Fluvial Processes and Landscapes

 Processes and landforms

 River and watershed management
i. Watershed/drainage basin system –delimitation;
drainage basin area; bifurcation ratio; drainage
patterns and density; stream order
ii.Erosion hazard zone
iii.Migration rate – historical migration;
iv.Sinuosity
v.Cross section
vi.Sediment yield (USLE; SLEMSA)
 River processes
Rivers erode, transport, or deposit sediment (load).
One should note the following:
• Sand is easily transported at lower velocities because it is lighter.
• More velocity is needed to pick up material than to transport it.
• In times of highest discharge, velocity increases, as does erosion
and river load. High discharge and velocity have a direct bearing
on river energy.
• The division between Transportation and deposition is small.
This means that only a small decrease in velocity leads to
sedimentation.
• Competence or energy is the maximum size of material a river
can transport.
• Capacity is the total load actually transported.
 River Erosion
Four main types exist:
–Corrasion
–Attrition
–Hydraulic action
–Solution or corrosion
1. Corrasion
•material and then rubs it against its bed causing wearing away
of the river bed and bank.
•It is also called abrasion, and is most effective during times of
flood.
•It is the main method of both vertical and horizontal erosion.
•Sand particles and pebbles are the abrasive agents.
2. Attrition
• collision with one another of river load as it moves down the
river breaking into smaller pieces.
• Over time rocks become smaller and more rounded in
appearance
3. Hydraulic action
• This is the sheer force of water that hits river banks, and
then pushes water into cracks causing displacement of
material.
4. Solution/corrosion
• Rock minerals react with water and become dissolved.
• Rocks such as limestone dissolve easily when exposed to
week carbonic or humic acids.
• This usually gives water its colour.
 River load transportation
There are three main processes of transportation:
– suspended,
– bed load, and
– solution
1. Suspension
• This is carried with the body of the current.
• It can consist of fine to medium sized sands, which
have come from the riverbed.
• materials are lighter and therefore are transported
without touching the river bed.
• Material held in suspension usually accounts for the
greatest part of the load of a river.
2. Solution
• Where the bedrock is easily dissolved running
water will remove material in solution.
• solution is a minor process except in areas of
limestone
3. Bedload
Consists of heavy load which move either as
• Saltation: pebbles, sand and gravel are lifted up by
the current and bounced along the bed, or
• Traction: larger boulders rolling or sliding along the
riverbed. Only experienced in times of great flood.
1. Solution 2. Suspension 3. Saltation 4. Traction
 Deposition
This happens when the velocity of a river is
reduced. Then the main factors leading to
deposition are:
•Low rainfall reducing discharge and energy
•A river entering the sea or a lake, reducing velocity
•Gradient falls
•Water becoming shallower
•Increase in load
•River overflows its banks, depositing material on
the flood plain
 
 River channel landforms
Landforms of the upper course
•V-Shaped valleys and interlocking spurs
–a valley whose typical cross section is shaped like a 'v'.
–vertical erosion is common creating a steep sided river valley.
–River energy is usually at its lowest thus the river will avoid hard rocks
resulting in interlocking spurs.
•Waterfalls and rapids
–A steep drop in the bed of a river causing the water in the river to fall
vertically.
–If a river flows over bands of hard rock alternating with bands of soft rock a
waterfall can be formed.
–More erosion eats away the soft rock faster such that the hard rock is
undercut.
–The velocity of water on a waterfall increases as the water nears the edge
of the fall, because of a decrease in friction (the water is no longer in
contact with the river bed).
– The soft rock is worn away
and over time, the hard rock
is undercut and may
collapse.
– If the gradient of the river
increases quickly or flows
over gently dipping areas of
harder rock rapids will result
Middle and lower course
• Flood Plains and Levees
– The flood plain is the area of land adjacent to the river channel
which is flooded when a river overflows its banks.
– If a river overflows its banks, silt is deposited on the land
adjacent to the channel
– The flood plain can be made wider by the lateral erosion of
meanders.
– The edge of a flood plain is quite often clearly marked by a
clear slope known as a bluff line.
– If a river overflows its banks, material is deposited on the
banks.
– the material that is dropped first is the coarsest (and heaviest),
and creates a natural embankment called levee.
 
