AS Level Chemistry Notes Subject Code: 9701 Article No. 238 2019 Edition A Rational Approach To Learning AS Level Chemistry Principles With Rasheed Ahmed Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS Ornsrasnane Pimarssisisr — @ wwwradonsis El wadanéwetepueaionShop @ Hew OMe: 3.C,zahoo ahi Ron, Gee Lahore [Ei readndwrte pubistions@emsil com Sale Point 25-28 Lower Ground Flot, Heal Hsleema Centre, Ghazni Set, Uris Baz, LahoreAllright reserved. No part ofthis publication maybe reproduced, stored ina retrieval system or transmted, i any form ary any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or otherwise Title Author Pablished by Printed by Composed by “Tite designed by Legal Advisor Edition: Price For Books Order LAHORE a > READ & WRITE SALE POINT, ‘Shop No. 25-28 Lower Ground Floor without the prior writen permission ofthe Publis, [AS Level Chemistry Notes (Article #238) Rasheed Abmed (Cell, 492.333 4277385 Read & Write Publications Read & Write Publications ‘Sharjel Khan, Salman Buksh, Shahab, Hayat, Wagas, M. Awa {Usama Ahmar Faroog, Awais Ahmed Rashid Mehmood, Khalid Khurshid Mian Tariq Ahmad (Advocate Supreme Court) Rootn No. 10, 1, 12 AF-Majged Cente |-Morang Roud, Lahore Tel: O42-37236145, Fax: 062:37241367 2019 Eton Call Or SMS: 0336:5314141 DISTRIBUTORS oe > BURHANI BOOK CENTRE ‘Shop # 6 Hashmi Trust Bulding Rotson Road Haadia Haleema Centre, Ghazni Street, [New Urdu Bazar Karachi Urdu Bazar, Lahore. Ph: 042-35714038 Tet: 021-32212640 LT "ABDUL RAHMAN BOOKS > MARYAM ACADEMY ‘Tayyab All Bulding, Urdu Bazar, Karachi Tel: 021-82214243 ,021-32654243 ‘Abdul Flahman Plaza, College Road, Rawalpindi. Tel: 051-5551226, +92-315-5618976I DEDICATE THIS ENDEAVOUR TO MY PARENTS & MY LIFE LINES: LINTA AND BASIMPreface “What you seek is seeking you” Jalal — ud — Din Rumi | have been teaching introductory chemistry courses for over 20 years, ad for much of thal time, | considered iting my own tex. One reason was thal the existing textbooks stuck me as disjointed. They read more Ike a list of skis to master than tke a coherent story ofthe nature of chemist. | thought it should be possible 0 ‘organize the fundamentals of chemistry so thal each would flow smoothly nto the ext, 60 I began to take the prospect a wing a new textbook seriously. ‘Ave you ever frustrated that takes so long to get to deserbing interesting chemical changes? Most prep:chem texts don't describe chemical reactions unt! miaway through the text or even later, thereby reinforcing students ‘expectations that chemistry wil be boring and irelevant. Do you ever worry that your students can write and ink balanced chemical equations withthe type of chemical reaction, but do not have a clear mental image of the ‘evens that occur during a chemical reaction? | thnk itis extremely important for students to develop the ablity {o visualize the models that chemists use for describing the sructure and behavior of mate. | want them to be able to connect a chemical equaton wih reaction type to a visual image of what fs happening in the reaction. “Throughout the text, | emphasize the development of a mental mage o tho sbucture of matter and the changes it Undecgoes along with tabular presentation lor clear understanding especialy n organic chemi, “Thus, the idea of scheming a book, which would enable students to propare more effectively fr their CAIE A Loval Chemisty 970%, was mainly tiggered by my own experiances ranging ver 20 years as an O and A Level ‘Ghomistry taacter. I dre et the need ofa compendium: where In both the teacher and the students coud ind all the rolated topics covered in depth and In deal, s0 A Rationale Approach to Learning A Lovel Chemisty Principles" happened. | have ensured to make this book an unadulterated and untainted guide, following a lucid style. While writing this ‘book | ensured to folow the sylabus outine. Every topic is explained to meet the CAIE A Level Chemisty requicemanis. Topics ae elaborated using appropiate examples, abvlar demonstration of various concepts an atthe end of chapter past papers practice questions, Professionally | developed mysell every year. Along with blessings of parens, my organization Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore trusted in my capabilies and gave me opportuni to teach A level Cherristy. My professional journey s fl of achievements that includes repeated best GPA in the school as well as at SGH level. came across competent and dignified school management, dedicated caleagues and pronounced tends. | woud like fo thank especially Mr.Tanvir Khalid Gil, Mr. Aljaz Awan, Mr. Abdul Rabb and Mr. Mehboob Lodhi for the support and encouragement | would like 19 acknowledge Mr. Imran Lalit who exhlarated and ‘energized me fo take up iis challenge. | would tke to dedicate his determination and struggle to my parents, family and fiends. also dedicate my this ‘tort to all my students; who wil ind ita great Benett and a support to get through thei A Level Chemistry ‘examinations with excaiant grades. Rasheed Ahmed Naveed Mo. B.Ed CIPSIE (UG Cambridge Cetticaton or Level Teaching Mes 192.309 4277385 Fasheed.ahmad7874@gmallcomunit: 1a 12: 13: 14: unit2: 2A 22: 2a: 24: units: 3A 32: 33: 34: 35: 36: a7: 38: Unita: 44 42: 43: 44: 45: 46: 47: units: 5A 52: 53: 54: 55: units: 6A unit7: Contents ‘Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry Relative Atomic Mass Galculatons of EmpiricalMolecular Formula: Chemical Equations End of Chapter Past Paper Questions. ‘tomic StHUCTUFE AiOM os Electron Configuration lonisation Energy: AH End of Chapter Past Paper Questions. ‘Chemical Bonding lonic or Eleetrovalert Bor! Covalent Bonding: Coordinate of Dative Covalent Bonding ‘Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory Oita Hybrization Matalic Bond os Inter Molecular Foccas of Atractions: End of chapter past paper questions ‘States of Matter nnn Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of Gases Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids Solids Macromolecules (Giant Covalent Stucture): ‘Garton Nanoparticles: Metalic Latioes: 7 End of chapter past paper questions ‘Chemical Energetic... ‘Standard Concitions for Standard Erthalpy Changes Measuring Erthaipy Change ofthe Reactions. Hess's law Aativaton Energy (Ea) End of chapter past paper questions: Electrochem sty nn End of chapter past paper questions... Equilibria7A 72: 78: 74: 75: 76: 77: units: aA a2: as: aa: 85: unite: oa 92: 93: 94: unit-o: 104 102: 103: 104: unite: nA 112: 113: 114: unit: 124 122; 123: 124: units: 134 132: 133: 134: 135: Irreversible and Reversible reactions. Le-Chatier’s Principle Equiibrium Constant Ke Haber’s Process of Ammonia Formation ‘Contact Process of Sulphuric Acid Formation Bronsted ~ Lowery Theory of Acds and Bases: End of chapter past paper questions Reaction Kinetics nun — Rate of Reaction Boltzmann Distribution Curve and Erfact of Temperature on Reaction Rate 108 Catalysis. Enzymes — Biological Catalyst End of chapter past paper questions ‘The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity Periodicity of Physical Properties of Third Period Elements 116 Periodicity of Chemical Propotis of Third Period Elements. 118 Reaction of Sodium and Magnesium with Water. 121 End of chapter past paper questions 122 Group 2. . General Characterse Properties of Group Il Elements 490 Behavior of Group Il Elements Oxides, Hycroxides and Carbonates. 431 ‘Solubility of Group ll Metal Sulphates. 192 End of chapter past paper questions... . . vo vo 3B Group 17. General Characteristics. 140 Reaction of Metal Halide with Conc. HeSO. sat Disproportion Reaction 142 End of chapter past paper questions 144 Nitrogen & Sulphur : o Industial Importance of Anna & ts Compounds 450 Pollation, ‘Oxides of Nitrogen - Air Pollution End of chapter past paper questions ‘An Introduction to Organic Chemistry. Cassicaon of Organic Compounds (Stuctural 158 ‘Types of Chemical Formulae. 158 IUPAC Rules of Nomenclature (Assign Name to Organic Substances) 160 ‘Characteristic Organic Reactions. Isomers. 175136: Unita: 141 142: 143: 144: 145: 146: 147; 148: 149: 14.10: units: 154 152: 153: 154) units: 16.1 162: 163: 16.4 165: 166: unita7: 174 172: 173: 174: unit-a: 184 182: 183: 184: 185: 185: End of chapter past paper questions 178 Hydrocarbons. . : so 184 Alkanes. 104 Free Racial Substitution Reaction: (characteristic of alkanes-unsaturated) 184 ‘Akones. os vs vs vs vo 1B. Addition Reactions 186 (Oxidation of Akenes, 188 Polymerization 169 Problems to Dispose of Plastic Wastes 190 Fractional Disillation of Crude Ol 190 Cracking of Alkanes 491 End of chapter past paper questions 192 Halogen Derivatives. za Physical Properties... - 7 : vo 200 Reactions of Halogenoalkanes 200 Uses of Halogenoakanes 203 End of chapter past paper questions 205 Hydroxy Compounds... . : Physical Properties of Alcohols. 212 Manufacture of Ethanol 212 Reactions of Alkanols 21a Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. 216 “Ti lodo Methane Test... vs vs vs vs 218. End of chapter past paper questions 218 Carbonyl Compounds... : —— = _) Preparation of Carbonyl Compounds. 204 Nucleophilc Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide. 208 ‘Test For Carbonyl Compounds 2206 End of chapter past paper questions... 227 Carboxylic Aclds & Derivatives. 36 Formation of Carboxylic Acids 236 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids. 236 Formation of Esters, 238 Commercial Uses of Ester. 238 Infrated Spectroscopy 239 End of chapter past paper questions 243Blank Page[AS Level Chemity Notes UNIT1 ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed con oasa-a27785 rasheed ahmad7874@gmailcom rite READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tol: 042-95714008 Cell: 0936-53141441 Web: www readnwrite.org E-mail: readanducteotice@gmailcom Topics 1.1 Relative Atomic Mass 1.2 Calculations of Empirical/ Molecular Formula 1.3 Chemical Equations 1.4 End of Chapter Past Paper QuestionsAS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntinwncaon Watt Alam Meese 8 Steiomety 4.4: Relative Atomic Mas: Its an average mass of one atom (isotope) of an element with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon -12. Most of the elements exist in diferent isotopic forms, so their average relative atomic mass can be ‘calculated by considering thei relative abundances. A relative mass does not possess any unit as it's @ ‘comparisonielative mass, Exampl Chlorine exists naturally in to allotropic forms, chlrine-35 and chlorine.a7 in the relative abundance of 755% and 24.5% respectively Relative Atomic Mass = 755 x 35 + 24.5 x 37/100 = 35.5 Calculate Ar From The Mass Spectrum: Mass specttum has mia values (mass of isotope) on x-axis and abundance on y-axis. Mass spectrum of Neon (Ne) ‘Abundance 20 21 22 8 24 O5 Mass charge (ve) value (20. 