Martial Arts and Nature

Martial Arts and Nature
The Teaching, Philosophy and Technique of the Martial Arts

in Relation to Nature
Ben Walsh
University of Vermont Environmental Program
May 7, 2007
Advisor//Evaluators:
Dr. Stephanie Kaza
Dr. Adrian Ivakhiv
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Abstract........................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction to the Martial Arts .................................................................................................. 6
Nature as a Concept .................................................................................................................... 7
Definitions................................................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction................................................................................................................................. 9
Religion and Ecology.................................................................................................................. 9
Philosophical and Religious Background ................................................................................... 9
Martial Arts of China ................................................................................................................ 11
Kung Fu ................................................................................................................................ 11
Tai Chi Chuan....................................................................................................................... 12
Martial Arts of Japan ................................................................................................................ 14
Kenjutsu and Samurai Traditions ......................................................................................... 14
Aikido .................................................................................................................................... 15
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 16
Project Design and Methodologies ............................................................................................... 17
Instructors Interviewed ............................................................................................................. 18
Interview Questions .................................................................................................................. 19
Limitations & Cautions............................................................................................................. 19
Results: Interviews........................................................................................................................ 23
Moo Gong Do ........................................................................................................................... 23
Interaction with Nature......................................................................................................... 23
Nature as a Training Environment ....................................................................................... 24
Nature as a Teaching Tool.................................................................................................... 25
Animals and Natural Phenomena ......................................................................................... 29
Instructor’s Use of Nature .................................................................................................... 30
Aikido ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Concept of Nature ................................................................................................................. 30
Yang Tai Chi Chuan ................................................................................................................. 34
African Martial Arts.................................................................................................................. 37
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Shotokan Karate........................................................................................................................ 41
Concept of and Interaction with Nature ............................................................................... 41
Goju Ryu Karate ....................................................................................................................... 43
Instructor’s use of Nature ..................................................................................................... 45
Taekwondo................................................................................................................................ 45
Taekwon-Do ............................................................................................................................. 48
Shaolin Gung Fu ....................................................................................................................... 50
Results: Survey ............................................................................................................................. 54
Themes: Comparing and Contrasting the Martial Arts Analyzed ................................................ 58
Nature as a Training Environment............................................................................................ 58
Natural Metaphors .................................................................................................................... 59
Animals ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Are We Separate From or a Part of Nature? ............................................................................. 62
Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 63
Possibilities for Future Research .............................................................................................. 63
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 64
Works Cited .................................................................................................................................. 66
Appendix 1: Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 69
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Abstract
This project examines the relationship between martial arts and nature. It looks at how
various martial arts describe nature, how they use nature as a teaching tool, how they imitate
natural phenomena and animals in their physical techniques, how they teach their practitioners to
physically interact with nature and how they believe and teach the mind and spirit should be
influenced by and interact with nature. In order to achieve this goal I have interviewed nine
martial arts instructors across eight martial arts; this is the project’s primary source of
information. I also have examined the core texts of each martial art (where applicable) and their
underpinning philosophies and the writings of the founders and influential figures within each.
To supplement these sources I have used histories and select overviews of each art, biographies
of important figures and compilations of teachings and quotations of these individuals. This
project is intended to be a preliminary exploration of the topic.
Introduction
The popular imagination without a doubt sees a link between martial arts and nature.
From Kung Fu to Karate Kid to Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, our popular culture tells us
the connection is there. But how much of this perceived relationship is grounded in fact and how
much of it is really just a myth? When I began training five years ago I found that at the least my
chosen martial art, Moo Gong Do, bears it out very well. I could not find, however, any sources
that examined this relationship in other martial arts.
I started this project because the topic is one that interests me and I was having difficulty
finding any information on it. After having reviewed the available information I have not been
able to find any sources that have systematically studied this topic; as far as I can determine
neither the literature of environmental philosophy nor that of the martial arts specifically looks at
this link. A search of article titles in Environmental Ethics from 1979-2006 turned up no results
for any of more than a dozen of the most prominent martial arts or for the phrases “martial art”
or “martial arts” generally (Center for Environmental Philosophy, 2006). The Encyclopedia of
Religion and Nature (Taylor, 2005) does have a short (less than three page) article on martial arts
focusing primarily on ki (internal energy) development and touching briefly on Taoist and
Buddhist influences as well as Aikido (a Japanese martial art) and a few other martial arts. The
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Encyclopedia of World Environmental History (Krech, McNeill, & Merchant, 2004), Dharma
Rain (Kaza & Kraft, 2000), and Buddhism and Ecology (Tucker & Williams, 1997) do not
mention martial arts (or any specific martial art) even once. In the area of literature written from
the martial arts side, Asian Fighting Arts (Draeger & Smith, 1969), The Overlook Martial Arts
Reader (Donohue, 2004), and Martial Arts of the World: an Encyclopedia (Green, 2001) all
touch on but do not explore this relationship. The only work (book, article or otherwise) that I
could find that is devoted in its entirety to this topic is Strike Like Lightning (Rhoades, 1999).
