
r sin2 θ 1 dB
ρ = 1, Γ133 Γσ1σ = Γ133 Γ111 =− ,
B 2B dr
( )
r sin2 θ 1
= Γ133 Γ212 =− ,
B r
( )
r sin2 θ 1
= Γ133 Γ313 =− .
B r
ρ = 2, Γ233 Γσ2σ = Γ233 Γ323 = (− sin θ cos θ) cot θ.

The 4th term −Γρ3σ Γσρ3 is

( )
1 −r sin2 θ sin2 θ
σ = 1, −Γρ31 Γ1ρ3 = −Γ331 Γ133 =− = ,
r B B
σ = 2, −Γρ32 Γ2ρ3 = −Γ332 Γ233 = − cot θ(− sin θ cos θ) = cot θ(sin θ cos θ),
( )( )
−r sin2 θ 1 sin2 θ
σ = 3, −Γρ33 Γ3ρ3 = −Γ133 Γ313 =− = ,
B r B
−Γ233 Γ323 = cot θ(sin θ cos θ).

Combining together
1 r dBθ 2 r dB 2
R33 = − sin2 θ − 2
sin θ + 2 sin θ + sin2 θ,
B 2B dr B dr
1 1 r dB 2
= − sin2 θ + sin2 θ + 2
sin θ,
(B ) 2 B dr
1 r dB
= 1− + 2
sin2 θ,
B 2B dr
= R22 sin2 θ. (4.35)

Remembering the Ricci tensor, we must have

Rβδ = 2Kgβδ , (4.36)

37
and
R11 = 2Kg11 ,
1 dB
= 2KB,
Br dr
1 dB
2
= 2Kr,
∫ B dr ∫
1
dB = 2Krdr,
B2
r2
−B −1 + A = 2K = Kr2 ,
2
1
− = Kr2 − A,
B
1
= A − Kr2 ,
B
1
B = ,
A − Kr2

where A is a constant of integration.

R22 = 2Kg22 ,
1 r dB
1− + = 2Kr2 ,
B ( 2B 2 dr)
1 r 1 dB
1− + = 2Kr2 ,
B 2 B 2 dr
1 r
1 − + (2Kr) = 2Kr2 ,
B 2
1
1 − + Kr2 = 2Kr2 ,
B
1
1− = 2Kr2 − Kr2 = Kr2 ,
B
1
= 1 − Kr2 ,
B
1
B = ,
1 − Kr2
where
1 1
B= = , (4.37)
A − Kr 2 1 − Kr2
and
A = 1.

38
Thus
1
B= . (4.38)
1 − Kr2
Finally we have constructed the line element for maximally symmetric 3 - space.
( )
1
2
dσ = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θd2 ϕ. (4.39)
1 − Kr2

4.2.3 Friedmann–Lemaître - Robertson–Walker metric

Combining for the maximally symmetric 3-space with the line element, we have
[ ]
dr2
ds = −c dt + S (t)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ r (dθ + sin θd ϕ) , (4.40)
1 − Kr2
assuming that K ̸= 0. We define the variable k = K
|K|
in such the way that k = ±1
depending on K is positive or negative.
Introduce rescaled coordinate
1
r̄ = |K| 2 r, (4.41)
we obtain
[ ]
|K|dr2 |K|r2
ds 2
= −c dt + S (t)
2 2 2
+ 2 2 2
(dθ + sin θd ϕ) ,
|K|(1 − k|K|r2 ) |K|
[ ]
S 2 (t) |K|dr2
ds2 = −c dt +
2 2
+ |K|r (dθ + sin θd ϕ) ,
2 2 2 2
|K| 1 − k|K|r2
[ ]
S 2 (t) dr̄2
ds2 = −c dt +
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ r̄ (dθ + sin θd ϕ) .
|K| 1 − kr̄2
Finally we define a rescaled scale function R(t),
{ S(t)
1 , K ̸= 0,
R(t) = |K| 2 (4.42)
S(t), K = 0.
Dropping the bar on the radial coordinate, we obtain standard from of the FLRW
metric line element,

[ ]
dr2
ds 2
= −c dt + R (t)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ r (dθ + sin θd ϕ) , (4.43)
1 − kr2
where k = −1, 1, 0 depending on whether the spatial section has negative, zero or
positive curvature.