10) + (22 1) 11 Mass Spectrum of Zirconium (21) Percentage ‘Abundance Mass charge An of2r = (90x51.5/100) + (91 x 11.2/100) K@RX 175 46.35 + 1019 + = 7387AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vntincauong Unt Aom Meese 8 Stoney tis the mass of molecule of an element ora compound with respect to 1/124 of the mass of standard carbon -12. Relative formula mass and molecular mass can also be calculated by adding Ar of ll the elements present in that substance. Relative molecular mass of corine = 95.5 x 2=71 Relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride = 1.0 + 95.5 = 96.5, Rolative Formula Mass: Its the mass of formula of an lonie compound with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon “12. Relative formula mass of copper l) chloride = 63.5 + 95.5 x 2 = 1345 Relative formula mass of potassium bromide = 99.1 + 78.8 = 119 Its the amount of substance which contains the same number (6 x 10 Avogadro's constant of particles (atoms, tons or molecules) as there are in 12 grams of standard carbon-12, Empirical Formul Its the simplest formula of the compound that shows the simplest whole number rato of the atoms of ifferent elements in the compound tis the complote formula ofthe compound that shows the actual numberof atoms of diferent elements in the compound. Covalent compounds may have different empirical and molecular formula, but ionic ‘compounds usually represented in the simplest formula based on valency ofthe combining elements Exampl Empiical formula of glucose: cH Molecular formula of glucose: CiHOe Chemical formula of sodium chloride: NaC! 4.2: Calculations of Empirical/Molecular Formul From Composition Dat + Wit symbol of elements andthe compasiion massipercentage underneath. 9) * Die ompeaion masta ach loner by Ar fa especie olomak Wo Wi qe ofeach eement eo + Divide moles of each element bythe smalest quantity number. ‘ +f the final answer isin whole number then itis ok, otherwise multiply all pbeySionnen umber to have a whole number rao, ee For Molecular Formula Calculation from Empirical Formula! Molecular formula = n x empirical formula Whereas n= Mr/mass of empirical formula (Wr wil be given inthe question)AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vitiwncauong Unt om Meese 8 Steiomety Exampl Calculate the empirical formula of the compound that contains 31.58% of carbon, 5.26% of hydrogen and {63.16% of oxygen. Elements: ‘carbon hydrogen oxygen Massipercentages: 31.58 5.26 63.16 Divide by Ar 12 1 16 Moles: 263 5.26 3.98 Moles divide by smallest vale: 263 263 263 Ratio 1 2 15 Mutiply by 2to have whole Number 2 4 3 So the empirical formula of the compound is C:HyOs From Combustion Data: Exampl 10.500 gram ofan organic compound X containing carbon hydkogen and oxygen produces 0.733 g of earbon Co + HO Cee + 650: —> 400: + SHO on 20H + 130 —> 800; + 100 “Thermal decomposition of lead (I) nitrate gives lead (Il) oxide and nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. PbINOs2 = —> fo) 5 GS PLINO:)2 = —> PbO + © 2NO; + 05Or on 2PbIN:)s = —> 2POO + 4NOz + Or onic Equation: ‘A chemical equation that speciies where actually the reaction is taking place with respect to a particular type of reaction. There are mainly three diferent ypes of ionic equation ‘Acid Alkali Neutralization: Whenever an acid reacts with an alkall, salt and water is formed. But actualy H* of an acid is neutralized ‘by OH of an akal to form H:0, So ionic equation involving reaction of any acid with any alkali willbe ke below. Hin + Oi — HO pH below 7 above 7 7 cid kali water. onic Precipitation: ‘A reaction in which a water insoluble salts prepared by the reaction of aqueous solulons of water soluble ‘substances. Water insoluble salt (substance) can be separated by fitration of the mixture. ‘Yellow precipitates of lead I) ocd are prepared by the reaction of aqueous solutions of lead (nitrate ‘and aqueous potassium iodide, he HINO) au 2a — Phi + ens In this action inslube satis he primary focus, so ony those ors ined in expat formation wil Spectator ions suchas Kang NO¥ wil be omits Poi ee — Redox Reactions: ‘A chemical reaction n whieh oxidation and reduction cece onn plac simutaneousy & of In this case Zinc is oxidised 2n xy zn? 426 Zn + CuSO. —AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vntincauong Unt Mom Meese 8 Steiomety Whereas Copper is reduced cut + te cu Hence overall ionic equation: zn) Ot zn? sCu 'SOv2is a spectator fon (no change in oxidation state). ‘We may use half equations trom the data booklet to caloulate overall onic equation forthe reaction. Exampl Acidfied KmnnO«s used to oxidize Fe to Fe, Half equation for ron oxidation: Fe eee Half equation for reduction of MO" MoQe! 4 BH 4 Be Mo? +40 [As redox reaction involves gain and loss of election so number of electron gained should be equal to numberof electrons given out to have a balanced redox ionic equation. That's why iron equation will be muted by 5 to balance the electrons. SFo® — 5 Fe + Se Moos! a ee ns Move + HO BFe? + MnOe'+ HY > 5 Fe + Mme 4 HO Example: Potassium dichromate tums from orange to green on reaction with SO2 gas. {S02 + BHO — SO# 4 4H + 28) 3800 + BLO — 3802 + 12H + 60) ceo + WH 4 be 20R + THO 380: + CnO® + 2H > asoe + ‘Some Important Molar Calculations Formulae: 1. Moles of a Substance from the Given Mass Moles = Mass / Me (4s, Mr or formula mass depends on the type of substance given, and itis, 2 Moles of a Gas from the Given Volume ‘Atroom temperature and pressure, ‘Motes = Volume (am!) /24 Every gas one mole at ip has a volume of 24 dm? 1 given volume ofthe gas i in cm, then divides by 24000. ~ ©)AS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntinwncauong —— Uat* om Meese 8 Steiomey ‘At Standard Temperature and Pressure Moles = Volume (dm!) /22.4 Every gas one mole at sip has a volume of 22.4 dm? I given volume ofthe gas is in om®, then divides by 22400, 3. Moles of a Substance from the Volume of Aqueous Solution. Moles = Volume (cm) /1000 x Concentration (move) It he volume ofthe solution is given in dm, then there is no need to divide by 1000, 4. Concentration in gidm? from the Concentration in mol dm? Concentration gramédm? = Concentration (movdm®) x Mr ofthe substance 5. Concentration of Diluted / Undiluted Solution Undiuted solution = Diluted solution Mx ws Me x Ve IM (concentration) and V (volume) must be inthe same units. 6 Number of Particles (Atoms, lons or Molecules)of a Substance Number of particles = Moles x 6,02 x 10 (Avogadro's constant) 7. %Age of an Element in the Compound or Mass of An Element in the Given Quantity of the Compound. ‘kage ofthe element = mass ofthe element in the compound /Mr x 100, oR Mass ofthe element = Mass ofthe element in the compound /Mr x Given Mass 8 %age yield ‘hage Yield = Actual Yield/ Theoretical Yield x 100 ‘Actual yield (given in the question), theoretical yield (needs to calculate from the data using balanced equation), 9. Puri Pureiimprove x 100AS Level Cramioty Notes 26 Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety Ermira ey 1. Mi t61P2a101 ‘An experiment was carried ut 1 determine the percentage of iron in a sample of ion wire. @ 183.35 9 piece of the wire was reacted with dilute sulluric asi, in the absence of air, so that all of the iron atoms were converted to iri ions. The resulting solution was mace up to 250 om. (Write balanced equation for the reaction between the iron in the wire and the sullric aca [0] ‘A 25.0 cm& sample of this solution was acidified and trated wih 0.0250 mol dm potassium dichromate(V)-32.0 om? ofthe potassium cichromate{ VI) soluion was required for complete reaction with the on{l) ons in the sample. The relevant half-equations are shown, Crs0! 4 14H" + 62" ——> 200 + THO Fo > Fo +e (W) Use the hal-equations to write an equation for the reaction between the iron() Tons and the acide siervomate| Vi) fons m Calculate the amount, in moles, of aichromate(VI) ions used inthe tation amount = ‘mol 1] (W¥) Calculate the amount, n moles, of ian(t}) lon inthe 25.6 em sample of solution. amount mol [1], (v) Calculate the amount, in moles, of iron in the 3.35 g piece of wire. > GL S moun SG Pratt (4) Caleulate the mass of ron in the 3:35 g piece ow. SS roe g ot) (wi ‘percentage = cornAS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntwncaueng Watt Am Meese 8 Steiomety (©) Some electronegativiy values are shown. element | elecionegativily ‘aluminiory 15 chlorine 30 iron 18 () Use the data fo suggest ie nature ofthe bonding in ron(l) chloride. Explain your 2 (W—_Suggest an equation forthe reaction between ion (ll chloride and water. io 2 MW 15°P21/A1/a,b (8) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle Complete the folowing table with their names and properties. Name of parce | Relaive mass | Relative charge 0 T1836 @ (©) The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined using data from iis mass spectrum. The mass spectrum of element X ig shown, with the percentage abundance of each isotope labeled. percentage sbundanesAS Level Cramioty Notes mcs vntinwneauen Watt Mom Meese 8 Stciomety (Define the toms relative atomic mass and isotope. relative atomic mass Isotope (3) (Use the data in the mass specitum fo calculate the relate atomic mass, A, of X {Give your answer to two decimal places and suggest the identity of X Ar of X entity of X 2) 3. MW 12P2t/a2 ‘Ammonium sulfate, (NH):80., is widely used asa fertliser. In order to determine its percentage purity, a sample of armmonium sulfate fetiser was analysed by reacting a known amount with an excess of NaOH(aq) and then trating the unreacted NaOH, vith dilute HCL (2) Ammonium sulfate reacts with NaOH in at =2 ratio Complete and balance the equation fortis reaction (NH)eS044 2NEOH = snaNHe + + @ (&) 45.00. sample ofa fertiliser containing (NH4):SO+was warmed with 50.0 cm? (an excess) of 2.00 mol d-? NaOH, When all ofthe ammonia had been driven of, the solution was cooled. “The remaining NaOH was then tiated with 1.00 mol dm? HCland 31.2 cm? were required for neutralisation, o (iW) Galcuiae the amount, in moise, of HClin 31.2 en of 100 mol dv EL. (il) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH in 50.)AS Level Cramioty Notes mcs vtwncauon Watt om Meese 8 Steiomety (@¥) Use your answers o (0), (t) and (i) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH. used up in the reaction with (NH4):S0a. (¥) Use your answor to (lv) and the equation in (a) to calculate the amount, in moles, of (NHi)eS0. that reacted with NaOH. (W)_Useyour answer to (v) to calculate the mass of (NH):SOthat reacted with NaOH, (vil. Hence, calculate the percentage purity of the ammonium sulfate fertiliser. m 4 ONTP220V ‘Compound Ais an organic compound which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, When 0.240 9 ofthe vapour of is slowly passed over a large quantity of heated copper) oxide, (CUO, the organic compound A is completely oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. Copper is the nly other product ofthe reaction, ‘The products are collected and its found that 0.352 g of COs and 0.144 g of HzO are formed. (@) inthis section, give your answers to three decimal places. (Calculate the mass of carbon present in 0.352 9 of COs. Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of cabon atoms. Oe < ¢ ©AS Level Cramioty Notes Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrogen atoms present in 0.240 9 of a (il) Use your answers to calculate the mass of oxygen present in 0.240 g of A. Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of oxygen atoms present in 0.240 9 of A. 6 5. MW 1Pagia1 Methanoic acid, HOH, was formerly known as formic acid because I is present inthe sting of ants and the Latin name for ants formic, lt was fst isolated in 167! by John Ray who colected a large number af dead ants and extracted the acid trom tham by dstilato, Inthis question, you should give all numerical answers to two significant figures. [At room temperature, pure methancic acd isa liquid which is completely soluble in water. \When we are stung by a typical’ anta soluton of methanoic acid, A, i injected into our skin. Solution contains 50% by volume of pure methanol aca. ‘Atypical ant contains 7.6 x 10°° dm of solution A (@) (2) Calculate the volume, in em®, of soluton A in one ant volume = om3 (W) Use your answer to() to calculate the volume, in om®, of pure methanaic acid in fone ant we A? voluns.. A. oma (lil) Use your answer to (il) to calculate how many have to be distilled to SV produce 1 dm? of pure methane aci. Sage © umber = ro}AS Level Cramioty Notes Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety ‘When we are stung by an ant, the amount of solution A injected is 80% of the total amount of solution A present in one ant The donsiy of pure methanoic acd is 12 g ems. (©) (Calculate tne volume, in cm, of pure motrancic acid injected in one ant sting VOLUME = en ems (i) Use your answer to (i) 10 calculate the mass of methandic acid present in one ant sing mass = 913) Bees also sting us by using methanoic acid. One simple treatment for ant or bee stings is Yo use sodium hydrogencarbonate, NalCOs. (©) (Construct a balanced equation for the reaction between methanoic acid and Sodium hydrogencarbonale. (Win atypical bee sing, the mass of methanoic acd injected is 54 x 109g. Calculate the mass of NaHCO» needed to neutralise one bee sting, mase otscnet Atoms, | Steiciomety i a & a?[AS Level Chemity Notes Un 2: Atom race INIT 2 ¥ Topics 24: Atom ATOMIC 22: Electronic Configuration STRU CTU RE 2.3: lonisation Energy AH 2.4: End of Chapter Past Paper Questions AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed co 0333-2277385 rasheed ahmnad7#74@ gmaltcom Read Write READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Cel: 0396-5314181 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwriteotfice@gmallcomAS Level Cramioty Notes sc mitt tcatons Un 2: Atom race Uni eee 2.4: Atom ‘Atom s the smallest possible particle of an element that + exist independently + take part in the chemical reaction ‘+ represent all characteristic properties ofthe element + neutral on charge bases ‘Sub Atomic Particle: ‘Atom consis of folowing sub atomic particles ‘Sub Atomic | Relative Relative | Location | ~ Behaviour in the Electric Particle ‘Mass Charge Field Proton 1 “ Nucleus | Attracted towards negative T1840 Btectron | igarieie) 4 Sheiis | Attracted towards postive Neutron 1 a Nucleus Not deflected rays (octon) oe ceo t Yay (ter) C= Tego Cee ara (80) Atomie Humber (2: Metheunav unter al dlrs betwen eames sled as number of pstns preset = honebn riba of obs ae eqed oe amber prs Se, * Electronic configuration is based on proton number QOD + So postion of element inthe periodic table can be determined hence many, pees related Mass Number (A): iis the sum of numberof protons and neutrons present in he nucleus Pw \tis also reterod as omic Maas or Nusleon Number is vsed v gS + Mass calculations xs Sy + Molar calelatons S25 On Sap Conclusion: Itis quite evident from the above information that + Mass ofan atom presenti the nucleus.AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2: Atom race + Postve charge is in the nucleus + Negative charge is in the shells around nucleus. Calculate Number of Sub Atomic Particles From the Given Symbol: ‘Sub Atomic Particle ‘Source Remarks Proton ‘emi Nonbr@) Conner ea oer oe irate of patie on Beans wa bets a preon 290h ‘Atomic Number (as number of Electron Brin alo ema | sn Ee ha protons Neutron Mass Nomber~ Atomic Number | Vat erent oiopes fhe Isotopes: Atoms of the same element having same atomic number (oroton number) but diferent mass number (neutron). Isotopes cannot be determined from the periadic table as elements are arranged on the basis ‘of proton numbers. Example: Hydrogen have three isotopes namely protium ('H), deutium ('H) and ttium (H). (Chlorine *°Cl and C1 Sodium ®°Na and *Na, 2.2: Electronic Configuration ‘Arrangement of electrons inthe shells, sub shells and orbitals around the nucleus. Itis based on atomic numberof the element ‘Some Basic Concepts: tis considered that at maximum there are 7 shells (energy level) around the nucleus which ae represented by Principal Quantum Numbers from 1 to 7. Shell 1 is closest to the nucleus and has lowest energy whereas shel 7 is farthest and has maximum energy. Maximum number of electron that can be present in the shell can be determined by he formula 2n?. Whereis the shell number (Prinelpal Quantum Numbers). Maximum Capacity of the Sholls: ‘Shell Number | 2x? | Max Electrons 7 DF z 2 De 3 3 De 6 cE. a 2a w a ut wo also know Tat maximum SBaN Tal canbe rosin Ta aTnCD gel ost) ae 8. Sub Shells 8 ‘spr capac, each shell have sub shells namely s, pd and in smal ter), Sub shlls te at lowest energy vel and sub hol fi ai highest onecgy io ‘Sub shell | Capacity S$ Ss 2 - ingly. P é 7 TAS Level Cramioty Notes ssc vn tears Un 2: Atom race ‘Sub shell sis spherical and sub shell pis dumbbell shape in which electrons are revolving and spinning, § sub shell p sub shell d sub shell ‘orbital: Each sul shell is further dived into arias in which maximum 2 electrons can exist but with opposite ‘spin. Dumbbell shape orbitals are named on the basis of cartesian axis at which that exist. ‘Sub shell | Capacity | Orbitals Names z T = Pe 6 a PX. By. BE d 0 5 [ox be, dz oe 7 14 7 |When an atom is in ground state (most stable state as electrons are al the lowest energy level), following rules are applied for the electronic configuration ‘Aufbau Principle: Electrons in the ground state occupy orbital in order of energy, from lowest energy tothe higher energy. Shell ‘Sub Shells reat quan manera 181 0 ore ' & 2 OS 3 SOO ‘ OOOO 5 OOOO 6 OOOO 7 OOOO ee Serer eee ‘Always Remember: Zo ‘3d (winon empty) sat high energy than 4s, so 4 wil bo i 42d conan any eocvons thon it must bo placed with 3 shell sub sholl. Always remontBr wil bo fled fist ns and also ‘removed from 46 a8 I the outer most sub shel. © Caretully eas the folowing order when the orbitals are completely tile.AS Level Cramioty Notes pane Un 2: Atom race 18%, 258, 2p, 958, Op ae, As, Apt, 4d, Ss, Sp Electronic Configuration of Some Elements: oN = 12, 25?, 2p? 1S = 187, 267, 29%, 98°, Spt ahr = 182, 25%, Op, Ose, Sp WH = 15, 26%, 2pF, B52, Spt, ds! ‘aiCr= 1st, 2s, 2p, 9s, pF, 3, 4s ‘Fe = 18%, 25%, 2p, 96, 3p, Sa, 45? ‘=0u = 187, 25%, 2p, 3s%, dp, 3d", ds! It.can also be written in this form; Fe = [AV], Sa, 458 +P will have three more electrons than atomic number) 484,258, 2p, 95%, 9p s«S+=(will have two less electrons than atomic number) 154,254, 2p, 98%, 9p8, 90", 4s#, 4p OR Sr KE] Paul's Exclusion Principle: ‘An ofbital can contain maximum two electrons, only if they have opposite spin. One ofthe electrons wil have clockwise and the other will have ati clockwise spin. wAr= 182, 25%, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz?, Sst, Spx’, Spy®, pz? Clockwise SD) Ant Clock wise Huna’s Rute: T doped ois (lol he sare shal) are aval, ten elacrom wifey wih parallel spin (to avoid repulsion). 7 IN tt 2% 2x2! 2p 1 18,20, 20AS Level Cramioty Notes 2 Un 2: Atom race 2.3: lonisation Energy: AH%e Itis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons trom the valence shell of one mole gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous unipositive ion. itis denoted by AH itis an ‘endothermic process with Kd mat unit Kg > XH” First ionisation Energy: tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from the valence shellofone mole gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous unsitive ion. lis denoted by AH.e: ‘Second lonisation Energy: {tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole gaseous uni positive ion of an ‘element to form one mole of gaseous di positive ion. It's denoted by AH* en Ca) ———> Carty + te AH) = +590 KJ mot* (first 1) Cary ———> Carty +e AHe = +1150 KJ mot* (second IE) sic concepts: Second ionization energy value or any successive ionisation value wil alvays be higher than the frst ionisation value as itis geting more dificult fo remove electron from the postively charged ion, due to more ‘rotonic attraction from the ncious onthe remaining elacrons, Factors Affecting lonisation Energy: First IE of Na - 484 KJ mol" & 6 Serbo | ee @* rane amma naarstnsar wenn enema Soe cu fom wan saecnmin cova vores SM ‘Shielding Etfect: ‘As elecirons are negatively charged so they repel each other. Ek the valence electrons so the effect of positive nuclear charge ata More the number of shells used in electronic configuration, 'be the ionisation energy. From top to bottom in a group ofthe periodic table atomic size i veto increased numberof shel Hence shielding effect increases so ionisation energies decreases! In a particular period from ltt right, numberof shells remain same, so shielding alomic number effect remain same, Ny ee pega the iver shes repel Seeger ‘electrons is reduced. 