Unfortunately this book contains no citations and rarely mentions any specific martial arts or
even general philosophical traditions, and the author claims no qualifications beyond being a
“black belt” in Tae Kwon Do. As such it probably should not be relied upon as more than a
personal essay on the topic.
Because of this apparent lack of information this project’s goal has been to gather and
compile information on various martial arts’ relationships to and teachings on nature to begin a
preliminary exploration into the topic. However, due to the somewhat limited scope of this
project it is of course possible that there are sources specifically examining this topic that I
simply did not find, and virtually certain that there are many more resources that deal with one
aspect or another of it. In addition, because most martial arts originate in non English speaking
countries there is a distinct possibility that there has been an examination of this topic published
in another language but not yet translated to English.
While I have not been able to find any information on total numbers of martial arts
practitioners worldwide, it has been estimated that over 18 million Americans practiced some
form of martial arts in 2002 (Fetto, 2003), and the main Aikido organization claims 1.2 million
members worldwide (Aikikai Foundation, 2005). When all practitioners of Asian and non-Asian
martial arts worldwide are included, the numbers are likely far above 100 million. Assuming
even a small percentage of these martial artists practice arts in which nature plays a role the
views and actions of literally millions in regards to nature could be affected. Because of this, I
believe that this is a topic that bears looking into.
As some martial arts schools and instructors have in recent years come to focus on
particular aspects of their martial art (such as sport or self-defense applications) more than others
and training has become restricted primarily to modern commercial schools, it is possible that
some practitioners are unaware of the role nature traditionally plays in their chosen martial art.
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In addition, this project will hopefully provide a starting place for martial artists who are
interested in nature and the environment to look at the relevant teachings of other martial arts
other than their own.
Introduction to the Martial Arts

The precursors to the formal, codified martial arts of Asia can be reliably dated to at least
the Chou dynasty of China (1122-255 B.C.E.), with the first known written record occurring
during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.). Chinese martial arts supposedly further
developed around 500 C.E. with the founding of the Shaolin temple and the integration of the
body exercises of the legendary Bodhidharma (alternately called Tamo or Damo) a Buddhist
monk of Indian origin. These exercises are said to have later developed into the foremost school
of external martial arts in China, Shaolin kung fu (Draeger & Smith, 1969; Order of Shaolin
Ch'an, 2004).
In addition to his contributions to the physical aspects of Chinese martial arts, tradition
has it that Bodhidharma’s teachings led to the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, which,
along with Taoism (see below), played a key role in the development of many Asian martial arts’
philosophies and those martial arts’ views on nature. Supposedly, around 1200 C.E. Chang San-
feng, a Taoist monk, developed nei chia from the Shaolin martial arts, forming the internal
martial art that allegedly later developed into Tai Chi Chuan (Draeger & Smith; Huang, 1973;
Liao, 1990; Order of Shaolin Ch'an).
The Chinese martial arts had a large impact on the martial arts of the other Asian
countries; those of Japan, its prefecture Okinawa, and Korea were all affected by these martial
arts. In addition to this, these four different traditions are quite interconnected. Okinawan
martial arts (te, the predecessors to modern karate) were influenced by their Japanese
counterparts both initially and as te was assimilated into the rest of Japan. Partly as a result of
this process karate-do cannot truly be considered a single art. It has numerous styles that stress
different principles. Likewise, Japan influenced Korean martial arts during its early 20th century
occupation of the country, so much so that national sport of Korea, Tae Kwon Do, is sometimes
called “Korean karate” (Donohue, 2004; Draeger & Smith; Taylor, 2005).