39
4.2.4 The Friedmann equation
From the metric we get
 
−c2 0 0 0
 0 R2 (t)
0 0 
gµν =  0
1−kr2 
 (4.44)
0 R2 (t)r2 0
2 2 2
0 0 0 R (t)r sin θ

and
 
− c12 0 0 0
 1−kr 2 
 0 R2 (t)
0 0 
g µν
= 1  (4.45)
 0 0 R2 (t)r2
0 
1
0 0 0 R2 (t)r2 sin2 θ

The non-zero elements of gµν and g µν are

R2 (t)
g00 = −c2 g11 = g22 = R2 (t)r2 g33 = R2 (t)r2 sin2 θ
1 − kr2
1 1 − kr2 1 1
g 00 = − g 11 = g 22 = g 33 =
c2 R2 (t) R2 (t)r2 R2 (t)r2 sin2 θ

Recall that,
1
Γσµν = g σρ (∂ν gρµ + ∂µ gρν − ∂ρ gµν ) .
2
The non - zero coefficients are
( )( ( 2 ))
1 00 1 1 d R (t) RṘ
Γ011 = g (∂1 g01 + ∂1 g01 − ∂0 g11 ) = − 2 − = 2 ,
2 2 c dt 1 − kr 2 c (1 − kr2 )
( )( )
1 00 1 1 d ( 2 ) RṘr2
Γ022 = g (∂2 g02 + ∂2 g02 − ∂0 g22 ) = − 2 − R (t)r 2
= ,
2 2 c dt c2
( )( )
1 00 1 1 d ( 2 ) RṘr2 sin2 θ
Γ033 = g (∂3 g03 + ∂3 g03 − ∂0 g33 ) = − 2 − 2
R (t)r sin θ 2
= ,
2 2 c dt c2
( )( ( ))
1 11 1 1 − kr2 d R2 Ṙ
Γ101 = g (∂1 g10 + ∂0 g11 − ∂1 g01 ) = = ,
2 2 R 2 dt 1 − kr 2 R
( )( ( ))
1 11 1 1 − kr 2
d R 2
kr
Γ111 = g (∂1 g11 + ∂1 g11 − ∂1 g11 ) = = ,
2 2 R 2 dr 1 − kr 2 1 − kr2

40
 ( )( )
1 11 1 1 − kr2 d ( 2 2)
Γ122 = g (∂2 g12 + ∂2 g12 − ∂1 g22 ) = − R r = −r(1 − kr2 ),
2 2 R2 dr
( )( )
1 11 1 1 − kr2 d ( 2 2 2 )
Γ133 = g (∂3 g13 + ∂3 g13 − ∂1 g33 ) = − R r sin θ
2 2 R2 dr
= −r(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ,
( )( )
1 22 1 1 d ( 2 2) Ṙ
Γ202 = g (∂2 g20 + ∂0 g22 − ∂2 g02 ) = 2 2
R r = ,
2 2 R r dt R
( )( )
1 22 1 1 d ( 2 2) 1
Γ212 = g (∂2 g21 + ∂1 g22 − ∂2 g12 ) = R r = ,
2 2 R2 r 2 dr r
( )( )
1 22 1 1 d ( )
Γ233 = g (∂3 g23 + ∂3 g23 − ∂2 g33 ) = −R r sin θ = − sin θ cos θ,
2 2 2
2 2 R2 r 2 dθ
( )( )
1 33 1 1 d ( 2 2 2 ) Ṙ
Γ303 = g (∂0 g33 + ∂3 g30 − ∂3 g03 ) = 2 R r sin θ = ,
2 2 R2 r2 sin θ dt R
( )( )
1 33 1 1 d ( 2 2 2 ) 1
Γ313 = g (∂1 g33 + ∂3 g31 − ∂3 g13 ) = 2 R r sin θ = ,
2 2 R2 r2 sin θ dr r
( )( )
1 33 1 1 d ( 2 2 2 ) cos θ
Γ323 = g (∂2 g33 + ∂3 g32 − ∂3 g23 ) = 2 R r sin θ = = cot θ,
2 2 R2 r2 sin θ dθ sin θ

since

Rµν = ∂σ Γσµν − ∂ν Γσµσ + Γρµν Γσρσ − Γρµσ Γσρν ,

Finding R00
Consider the R00 component

R00 = ∂σ Γσ00 − ∂0 Γσ0σ + Γρ00 Γσρσ − Γρ0σ Γσρ0 .

