‘elev thatthe ists which we race are of particular elevance to language eachers, it Seems very cleat ro-us also tha their imphieations stretch fae wide. Overview of the book Chapters 1 and 2 provide 2 brief introduction to the discipline of taducational poychology and act the eontextin which this subject has grown. Timportant influences on the development of psychological ideas and theories related to the process of education will be described, and the relevance of these ideas f teaching an leasing foreign language wil be iscussed, Following this, we present the interactionist perspective that will be adopted in this book. Four key aspets ofthe eachinglearning sation are identified he tezcher, the loarer, the task andthe learning context. These fre seen as interacting with eachother ina dynamie way. The rest ofthe book is organised around these four themes. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on what the tezcher brings to the teaching/ learning situation, In Chapecr 3 teachers’ sews and perceptions of lemming are discussed, while Chapter 4 considers whar teachers can do to promoce fd faitate leaning inthe learners. Chapere § to 7 consider what the learner brings 10 the teachinglearnng situation. In these three chapters various thems that are pertinent to learners are discussed the learner a8 an individual, mocvation and how learners dal with che process of lneuing. Chapter # looks at tasks: the place of the task as the manifestation of teachers’ belies and the interface berween teacher and learners. Chapter 9 then deals with the Broader sue ofthe context in which the learning takes place. Finally, Chapter 10 polis together the issues discussed i the book. Wiliams, M.& Burden, RL. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7 1 An introduction to educational psychology: behaviourism and cognitive psychology 1.4 Introduction “The process of education is one ofthe mos important and complex ofall ‘human endeavours. A popular notion i that education is something carried fut by one person, a teacher, sanding infront of 2 clas and tansmisting information 1 a group of learners who ace all willing and abl to absorb i ‘Ths view, however, simplifies whats a highly complex process involving an intricate interplay between the lesening process self, the teacher's intentions and actions, the individual personalities of the earners, thet lure and backround, the learing eaviconment and host of other Nariables The successful educator must be one who understands the Completes of the teaching-learing proces and can draw upon this Knowledge to actin ways which empower learners both within and beyond the classroom situation. “This ie az true for the language teacher as fr the teacher of any other subject. As we explained in the introduction, cis hook aims 0 provide a Coherent poychologcal framework that will help language teachers ro make Connections between these diffrent aspects ofthe leaning process and 10 ‘make informed decsions about what to do ia thei lssrooms based on a ‘eychological theory. In order ¢o do so, we shall adopt one particular Sppraach to psychology which we will develop throughout the book 0 that diflerenc aspects of language leering cae viewed from a coherent perspective. The approach we shall take thar of socal constructivism, ‘which will be explained flly in Chapter 2. In each of the subsequent ‘hapecrs we shall consider the application ofthis model to different aspecs fof the language learning and teaching process. We do acknowiedge that Ieipful insight can also be gained from an examination of ether psycho logial viewpoints. However, thes insights willbe re-examined within the ‘overarching. amework which taker into account the social context of Teaming experiences and the ways in which individuals make sense of those experiences i such contents ‘Thus, instead of taking the view that differene aspects of language scaching ar beter teated by different paychological approaches (Brown, {SoUSe-9), for veample, the learning. of vocabulary uses inforaton eoctaing, he learning of structures is behaviours, leaner training eepeitive we consider thar our fundamental philosophy ofthe educational ‘rBtun nese be able to accommodate these efferent aspects of leaning if i Eto he coherent In the frst two chapters of this book we provide an overview of the discipline of educational psychology. Some major schools of thought in ‘pochology ave presented as wll a the influence that each ofthese has had se language teaching methodology. The present chapter examines wo Gmporant. approaches to. psychology: behaviourism and cognitive pyehology. Significant features of each ofthese approaches tha wll be of alu olangeage teachers wil behighligted and some of thee imphications for language classrooms will be drawn. 