• Braiding and flood plain
– this is where the river channel is broken up into a
number of distributaries.
– when the river energy falls due to several factors river
load can be deposited choking the river channel.
– This will result in the river avoiding the load in the
process dividing and subdividing its channel (a braided
channel).
– Two conditions often cause the reduction in energy:
reduction in the gradient of the stream and/or the
reduction of flow after a precipitation event or spring
melting of snow and ice.
• Pools and riffles
– occur due to both erosion and deposition.
– Material eroded from a pool is usually deposited
immediately downstream of the pool to produce a riffle
– Pools are areas of deeper water and riffles are areas of
shallower water.
– caused by turbulence and the erosion by load in
saltation.
• Meanders
– These are bends (loops) in the river.
– Lateral (sideways) erosion of the river channel
results in the river forming a winding pattern.
– They develop first in times of flood and are related
to the occurrence of sandbars.
Section yx
•Ox-Bow Lakes
−This is a truncated (cut off) section of a meander in the
river channel which forms a 'c' shape.
−If a river meander becomes increasingly tight over time,
leading to a narrow neck, in times of flood the neck is
broken through.
−Eventually this is the route the river takes leaving the old
meander separate to the river as an Ox-Bow lake.
•Deltas and estuaries
–This is a 'D' - shaped area of
sandy / muddy sediment built
up into the open water where
a river meets the sea or a lake
–Deposition occurs when a
river has a decrease in energy
as it enters a lake or the sea.
–deposition on the river bed
leads to braiding taking place.
– This deposition results in
the river bed being built up
out into the sea or lake.
Delta
• Three main kinds of deltas:
– The Nile river (Africa) and Danube river (Europe) have an
Arcuate Delta (arc-shaped).
– The Seine river (France) has an Estuarine Delta, seaward
mouth of a delta. When the mouth of a river enters the
sea and is inundated by the sea in a mix with freshwater
and very little delta, it is called an estuary.
– The Mississippi rive has a bird-foot delta.
The long profile of a river and its features
 Other River Processes and Features
• Rejuvenation
– If land emerges from the sea following a negative change
in base level, the potential energy of a river for erosion is
revived and a re-grading of the river can occur.
– This renewed energy leads the river to re-erode its bed
like a young (juvenile) river in river rejuvenation
– Whenever there is renewed vertical erosion a pair of
terraces occur on both sides of the channel to form
terracette
• River terraces
– They are the remains of former flood plains that lie far
above the extent of present day flooding as a result of
vertical erosion caused by rejuvenation.
 River Capture (Piracy)
• Rivers always extend their length by headward
erosion
• When there are two river basins adjacent to each
other one may erode backwards into the adjacent
basin
• In the process it captures the headwaters of the
river in the adjacent basin
• It diverts the headwaters from its original way into
its basin in river piracy/capture
• The river whose headwaters are cut is called misfit
and the bend elbow while the space between elbow
and misfit is wind gap
the process by which the headwaters of one river are diverted into
another through erosion caused by the second river's tributaries

Wind gap
Elbow of capture

Pirate river
Misfit
River and Watershed Management
 Drainage Basins
A Drainage Basin
• is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
• Its boundary, known as the watershed, is s ridge of
high land, beyond which precipitation will drain into
adjacent basins.
• can be described as an open system, forming part of
the water cycle.
• if it is viewed as a system, its characteristics are:-
– Inputs
– processes
– Outputs  
 Elements Of The Drainage Basin System
• Inputs, Processes, Outputs
Inputs
• Precipitation
– Forms the major input into the system.
– Amounts vary over time and space.
– The greater the intensity of the storm, the shorter its
duration.
– Convectional thunderstorms are short, heavy, and
maybe confined to small areas,
– but the passing of a warm front of a depression will give
a longer period of more steady rainfall extending all over
the basin.
Processes
o Interception
• If precipitation is light and of short duration much of the water may
never reach the ground, it is intercepted, stored and may be quickly
lost from the system by evaporation.
• When water is intercepted it can be stored on foliage as interception
storage
• interception storage is when the first raindrops of a rainfall event fall
on vegetation which shelters the underlying ground and “held”
(stored) by the leaves. (It is greater in a woodland area or where
tree crops are grown than on grass or arable land.)
• It is estimated that in a woodland area, up to 30% of the
precipitation may be lost through interception
• If rainfall carries on then water reaches the ground in 1 of 3 ways:-
– Throughfall - where water drops off the leaves
– Stemflow - where water flows down the trunk.
– by undergoing Secondary Interception - by undergrowth.
o Surface Storage
• Is caused by one of the following conditions
– After a warm, dry spell in summer the ground
may be hard. So at the start of a rainfall event
water will lie on the surface until the upper layers
become moistened sufficiently to allow the water
to soak downwards.
– Rain may fall with so high intensity that the soils
may not be able to absorb water resulting surface
storage
o Surface Run Off / Overland Flow
• Can occur if one of the following conditions are present
– If the ground is hard, and precipitation intensity is more than
infiltration capacity, or
– if the soil has become saturated then excess water will flow away
over the surface.
• In some natural environments this is relatively rare, except
during exceptionally heavy storms
• it is common in urban areas, which have impermeable
coverings of tarmac and concrete.
o Infiltration
• It is the downward movement of water into the soil zone
• It is high if the supply rates are moderate, allowing the water
to infiltrate downwards vertically through pores in the soil.
• It is determined by infiltration capacity
 Infiltration Capacity
• it is the maximum rate at which water can pass through
the (be absorbed by) soil, and is measured in mm/hr.
• The amount of infiltration depends on:-
• antecedent moisture (precipitation which occurred in the
past.) - the amount of water already in the soil
• soil porosity
• Soil structure
• nature of the soil surface (e.g. crusted, cracked, ploughed)
• type, amount, and seasonal changes in vegetation cover.
• Precipitation intensity
• After infiltration, some water will flow laterally - as
throughflow.
o Percolation
• It is the continued downward movement of water through the zone
of aeration
• It is a constant movement, and causes groundwater storage.
– Zone of saturation - when water collects above an impermeable rock layer,
or fills all pore spaces.
– Water Table - the upper boundary of the saturated material, i.e. the upper
surface of the groundwater layer.
• Water may then be transferred laterally as groundwater flow or
baseflow.
• In a wetter period, groundwater must be replaced (recharged)
before the water level can rise.
• If the water table reaches the surface, it means the ground is
saturated ;
• excess water will then form:-
– a marsh on flat land,
– or become surface run off on sloping land.
Outputs
They are found either as evapotranspiration or channel flow
Evapotranspiration
Two Components:
Evaporation - Physical process by which moisture is lost
directly into the atmosphere from water surfaces (including
vegetation and the soil,) due to the effects of air movement
and the sun’s heat.
–Rates affected by - temperature, wind speed, humidity,
hours of sunshine, and other climatic factors.
Transpiration - Biological process by which water is lost
through stomata in plant leaves.
–Rates affected by - time of year, type and amount of
vegetation, availability of moisture, and length of the
growing season.
• It is possible to distinguish between potential and
actual evapotranspiration of an area.
• in deserts there is a high potential
evapotranspiration, because the amount of water
which could be lost is greater than the amount of
water actually available.
• In rainforest areas, the amount of water available
for evapotranspiration nearly always exceeds the
amount which actually takes place.
• So evapotranspiration is limited by the availability of
water in the soil.
 Channel Flow
• Although some water falls directly into a river
channel as Channel Precipitation, most water
reaches the channel by a combination of 3 transfer
processes:-
• Surface run-off (overland flow)
• Throughflow
• Groundwater flow (baseflow)
• Once the water is in the river as channel storage,
water flows towards the sea and is lost from the
drainage basin system.
 RIVER DISCHARGE
• Is the quantity water flowing through a stream channel on a
particular point
• it is measured in cubic meters per second (cm3).
• The following equation defines stream discharge mathematically:
Q=VxWxD
 