9B shielding tect so lsser wiAS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2: Atom race Effective Nuclear Charge: Protons in the nucleus attracts electrons towards the center, however i isthe net positive charge that is used to attract the valence electrons. I increases withthe atomic number (proton number). Effective nuclear charge increases trom let to right in a period (as elements are arranged! rom left to sght in the periodic table onthe basis of atomic number). So ionisation energy also ineceases from let tonight in the petiodie table. In a group trom top to bottom ellective nuclear charge does not vary First IE of Na = 494K molt Fist IE of Mg 736 KJ mol* ‘Tronds of First lonisation Enorgy in the Periodic Table: Group: Ina particular group from top to bottom + Aiomie size increases + Shielding effect increases + Effective nuclear charge remain samo So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus decreases, hence lanization energy decreases, Fist IE of Be = 900K mol! Fist IE of Mg 736 KJ mol" Fist IE of Ca 590 KJ mol? Period Ina particular period from lft to right + Aomic size comparatively decreases + Shielding effect remain same + Effective nuclear charge increases So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus increases, hence Jonisation energy Increases. First IE of Na. 494 KJ mol" Fist IE of Mg = 736 Ks mot! lonisation energy also depends on the type of sub shel (orbital from which electrons are removes. For example p sub shell is at high energy state and more shielded than s sub shell f the electron ‘is removed from 2p then ionisation energy is lower than the electron removed from 2s. Bo = 188,28 First IE of Be 900 Kumol* B= 188,268,291 First IE of B 799 Kulmole* Similar case is applied for magnesium and aluminum (Period 3) Also half filled p orbital is more stable than partially filed. Atoms having higher ionisation energy than partially filed (as pairing of electrons in the o N 18% 20,29 FistiEoIN = 1400 Kumole* << co ‘1s? 28°, 2pt First IE of O 910 Kulmolas & Siar cas is applied for Phosphons and Sulphur(Peied3) = a as C5 mais Successive lonisation Energies and the Position of Eiinegtin The Periodic Table: ‘As we know that electrons are removed in an order from highest afféray orbital (valence) tothe lowest nergy otal To remove eecron em fe igh energy Peters orisalin energy as compared tbremove an eecvon rom thelow energy oma Hench uceeasve lonizaton energies are avays hgh.AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vn tenons Un 2 Atom ruts However a sudden and abnormal increase in successive ionization energy represents change ot shell (quantum number) Example: ‘An element X has following successive ionization energies 520,7300,11800. Identity the element. Answer: FE PE IE Element x 520 7300 11800 Difference of IE 6780 4500 ‘Tho diferonce between 1% and 2° value suggests change of shel. So there is only one electron in the valence shell and total tiee elections are present. is electronic configuration willbe 182, 2s1, hence group 4 and period 2 (ci. Example: ‘An element Y has folowing frst four suocessive ionization energies 577, 1820, 2740 and 11600. Identity the element Answer: IE Dae 31E ee Element ¥ 577 1820 2740 11600 Difference of IE 1243, 920 860 ‘The aifference between 3" and 4" value suggests change of shel, So there are three electrons in the valence shall. Hence element Y belong to group thee. Exampl ‘An olement Z has the folowing successive ionization energies 510, 4560, 6940, 9540, 12400, 16600, £20100, 28600, 28800, 141000 and 188700. Give the electronic configuration ofthe element. WE Pe [WE [OE | OE [OE PE | OE | ME WE | THE Element | 510 | «G60 | 6840 | o540 | 19400 | ve600 | 20v00 | 2séon | 2aaoo | 141000 | 158700 Diteronce ‘oso_| 2280 | 2600 | 960 | 2200 | asco | s4o0 | 00 | 112100 “The iterence between 1* and 2* and O° and 10* ionization energies represen a there is only 1 valence electton and total 11 electrons. So electronic configuration is 182, 25%, Element is sodium. group 1 and period 3 Sr ©AS Level Cramioty Notes a Un 2: Atom race : Srna et Mig 161P2201/¢.6 (8) Complete the table to show the composition and identity of some atoms and ions. ‘rama of | nucleon | alomie | numberof | numberof | number of | overall element | number_| number | protons | neutrons | electrons | charge ‘boron | 10 5 0 nitrogen 8 10 208 2 2 20 3 3 a co] (©) The ith to eighth ionisation energies of three elements inthe third period ofthe Periodic Table are given. The symbols used for relerence are nol the actual symbols of the elements. Tonization energies, KJ mor* ‘in| sian | seventn | eighth x | 7012 | e496 | 2rto7 | 31671 y | e542 | 9362 | 11018 | 33606 z | 7238 | s7a1_| 11996 | 13842 (State and explain the group number of element Y. croup number explanation oy) (W)_Siaie and explain the general wend in first lanisaion energies across the thd Perio. (iW) Complete the electronic coniguration of element x, 192 ON 11/P21/02%0,0.6 re @ ‘The Periodic Table we currently use is derived directly from enna in 1869 by Mendeleev iho had noticed pattern in the physical an chemical proper of fhe elements he had stsies ‘The diagram below shows the fst ionisation energies of thirst 18 blements ofthe Periodic Table.AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2 Atom ruts 2500: He 2000: No first ionsaion 4509 “energy, t KIM G69 500 t Ne ° OT ESAS GTB Stor zIBIAIS TOTTI Proton number (2) Give the equation, including state symbols, forthe fis ionisation energy of sulr. (2 (©) Explain why there Is @ general increase in ist ionisation energies across tha Period from socium to argon 5 (©) (Explain why the fist ionisation energy of magnesium i greater than that of aluminium. (i) Espiain why the first ionisation energy of phosphorus is greater than that of sifu. 3. MW 10/P22/01 In the 19th and 20th centuries, experimental results showed scj positive, heavy nucleus which is surrounded by electrons. (7 Then in'the 20th century, theoretical scientists explained, (eine aranges in ils ‘round Complete the table to show the composition ‘of some atoms and ions. (@) The diagram below represents the energy levp$4/ jhe fits present in atoms of the second period (Lo Ne). ae (Label the energy levels to indicate fuartum number and the type of orbital at each energy level © ©AS Level Cramioty Notes ance mn Un 2 Atom ruts energy (W)—_Onthe axes below, draw a sketch ciagram of one of each citferent type (shape) of orbital that fs occupied by the electrons in a secondperiod element, Label each type. ee (i) Complete the electronic configurations of nitrogen atoms and oxygen atoms on the energy level diagrams below. Use arrows to represent electrons. energy rirogen energy ‘oxygen (b) (i) Use the Data Booklet to state the value,of the trot ongen ‘ N ka mot! £- ka mot sAS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2 Atom ruts (WH) Explain, with reterence to your answer to (a)(l), the relative values of these two ionisation energies.[AS Level Chemity Notes ost Chemie Boning UNIT3 — 3.1: lonie or Electrovalent Bond Chemical 3.2: Covalent Bonding 2.3: Coordinator Dative Covaont Bonding Bonding {: Valence shell electron palr repulsion theory 3.5: Orbital Hybridization AS Level Chemistry Notes 418: End of Chaptor Past Paper Questions Rasheed Ahmed ols0533-277385, rasheedahmad7874@ grallcom Bene READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-€, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Call: 0396-5314141 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwrteotfice@gmallcomAS Level Cramioty Notes ost Chemie Boning Hr Chemical Bonding ‘A chemical bond isthe force of attraction that holds the particles together in a chemical substance. ‘These are diferent types of chemical bonding: lonic or electrovalent bonding ‘Covalent bonding Govordinate or dative covalent bonding Metalic bonding Inter molecular forces of attractions (that include the folowing: Induced / instantaneous dipole * Permanent aipole Hydrogen bonding Need to Remember: AAioms gain, lose or share electrons in order to attain stable electronic configuration like inert gases by following the duplet or octet ul. 3.4: onic or Electrovalent Bond: ‘A.bond thats formed due 1 compete transfer of eloctron(s) from a metal atom to anon metal atom. Hence ‘electrostatic forces of attractions develop betwoen metalic cation and non metalic anion. Formation of NaCl: Sodium is a metal where chlorine is a non meta Na = 188.258 2p3e! Cl = 18828*2p".a8%, 3p! There is a complete transfer of one valence electon from sodium 36! tothe valence shell 3p* of chlorine. Resutanly postive and negative ions are formed with the nable gas electronic configuration, Nar! = 16825*.2p8e Cl" = 168,258 2p8 368, aptAS Level Cramioty Notes esc croncatne ost Chemie Boning oR a" Ci Formation of MgO: Magnesium is a metal where oxygen is @ non metal. Mg = 1822s".2p8 ast 1O= 58, 25%.2p8 ‘There ie a complete transfer of two valence electrons from magnesium 3s to the valence shell 2p* of ‘oxygen. Resulantly positive and negative ioe are formed with the noble gas electronic configur Mg’? = 132 2st, 2pF.96° 202 = 15225829" oR‘Stor Ceniaty Noes ‘aa wri ubteabons Needs to Remember: Cation (positive ion is always smaller in size than is atom because + One complete valonce shells omitted + Same numberof protons has a more fim hold on less electrons. ‘Whereas anion (negative ion) wil be large in size than the atom because + Same protons will have weaker hold on mare electrons. Concept: |When an atom lose election, itis endothermic, gains energy (lonsation energy) whereas gain of elacton is exothermic, means lose energy (electron alin). ‘Some Characteristic Properties of lonic Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: {As the bonding involve electrostatic force of attractions between oppositely charged particles, hence they ‘exist inthe form of ionic latices (hard solids) with high meling and boiing point. Explain why MgO has higher meting point 2850°C than NaC! 801°C? ‘Water Solubility: Mostly ionic compounds are water soluble. On aissolving, oppositely charged ions dissociate and arrango ‘themselves in between the spaces of water molocues. Electrical Conductivity: lonic compounds are nan conductors of electri in thee solid state as ions are compactly packed and are not free to move. In molten and aqueous solution form ions are free to move hence elecincal conductors. 