1.2. Educational psychology Educational psychology has been defined in many dfferene ways. One sech Astnition offered by Kaplan (1990) describes it as che application of Sevchalogy to education by focussing on the development, evaluation and Zoplieation of theories and principles of learning. and instracion chat Ean enhance lifelong learning. Although this i a paraphrase of a widely feogined definition prepared bythe American Psychological Association, Teoodesription which has is limitations aswell sits strengths. What we Certainly am to offer ia this book i 2 theoretical framework from whic pneiples of earning and intrvtion can be drawn and evalvaced, We sal To be making 2 ease for the importance of leseaing throughout the Iiespan. However, what this efnicion lacks isa zecognition that there isa funda. mental dfcrence berwes learning ad education, Learing i certainly part ‘Of the proces of elucation, butt be wuly edasve ic mus give a broader ‘aloe and meaning to te learper’ife.Femust be concerned with edveaing the le person Todo this mast mee important enteria which wil be ‘ciated farzber within this book, One consequence of failing ro make the ‘ssincrion berween learning and edvcation is that many learning activities ‘ahich ake place in school are noe necessarily educative: they ack areal Value tothe ie of the leaener. Teaches may function extremely well a8 Insteustors and generate a pret deal of learning of 2 particular nature ia their leamers, bur unless the peocess i euly educative, then what has ten learned i likely to be of amted worth, Win the field of language teaching, For example, many language tasks have lite personal interest © 6 relevance to the learners and have limited educational significance beyond the task self This ian see 1 which we shall etm in deta n Chaser “hwhen we shall consider how teachers can give valve to the activites they Sav and in Chapter 8 when we discuss the design of ras ‘We also belive shat a= pat of the process ofedocacon, teachers then selves should maintain a continuous process of personal reflection, within Which they become aware ofthe personal and cultural values and beliefs that nderpin theie own and other people's actions. Oly by raising their aware fs in tis way can teaches come ro understand fallycheir own impli Cducational theories and the ways in wich such theories influence thei profesional practice. Ie should elp them to understand also why and how [far eaching may or may not lad to worthwhile learning. The importance {or teachers of engaging in petsonal refection on their practice i discussed fuether in Chapter 3 1.3. Approaches to educational psychology Jose asin al other arcas of knowledge, educational psychology theory has pss throug a numberof changes and Fasbions ints comparatively brief Ravory, Some ofthese fashions have had a preter impact upon educational pace than others, andi clear that ne or two have had a particlar [iflucce over approaches to language teaching. An understanding of how these theories onerged and connected or conflicted with ach aver should ‘Sabie the reader to evaluate their repecive contibutons 10 language teaching and to place the perspective taken i this hook within 8 meaning- fol context. ‘Bel inthe lat nineteenth century, the feding discipline of psychology swat particulary keen establish itself asa science ona par with the natural SCiences. This led to the adoption ofthe so-called ‘scientific method" as a Imeane of gathering data about human behaviour. Ie also le to a conflict Tprwrcen those who saw the legitimate area of study as what went om inthe aman psyche Ithourhts and emodions) and those who saw the only way forward asa concentration upon observable behaviout. An examination fof the history of psychology makes clear thar the followers of each of these different approaches held sway indifferent countries such tha it was Impossible to refer toa woeld view” of psychology Th the rest ofthis chapter we shall examine two major psychologkal approaches, We stat withthe positivist school and one of ts main of Shoots, behaviouism, andthe iflvence this has had on language teaching, Werhen discuss cognitive psychology and th way differen developments i this ed have lf thei mark on language teaching1 An introduction to educational psychology 1.4. The positivist schoo! Psychology as a discipline of rudy grew directly out of philosophy. How: aaeeay of ee pioneers of thie edging subject in che last decades ofthe loconth century saw the path (0 aczeprance and respectabily 35 ying ith che natural siences, Thos, i seking 0 bring scemtfie fou £0 its Ticthods of engiry, early prychologists abandoned thie forus on the ‘Ramon mind in tse stempes to understand and predict human behaviour. Tratend they sot to find the principles of harman learning by investigating the behaviour of aninals lower dowa the biological hierarchy ofthe animal Lingdom, under rigorously