• where Q is the discharge, V is the velocity, W is the average width
and D is the average depth of the flow.
• Stream discharge varies both temporally and spatially.
• Discharge normally increases downstream as more water enters the
stream channel from runoff and groundwater flow.
• Discharge varies temporally because of unpredictable behavior of its
inputs like precipitation and snow melt.
• As discharge increases corresponding changes in velocity, channel
depth and width are made within the stream system.
 STORM HYDROGRAPHS
• The discharge of a river is shown on a graph called a flood or storm
hydrograph.
• Storm hydrographs are graphical representations that show how a
drainage basin responds to a period of rainfall.
• they show the discharge (amount of water reaching channel via
surface run-off, throughflow, and base flow) that originated as
precipitation.
• A hydrograph shows the rainfall amount and then the discharge of
the river.
• By looking at the peak rainfall and comparing it with the peak
discharge you can work out the lag-time (the time between the two
peaks).
• Different catchment areas will have different flood hydrographs.
• Some, with steep slopes and little vegetation, will rise very quickly,
and can be described as a "flashy river". These are the most likely to
flood.
• Those drainage basins with gentler slopes, and greater vegetation
cover will infiltrate the water more, and release it at a slower rate
into the river.
• This means there is less chance of flooding occurring.
• Flood hydrographs are very important in predicting how a certain
river will behave in a time of intense rainfall.
 Influences on hydrographs and drainage basin
• Drainage basins have a variety of characteristics in terms of
vegetation, geology, soil type and so on, all of which interact to
influence how quickly or slowly river discharge increases after a
storm.
• the major influences on hydrographs and drainage basins are:
• A Size of basin, shape and relief
– Size - the smaller the basin the less time it takes for water to drain
to the river, resulting in a shorter lag time.
– Shape - the shape of basin that lends itself to most rapid drainage
is circular. In a long, narrow basin water takes longer to reach the
river.
– Relief - the steeper the basin the more quickly it drains.
• B Forms of precipitation
– Heavy Storms - in such a situation, rainfall is often far in excess of
the infiltration capacity of the soil leading to much overland flow,
and rapid rises in river levels.
– Lengthy rainfall - leads to the ground being saturated and
overland flow.
– Snowfall - until snow melts, potential discharge for a river is held
in storage. Rapid melting can lead to flooding.
• C Temperature
– High rates of evapotranspiration reduce amounts of discharge,
and low temperatures can store water in the form of ice and
snow.
• D Land Use
– Vegetation - Important in reducing discharge as it intercepts
precipitation and adds to rates of evapotranspiration.
– Roots of plants take up water reducing throughflow.
– Interception is less in winter in the savanna due the shedding of
leaves from deciduous trees.
– Flooding is more likely in deforested areas.
• E Geology
– Rock type varies within drainage basins and can be permeable
(allowing water through) or impermeable (not allowing water
through).
– Permeable rocks can be porous such as chalk that store water
within them or pervious, such as limestone where water flows
along bedding plains.
– Impermeable rocks encourage grater amounts of surface run-off
and a more rapid increase in discharge than permeable rocks.
• F Soil
– A control on the rate of infiltration, amount of soil moisture
storage and rate of throughflow.
– Larger pore spaces as found in sand, allow for greater water
storage and limit the risk of flooding.
• G Drainage density
– As stated earlier, the higher the density the greater the risk of
flooding.
 Reading the hydrograph
• A great deal of information can be drawn from a hydrograph and the
interpretation of them is very informing.
• The diagram below shows the main points:
• a storm or flood hydrograph is generally drawn with two vertical axes.
• one is used to plot a line graph showing the discharge of a river in
cumecs (cubic metres per second) at a given point over a period of
time.
• the second is used to plot a bar graph of the rainfall event which
precedes the changes in discharge.
• the scale on the horizontal axis is usually in hours/days and this
allows both the rain event to be recorded and the subsequent
changes in river discharge to be plotted.
• the shape of the hydrograph varies according to a number of
controlling factors in the drainage basin but it will generally include
the following features.
– The baseflow of the river represents the normal day to day
discharge of the river and is the consequence of groundwater
seeping into the river channel.
– The rising limb of the hydrograph represents the rapid increase in
discharge resulting from rainfall causing surface runoff and then
later throughflow.
– Peak discharge occurs when the river reaches its highest level.
– The time difference between the peak of the rain event and the
peak discharge is known as the lag time or basin lag.
– The falling limb (or recession limb as it is sometimes known) is
when discharge decreases and the river’s level falls. It has a
gentler gradient than the rising limb as most overland flow has
now been discharged and it is mainly throughflow which is making
up the river water.
• On a hydrograph, the flood is shown as a peak above the base
(normal) flow of the river.
• Analysis of hydrographs can help hydrologists to predict the
likelihood of flooding in a drainage basin.
• The response of a river to a rainfall event is measured in terms
of the lag time - the time between peak rainfall and peak
discharge.
• Rivers with a short lag time respond rapidly to rainfall events
and are therefore more prone to flooding than rivers with a
longer lag time
• River discharge does not respond immediately to rainfall inputs
as only a little of the rainfall will fall directly into the channel.
The river will start to respond initially through inputs from
surface runoff (the fastest flow of water) and its discharge will
later be supplemented through inputs from throughflow and
groundwater flow
 Variations in the shape of a Hydrograph
• The shape of a hydrograph is determined by the speed with
which flood waters are able to reach the river.
• The nature of the drainage basin therefore has a great influence
on the way a river responds to rainfall as it will determine the
types and speeds of the flow of water to the river.
• The fastest route to the river is via overland flow.
• If most of the water in a drainage basin travels in this way, a