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Nature as a Concept
Before the topic of “Martial Arts and Nature” is examined, the word “nature” must be
looked at in more detail. This word means many different things both historically and culturally
that may be relevant to this topic, and that meaning has changed over the years. The are three
general categories of meaning which are attributed the word “nature”, as outlined by Williams:
“(i) the essential quality or character of something; (ii) the inherent force which directs either the
world or human beings or both; (iii) the material world itself, as including or not including
human beings” (1976, p184) (these are agreed upon by Gold in Massey and Allen, 1984). This
project deals primarily with ideas of nature that fall into (ii) and (iii). These concepts are all
intimately and historically related and have evolved over time.
Definition (iii) (tied to definition (ii)), which is without a doubt the one I had in mind
when I started this project, has evolved in the West from a view of nature as a living organism, to
something external that must be fought and conquered, to a simple pool of resources to be used,
to a mechanical, law-based system, to a spiritual or pseudo-spiritual place separate from the
human world that serves as a reprieve from ‘civilization’. This evolution was certainly by no
means linear, and all of these views are still held to one extent or another. In addition to these
Western views, there are many different Eastern ones that are pertinent to this project. Taoism
deals heavily with definition (ii), and Shinto seems to be based in a view in category (iii) that
sees the material world, humans and the divine as interconnected and un-separated (see below).
Due to the wide variety of views that I expected to encounter (and in fact did encounter) in
conducting the interviews for this project I attempted not to favor one use of “nature” more than
any other, but rather attempted to allow the martial artists I interviewed to take my questions in
whatever context made sense to them without imposing my views on the discussion. While this
meant that the results depended upon the individual instructors understanding of the translation
of a number of different Asian words, had I restricted the study and the instructors to my
understanding of the term I would have been risking losing valuable insights that, while
potentially integral to their understanding of “nature” and their art’s connection to it, could have
been overlooked had I used a more limited definition. That said, for clarity’s sake in this final
analysis I will be using a set definition when I refer to “nature” or “natural environments”
(Callicott, 2003; Massey & Allen; Soper, 1995; Williams).
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Definitions
For the purposes of this project the following definitions have been used:
• “Martial art” means “a codified system of combat or self-defense techniques taught for self-
defense, self-cultivation, competition or sport that does not include the use of firearms or
other modern weapons.”
• “Nature” means, except where otherwise specified or where the context clearly implies a
different definition, “the material world itself, not including humans or human creations.”
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Literature Review
Introduction
This literature review looks at sources that shed light on this topic and its historical and
philosophical background, however indirectly or unintentionally. The first section briefly
reviews the general field under which this research falls, “religion and ecology,” or “religion,
nature and culture.” The second section examines the philosophical and religious underpinnings
of martial arts philosophy, specifically Taoism, Buddhism (Chan/Zen) and Shinto. The final two
sections look at what has been written on individual martial arts and are broken up by their
country of origin. They look at Chinese (Tai Chi Chuan and kung fu) and Japanese (kenjutsu and
samurai traditions and Aikido) martial arts.
Religion and Ecology

Before delving into the literature regarding specific martial arts or religious or cultural
traditions that have influenced them it is important to put this work in the context of the broader
academic realm it falls under, “Religion, Nature and Culture.” The International Society for the
Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, describes their field as the study of, “relationships among
human beings and their diverse cultures, environments, and religious beliefs and practices.”
(2005) This field is also often referred to as “Religion and Ecology,” but because this project
does not directly study religions, but rather other cultural practices that have been influenced by
religions, I believe that Religion, Nature and Culture fits better. Another way of viewing this
field is suggested by Foltz, who points out that the terms “religion” and “ecology” are both
somewhat limiting because of their definitions and connotations and suggests instead the words
“worldviews” and “environment.” (2003, xiv) Essentially this study looks at what particular
martial arts (i.e., cultural practices) teach regarding nature, hence it falls into this broader
category.
Philosophical and Religious Background

Probably as a result of their shared roots and the intermingling described above, most of
the Asian martial arts share a common philosophical grounding in Taoism and Zen Buddhism.