defined condition. This led to an adherence to ar eXperimental methodology which is part of a philosophical form of Shas) krown as logical positivism’ Basically, this approach begins with ‘he peemine that Knowledge and facts exis within the real workd and can th dscovered by sting up experiments in which conditions are carefully controlled and where hypotheses are set up and tested Teledin um to the dominance ofa view of psychology which could accep conly empirical data a5 evidence that 2 phenomenon was oecarang, and Athich rejected anyehing which could or be seen and/or measured as Unscente. Thus, for many years the peedomieant view in Westra Povchology was tha efforts should be concentrated upon trying to under Tad how organisms lower down the hierarchy learned to perform simple teak; for example, how rats learned their way through mazes to obtain ‘od. Iwas assumed thatthe lessons lame fom this could then be fay ly applied vo higher order human learing. The thoughts and feelings of fhumane were consdered to be inaccesuble to proper scenic investigation within this peeadigm, and, therefore, Were not investigated. 1.4.1 Bohaviourism ‘Behaviours is an approach to psyebology thar has its roots within postivigm, and whic has had 3 profound infloence on language teashing {hroughowe the world. This approach arose out of the ideas of eatly Tearing thconss who attempted co expla all lang. in terme of sone form of conditioning The most wellcnowe example i that ofthe Russian Pavlov who demonstated wit dogs and other animals that a response (4 faliation) generated by one stimulus (eg. food) could be produced by {nuronding' second stuns (eq a bell) atthe same time. This came robe Known as SR [Stinufus-Response) theory or classical conditioning. Twas postulated tha all human behaviour could be explained i ems of the way in which simple $-R connections were built up. In the USA for ‘eamples J.B. Watson was able ro demonsteate how easy ii for phobias {o arise out ofa normaly innocwows simalus (eg. a white rabbi) or an nn vent becoming associated with something unpleasant dha occurred atthe Sametime fg loud nis) art of the problem wth carly behaviounstcheocies was chat they concentrated alos excusvely upon the nature of the incoming simul SInd the way that theve could be altered tO provoke different kinds of feaponses However this proved tobe of mized value in accountng fr the ‘oormous Fange of human actions, Russian psychologiss, most nctably Lora and his followers, Vygorsky and Leoater, came to acknowledge the Fmportance of language within this process, although che poica deology lindee which they worked restricted the way im which chey were able {ordevelop and express thee idess. On the otk side ofthe wot, in the USA, meanwhile, 2 diferent route was taken by behaviorist, who began ro focus mach more oa the naure and shaping of responses inthe S-R chai, lind the conditions under which stimulus-response celatonships were formed. 1.4.2 BF. Skinner “The founder of modern behavioursm i genevaly considered 10 be B. F Skinner, who consraced a system of priaiples (he preferred not co cal 2 hoot) co ascou for human bebaviour in stretly abservable ters {skinner 1957, 1987), He lao began withthe premise that learning was {he seal of environmental rather than genes factors. Skinner extended the psi application of principles of condoning by inteoducing the notion a operans ce. the range of bshavioure thar organisms performed or were Capable of performing. He slo emphasised the importance of reinforce sae chasiourt chery thus came to explain learning in terms of operant Conditioning. an individual responds 10 a stimulus by behaving ina ‘ricular way, Whatever happens subsequently wil affect chelkeibood of fat behaviour recurring. the behaviour is enforced (ie. rewarded ot punished) thea the likelihood of tha behaviour occurring on a subsequent ‘Creation will be increased or decreased. In his way any range of behaviours Could be gradually, and even rapidly, increased by reinforcing the behaviour Fequieed. In his early writing Skinner (1957) even argued that language “velopment could be explained in this way, although ths claim has been soundly efuted since then Tn subsequently tuning bis attention to education or, more specifically, ingtnction, Skinner argued that this could be improved considerably by the Adoption of fore simple procedores. He suggested that: 1+ teachers shoul make expicily clear whats co be taught + tasks should be broken down into smal, sequential tess1 An introduction 1 educational psychology «students should be encouraged to work 2¢ their own pace by means of individualised lsering programmes: + learning should be ‘prograromed! by incorporating the above prccedares and providing immediate postive seinforcement based Es sary as posible on TOO per ent success. Behaviourst views