river will respond quickly to heavy rainfall and the hydrograph
shape will be 'peaky' (graph A below) with steep rising and
recessional limbs.
• The lag time will be short and there will be a greater risk of
flooding.
• Where more water is able to pass into the soil and
travel to the river via throughflow / groundwater
flow, there will be a slower rise in discharge and
the river will respond slower (graph B above).
• The lag time will be longer and the risk of flooding
will be much lower.
• Below are examples of hydrographs from different
environs
Typical hydrograph shapes for (a) an upland stream,
(b) a piedmont river (middle reaches) and (c) a
lowland river.
 Drainage Basin Morphometry
• Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
– Drainage Area/size
– Length
– Slope
– Shape
– Density
– Other
• Land Cover and Use
• Surface Roughness
• Soil Characteristics
– Texture
– Soil Structure
– Soil Moisture
 Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
• Drainage Area/size
– probably the single most
important watershed
characteristic for
hydrologic design
– determines the volume
of water that can be
generated from rainfall
– is required as input to
models ranging from
simple linear prediction The volume of water available for runoff is the
product of rainfall depth and the drainage
equations to complex area.
computer models
 Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
• Length
– defined as the distance measured
along the main channel from the
watershed outlet to the basin divide
– The straight-line distance from the
outlet point on the watershed divide
is not usually used to compute L
• the travel distance of floodwaters is
conceptually the length of interest
• length is measured along the principal
flow path
– Also called the hydrologic length
– used in computing a time parameter
• travel time of water through a Since the channel does not extend to the
basin divide, it is necessary to extend a
watershed
line from the end of the channel to the
basin divide following a path where the
greatest volume of water would travel.
 Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
• Slope
– the rate of change of elevation with
respect to distance along the principal
flow path
– flood magnitudes reflect the
momentum of the runoff
– the watershed slope (S) is computed
as the difference in elevation ( E)
between the end points of the
principal flow path divided by the
hydrologic length of the flow path (L)
– The elevation difference may not
necessarily be the maximum elevation
difference within the watershed
• the point of highest elevation may occur
along a side boundary of the watershed S= E/L
rather than at the end of the principal
flow path.
 Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
• Shape
– variety of shapes
– determines the way that runoff
will converge at the outlet
• Eg A circular watershed would
result in runoff from various parts
of the watershed reaching the
outlet at the same time
• An elliptical watershed having the
outlet at one end of the major
axis and having the same area as
the circular watershed would
cause the runoff to be spread out
over time, thus producing a
smaller flood peak than that of
the circular watershed
 Important Drainage Basin Characteristics
• Drainage Density (D)
– the ratio of the total length of
streams within a watershed to
the total area of the
watershed
– has units of the reciprocal of
length
– A high value of the drainage
density would indicate a
D = Lt/A
relatively high concentration
of streams and thus a rapid
storm response
– Values typically ranges from
1.5 to 6 m/m2
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Interpreting Topographic Maps
– visualize the landscape as represented by
a topographic map
– basic concepts to observe and follow
• Each contour line on a topographic map
represents a ground elevation
• All points along any one contour line are at
the same elevation
• The horizontal distance between contours is
determined by the steepness of the
landscape and can vary greatly on a given
map
• The arrangement and shape of the contour
lines define the landform(s)
– How do contours relate to water flow?
• A general rule of thumb is that water flow is
perpendicular to contour lines.
• A general rule of thumb is that contour lines
always point upstream.
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Steps to follow
– Visualizing the landscape
represented by the
topographic map will make
the process much easier
than simply trying to follow
a method by rote
• Draw a circle at the outlet or
downstream point of the river
system in question
• Put small "X's" at the high
points along both sides of the
watercourse, working your
way upstream towards the
headwaters of the watershed.
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Steps to follow
• Joining the line to the
starting point completes the
delineation of the watershed
of the fluvial system being
evaluated.
– The delineation appears as a
solid line around the
watercourse
• Generally, surface water
runoff from rain falling
anywhere in this area flows
into and out of the fluvial
system being evaluated
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Steps to follow
• Starting at the circle that was
made in step one, draw a line
connecting the "X's" along
one side of the watercourse
– This line should always cross
the contours at right angles
(i.e. it should be perpendicular
to each contour line it crosses)
• Continue the line until it
passes around the head of
the watershed and down the
opposite side of the
watercourse. Eventually it will
connect with the circle from
which you started.
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Practice Exercise
– Use the Extract from Matjiesfontein map to delineate
the drainage of the river with outlet at the bridge in G9.
 Drainage Basin Delineation
• Practice Exercise
 Drainage Area/size ()
• Two methods of measuring
1. using digitizing capabilities
of computer software
 trace the outline of a given
basin
 digitising accuracy is
determined by the didgitising
equipment and the user
2. The dot grid method
 Involves overlaying a basin
outline on a sheet of squares
or dots
 Area is determined by
counting the squares,
intersections, or dots, each of
which represents a given area
 The dot grid method
• a simple technique which does
not require any expensive
equipment
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
1. Determine the area represented
by each dot
 Measure the length and width of each
grid/box (4cm x 4 cm)
 Count the number of dots in the grid
(64)
 Are represented by each dot:
64 dots = (4cm x 4 cm)
 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
1. Determine the area represented
by each dot
 Are represented by each dot:

64 dots = (4cm X 4 cm)

64 dots = 16

= = =

 So each dot represents

 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
2. The dot grid is then placed
randomly over the area of the map to
be measured
3. Count the dots inside the area of
interest
 Our example gives 128 dots within the
area of interest
4. Calculate the map area by
multiplying the number of dots and
area represented by each dot

X
=
 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
5. Convert map area to ground area
 Note the map scale 1: 22 000
 Meaning 1 unit on the map represents
22 000 units on the ground
 Convert this to hectares – the units
used in SA
 A hectare is a 100 m X 100 m area or 10
000
 develop a conversion factor to go from
cm2 to ha, given map scale of 1 ∶ 22 000
 Since the have map area in , centimeters as
the base unit:

1 cm = 22 000 cm
 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
5. Convert map area to ground area
 Since the have map area in , centimeters
as the base unit:

1 cm = 22 000 cm
 convert this to a dimensional equivalent:
map (cm) = ground (m)
1 cm = 22000 X = 220m

 Therefore 1 cm = 220 m
 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
6. Develop a dimensional equivalent
for area: map () = ground ()
(1 = (220
1 = 48400
7. Convert this dimensional
equivalent to one
for map () = ground (ha)
1 = 48400 X = 4.84 ha

1 = 4.48 ha
 The dot grid method
• Steps (use the dot grid illustrated)
8. To get hectares on the ground,
multiply the map area () by the
dimensional
equivalent for map () i.e ground (ha):
32 X 4.84 ha

154.88 ha
So the area on the ground
represented on the map is 154.88 ha
 The dot grid method

• Practice Exercise
– Use the Extract from Matjiesfontein map to
delineate the drainage of the river with outlet at
the bridge in G9.
– Calculate the drainage area using the dot grid
method
 The dot grid method
• Practice Exercise - Solution
– Area represented by each dot
• 300 dots
• 3.5 cm X 4.6 cm
• 300 dots = 16.1
• =