The 1st term ∂σ Γσ00 = 0

The 2nd term −∂0 Γσ0σ is

d Ṙ ṘṘ RR̈ Ṙ2 R̈

−∂0 Γ101 = − = 2 − 2 = 2− ,
dt R R R R R
2
d Ṙ ṘṘ RR̈ Ṙ R̈
−∂0 Γ202 = − = 2 − 2 = 2− ,
dt R R R R R
2
d Ṙ ṘṘ RR̈ Ṙ R̈
−∂0 Γ303 = − = 2 − 2 = 2− .
dt R R R R R

41
The 3rd term Γρ00 Γσρσ = 0,
The 4th term −Γρ0σ Γσρ0

( )2
Ṙ
σ = 1, −Γρ01 Γ1ρ0 = −Γ101 Γ110 =− ,
R
( )2
Ṙ
σ = 2, −Γρ02 Γ2ρ0 = −Γ202 Γ220 =− ,
R
( )2
Ṙ
σ = 3, −Γρ03 Γ3ρ0 = −Γ303 Γ330 =− .
R

Combining all terms

( )2 ( )2
3R̈ Ṙ Ṙ 3R̈
R00 =− +3 −3 =− (4.46)
R R R R

Finding R11

R11 = ∂σ Γσ11 − ∂1 Γσ1σ + Γρ11 Γσρσ − Γρ1σ Γσρ1 ,

the 1st term ∂σ Γσ11 is

( )
d RṘ 1 ( )
∂0 Γ011 = = 2 RR̈ − ṘṘ ,
dt c2 (1 − kr2 ) c (1 − kr2 )
( )
d kr k 2k 2 r2
∂1 Γ111 = = − ,
dr (1 − kr2 ) (1 − kr2 ) (1 − kr2 )2

The 2nd term −∂1 Γσ1σ is

( )
d kr kr(2kr) − (1 − kr2 )k 2k 2 r2 k
−∂1 Γ11 = −
1
= = − ,
dr 1 − kr 2 (1 − kr )
2 2 (1 − kr ) 2 2 1 − kr2
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ212 = − = 2,
dr r r
d 1 1
−∂1 Γ313 = − = 2.
dr r r

42
The 3rd term Γρ11 Γσρσ is

ρ = 0, Γ011 Γσ0σ ,
( )
Ṙ RṘ ṘṘ
σ = 1, Γ011 Γ101 = = ,
R − kr2 )
c2 (1 c2 (1 − kr2 )
( )
Ṙ RṘ ṘṘ
σ = 2, Γ011 Γ202 = = ,
R c2 (1 − kr2 ) c2 (1 − kr2 )
( )
Ṙ RṘ ṘṘ
σ = 3, Γ011 Γ303 = = ,
R c2 (1 − kr2 ) c2 (1 − kr2 )
ρ = 1, Γ111 Γσ1σ ,
( )2
kr
σ = 1, Γ111 Γ111 = ,
(1 − kr2 )
kr 1 k
σ = 2, Γ111 Γ212 = = ,
(1 − kr ) r
2 (1 − kr2 )
kr 1 k
σ = 3, Γ111 Γ313 = = .
(1 − kr ) r
2 (1 − kr2 )

The 4th term −Γρ1σ Γσρ1 is

( )
Ṙ RṘ ṘṘ
σ = 0, −Γρ10 Γ0ρ1 = −Γ110 Γ011 =− =− ,
R c (1 − kr2 )
2 c2 (1− kr2 )
( )
Ṙ RṘ ṘṘ
σ = 1, −Γρ11 Γ1ρ1 = −Γ011 Γ101 =− =− 2 ,
R c (1 − kr )
2 2 c (1 − kr2 )
( )2
−kr
= −Γ111 Γ111 = ,
c2 (1 − kr2 )
1
σ = 2, −Γρ12 Γ2ρ1 = −Γ212 Γ221 = − 2,
r
1
σ = 3, −Γρ13 Γ3ρ1 = −Γ313 Γ331 = − 2.
r
Combining all term,

RR̈ ṘṘ ṘṘ 2kc2

R11 = 2 + + + ,
c (1 − kr2 ) c2 (1 − kr2 ) c2 (1 − kr2 ) c2 (1 − kr2 )
(RR̈ + 2ṘṘ + 2c2 k)c−2
R11 = . (4.47)
(1 − kr2 )

43
Finding R22
consider the component of R22 ,

R22 = ∂σ Γσ22 − ∂2 Γσ2σ + Γρ22 Γσρσ − Γρ2σ Γσρ2 .