of leering were taken up widely by language teachers, and were a powerful inflaenee on the development of the audio Tingaal approach co language teachin theory is applied to Fanguag learning, language seen asa beavious co be caught, Leatncts are fiven language tasks in smal, sequential tps. A sinall part of the foreign Tague such asa seroctaral pater, is presented as asus, to which the learner responds, for example, by repetition oF subscution. This i followed by rebyforcement by the teacher, based on 100 per cent success. Teaning a language is seen fs acquiring 2 set of appropriate mechanical habits, and ctrors ate frowned upon as reinforcing “bad haba. The col of the teacher's to develop ia leamers good language habits, whichis done ‘mainly by pattern dil, memorization of dilegues or choral repetition ff serucural patterns, Explanation of rales is generally given when the Tanguage item has been sell practised and the appropriate habit acquired Thr example can be found in Figure 1 below which shou an exert from LG. Alexander's (1968) coursebook for childen, Look, stn and Lear “The excise t designed to teach the sractres there's a. and there's some. nth task the learners are required merely to repeat he stimulus Sentences ater the teacher, which they can do correctly without under- ‘Standing the meaning ofthe utterances. “A second example i taken fom a popular coursebook for adults, Kernel Lessons Intermediate (O°Neil etl. 1975), See Figure 2. This exercise ses 4 sabutcution drill where the teacher gives 2 prompe (eg. ‘the theatre Gr weekends) and the Farmers are required to complete the sentence (eg "He offen goes to the theatee at weekends}. Again, the exercise can be competed with fairy limited understanding of the meanings of the words Tecan be seen that audiolingvalism docs have a number of linitatins tthe role ofthe learners fiely passive one they are merely cected to rexpond correctly co stil. Theres ite active engagemseatin analysing the language, or developing thie own scrateies to learn more effectively o¢ Initating dsussions or negotiating meanings. Second, there's ite concern for what goes on inside the learners’ heads, or the cognitive processes ‘involved in learning something. Recent work ia the area of learning steatepies has shown us that conscious use of strategies can significantly enhance learning, This is 2 poi that wll be taken up in Chapter 7. Third, 10 14 The posts school + Repetition Drill Books opon. Chore and Group Repetition. ‘ak he pupil pan the Foowing tomers ‘her yu an hone has in groupe (ok o he 1s pice There plate on he able. Al together {sek eho 2nd pice There isome fenin potAl fogeter Te romaining items oreo follows: Sid: cup behind the po ah Some cals inthe cp. ‘Sh. Sweet int pocket {th some seg inthe bow Ph: arabigear in ho kichon Bh, some lamonose nthe bot th: some mk ne TO: some water ine goss 1th: lipep on he ia 128: @ spoon neath plot Teaco Figure 1 From Look, Listen and Learn (Alexander 1968:159) ‘as we have seen, audiolingual dill can be carried oat with litle attention {o the meaning thatthe language conveys. Fourth, there is no room for the actual process of interaction and negotation of meanings which is an important feature of communicating in a lnguage. Fifth, the making of mistakes is an important pact of learning. However, audiolingualise, With its emphasis on correct respons, doss not allow for learning from stakes Tn spite of ite shortcomings, a structural or audiolingual approach has nevertheless dominated language teaching around the worl. There are a ‘umber of posible practical reasons for this. In many countries teachers are ‘ot provided with a professional trxning; in some contexts the peesequisite for teaching isa peimary edocation. I can be quicker and easier to teach teachers to use dhe steps involved in an audioingual appeoack: presentation, atc, repetition and drill. Teachers can also fllow the step provided i {hei coursebook ina Fir) mechanical way. Teachers who lck confidence tend to be less frightened of these techniques, whereas allowing language to develep through meaningful interaction im the classroom can be ‘onsderably more daunting, and requires teachers With some professional n1 Am introduction to educational pychology 1. tnvention Exercise te | oe emt | dom tot Sh | ooo rower: football on Sakray RESPONSE: He always lays fob oe ‘Soudaye ‘ot: He never watches Footbal on Souedoye Prompt: o} Be Hee ot weekends 8 fone too without gor Dower by bus 1} Fonch magorines 1) othe vost nite 49} brown boos 1 daecive stories i caf wih rom it Wekth eigreros Figure 2 Fram Kernel Lessons Intermediate (O'Neil et al. 1975:6) knowledge. An audiolingual methodology can alo be weed by teachers whose own knowlege ofthe argc language is inte However, one ofthe major reasons forthe dominance of audiolingualism may well have been