• Each dot represents

 The dot grid method
• Practice Exercise – solution
– Dots counted = 3271 dots
– 3271 X 0.054
– 176.634
– Map scale 1:50 000
 Convert to metres by dividing by 100
1 cm = 500 m
 Convert to area by squaring both sides
1 = 250 000
 Convert to ha by dividing by 10 000
1 = 25 ha
 The dot grid method

• Practice Exercise - solution

– Therefore drainage area
176.634 X 25

4 415.85 ha
 Summary of methodology for Computation of Morphometric
Parameters
Morphometric parameter Formula Reference
Channel Sinuosity (Cs) Cs =  Where Sl = Stream length, Vl= Valley length Muller (1968)
Ff = A/Lb², Where  A = Area of the basin (km2), 
Form Factor (Ff) Horton (1932)
Lb² = Square of basin length
Af = 100 (Ar/At), Where Ar = area to the right of the
Basin Asymmetry (Af) Hare and
basin (looking downstream) At = Total area of basin Gardner (1985)
Dd = Lu/A, Where Lu = Total stream length of all
Drainage Density (Dd) Horton (1932)
orders, A = Area of basin (km2)
Re = 2√(A/π)/Lb, Where A = Area of the basin (km2) 
Elongation Ratio (Re) Schumm (1956)
Lb = Basin length
HI = (ELmean - ELmin) / (ELmax - ELmin) Where
Hypsometric Integral (Hi)  ELmean = mean elevation, ELmin = minimum Strahler (1952)
and ELmax = maximum elevation
Vf = 2VFw/ (Eld-Esc) + (Erd-Esc), Where Vfw = width of
Valley Floor Width to valley floor, Eld and Erd = Elevation of left and right Bull &
Height Ratio (Vf) valley divides, Esc = Elevation of valley floor McFadden
(1977)

Rr = H/Lb, Where H = Total relief of the  basin in

Relief Ratio (Rr) kilometers Lb = Basin length Schumm (1956)
 Stream ordering
• Streams may be categorized
according to their position--
order or magnitude--within a
drainage network
• used to describe a stream and
to conveniently divide a stream
network into component parts
that may be quantified and
compared
• streams that do not possess a
tributary are designated as ‘1st
order' or ‘magnitude 1' streams
• The number and length of 1st
order streams in a basin can be
measured and compared to
those in a separate basin
 Stream ordering
• Two principal stream order
schemes are in use today
– The Strahler Order system
– The Shreve Magnitude
system

The Strahler Order system

– designates 1st order streams
as those that do not have a
tributary
– 2nd order streams are formed
at the junction of 1st order
streams
 Stream ordering
• The Strahler Order system
– 3rd order streams are
formed at the junction of 2nd
order streams, 4th at the
junction of 3rd order
streams, and so forth
– Note that stream order only
increases when two streams
of the same order join
 where a 2nd order stream
joins a 3rd order stream there
is no change in stream order;
the 3rd order stream remains
3rd order.
 This violates the distributive
law
 Stream ordering
• The Shreve Magnitude
system
– designates streams without a
tributary as magnitude 1
– where streams join, their
magnitudes are added
together
– magnitudes increase at all
confluences/ junctions
 where a magnitude 2 stream
joins a magnitude 3 stream,
the magnitudes are added to
form a magnitude 5 stream
 Note that in such a case there
is no magnitude 4 stream.
 Stream ordering
• The Shreve Magnitude
system
– An important component of
the Shreve system is that a
stream's magnitude
corresponds to the number
of magnitude 1 or 1st order
streams contributing to the
channel
 the magnitude of each link
reflect the number of 1st order
fingertips ultimately feeding it
 Stream ordering

• Practical Exercise
– Use the Extract from Matjiesfontein map to
delineate the drainage of the river with outlet at
the bridge in G9
 Do stream ordering of the drainage area following The
Strahler Order system
 Do stream ordering of the drainage area following The
Shreve Magnitude system
– Compare the results
 Stream ordering

• Practical Exercise
 Stream ordering

• Practical Exercise
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Rivers are prone to unanticipated

channel erosion due to the twin
challenges of climate change and
land use changes
• This has increased the geomorphic
hazards that bank erosion may pose
to land and structures
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Knowing erosion hazards posed by

rivers is important in planning areas
that are safe for development
• Channel migration is the
geomorphological process where the
river channel changes its position
across its flood plain.
– The process is a result of both erosion
and deposition
– the area where a stream or river is
susceptible to channel erosion is called
the Channel Migration Zone (CMZ)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• The principal goal of delineating the

Channel Migration Zone (CMZ) is to
predict areas at risk for future channel
erosion due to fluvial processes
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• The benefits of delineating CMZ

include
– reduced risks to human communities
– guiding development in and along river
systems
– reduced costs of repairing or replacing
infrastructure and major civil works that
might be threatened or damaged by
channel migration
– Provision of guidance in reducing
degradation and loss of critical aquatic
and riparian habitats
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Techniques for delineating CMZ