3.2: Covalent Bonding: ‘A bond formed between non metals due to mutual sharing of electrons. Shared pair of electron is represented in dot and crass form in the valence shell overlapped area of the bonded atoms. ‘Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of one electron pai (one electron each by bonding atoms). I is represented by a singe line between atoms. He, Cb, HCl and He Gg SO Electronic Contigurations: Sar Hats! (864s one electron to complete the valence 3natA\, > 01-1220 29 26, 99° (reeds one eleton to complete vale sl)» y C= 15425°.2p% (needs four electron to completeAS Level Cramioty Notes Double Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of two electrons each by bonding atoms. tis represented by a double line between atoms. Example: (Oz, COs and Cole 10 = 188, 25%,2p¢ ‘Triple Covalent Bond: Pe Bond formed due to sharing of three electrons each by bonding atoms. It is represented Ba FAple line between atoms Exampl Neand CoH N= 188.284, 2p"AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vit tears ost Chemie Boning ‘Shared / Bond Pair: ‘A pair of electron formed due to mutual sharing of electron between the bonded atoms. Lone pal ‘A pair of electron inthe valence shell that do not participate in covalent bond formation, 3.3: Coordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding: ‘A.bond that is formed when an atom (molecule or molecular ion) donates its lone parol elections to shave. ‘Other atom does not contribute any electron in bond formation Electron par donating atom called donor and the other one is reeiplent. This is represented by an arrow. from donor to the recipient tom. Dative covalent bonding plays an important role inthe formation of molecular addtion compounds (adduct) ‘and complex ions such as NH", AlsCls and HiNBF ‘Ammonium lon NH Itis formed due to dative covalent bond between nitrogen of ammonia (donor) and hydrogen positive fon (cecipieny. O-4G:H no we AlCl: Molecular mass of anhydrous aluminum chloride in benzene is 267. Because aluminum eX ct tp fom AlCl, Lone par of hone (Serer of oe cf he As forms cate coven 9S (ecipient) of ther AICI, A Seng ee Similarly at higher temperature aluminum chloride exist as a molecule wit f (2s at lower "ompaatue Yoon enperatie} teense fom amelie wn he .AS Level Cramioty Notes a ost Chemie Boning Ce io NZ eee, <> ae " WL ROR a Ng ‘Some Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: Mostly covalent substances are gases or liquids with low meting and boling points because they ‘experience weak intermolecular forces of atracions. Only macromolecules (diamond, graphite, sca) are sold with high meting and boing point ‘Water Solubility: Mostly covalent substances are water insoluble, However certain polar covalent compounds dissolve and ionize in water. Electrical Conductivity: CCovalont substances are non conductors of electricity as they don't have free electrons or ions to conduct. ‘Aqueous solution of certain polar covalent compounds .e., Aqueous HCI have free ions to conduct, Covalent Bonding In Terms of Orbit ‘Sigma Bond: A single covalent bond that is formed due to direct overtapping (head to head) of the orbitals of the bonded ‘atoms. Electron density is concentrated in between the bonded atoms. O O- Pi (m) Bond: ‘This bond is formed between the atoms which are already bonded with sigina boA@S. If the two atomic SRE et eve econ panne ey eaten oom eer (7) bond electron lone pair—bond pair > bond pair bond pair Presence of one palo letron ntuence the shape, although inthe description ony bond par are shown. Doube or tile covalent bonds occupy the same space as te single bond electron pa Presence of amore elecuonegaive alom in the suroundng of crial atom pull ho shared pai of electron towards sel hence remaining elocronic pai can separate mare, increasing the bond angle eosseems ee ts hn os Valence nets | nye | enstow |eanpie| shape | Peon | sree Pair 2-bond | pects pais Planner Te | | rotane [2 ter | te pai cw 3-bond | ar, | bake Planner i Tome 45 | ine [80% [tier | van pai l a ce H 4= bond 1 Ys aes | PS | cue | Tetahecras | Nonplanner c Notere ‘095 JAN mr HOH CH Four bond | NH» noe | pare |p | Trgona! | Non planer amid 1 tone pat | Pots 2—bond noe | ees ies [lean 2ione pair ee ‘Sulphur is surrounded by six bond pair (no fone pair) thavrodug® an octahedral arrangement with all angles of 9° Bers 1S = 184.2582p83st, Spx*, Spy', Spz! SsAS Level Cramioty Notes psc vittcatone ost Chemie Boning Sulphur undergoes spd? orbital hybridization, by which one electron from 3s and one from 3p are ‘promoted to 34, gonerating a set of six degenerated orbital with one electron where flouine share lis alecton. F Flin, |. ja’ F Molecule Containing Five Electronic Pair (bond palt) PFs: Phosphorus is surrounded by five bond pair (no lone pai) that produce a Trigonal bl Pyramidal arrangement with tree bond pairs ina plane with bond angles of 120°, whereas two of the bond pairs ‘become arial in position. This axial bond pair forms a bond angle of 80° with each ofthe bond pairs in a planer arrangement. uP = 1s8,2s8.2p8.3st, Spx’, Spy', Spa! Phosphorus undergoes sp'd? orbital hybridization, by which one electron ftom 8s is promoted to 9d, ‘generating a set of five degenerated orbital with one electron where urine share its electron. F Lye WF oN F 3.5: Orbital Hybridization é eZ ' process by which obtals of diferent energy and shape merge ogebero dee a ABLE’ of ‘same energy and shape. Number of degenerated orbitals formed is equal ibeA(ofbitals merge together, IA iil myoizaton used explain bonding ar geomet of he male Sy extabng such mmolcues which have expanded tre oct. 3 ‘As per VSEPR theory, valenoy i defined as number of urpaked a 7 valence shel ot an ato, Sei re ot apd on Be, 8 aa nthe 2 prod Top HEN pe of otal hybreaon bitte we wil aces ony tw oem. oe Hybridization Ay? A hybridization in which one and tree pores hybrczedabenerate four sp orbitals (naving one electron) of same energy and shape.AS Level Cramioty Notes sce vt teatone ost Chemie Boning .G= 18, 2s°, 2px, 2py', 2p2” ‘One of the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pz, hence 2s?, 2px', 2py', pz merge together to form 4sp? orbitals. toot. ot. ot «C= 18,25p', 23p', 2sp, 256° “These sp? orbitals acange themsaves in a regular tavahedron with a bond angle of 109.5%. nal those ‘examples (CHa, CCl and other alkanes) where carton forms four single covalent bond with other atoms ‘carbon follow sp® hybridization. ‘sp? Hybridization: '\ hypridization in which one s and two p orbitals hybridized to generate three sp® orbitals (having one: ‘lectron) of same energy and shape. One of the p oral does not undergo hybridization. eG 18%, 25%, 2px’, 2py', 2p ‘One of the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pe, hence 2%, 2px', 2p2°merge together to form Sep? orbitals toot ot «C= 18, 2sp, 2sp' 2sp, py “These sp ori arrange themselves ina regular trgonal with a bond angle of 120°. In Cats, carbon form two single covalent bond with hydrogen and one double covalent bond with other ‘atoms Carbon follow sp? hybridization. ide >» In ethyne (CeHs), carbon follows sp hybridization where carbon forms a triple coyaldr tnd and one single v Coton rg Fintan ne cos ors coaentons witb son ardor a i Se.” tonic Character in Covalent Substances: ‘ Simple covalnt molecules ae classi into two catogois + Non polar molecules Polar covalent molecules “ese categories are designed on tho basis of; ’ + Types of atoms (elements) present in the molecule (Blecteghegativily cfference) © Geometrical shape of the molecule ey‘Stor Ceniaty Noes ‘aa wi ubteabons nes: Chel Bondiog Electronegatvity: tis the tendency of an atom to attract shared pair of electrons in a covalent molecule. IRincreases trom left to right in the period and decreases from top to bottom in a group. Maximum electronegatvity (4.0) is of fuorine group 7, Non Polar Covalent Molecule: ‘A covalent molecule formed betwoen similar atoms are non polar. They are considered as purely covalent Example: Hs, No, O:, Os, Se and Ps ete. “There are certain covalent compounds which are non polar due to ts geometrical shape. As dipole in one rection will cancel the equal cipolein the opposite direction, Be, CH, Cie, CO> and CC ‘ 5 c—e—c choO= Exampl Polar Covalent Molecul ‘A covalent molecule formed between dissimilar aloms i polar. A molecule in which shaved pai is not ‘equally dstributed so positive and negative poles are formed within the molecule (dipole) ‘A more electronegative atom in the molecule will attract shared pair so cary partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom wil carry partial positive charge. Hence it can be stated that a covalent bond is formed due to unequal sharing of electronic pairs. ‘These molecules exhibit some othe ionic characteristics such as HOI dissolve and ionize in water and also ‘become electical conductor. ¢ f—& c © BEAN, g 4 O°. Asymmatieal molecules wih one pa of elation i the cenal atm of the 5 polar for frame, ACL Te nonpolar where se PCs polar due o presence ne ee shal ot os ca ct mtd g lero he nepaveton,hoce ee ‘the positive and negative ion Permanent Dipole > Induce Dipole Instantaneous Dipole - Induced Dipole Forces: (Vander Waal’s Attractions) ‘These are weakest intermolecular forces of attraction and also known as london or dispersion forces. These