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In addition, the Japanese martial arts have been influenced by the nature-centered religion
Shinto. Taoism has influenced most Asian martial arts to one extent or another. Its core text, the
Tao Te Ching, teaches that people should live in harmony with nature; it is possible that this
philosophy has the potential to influence martial arts’ views on nature. Chuang Tzu, probably its
second most prominent writer, warns against human governance of nature, saying “You let it be
for fear of corruption the inborn nature of the world…If the nature of the world is not
corrupted…why should there be any governing of the world” and even goes so far as to say that
if humans are out of balance with yin and yang “the four seasons will not come as they should,
heat and cold will fail to achieve their proper harmony” (1968, p.114). While I did not find
references to these specific ideas within any of the martial arts covered in this study, the fact that
they exist within a philosophy that has influenced many Asian martial arts is worth noting.
Chan Buddhism has been especially influential in the Chinese martial arts and Zen
strongly influenced Edo period (1603-1867) Japanese arts such as the Yagyu Shinkage style of
kenjutsu (sword art). In Zen and Japanese Culture Diasetz Suzuki says “Let us destroy all such
artificial barriers we put up between Nature and ourselves, for it is only when they are removed
that we see into the living heart of Nature and live with it – which is the real meaning of love”
(p.361). He also discusses poems written by a sixteenth century general on nature; “Who would
imagine such an active soldier…finding room in his brain to appreciate Nature…But such was
actually the fact, and in it we recognize how innate the love of Nature is in the Japanese heart”
(1973, p.333). Martial arts texts such as Fudochi Shinmyo Roku (The Divine Record of
Immovable Wisdom), an essay written for the head of the Yagyu Shinkage style by Takuan Soho,
a Zen monk, exemplify this seemingly unlikely combination of martial practice and
philosophical exploration of nature (Lowry, 1995; Soho, 1986; Taylor).
In the Shinto tradition nature, humanity and the divine are viewed as a harmonious, inter-
connected whole. This view of nature as divine and not inferior to, or even separate from,
humanity has permeated Japanese culture. According to Kasulis, “‘naturalness’ has two senses
for the Japanese: either a close connection between humans and nature or the cultivated ability to
make things natural…if we join Shinto in considering human beings as part of nature instead of
separate from it, even human inventiveness can be natural…if performed with a genuine mindful
heart” (2004, p.43). The Japanese strove to express this harmony with nature through their arts,
including their martial arts (Taylor, 2005).
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Martial Arts of China
Kung Fu
Before any discussion of Chinese martial arts the term “kung fu” must be defined. Rather
than specifically referring to the martial arts it in fact means accomplishment through effort
(Chow & Spangler, 1977), “human effort” (Fredrick, 1995, p.138) or “hard work or skilled
effort”(Order of Shaolin Ch'an, 2004, p.133), and can be applied to virtually any human
endeavor, not just the martial arts. Many other terms can be used to more accurately describe the
martial arts of China, but as this is the term in popular usage to refer to the majority of Chinese
martial arts it is the one used by this project. It is suggested by the Order of Shaolin Ch’an that
perhaps the most appropriate way in which to use the term is in reference to a specific martial art
(as in “Wing Chun kung fu” or “Preying Mantis kung fu”).
As briefly outlined above, while Shaolin kung fu was by no means the first form of
martial arts in China it is widely considered to be at the least a strong catalyst for their further
development. The origins of Shaolin both as a religious order and as a site for the development
of kung fu are, however, quite controversial. The Indian monk Bodhidharma is traditionally
attributed with both the founding of Chan Buddhism in China and with the initial development of
the martial arts at the Shaolin temples. Chow and Spangler take a skeptical approach to parts of
his legend, but conclude that he did in fact exist and contribute to both Chan and kung fu as
tradition asserts (as does Huang). The Order of Shaolin Ch’an, on the other hand, is adamant
about his existence as a historical figure and his relation to Chan and their Order, but they claim
that while he introduced martial techniques to the temple these were not the foundation for later
kung fu development but were instead lost entirely after his passing. Finally, Holcombe (1990)
states not only that Bodhidharma had no relation to either Chinese martial arts or Chan
Buddhism (as does Henning, 1981), but also that he possibly did not exist at all. It should be
mentioned, however, that in the footnotes of the same article Holcombe states that he did in fact
find two references to Bodhidharma in what he considers legitimate historical sources dating
from 547 and 728 C.E. (Chow & Spangler; Draeger & Smith; Fredrick; Huang; Order of Shaolin
Ch'an).