– Various techniques exist including
 sedimentological and botanical evidence,
 Historical sources,
 planimetric resurvey,
 repeated cross-profiling,
 erosion pins and
 terrestrial photogrammetry
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Techniques for delineating CMZ

– the approaches can be divided into four
major categories, namely,
 field survey,
 Remote sensing,
 historical and
 palaeogeomorphology
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Techniques for delineating CMZ
– Each approaches has its strengths and
weaknesses in terms of scale, accuracy,
availability and repeatability in
characterizing river channel migration
– Remote sensing has a competitive edge
 Morphometric parameters, such as
channel width, water surface area and
sinuosity can be computed
 Bank erosion and deposition, channel
pattern identification, bank line and centre
line shift and channel change caused by
human intervention can be investigated
using remote sensing
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Techniques for delineating CMZ
– However, historical approach results in
optimum data upon which to make
planning and resource management
decisions
– The historical approach analyses
historical information and field data to
interpret past and current channel
conditions in order to predict future
channel behaviour and areas at risk of
channel movement
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Techniques for delineating CMZ

– Delineation of a CMZ relies on an
evaluation of channel processes that
occur within a multi-dimensional context
(space and time)
– Channels respond with
 horizontal movement (lateral migration,
avulsion, channel widening, channel
narrowing) and
 Vertical movement (incision and aggradation)
depending on site-specific circumstances and
watershed conditions
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Techniques for delineating CMZ

– patterns and rates of channel movement
must be estimated by using a
combination of historical and field studies
to determine future trends in channel
migration
– The CMZ boundary delineates the area in
which channel processes will occur over a
specified period of time
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Techniques for delineating CMZ
– When delineating CMZs, it is helpful to
view the river landscape as a series of
identifiable components that can be used
collectively to define the boundaries of
the CMZ:
 1. The Historical Migration Zone (HMZ)—the
collective area the channel occupied in the
historical record
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Techniques for delineating CMZ
– When delineating CMZs, it is helpful to
view the river landscape as a series of
identifiable components that can be used
collectively to define the boundaries of
the CMZ:
 2. The Avulsion Hazard Zone (AHZ)—the area
not included in the HMZ that is at risk of
avulsion over the timeline of the CMZ
 3. The Erosion Hazard Area (EHA)—the area
not included in the HMZ or the AHZ that is at
risk of bank erosion from stream flow or
mass wasting over the timeline of the CMZ.
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Techniques for delineating CMZ
 The EHA has two components: the Erosion
Setback (ES) and the Geotechnical Setback (GS).
o The ES is the area at risk of future bank
erosion by stream flow
o the GS is defined by channel and terrace
banks that are at risk of mass wasting (due
to erosion of the toe). The GS projects from
the ES at a side slope angle that forms a
stable bank configuration, thereby
accounting for mass wasting processes that
will promote a stable angle of repose
 4. The Disconnected Migration Area (DMA)—
the portion of the CMZ where man-made
structures physically eliminate channel
migration
Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• In a nutshell, delineation of the CMZ is

the cumulative product of historical
analysis and field interpretations,
characterized by the following
equation:
CMZ = HMZ + AHZ + EHA – DMA

(EHA = ES + GS)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Historical Migration Zone
– direct comparison of channel positions done by
overlaying mapped and photographed channel
positions from different time periods using GIS
– To reduce errors
 Use aerial photos with similar scales
 let the same person interpret aerial photo sets
 Use a set of standard control points to register
information from each set of photographs to a common
base
o A relatively large number of fixed control points are necessary to
geometrically correct and register data sets because ortho-
rectifying aerial photos requires careful attention
 Use a standard definition for river bank location.
o a definition using vegetative indicators may be more appropriate
in areas with a fluvial-tidal transition.
o in freshwater settings, morphologic definitions are more
appropriate, especially if overhanging trees obscure images.
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Historical Migration Zone
– Sources of information
 Aerial photographs,
 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data
 Orthophotos
 topographic maps
 Government land survey records
 Settlers accounts
 Photographs (historical societies, library)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Avulsion Hazard Zone
– AHZ includes the areas of the river landscape,
such as secondary channels and relic channels
that are at risk of channel occupation outside of
the HMZ
– The AHZ indicates the area to which anticipated
possible shifts in channel location can occur
– Delineation of the AHZ relies primarily on three
field-based steps:
 Estimate vertical variability of the channel bed by
assessing bank stratigraphy and the influence of
large woody debris (LWD) on channel dynamics
 Survey general characteristics of riparian vegetation.
 Map secondary channels, swales, and relic channels
at risk of current or future channel occupation.
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Avulsion Hazard Zone
– Sources of information
 The following information should be supplemented
with appropriate field investigations:
 HMZ determination
 Trends in channel movement and rates in channel
movement
 Aerial photographs
 topographic maps
 Geology maps
 Streamflow data (flood events): gauging stations
 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data
 Cross-section and profile data for assessing background
changes in the channel bed elevation
 Field sheets
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area
– The EHA delineates the areas outside of the HMZ
and AHZ which may be susceptible to bank
erosion from
 stream flow and/or
 mass wasting
that has been initiated by current fluvial processes
and/or may be initiated in the future
– When delineating the EHA, it is important to keep
in mind that
 an alluvial terrace bank with a vertical slope of
unconsolidated material will become unstable when a
river erodes its toe;
 an eroding vertical bank of unconsolidated material is
an active surface and consequently does not mark the
edge of the CMZ
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area
– Sources of Information
 The following information must be
supplemented with the appropriate field
investigations:
o HMZ determination
o Trends in channel movement, rates in channel
migration, and rates in floodplain turnover
o Geology maps
o Field sheets
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area
– Determining the Erosion Setback (ES)
 accounts for floodplain and terrace banks that are
too high in elevation to be at risk of avulsions, yet
are still susceptible to channel erosion
 ES is not determined solely by the current
location of a channel because channels can
frequently change location
 Areas where the river may not necessarily have
migrated in the historical record are included in
the ES because of the likelihood the river will
migrate there in the future
 The extent of the ES is determined by using
estimates of the rate of erosion that will occur
over the design life of the CMZ
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area