The 1st term ∂σ Γσ22 is

( )
d RṘr2r2
∂0 Γ022 = =
(RR̈ + ṘṘ),
dt c2 c2
d ( ) d
∂1 Γ122 = −r(1 − kr2 ) = (r − kr3 ) = −1 + 3kr2 .
dr dr
The 2nd term −∂2 Γσ2σ is

d
−∂2 Γ323 = − cot θ = − sec2 θ.
dθ
The 3rd term Γρ22 Γσρσ is

ρ = 0, Γ022 Γσ0σ ,
( )( )
RṘr2
Ṙ ṘṘr2
σ = 1, Γ022 Γ101 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )( )
RṘr2 Ṙ ṘṘr2
σ = 2, Γ022 Γ202 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )( )
RṘr2 Ṙ ṘṘr2
σ = 3, Γ022 Γ303 = = ,
c2 R c2
ρ = 0, Γ122 Γσ1σ
( )
( )kr
σ=1 Γ122 Γ112 = −r(1 − kr )
2
= −kr2 ,
(1 − kr2 )
( )
( ) 1
σ = 2, Γ122 Γ212 = −r(1 − kr )
2
= −(1 − kr2 ),
r
( )
( ) 1
σ = 3, Γ122 Γ313 = −r(1 − kr2 ) = −(1 − kr2 ).
r

44
The 4th term −Γρ2σ Γσρ2 is
( )
Ṙ RṘr2 −ṘṘr2
σ = 0, −Γρ20 Γ0ρ2 = −Γ220 Γ022 =− = ,
R c2 c2
1( )
σ = 1, −Γρ21 Γ1ρ2 = −Γ221 Γ122 = − −r(1 − kr2 ) = (1 − kr2 ),
r ( )
−RṘr2 Ṙ −ṘṘr2
σ = 2, −Γρ22 Γ2ρ2 = −Γ022 Γ202 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )
1
−Γ122 Γ212 = −(1 − kr )2
= (1 − kr2 ),
r
σ = 3, −Γρ23 Γ3ρ2 = −Γ323 Γ332 = − cot2 θ.

Combining all term,

RR̈r2 2ṘṘr2
R22 = + + 3kr2 − kr2 ,
c2 c2
R22 = (RR̈ + 2ṘṘ + 2kc2 )c−2 r2 . (4.48)

Finding R33
consider the R33 component,

R33 = ∂σ Γσ33 − ∂3 Γσ3σ + Γρ33 Γσρσ − Γρ3σ Γσρ3 .

The 1st term ∂σ Γσ33 is

( )
d RṘr2 sin2 θ r2 sin2 θ ( )
σ = 1, ∂0 Γ033 = = R R̈ + Ṙ Ṙ ,
dt c2 c2
d ( )
σ = 1, ∂1 Γ133 = −r(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ = −(1 − 3kr2 ) sin2 θ,
dr
d
σ = 2, ∂2 Γ233 = (− sin θ cos θ) = sin2 θ − cos2 θ.
dθ
The 2nd term −∂3 Γσ3σ = 0.

45
The 3rd term Γρ33 Γσρσ is
( )
RṘr2 sin2 θ Ṙ ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
ρ = 0, Γ033 Γσ0σ = Γ033 Γ101 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )
RṘr2 sin2 θ Ṙ ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
Γ033 Γ202 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )
RṘr2 sin2 θ Ṙ ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
Γ033 Γ303 = = ,
c2 R c2
( )
kr
ρ = 1, Γ133 Γσ1σ = Γ133 Γ111 = −r(1 − kr ) sin θ
2 2
= −kr2 sin2 θ,
1 − kr2
( )
1
Γ133 Γ212 = −r(1 − kr ) sin θ
2 2
= −(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ,
r
( )
1
Γ133 Γ313 = −r(1 − kr ) sin θ
2 2
= −(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ,
r
cos θ
ρ = 2, Γ233 Γσ2σ = Γ233 Γ323 = −(sin θ cos θ) cot θ = − sin θ cos θ = − cos2 θ.
sin θ
The 4th term −Γρ3σ Γσρ3 is
( )
Ṙ RṘr2 sin2 θ −ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
σ = 0, −Γρ30 Γ0ρ3 = −Γ330 Γ033 =− = ,
R c2 c2
( )
Ṙ RṘr2 sin2 θ 1
σ = 1, −Γρ31 Γ1ρ3 = −Γ331 Γ133 =− = − (−r(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ)
R c2 r
= (1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ,
σ = 2, −Γρ32 Γ2ρ3 = −Γ332 Γ233 = (cos θ)(− sin θ cos θ) = cos2 θ,
( )( )
R Ṙr 2
sin2
θ Ṙ −ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
σ = 3, −Γρ33 Γ3ρ3 = −Γ033 Γ303 = − = ,
c2 R c2
( )
1
= −Γ33 Γ13 = (r(1 − kr ) sin θ)
1 3 2 2
= (1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ,
r
= −Γ233 Γ323 = (sin θ cos θ) cot θ = cos2 θ.