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Regardless of the origins of kung fu there are currently a wide variety of styles bearing
the name. Many styles were inspired by (or at a minimum bear the name of) actual and mythical
animals, while others have descriptive names or bear the names of their founders. A few of the
styles are crane, snake, monkey, dragon, leopard, praying mantis, tiger, drunken, Choy Lee Fut,
Pa Kua Chang, Hsing-I Ch’uan, Hung Gar Ch’uan, Chin Na, Pak Mei and Wing Chun. In
addition, many Chinese martial art styles are divided into subsystems (for example, White Crane
and Black Crane). That many of these styles pattern their movements and techniques off of
animals also seems to be widely accepted, even by scholars such as Henning and Holcombe that
are skeptical of other claims made by Chinese martial artists (Chow & Spangler; Fredrick;
Henning; Holcombe; Order of Shaolin Ch'an; Wong, 1987).
In addition to their animal imitating techniques, kung fu styles, because of their
traditional claim of Shaolin roots, are in many cases intimately tied to Chan Buddhism. In
addition, according to the Order of Shaolin Ch’an, Taoism, and in particular the stress it placed
on balance and harmony with nature, fit well with and influenced the Shaolin teachings. The
Order also states that they have historically interacted with nature (especially animals) beyond
simply imitating it in their kung fu. Taoist teachings can also be seen in the attitude that some
styles of kung fu take to their physical techniques, yielding to force in order to overcome it
(Chow & Spangler; Order of Shaolin Ch'an).
Tai Chi Chuan

Tai Chi Chuan (“grand ultimate fist”), or simply Tai Chi, is one of the best known
Chinese martial arts. It can be considered a style of kung fu, but because of its prominence and
its extensive incorporation of Taoist principles (see below) I have chosen to examine it
separately.
As with Shaolin kung fu, the historical origins of Tai Chi and its traditionally cited
founder are controversial. As mentioned above, the legendary monk Chang San-Feng allegedly
created the internal Chinese martial arts (nei chia) after synthesizing Shaolin kung fu with Taoist
principles; this is what later came to be Tai Chi. Views on this tradition, as well as Chang San-
Feng’s relationship to Shaolin, vary widely within the literature I reviewed. Liao seems to
accept this tradition at face value as well as ascribing to him the founding of the Wu Tang temple
(though he makes no mention of any affiliation of either Chang San-Feng or the temple with
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Shaolin). Huang is somewhat more skeptical of some of the details of his life, though he accepts
him as the founder of Tai Chi. He is ambiguous in regards to Chang San-Feng’s relationship to
Shaolin, saying only that he “revolutionized and synthesized all the systems in existence” (p. 40),
into a style drastically different from Shaolin’s martial arts. In addition, Huang mentions him
living on Wu Tang Mountain, but makes no mention of a temple. Chow and Spangler accept
him as the founder of Tai Chi and assert that he was a Shaolin practitioner before he founded it.
They also make mention of him living on Wu Tang, but again there is no temple, Shaolin or
otherwise. In addition, they describe a legend where Chang San-Feng was inspired to create Tai
Chi after seeing a fight between a hawk and a snake and further based its techniques on other
natural phenomena. Draeger and Smith are skeptical of virtually all aspects of the legend of
Chang San-Feng, while Henning states outright that he believes him to be a myth entirely.
Finally, the Order of Shaolin Ch’an, while they do not mention Chang San-Feng specifically, do
claim that Tai Chi originated at a Shaolin temple at Wu Tang. It is also worth mentioning that
they specifically state Chow and Spangler’s account of Taoist influences on Tai Chi is an
accurate one. The history of Tai Chi since the time of its legendary founder is somewhat more
concrete, and it is accepted that there are five major schools of Tai Chi Chuan (Chen, Yang, Wu,
Sun and Hao). However, because many Tai Chi practitioners train in the art mostly for health
reasons, often they do not utilize all the philosophical and martial aspects of the art (Huang;
Liao; Order of Shaolin Ch'an).
As mentioned above, Tai Chi is intimately linked to Taoism, both through its origins and
through its principles. According to Liao, Fredric, Chow and Spangler, et al Tai Chi is based on
the Tao Te Ching, especially the concept of Yin-Yang, or balancing of firmness and softness. A
passage of the Tao Te Ching often cited in relation to Tai Chi’s use of softness to overcome
hardness is, “Nothing in the world is as soft and yielding as water. Yet for dissolving the hard
and inflexible, nothing can surpass it” (Tzu, 1988, chapter 78). In addition, Huang stresses the
influence of the I Ching (the book of changes) in Tai Chi (Liao also discusses this, as do Chow
and Spangler), as well as the role the eight directions and the five elements (in this case metal,
wood, water, fire and soil). The main difference here seems to be which text the author places
more emphasis on. Huang states that the Tai Chi is primarily based on the I Ching, while Chow
and Spangler emphasize the Tao Te Ching while stating that many concepts in it were found in
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the earlier I Ching. Liao mentions both sparingly and stresses instead the ideas stemming from
them, especially Yin-Yang theory.