– Determining the Erosion Setback (ES)
 The method for estimating the ES can be
automated in GIS by assigning values to
individual pixels for bank conditions and rates
of erosion
 The initial step for estimating the ES is to use
historical studies to approximate floodplain
turnover rates for each reach, as well as rates
of erosion for banks with similar material
properties, heights, and vegetation
 Next, assign a percent of time the channel is
likely to erode a particular location within the
channel’s valley bottom (CE)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers

• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area

– Determining the Erosion Setback (ES)
 The ES coefficient, CE, can be estimated with
the following equation:

 where
o = the erosion rate of the bank material
(determined from historical studies),
o = the average time for the river to reoccupy the
same location and
o = the average time the channel is expected to
erode at one location
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area
– Determining the Geotechnical Setback (GS)
 GS is established to account for mass wasting that may
occur at the ES boundary as the slope works towards
achieving a more stable configuration by adopting a
flatter slope angle
 GS is projected from the ES where it is estimated that a
vertical bank will form along the ES line
 Since the channel edge is not expected to move beyond
the ES line, the GS is placed where a stable slope
configuration is predicted to occur
 Generally, a GS determination is not necessary for
vertical embankments composed of sound, well-jointed
rock,
 but it is needed for vertical embankments composed of
poorly jointed or fractured rock, and it is essential for
embankments composed of unconsolidated materials
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Erosion Hazard Area
– Determining the Geotechnical Setback (GS)
 When evaluating the GS, keep in mind that the stability of
an alluvial channel or terrace bank that is prone to mass
wasting dependent on a number of factors, including:
o height of the ES bank
o composition of the bank material (geotechnical properties,
structure, stratigraphy)
o vegetation
o land use
 Site-specific evaluations are required because material and
vegetative properties will vary from place to place
 As such, the following factors are critical for determining GS
o shear strength (the internal resistance to shear stress that is the
sum of internal frictional resistance and cohesion);
o permeability of individual stratigraphic units;
o interaction of these units;
o type and age of vegetation; and
o bank height.
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Disconnected Migration Area
(DMA)
– DMA indicates areas in which human activities
prevent channel migration
– DMAs provide a spatial context 3 important aspects
 the degree of human encroachment that has occurred
within a CMZ,
 how much aquatic and riparian habitat has been lost and
 how much of the aquatic and riparian habitat could
potentially be recovered
– Although it is possible to delineate DMA relatively
early in the CMZ study, one should first delineate
the CMZ without man-made constraints
(unconstrained CMZ) as this will provide the spatial
context in which DMAs occur (constrained CMZ)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating the Disconnected Migration
Area (DMA)
– Sources of Information
 The following information should be
supplemented with the appropriate field
investigations:
o Office and field observations from AHZ determination
o Office and field observations from EHA determination
o Aerial photographs
o Orthophotos
o State and County GIS resources: bank hardening and
revetment GIS layer
o topographic maps
o Field sheets
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating Relative Risk of Erosion Hazards
– The risk of channel migration (and avulsion) is
not equal within the entire mapped CMZ
– it is necessary to approximate the relative risk of
erosion hazards
– Determinations of erosion hazard can be
somewhat subjective, depending on the criteria
used for defining severe, high, moderate, and
low risk.
– the following information guide assessment of
relative risk:
 rates of channel migration, trends in channel
movement, and floodplain turnover rates
 avulsion hazards
 erosion hazards
 locations of armoured banks (DMA)
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating Relative Risk of Erosion
Hazards
– If probabilistic analysis was adopted for
the study then specific ranges of
probabilities can be used to define
severe, high, moderate, and low (i.e.,
75-100%, 50-75%, 25-50%, 0-25%)
probabilities of channel occupation.
 Channel Migration and Erosion Hazard in Rivers
• Delineating Relative Risk of Erosion Hazards