46
 Combining all terms,

RR̈r2 sin2 θ 2ṘṘr2 sin2 θ

R33 = + 3kr 2
sin 2
θ + − kr2 sin2 θ,
c2 c2
RR̈r2 sin2 θ 2ṘṘr2 sin2 θ
R33 = + + 2kr2 sin2 θ,
c2 c2
R33 = (RR̈ + 2ṘṘ + 2kc2 )c−2 r2 sin2 θ. (4.49)

Considering the field equation,

1 8πG
Rµν − gµν R = 4 Tµν
2 c
we contract the field equation with g µν then
1 8πG
Rµν − gµν R = Tµν ,
2 c4
1 8πG µν
g µν Rµν − g µν gµν R = g Tµν ,
2 c4
1 8πG µ
Rνν − δνν R = T ,
2 c4 ν
1 8πG
R − (4)R = T,
2 c4
8πG
−R = T,
c4
8πG
R = − 4 T, (4.50)
c
therefore
1 8πG 8πG
Rµν − gµν (− 4 T ) = Tµν ,
2 c c4
8πG 1
Rµν = 4
(Tµν − gµν T ). (4.51)
c 2
Recall the perfect fluid energy - momentum tensor,
( p)
Tµν = ρ + 2 uµ uν + pgµν .
c
Contracting the perfect fluid with g µν ,
( p)
g µν Tµν = ρ + 2 g µν uµ uν + pg µν gµν ,
( c ) (
p p)
T = ρ + 2 u uν + pδν = ρ + 2 (−c2 ) + 4p.
ν ν
c c
47
The dot product of two 4-velocity is uν uν = −c2 hence,
T = −ρc2 + 3p.
Therefore we have the perfect fluid in comoving coordinate.
In our comoving coordinate system (t, r, θ, ϕ) the 4-velocity of the fluid is

uµ = (−c2 , 0, 0, 0) (4.52)
the perfect fluid energy - momentum tensor components are
( p) ( p)
T00 = ρ + 2 u0 u0 + pg00 = ρ + 2 (−c4 ) + pc2 ,
c c
T00 = ρc4 − pc2 + pc2 = ρc4 , (4.53)
( ( )
p) R2
T11 = ρ + 2 u1 u1 + pg11 = p ,
c 1 − kr2
R2 p
T11 = , (4.54)
1
( − kr 2
p) ( )
T22 = ρ + 2 u2 u2 + pg22 = p R2 r2 ,
c
2 2
T22 = pR r , (4.55)
( p) ( )
T33 = ρ + 2 u2 u2 + pg22 = p R2 r2 sin2 θ ,
c
T33 = pR2 r2 sin2 θ. (4.56)
Therefore we find the cosmological field equation with FLRW metric as

( )
8πG 1
R00 = T00 − g00 T ,
c4 2
[ ]
3R̈ 8πG 1
− = ρc − (−c )(−ρc + 3p) ,
4 2 2
R c4 2
( )
3R̈ 8πG 1 4 3c2
− = ρc − ρc +
4
p ,
R c4 2 2
3R̈ 8 3
− = 8πGρ − πGρ + 2 8πGp,
R 2 2c
3R̈ 3p
− = 4πGρ + 4πG 2 ,
R c
( )
3R̈ 3p
− = 4πG ρ + 2 ,
R c

48
 ( )
4πG 3p
R̈ = − ρ + 2 R. (4.57)
3 c

The 11 - component is
( )
8πG 1
R11 = T11 − g11 T ,
c4 2
[ ( ) ]
(RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k)c−2 8πG R2 p 1 R2
= − 2
(−ρc + 3p) ,
1 − kr2 c4 1 − kr2 2 1 − kr2
( )
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k 8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
= 2
R p+ − ,
c2 c4 2 2
( )
8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = 2
R p+ − ,
c2 2 2
( )
8πG −R2 p R2 ρc2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = + ,
c2 2 2
8πG 2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = (ρc − p)R2 .
2c2