that iti underpinned by a eoherent psychological perspective, i. behaviourism, athereas more communicative approaches have lacked a coherent theory of learning. In this hock we inten to show that socal constructivism ean go some way towards providing we with such theory. ‘behaviourist view does, however, have some postive points that should not be dismissed lightly. For example, the emphatis placed by Skinner and his followers (Skinner 1968, 1974; Poteet 1973; Wheldall and Merete 1987) on the important par played by pareass and teachers in sting appropcaelearningconditions and ensuring paticulas kinds of behavioural consequences shoud not be ignored. (Thien fact sin keeping with a soca interactions view of learning.) Moreover, the notion of reinforcement asa powerful influence in shaping; human behaviour does have a great deal to ‘commend it though, as we shall sein Chapter 6, the whole issue of roward and fedac extremely complex. CConcem hasbeen expressed by many psychologists and educators about BR 1S Cognitive psychology the ethics of behaviour madiftation (Pring 1984), in that can be seen a8 a focm of manipulation of ‘brainwashing eather than “education” This view fas naturally been disputed by the behaviouriste (Fontana 1988). This san tmyporant issue to which we sal ceturn when considering the meaning of ‘slucation’, and how language casks canbe uly educational Perhaps the strongest indictment of Behaviours tas been that itis only Farther schools of thought in psychology concep of dynamic asessment, which i 2 way of assing the tri sees ech that fers saga Fo conentona es He paren rari nature oti extended fo ee prose of the essence than vewing assesment 23 process cred ou BY one semua ener, on ashe ety i ac a8 4 180 97 ern eng interaton between hot pats, The oe of he bese era one of entering ino 2 dialogue with the person being accor efor ont thc current level of pexormance on any tak and apse Ws therm possible ways in wich chat pecformance might be stares. Yoma sbseuentocasion, Thin sessment and leaeningare sen aa percably linked and not separate Process. Hae ae ayy Feucstin considers the role of the mediator as 2 Key aN etn learming. He identifies he sigeiicans parlayed by the face electing and shaping, Ieacnng experiences and also chleen's eres co them. Hosever, he lifer (rom the behaviours i he ean pom the ultimate goal of preparing Termes to lean, bth seats yan cooperative abo es chat mations pay funda independ Atranamting coltrc. Feveratein and his co-workers sre ca en ideniyng the nature of mediated lating expences, and many Te reaped coherent theory of mediation which we ouine im Sarat Chapeee aE ae chat Feucratin and Vygotsky auite independent broke ace tnd emphasing the cal conten whch uring aks sy nen ding mah she concept of mediation as 2 Key element im hs renee yygooky ss focused onthe we of language al SPE Prac a ringing meaning to and obtaining, mearing from Heating oe in Moreover, he pointed out the advantages of collaborative work ae eat beyond the learner's current level of competence I0 ae ape peycologss provide us with ways of helping eames 10 A etenen We can see, therefore, that socal interactions dheories pve os wah ach source of des which can inform ow language ca Pr ace These ideas wil elaborated andl drawn om extensively inthis book 2.4 Asocial constructivist model tn Chapters 1 and 2. we have highlighted some sgofiant farucs of Tired epiroaches to educational psychology which we consider ro be cere value eo the language teacher, We are now in postion co rears caberent framework i which diferen aspects of the aching] Prem coces can be better understood and which will help co gvie Tenguage teachers in their professional practice 24 A social constructivist model ‘xognise the importance ofthe lenning envzonment or context within pian echr lamar lek sd contexte. However roe of these ‘process. This is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure S. ° 7 ‘CONTEXT(S) Figure SA socal constructivist model ofthe teaching learning process “34 What can teachers do fo promote learning? stout how to help Ieamers when they are ‘stuck’ at any stage in thei eeevag, caput tha the teacher should set asks that area 3 eve ose reine at which the learners are curently capable of faneboning and regains that wil enable ther to make the next step unassisted Beane ad ochers have used the ter “laddering’ co refer to tis process {instin and Brener 1989). Despite ths ateacuveness of the coacept of ZPD in is commonsense intl, appliaton in practice more problemate. Vygotsky himelt “Tint offer mach in the way of practical advice as to how ZPD might be Felully employed in the classroom, and ithas been lle vo others 0 find Ritctve ways of doing so eg. Brown and Campione 1986; Moll 1990). ‘tabi aaportant to establish thatthe coneept of ZPD does nor imply that these lve