Formations in the Course of a River
Upper course
Formation of V-shaped valley
1. River erodes vertically as rock particles are bounced and scraped along the river’s bed
2. Weathering attacks the steep sides of the channel as the river cuts down
3. Loose material creeps downhill due to gravity or rainwater, called slope transport.
4. River carries away loose material, forming a V-shaped valley
Formation of potholes
1. Potholes, rounded hollows in riverbeds, form due to fast-flowing rivers with uneven beds. Swirling water carries
pebbles that cut circular depressions, gradually deepening into the characteristic potholes.
Formation of interlocking spurs
1. Spurs, highland projections, result from a meandering river's rapid downcutting into bedrock. Bends in the river
intensify, causing pronounced spurs as the outer bend erodes more strongly, shaping the landscape.
Formation of waterfalls, plunge pools and gorges
1. Waterfalls begin where resistant rock overlays less resistant rock, often starting as rapids.
2. Abrasion and hydraulic action quickly erode the less resistant rock.
3. Steeper drops form as erosion continues, creating a plunge pool at the base.
4. Undercutting of resistant rock leads to overhangs.
5. Overhang collapse occurs, rocks crash into the pool, causing further erosion.
6. The process repeats, leading to upstream waterfall retreat and the formation of a steep-sided gorge.
Middle course
Formation of meanders
1. The river bends (winds) to avoid obstruction as it flows
2. This results in areas of fast water in the outer/outside bank and slow water in the inner/inside bank
3. It results in the formation of a river cliff in the outside bank and a slip-off slope in the inside bank.
Formation of river cliff
1. River flows fast in the outer bank/bend because it has more energy and there is less friction
2. This causes erosion in the outer bend/bank (by processes such as abrasion, hydraulic action and solution)
3. This deepens the channel in the outer bank/bend
4. As a result, a steep-sided river cliff is formed
Formation of slip-off slopes
1. The river flows slowly in the inner/inside bank/bend because it has less energy and there is more friction
2. This causes deposition of sediments (alluvium/slit) in the inner/inside bend/bank
3. This creates a gentle slope which is also known as a slip-off slope
Lower course
Formation of ox-bow lakes
1. Erosion occurs on the outside bend of meanders
2. Deposition on the inner bend of meanders
3. As erosion continues, the two outer bends come closer, narrowing the neck creating a cutoff. The river takes a
straight path.
4. Deposition seals the end of a meander off
5. The lake dries up leaving a meander scar
Formation of levees and floodplains
1. Levees are raised river banks that are formed by the deposition of alluvium
2. Floodplains are a large area of flat land on either side of the river channel that often gets covered in water when
the river overflows its banks
3. The river erodes laterally, horizontally and meanders widen
4. River floods and the friction between the water and the land reduces the speed and energy of the river,
therefore deposition takes place.
5. The heavier material is deposited by close to the river channel
6. After repeated floods this material slowly builds up/accumulates and forms raised river banks known as levees
7. The finer materials are deposited further away from the river channel
8. After repeated floods, those materials slowly build up to form a flat area of fertile land known as a floodplain.
Formation of a delta
1. River carries sediments to sea/lake with a positive sediment budget.
2. Upon entering the sea, the river loses velocity and deposits heaviest material first, lightest last.
3. The mixing of freshwater with seawater encourages the clay particles to attract and clump together, forming
floccules (flocculation).
4. Larger floccules settle sooner than individual particles, leading to sediment buildup at the mouth.
5. Over time, sediments extend into the ocean/lake, creating shallower areas and elevating landforms.
6. Continued deposition chokes the channel, causing the river to break up into distributaries.
7. Seawater's density carries river sediments far from the coast, forming a bird's foot delta (e.g., Mississippi).
- Conditions needed: River must be carrying a load of alluvium or silt or sediment. The speed of the river must be
low. Gentle gradient. Sheltered coastline. Weak ocean currents. Presence of salty sea water.
- Benefits of rivers: Source of food. Source of hydroelectric power. Source of fertile soil. Source of water.
Transport. Building.
- Problems: Drowning, flooding, water borne diseases, water pollution, collapse of buildings.