forces exis in all ypes of non polar molecules; mono atomic molecule, molecule of element and compound ‘and polymer (graphite, palyethene etc) ‘Those forces are more effective at low tomporature and high pressure. These forces depend on numberof elections present which can be affected by instantaneous dipole. More the electron stronger willbe the forces of attractions This i 1 high speed in Atany instant in time, iti i i inthe other i inthe neighbour inal direct ‘This Attraction Depends on the Following Factors: Molecular size: + larger the molecular size (more electron in the molecule), stronger will be the forces of attractions hence higher wil be the boling point (latent heat of fusion and vapouriation). Boling pot increases down the ‘qoup Vil ana Vill of non metals, Chain Structure: Bate ti cat og nga Do eee ee engi pen ‘branched one due fo more surface area and point af contacts. Example: ‘GH CHe— CH: ~ CHe- CH have the boing point 36°C ‘GH - CH(CHs) ~ CH - CHy have the boiling point 23:C, ‘GHe- C (CHa CH: have the boiling point 10°C, le Forces: Dipole Molecule: . Am 3f the compound jo. which fs ‘electronegatvity. For example H.S, PCis etc “Those foc ent in poarmleols. Pose ple ofa mocleract the nogave pol of to ther Intec, inthis way i opaste poles come cose and meeovestre arangedAS Level Cramioty Notes 0 ost Chemie Boning ‘Tis force is stronger than instantaneous dipole — induced dipole attraction. Force depends on ltference o he electronegatiity of atoms in the molecule, more diference more defined pole £0 higher the intermolecular forces of atractons. In general substances having dipole - dipole attractions have higher melting point, Boling point and enthalpy of vaporization, Polar sclutes can also dissolve into polar solvents Example: Slane SiH« (non polar) has a lower meting point (-185°C) than hydrogen sulphide HzS (polar) -86°C. Hydrogen Bonding: tis the weak electrostatic force of atractions between hycrogen (unshielded proton) of one molecule (when itis bonded directly with FON only) and lone pair of elecron of highly electronogative small atom of the neighboring molecule. Conditions for Hydrogen Bonding: + Hydrogen must be bonded with small and highly electronegative atoms lke flourine, oxygen or nitrogen (FON) ‘+ Hydrogen bonding does not occur with larger atoms ike chiorine and sulphur although they are highly ‘electronegative. ‘+The electronegative atom must possess lone pair of electrons, ‘Chemistry of Hydrogen Bonding: When hydrogen is bonded with any element from FON, shared pair olecton is attracted by the ‘electronegative atom so unshielded hydrogen is alracted by electronegative alom of the neighbouring molecule. Lone pai of electron develops adative bonding effect with hydrogen and is represented by doted line (-~-~--). Hydrogen bonding is strangest among the intermolecular forces of attractions. Exampl Hydrogen bond plays a significant role in the properties of many substances Water H:0: Water is a polar molecule with hydrogen bonding that makes it special in its oa oe of water is 100°C that is very high as compared to HeS (-86°0). 1. ee floats on the surface of water. Due to coating down the water m ye themselves at a ‘specie distance due o hydrogen bonding making iless denser thar mcAS Level Cramioty Notes sce mel oncetne ost Chemie Boning “by a a“ H-bond aN 2. Ethanol gissolves into water due to hydrogen bonding between oxygen of ethanol with hydrogen of water and vice versa, & a (tend a a > AN ‘Ammonia Nis: 1. Ammonia i a gas that can easly be liquefied on lowering temperature due to hydrogen bonding, & ra 8 A Htond 07 Ne 2. Nylon bers have high tensile strengthened elasticity due to hydrogen bonding between byt ‘Fup and oxygen of carboxyle group.AS Level Cramioty Notes 2 ost Chemie Boning EIR ee eed 1. MI T7IP2H102/6 ‘Structure and bonding can be used to explain many ofthe properties of substances. @ o) Copper, ice, silcon(tV} oxide, iodine and sodium chloride ae al crystalline solids. Complete the table with: © the name ofa type of bonding found in each crystline solid, the type of lace structure for each exystaline sald, expsialine solid | type of bonding ‘pe ot atice conper siicon(V) onde iodine sodium chloride 6 (Name the strongest type o intermolecular force in co. 1 (i) Braw afl labeled diagram of two water molecules in ie, showing the force in (and how itforms, 8 2 OIN14/P21/02, ON 14/P22102/6 ‘The Contact process for the manufacture of sulfue acid was originally patented in the 19th century and is stil in use today. ‘The key step inthe overall process isthe reversible conversion of sulfur dlxide to sulfur tloxide in the presence of @ vanacium(v) oxide catalyst 280x(9) + 0:(q) == 250s(9) AH = 196 kd mot" (@)()__Suttrchoxice and str trixie both contain only SO double bonds Draw labeled diagrams to show the shapes ofthese two molecules 80: $03 & & @ & KD) SS 2 ms ()Foryeurdapansin ame te sepes ans snap fale. 02 shay 803 shy my - = fo ‘$02 bond angle Soa on BF 78 « ca] Oa 2 om tap2ai01 B ‘Ammonia, NH, and methane, CHs, re the mente hen arene to one another in the Period Table © @ Inthe boxes below, draw the ‘dot-and-cross' gram of a molecule of each of these compounds. Show outer electrons ony.AS Level Cramioty Notes 23 ost Chemie Boning © © State the shape of each molecule, Ne OH shape shape B ‘Ammonia is polar whereas methane is non-polar. The physical properties of the two compounds are diferent. (Explain, using ammonia as the example, the meaning ofthe orm bond polarity. wy Baa wy ie aronia iiocisi oir ro) (ii) Siate one physical property of ammonia whichis caused by its polar OE. oy When ammonia gas is mixed with hydrogen chloride, ae irri sid formed @ Slate each ype of bond tha is present in on formula many of each type are present You may draw GagramsAS Level Cramioty Notes wc vet catone ost Chemie Boning a (1N 13/P21/01, O1N 13/P22101/a,b Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR) is a model of electron-pair repulsion {including lone pais) that can be used to deduce the shapes of, and bond angles i, simple molecules (8) Complete the table below by using simple hydrogen-containing compounds. One example has been included. umber otbond | umberot | shape ot | omulnola as Tonepacs | moeeue | mowue a 0 | ipo planar BH ‘ ° a 1 2 2 BL (©) Telurum, To, proton number 52, used in protovot ea When rine gas passed over elurum at 150%, te cobs gas TaF is formed (Draw a dotand-cross’ diagram of the TeF molecule, showing outer elacrons only (What willbe the shape ofthe TeFs molecule? (Ww) What isthe FTe"F bond angle in TeF ? 8 5. MoarParar ‘The structural formulae of water, methanol and methoxymethane, CHsOCHs, are ow, 5 - “N YN Ln nS HOW He oH Hee ihm som “Sr Sy (i) Suggest the size of the C-O-C bond ar sri es os ia ® @AS Level Cramioty Notes 55 ost Chemie Boning ‘The physical properties of a covalent compound, such as its meting point, boling point, vapour pressure, oF solubility, are related to the strength of attractive forces between the molecules ofthat ‘compound. ‘These relatively weak atractve forces ae called intermolecular forces. They diferin thee steength and include the folowing a 8 c ©) © @ interactions involving permanent dipoles Interactions involving temporary or induced dipoles hydrogen bonds By using the letters A, B, or C, state the strongest intermolecular force present in each of the folowing compounds. For each compound, wite the answer on the dotted line. ethanol cHacHO ethanol cHaCHeOH methoxymetnane CHSOCHS 2methyipropane ——_(CH}2CHCHS 4 Methanol and water are completely soluble in each other. (Which intermolecular force exists between methanol molecules and water ‘molecules that makes these two liquids soluble in each other? (W)_Braw.a diagram that clearly shows this intermolecular force. Your diagram should show any lone pairs or dipoles present on ether molecule that you consider to be important When equal volumes of ethoxyethane, C:HsOCaHé, and water are mixed, shake allowed to stand, two layers are formed. 2 Suggest wry ethoxytnane does ot ily ioe n water. Explain you 46. oNo7P2ia2 @ 0 When sold aluminium chloride is heated oni «apouris formed whch has Mt 267 Ss When this vapour is heated above 1100 K dies N= 1335. What are the molecular formae of tego Iams of aluminium corde? at 480K wiiboxAS Level Cramioty Notes ost Chemie Boning ()—_Drawa éot-and-cross' diagram of the form of aluminium chloride that exists at the higher temperature. (ill) Draw a displayed formula of the form of aluminium chloride that exists at the lower temperature. Indicate clearly the diferent types of bonds present.[AS Level Chemity Notes ni Sites ot meter NIT 4 ¥ Topics 4.1: Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) of STATES OF aaa" on as 44: Macromolecules (Giant Covalent structure) 45: Carbon nanoparticles, ‘AS Level 46: Metallic Lattices Chemistry 47: End of chapter past paper questions Notes Rasheed Ahmed ols0533-277385, rasheedahmad7874@ grallcom Wile READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Cal: 0336-5314141 Web: wowwseadnarite.org E-malt readandwriteotfice@gmall.comAS Level Cramioty Notes ee ni Sites ot meter Uni Bore mess Matter exists in three states Le. solid, liquid and gas. Thee properties are discussed many times inthe early classes. These states are inter convertible on the basi of kinatic and potential energy and intermolecular forces of attractions. Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) helps us to study the behavior of states of matter. 4.1: Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of Gases This theory helps to explain behavior of ideal gas. A few postulates ofthe theory are given below; 41, Gases consisted of tiny particles (molecules), which are in continuous random mation 2. Colisions among gas particles and with the wall of the container is perfectly elastic (as just veloctes ‘changed, momentum remain conserved) 3. Pressura ofthe gas is due to colision of gas molecules on per unit area of the container. 4. The average kinetic energy ofthe gas molecules is directly proportional tothe temperature. 