of fesning are berarchicaly ordered or neatly sequenced. i fact, ‘Vypoesky explicitly sated that they ae no. etch of language leaning, ZPD can be seen as complementary (0 invelsnpuage theory. As we explained in Chapter 1 (page 23) this theo«y racine of each learners understanding of the Language systems a being fade reshaped as develops and more closely approximates towards ‘Fettargeelangnage system. The ZPD can thus be seen asthe next level of Understanding nthe learace’sinelangue. Soe curren ews of second language leaning end to take a somewhat nomcopative approach, seeing langage as “picked up" or acquired by ratte process with which the teacher sbould not interfere (es, Keashen 981, 1982), What mediation thoory telus, however seh it the role ‘ehe teacher to help learners o find ways of moving int their next level of Understanding of che language "the cntet to which istration in the classroom does help earners acquis Ingusie ules is top that has been holy debated in langue Tetlhing, Opinion is divided between those who maintain that instucion Gh aie language acquisition, and those who believe it cannot (Long Toto, Some ecarchers such a: Elli (1984) suggest that it may be that iiatrgton helps only when the learner x zeady to acquire the form being gh, the when the form iin the learser’s ZPD. Pienemann also picks sipths conceye im his “teachability hypothesis’, wh ie.emcrion cam promote acqusiton of nguae ifthe form o be acquired re oue to the meat form that would be acquired naturally in he learners Inerlanguage [Pienemans 1989) “Tio impecane sees arising from this are how the learner progresses from level tthe nox, and what the teacher's ole sin Faciatng hs propresion We shall discuss the fest question in Chapter 7 when we aramid the sateies people use co leacn something. Is the second ques ‘Som that we will address next by exemiing the theory of mediation of the Tench prychologst, Reuven Feuerstein 6 ce he maintains chat | 42 Feuerstein’s theory of mediation Feuerstein suggest that right from birth a child's lasing shaped by the FRervenson of significant adult. He refers co these important figures in ‘Re childs learning as editors or mediating adele, aed the experiences ‘har they provide as medued lesrning experience. These ada, at first tents, but ier teachers, acct and organise stimuli tha they consider Frost appropriate fr the eld, shape them and present them i the ways Toosileed most suitable co promore Tearing. They abso intervene in Sfaping the chil’ early attempts at responding co still directing and Ekburaging more appropriate responses whist explaining why one ‘sponse istnore useful or appropriate ehan another (Feuerstein af, 1980) {frus, im consast to Piagetian theory, where it believed that children develop a theie own pace throggh interaction with the environment, the tay in which sgnficane adult interact with children considered t0 play Tones putin he latter's cognitive development. Thc enables the child 10 truce view of the world and his or her place within it. Cognitive, social inl emotional developmentaze ssn a inextricably linked, and the establish tone of an appropriate climate inthe home or elassroom within which tis Trt effecvely fostered eas important athe content of wha is conveyed ‘Where Feuerstcin less clear, howere, i with regard tothe part played ty the child within the imeractive process of mediation. Is worth noting, fre the dominant coe played hy the poweefl adule within Feuerstei’s theory. There iscertanly room fo rites ofthe lack of atenion he pve {othe leer’ contrition to te mediating process. What we now know oom studies of ery childhood development (Bornstein and Bruner 1989) is that within the socal context of the fay, the acbons of children affect those of the parents as well asthe other way round. Thus itisimportant 10 See the child as an Active participant in che mediation process, and that tis process iruly iterative rater than unidirectional Feverstein does not deny the importance of what che inivdual learner Iwings tothe learning situation and to the developmen of wht he tems ‘tfcent cognitive functioning (ie. effective chinking and problem-solving, and inthis he can be scen to be supportive of some aspects of Pagetian theory. However, he emphases the centrality of mediated learning expec tncet above al ee in cagtve development and learing to lath. At the Same time, he difers from a behaviourist Vewpoint in his emphasis the tole played by culture im guiding the effective mediator in his of hee fictions Thus, a vital ole for both parents and edvcaors she transmission ‘feuleure from one generation tothe next and theteem ‘culturally depaved” is used by Feuerstein co refer to those who have been denied acess to their culture, It should be noted hece rhachis saver liferent use ofthe teem “ealtarally deprived’ to that often employed