The 22 - component is
( )
8πG 1
R22 = T22 − g22 T ,
c4 2
[ ]
8πG 1( 2 )
(RR̈ + 2ṘṘ + 2kc2 )c−2 r2 = pR r −
2 2 2 2
R (t)r (−ρc + 3p) ,
c4 2
( )
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k 8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
= 2
R p+ − ,
c2 c4 2 2
( )
8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = 2
R p+ − ,
c2 2 2
( )
8πG −R2 p R2 ρc2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = + ,
c2 2 2
8πG 2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = (ρc − p)R2 .
2c2

49
The 33 - component is
( )
8πG 1
R33 = T33 − g33 T ,
c4 2
[ ]
8πG 1( 2 )
(RR̈ + 2ṘṘ + 2kc2 )c−2 r2 sin2 θ = pR r sin θ −
2 2 2 2 2 2
R (t)r sin θ (−ρc + 3p) ,
c4 2
( )
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k 8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
= 2
R p+ − ,
c2 c4 2 2
( )
8πG R2 pc2 3pR2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = 2
R p+ − ,
c2 2 2
( )
8πG −R2 p R2 ρc2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = + ,
c2 2 2
8πG 2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = (ρc − p)R2 .
2c2

Therefore, the three equations give the same result,

4πG
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = 2 (ρc2 − p)R2 . (4.58)
c
Substituting R̈ gives
[ ( ) ]
4πG 3p 4πG 2
R − ρ + 2 R + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = (ρc − p)R2 ,
3 c c2
( )
−4πG 3p 4πG 2
ρ + 2 R2 + 2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = (ρc − p)R2 ,
3 c c2
( )
4πG 2 4πG 3p
2 2
2Ṙ + 2c k = (ρc − p)R +
2
ρ + 2 R2 ,
c2 3 c
p ρ p
2Ṙ2 + 2c2 k = 4πGR2 (ρ − 2 + + 2 ),
c 3 c
2 2 2 4ρ
2Ṙ + 2c k = 4πGR ( ),
3
2 2 16
2Ṙ + 2c k = πGρR2 ,
3
16
2Ṙ =2
πGρR2 − 2c2 k,
3
8 c2 kR2
Ṙ2 = πGρR2 − ,
3 R2
Ṙ2 8 c2 k
= πGρ − . (4.59)
R2 3 R2
Finally, we have derived the Friedmann equation.

50
Chapter 5

Conclusion

General relativity is able to explain gravity. GR based on the equivalence princi-

ple. Uses concept of curved space. Curved space is indicated by Riemann tensor.
This theory attempts to explain gravity with geometry. The curvature of space-
time is directly related to the matter. The relation is specified by the Einstein field
equation,
8πG
Gµν = Tµν .
c4
An exact solution to Einstein's equation is the Schwarzschild metric. We use
rotational invariant or isotropy to derive schwarzschild metric. From these sym-
metry we got general isotropic metric, derive
ds2 = −A(r)dt2 + B(r)dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ).
To find variable, A and B. we rely on the fact that the Cristoffal Symbol is
1
Γσµν = g σρ (∂ν gρµ + ∂µ gρν − ∂ρ gµν ) ,
2
and the Ricci tensor is
Rµν = ∂σ Γσµν − ∂ν Γσµσ + Γρµν Γσρσ − Γρµσ Γσρν .
We get non - zero component of Ricci tensor. Finally we got the Schwarzschild
metric.
In cosmology we use isotropic and homogeneity symmetries. From these sym-
metries we got FLRW metric. The method are the same with Schwarzschild met-
ric, first find the metric component gµν , second use the Cristoffel symbol Γσµν to
find Ricci tensor Rµν and finally we got the FLRW metric.
Applying these metric to Einstein's field equation. We get the Friedmann equa-
tion.

51
References

[1] C. Kaeonikhom, Variational Principle Approach to General Relativity, B.S.

(Physics), Independent Study Report, Naresuan University (2006).

[2] M. P. Hobson, G. Efstathiou and A. N. Lasenby, General Relativity: An In-

troduction for Physicists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2007).

[3] R. d'Inverno, Introducing Einstein's Relativity, Oxford University Press

(1996).

[4] S. M. Carroll, An Introduction to General Relativity: Spacetime and Geome-

try, Addison Wesley (2004).

[5] T. Marsh and E. Stanway, PX436 General Relativity Lecture Notes. Re-
trieved January 5, 2015, from http://www2.warwick.ac.uk /fac/sci/physics/
current/teach/module_home/px436/notes/students.pdf

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