5. a Gas molecules are widely arranged wih no forces of attractions. ‘Actual volume of gas molecule is negligible 2s compared tothe volume occupied by the gas molecule. General Gas Equatio There are diferent laws to describe the behaviour of a gas with different constants; Boyle's Law: Volume of a given amount ofthe gas is inversely proportional othe pressure at constant temperature, Via 1/P ane —() vo= kx WP oR VP-=k (kis proportionality constant) Nip eme Mees Charles’ Law: Volume of a given amount of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure voa oT - vo. kx Tt OR —V/T =k (kis proportionality constant) WiTh = Me/Te Ifthe two variables are changed at a time then folowing expression can be used forthe thie vb ee PyxVu/Ti= Pex V2ITe L S SZ CSA ‘Avogadro's Law: QA Volume of the gas is directly proportional tothe number of moles ofthe. oe 1 oop and pressure on PLY cdma eran wr nner an Vio een (il) Y Boy? Vek x on on va 83 pontoratty contr)AS Level Cramioty Notes Unit: States of eter By Combining Equation | I and I: va WP Uo Ww voa on We will get vooa ontP voo= Rox oT/P R PV/nT (Ris a universal o ideal or molar gas constant) ART (General gas equation) Mr Determination from General Gas Equation: PV = nT (General gas equation) as;moles = mass /Mr OR on = omass/ Me by inserting value of nin the general gas equation; PV = om/Mr x RT Me = mRTVPV Calculate $1 Units of General Gas Constant (R}: Noed To Remember: In calculations involving gas equation parameters should be taken inthe folowing unis. + Prossurein New?, (1 alm= 101325 N m2) 1Nm® = 1Paso 1 x 10%Pa + Volume in m? + Temperature in Kelvin. (lemp in °C + 273 =K) ‘So at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) alm = 101325 N m2 (Nm2= Paso 1 x 10° Pa) V 2204 di = 0.0224 m® Tn 0° «080 +273«273K n=t mole As OR PyinT By inserting values inthe equation R= 101925 x 0.0224/1 x 273 = 226968/273 NmK' mole’ as (Nm =J) Ro = 831K" mole" ‘Similarly at Room Temperature and Pressure (RTP): Pest atm = 101325 Nm? 4 a? = 0.024 m? 20°C = 205 + 279 = 299K n=t mole As oR Pv/nT By inserting values inthe equation; 01325 x 0026/1 x 203‘Stor Ceniaty Noes ‘aa 8 wie ubteabons (See orm 2431.8/283 NmK' mot! (asNm=J) Ro = 831K" mor! ‘Question: (0.275 gf X, when vapourized at 150°C and 720 mm Hg pressure, occupied a volume of 120cm*. Calculate the relative molecular mass of X Solution: Mase m=02759 Temperature T= 150°C +273 = 423 Pressure P= 720m © — = 720/760 0,947 atm x 101325 Nm = 95954.76 Nm Volume V = 1200? 12am? 0.00012 m R 31 JK" mole In the formula: mRT/PY Mr = (0275 x 831 x 423 / 9595476 x 0.00012 = 966566/1152 = 839 = at Ideal Behavior of Gas: Hore are some postulates which in particular are applied on ideal beraviour of gases. + Gases molecules are widely arranged with no inter molecular forces of attractions. + Actual volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to the volume occupied by the gas, So ideal ‘gases follow the gas laws. For an ideal gas at constant temperature and pressure value of is constant. When PVin RT is platted against pressure at constant temperature, gives aconstantvaluelinePV/nRT = =f In actual practioe no gas is ideal, as under certain conditions gases deviate trom ideal behaviour. The gas ‘that does not obey the gas laws is caled non ideal or real gas. eens cieears ee teca asset ees eee fo oe Deviation at igh Prssu SA ‘Athigh pressure molecules of gas come closer and occupy smal volume. SN cscanna iereaes, so dose arrangement and more coison per unt volume ma mY ip volume signifies Deviation at Low Temperature: SS ae Similarly at low temperature molecules lose kinetic ener i sya come closer, henes inter molecular atvactons increases making the actual volume CD ©AS Level Cramioty Notes oO Unit: States of eter Deviation of Polar Molecul Polar molecules deviate more than non polar gases. As cipole ~ dipole attraction and hydrogen bonding is ‘stronger than instantaneous dipole induced dipole attraction. Non polar larger molecules deviate more than non polar smaller molecules. ‘Order of deviation of some ofthe gases: NHs> COs > Ne > He> He Real gases can show ideal behaviour at very high temperature and low pressure. 4.2: Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids ‘Type of matter that have definite volume but indefinite shape is called iquid. Following ae some postulates ‘of kinetic molecular model of liquids 1. Liquids are intermeciate in character between solids and gases. 2. Molecules of iquid are present in the form of clusters. Long range disorder and short range order. ‘3. Inter molecular forces of atractions are stronger than gases but weaker than solids. 4. Molecules of the liquid have less kinetic energy and more potential energy than gases. 5. Molecules ofthe Fquid move randomly ina 2g - zag way (Brownian motion), ‘Typical Properties of Liquids: Metting: When a sold is heated, molecules gain kinetic energy s0 the molecules move by overcortfi_int molecular forces o attractions and increasing gaps between the molecules resultany So ise Vapouriztion: € Notecies of the qui are continvously moving and calcng with each other, <0 ergy athe molecules iter changed, The molacles having suiet energy to overcome ner melee flees of tvactons, escape om te qu sua as vapours (vapurzaon). © \aputaon can ke pace at any temper, Poneverirrease in wera neases eae ot ‘vapourizalion (evaporation) So? Vapour Pressure: ‘An eullbvium sale al which rao of evaporation becomes egg 36 of condensation ofthe quid in a ose tae a gen empae. A ths sat eee xg var on wal onlaner called vapour esse. aAS Level Cramioty Notes ‘psc mtvcatons Unit: States of eter Vapour pressure increases with increase of temperature, as number of vapours increases with increase of temperature. 4.3: Solids Solids have definite shape, volume and strong intermolecular forces of attractions. Molecules are compactly ‘and regularly arranged. They are just vibrating at their fixed position due to less kinetic energy. Solids are of different types on the basis of type of bonding involved. 1. tonic 2. Simple covalent 3. Macromolecule 4 5. Metals Hydrogen bonding. lonic solids exist in definite crystalline form with high meting and boiling point due to strong electrostatic force of attractions in oppositely charged ions. Shape of crystal depends on size of ions. Mostly ionic ‘compounds exist in simple cubic form, Sodium chloxide and magnesium oxide exist in face centered cuble structure (each face ofthe cube has ‘anion ints centre). Each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged ion. Oppositely charged ions exist in 6:8 rato (empirical ratio 1:1). Covalent Soli Covalent substances consists of small molecules which are held by Van der Wall's forces of attractions or hydrogen bonding, Physical properties of such substances are determined by the strength of inter molecular forces of atractons. Covalent substances generally have low melting and boling pont, poor conductor of heat and electricity ‘and water insoluble. lode isa sublime sols which have fase centered cubic structure, Simiary fullerene allotopes of carbon such as Ce» and nanotubes experience the weak Vander Waals attractions. Hydrogen Bondi ‘A type of inter molecular force of attraction which exist in compounds containing hydrogen covalently ‘bonded with urine, oxygen or nitrogen (FON) Hydrogen bonding i stronger than Vander Wall's force of attractions and much weaker than Importance of Hydrogen Bonding in Physical Properties ‘Water isan important example of hydrogen bonding as inter molecular forces of 2 Inga state wr son re ancay nsogentonarg hats why Kos Bao pat han hydride of the same group (HS). C2) 3 Inice, water molecules are arranged in a regular pattern ike diamond. O% water molecule have ‘wo bond pairs and two lone pais (which form hyGrogen bond with the hy neighbouring water molecule). Resultartly space among water molecules widens maki than water, ‘Compounds showing hydrogen bonds are mutually soluble. Water, thal 4 5 Gaudin cas ecosearie a hemo BS ° 8. Hola! ature of DNA is due fo hycrogen bonding ap : Macromolecules (Giant Covalent se Maondees are lomed do Yo coinus cove: SoS lan evened sce, Teee molecules have some properties in common; otAS Level Cramioty Notes Unit: States of eter + Solids with high metting and boiling point + Water insoluble + Non conductors of heat and electricity (some exemptions are for electrical conductance). ‘Three Dimensional Macromolecules: Diamond, scan dioxide (SiO: - Quartz) and silicon carbide (SiC) form three dimensional structures. In ‘diamond each carbon is bonded with four her careon atoms to form a regular tetrahedron, whieh In three «dimensional structure form hexagonal arrangement. In sllcon dioxide, each silicon atom is bonded with four oxygen atoms and each oxygen is bonded with two siicon, making tree dimensional structures. % Se | I I VN wy tS MN OYUN A, In graphite each carbon is bonded with three carbon atom, forming layers of hexagonal rng. In a crystal latice layers are held together by weak vander waal forces of attractions. So? NY C-C C—C. 2 S 2 Soe Cc Xe oe Cc (One valence electron of each carbon in ayer is un bonded and available as free moving electron, making ita conductor of electricity in parallel to the plane not perpendicular. Itis smooth and slippery, as layers can side over each other Graphite has sigty higher meting pein han amon, a8 extra eneray’s required to overeat WEAK dor wal ores of atractons betwoen the lye. Ore 4.5: Carbon Nanopartic! Nanoparticle isa very small particle (1 nanometer = 10m). Fullerene: Itisan allotopic form of carbon, a holow spheres are tubes.AS Level Cramioty Notes oe Unit: States of eter Buckminsterfullerene (Buoky ball): Its a hollow sphere consisting of rings of hexagon and pentagons. Its common molecule is Cys. Other molecules include Cro, Creand Cx Pope fl 1. thas low sublimation point (600°C), due to weak Vander Waal forces of attractions. 44. tis more reecive han diamond and grep. yS VE, 2+ Bucky balls are used in delvery of drugs in the body and transportation of highly reactive He and reactive metals (more safe and quantity). Nanotubes: Itis a hollow tube fike structure made by bending a layer of graphite, Although diameter is very small but length can be variable. Properties: + tis @ conductor of electricity along the long axis of cylinder. + thas very high tensile strength, 100 ties stronger than steal ofthe same thickness Nanotubes can be used in electrical circuits, clothing, sports equipments and in the treatment of certain types of cancer. Grapher Graphene is a single layer of graphite, hexagonal ring sheet of carbon atoms, not completely rigid or distor. Properties: + tis conductor of heat and electricity. + thas very high tensile strength + Most chemically reactive form of carbon, ‘Graphene is used in tiny electrical cuts for touch screens and solar cells. > g Metalic bonds th electrostatic force of atracton between cations and delocalized on ‘Shapes (cubic or hexagonal) of metalic laios is due o compact arrangement ofc o5 Copper has face centered cus atce. Metals are conductors of secant, male ard duce ‘and have nigh meng por, boing pint and densi A Uses of Copper and Alloys: » A + Pure coppers useineecrica wing and central heating system (godt ol heat and elect + Boing malleable ane coresion resistant, used in kitchen viens, w@pr ppsRArs eothg + Brass (Cun) i used in making hinges, secs and other obieeKES 0 * Bronze (Cu/Sn)is a svonger ally, used in making ships propels MBDearings of machines. Uses of Aluminum and Alloys: ae + Aloy with magnesium makes the aluminum hard but lig tia ca sce, + Being rust and cosion resistant its used in cooking tens windows oe + Being good elecrical conductors, used in overhead cables.AS Level Cramioty Notes Unit: States of eter Recycling to Conserve the Natural Resources: arth provides us with natura resources, which may be abundant in some cases) but are finite and wil not last forever. Increase in demand, not oniy decreases the natural resources but also cause mary pollution problems, Here are some advantages of reoycing, "+ Reduced demand for new raw materials. ‘+ Reduction in environmental damages ‘+ Reduced demand fr land fil sites to dump waste, + eeduce energy cost of extractionAS Level Cramioty Notes End of chapter past paper questions MJ 15P21/02/a,6 1 The relationship p\ for gases. The grach represents the relationship between pV and p fora real gas at tree diferent temperatures, Ts, Tz and To. @ o) o w wy Ww AT can be derived trom the laws of mechanics by assuming ideal behavior P Draw one line on the grap to show what the relationship should be forthe same ‘amount of an ideal ga. 1) ‘State and explain, with reference tothe graph, which of Ts, Tz or Tas the lowest temperature. 0 Explain your answer to (i with elerence to intermolecular forces. 1 Sia ado at lesson te erat o wich a agai rom ideal behaviour. Lor ‘Afiask with a volume af 100 cm? was frst woighed ee Cigna ‘and then with another gas, Y, filing the flask. The resuts, me shown, Mass of lask containing air = 47-980 g) Mase of lask containing ¥ 26°C and 1,00x105 Pa, are OF Ay Ja 479899 Density of air = 0.00118 9 om)AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vnktcaons Unit: States of eter Calculate the relative molecular mass, M. of. Me of ¥ 4 2 oNogP22a1 ‘The elements carbon and silcon are both in Group IV ofthe Periodic Table Carbon is the second most abundant element by mass in the human body and silicon is the second ‘most common element in te Earth's cust. Carbon and silicon each form an oxide of general formula XO, [At room temperature, CO:s a gas while SiO is a solid with a high melting point (2) Briefly explain, in terms ofthe chemical bonds and intermolecular forces present in each compound, why COr is a gas and SiO» isa solid at room temperature. (b) Draw simple diagram to show the siruclure of SiO. Vour diagram should contain ai least ‘wo siicon atoms and show clearly how many bonds each aiom forms. (COs does not behave as an ideal gas. © @ in ideal gas. . ) Se re enAS Level Cramioty Notes Unit: States of eter Carbon exists in a number of forms, one of whichis a conductor of eectriity and one of which is a ‘non-conductor of electricity. Silicon fs the main component of most semi-conductor. (@) Graphite isthe orm of carbon thal a conductor of elect. Giva a simplo explanation for this property. n when carbon and sileoniIV) oxide are Neated together at about 2000°C, silicon carbide, SIC, is formed. Siicon carbide is a hard material which is widely used as an abrasive and in ceramics. (©) (Construct an equation forthe reaction of carbon and siicon(IV) oxide, (SiG has a simiar structure to one ofthe common forms of carbon. Which form is this? Give a reason for your answer. form. reason a 3 Muoarparat (2) State two assumptions of ideal gas behaviour o w 2 Use ofthe Data Booklet is relevant in () and (), (b) The ideal gas equation is pV = nf. Explain as fully as you can the meaning othe following terms, and give the units for each to corespond with the value of R given in the Data Bookie oo Vn . sos . ee Ps — os (iii) T .. si fee vo wo oppo C5? (©) (When an evacuated glass bub of volume 688 199.5 kPa, the mass increases by 0.103 9 rivogen or argon.AS Level Cramioty Notes oo Unit: States of eter (W) Explain why ammonia isthe most likely ofthese three gases to deviate from ideal (988 behaviourAS Level Cramioty Notes Blank Page[AS Level Chemity Notes Uns: Cramical energetics UNITS Topics CHEMICAL ee sngtmanyannston ENERGETICS «=~ 5.4: Activation Energy (Ea) ‘55: End of chapter past paper questions AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed ols0533-277385, rasheedahmad7874@ grallcom Read rite READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-€, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Call: 0396-5314141 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwrteotfice@gmallcomAS Level Cramioty Notes Uns: Cramical energetics Hr Ciieeener rs Chemical reactions are always accompanied by energy changes. During a particular reaction bonds of the reactants broken down and bonds ofthe produc are formed. On the basis of energy changes, reactions. are classified in two types; Exothermie: Reactions in which energy is given out Reactant are at high energy level than the products. Enthalpy change aH is negative. aH = Hrwice - Hrexins Reaction mixture temperature increases, container become warm, “Temperature change AT is posite. Energy of activation i less, so the reaction is fat. Bond breaking energy (absorbed) is less than bond formation energy (released) esctant Enthalpy Ks mole Product Examples: ‘Oxidation of glucose and combustion of fuels. ‘Acid alkali eutvallzation actions Reactive metals reaction with aciés Dissolving of calcium oxide (quick ime) in water o form calcium hydroxide Fuel coll and galvanic call ‘Conversion of physical states of matter trom gas to liquid or lauid to soli Electron absorbing (gain) n the valence shell (electron affinity) indothermie: Reactions in which energy is taken in. Products are at high energy level than the reactants, Enthalpy change aH is postive, AH = Hyedos - Hrecune g Reaction moure temperature decreases, container become cokd. D>” A\ “Temperature change AT Is negatve, AG Energy of activation fs more, so the reaction is slow Bond breaking energy (absorbed) is more than bond formation’AS Level Cramioty Notes sce mZrotcatre Uns: Chemical energetics Enthalpy Kd male ection Paty Examples: ‘Decomposition of metal carbonates. Photosynthesis Photography (decomposition of siver bromide into silver and bromine) Dissolving of ammonium chloride in water Electrolysis Removal of electron from the valence shell ionization energy) Physical state conversion from solid to quid or Iquid to gas, 5.1: Standard Conditions for Standard Enthalpy Changes For a fair comparison ofthe enthalpy changes of diferent chemical reactions, folowing standards are taken; ‘Temperature: 298 k (2540) Pressure + atmosphere (101 kPa) ‘Aqueous solutions: 1.0M Substance: 1 mole Substances must be inits physical state soi, quid or gas as under the standard temperature and pressure ‘conditions and more stable allotropic form must be taken Le, in case of carbon graphite s stable than other allottopic forms, Standard enthalpy change under standard conditions is represented by (H naught). AH ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Reaction (sH®): ss Entapy chang when ancuns of reacans reat fogether under stanaara condi fh tra stordard sats, Hew + %0x) = —> 09 ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation ( H®) es Enthaby change under standard conditions, when one mole of a coieundié tomes tom is lemons, hhaving both elements and compound inits standard-states. ys Hem + %Om) = —> 209 2Aly + 3200 > AkOve) > AH®, = -286 KJ mot" He = -1676 KJ mol!AS Level Cramioty Notes sc vn ztteatons Uns: Chemical energetics ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Combustion (3H) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole of a substance reacts (combust) completely vith oxygen, having reactants and product in ther standard physical states. Ha) + Ye On — #09 AHP. = -286 KJ mot" Cisse) + Ong = —> ony AHP. = -394 KJ mot CHHOHH + 30x) = —> 2O0ny + 3 H4Oy AHP, = 1967 Ki mot! ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Hydration (AH? ine) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole gaseous ions dissolves in water to give an infinitely diute solution. It is exothermic reaction. Ue sag = Us AHPing = “S192 cma Cty +aq = —> Orin AHP ya = -364 1s ‘Standard Enthalpy Chango of Solution (AH®sa) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole solute alssolves In water t0 give an infinitely allure solution Lichy —> UCli AHP pay =-97.2 KS mol? Basicaly it's a difference of latice energy and enthalpy hydration and can be calculated by the formula Ala = AH yan (Lattice Energy) Latice energy is endothermic where as enthalpy change of hydration is exothermic. If value of AH® sane is negative then solute is easly soluble and vice vers. Als = (-519.2- 964) - (-046) 7.2K mot" ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Neutralization (Hou) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole of H+ ions from an acid is completely ‘neutralized by an alkali to form one mote of water. HCliag + NaOHiy > NaChs) + HeOp AHP ase = -57. om SO Enthalpy change of neuvalization volving weak acid or weak base willbe le joe versa, Chetore Man > ono Hy a can Ny” ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Atomization (AH*sr): f OZ Enihaby change when one mole gasecus atoms is formed fom Ft element in is standard state It's endothermic change. y Gay? c — ce hee = —> Ho Ham io (hat bond energy of Hyrogen) AHP an = 715 at!