In addition to the influence of Taoism (or perhaps partly as a result of this influence), Tai
Chi has many techniques that bear names of natural phenomena and animals. For example,
Huang describes, “White Stork Spreads its Wings,” (p. 201) “Carry Tiger to Mountain,” (p. 212)
“Step up, grasping the Bird’s Tail,” (p. 227) “Wave hands like Clouds,” (p. 228) and “Snake
Creeps Down,” (p. 257), among others. Liao also describes most of these movements, although
he sometimes uses slightly different names. Huang states that these names are given as
metaphors for the movements executed.
Martial Arts of Japan
Kenjutsu and Samurai Traditions

While “samurai traditions” do not consist of a martial art in and of themselves, I feel that
I would be remiss if I did not include them in this discussion. For hundreds of years the samurai,
with their roots at least as far back as the eleventh or twelfth century C.E. (Friday & Humitake,
1997; Tokitsu, 2004; Yagyu), if not several centuries earlier (Friday & Humitake; Lowry, 1985),
studied the ways and arts of combat. Their traditions and teachings, as well as their martial arts,
have strongly affected Japan and the modern Japanese martial arts. Their favored weapon was
inarguably the sword, and as such no study of the samurai would be complete without looking at
the traditional martial arts of the sword, or kenjutsu (there were, and are, many different styles of
kenjutsu). It is generally agreed that the majority of the formal development and refinement of
kenjutsu happened between the middle of the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries C.E., a period
containing the Age of Warring States (approx. 1467-1603 C.E.) and the Edo period (approx.
1603-1867 C.E.). Interestingly, despite (or perhaps because of) the stability and peace of the
Edo period these martial arts continued to develop until the Meiji Restoration and the elimination
of the samurai as a class (Fredrick; Friday & Humitake; Lowry, 1985, 1995; Tokitsu; Yagyu).
Compared to the confusion and controversy of the Chinese martial arts seen in English
language texts, these traditions and the people associated with them are relatively well
documented. It is generally accepted that the most famous of all the Japanese swordsmen was
Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645 C.E.), the author of the Gorin no sho (“Writings on the Five
Elements” or more commonly known as The Book of Five Rings (Tokitsu, p. ix)). The Book of
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Five Rings is a treatise on strategy and is the culmination of Musashi’s life experience as a
martial practitioner (he completed it shortly before his death). While the text is quite practical
and Musashi himself stated that he did not take concepts for it from either Buddhism or
Confucianism, for the purposes of this project is it quite interesting that it is organized around
“Five Elements” (in this case earth, water, fire, wind and heaven). In addition, a number of the
subheadings within the five “scrolls” (as each section is referred to) make use of natural
phenomena and animals (Fredrick; Friday & Humitake; Tokitsu).
Two of the other best-known kenjutsu texts, Yagyu Munenori’s Heiho Kaden Sho
(Family Transmitted Book on Swordsmanship) and Takuan Soho’s Fudochi Shinmyo Roku
(Divine Record of Immovable Wisdom) exhibit a strong connection to nature. The Heiho Kaden
Sho does offer practical advice on kenjutsu, but later in the text it draws both implicitly and very
explicitly from Taoism and Zen Buddhism, including the idea of “naturalness.” The emphasis is
so strong in fact that Tokitsu claims that Munenori exhibits “confusion between swordsmanship
and religious belief” (p. 294). Takuan Soho, a Zen monk, probably wrote the Fudochi Shinmyo
Roku as a letter to his friend Munenori, though neither Sato nor Wilson (the translators/editors
for Yagyu and Soho) is completely confident on this point. This text is Zen Buddhist in nature,
and it contains numerous usages of natural metaphors (a gourd floating in a stream, for example)
for a proper mental attitude/state. Takuan’s influence can be seen in the Heiho Kaden Sho
(Yagyu) (Friday & Humitake; Soho; Tokitsu; Yagyu).
Aikido
Aikido (translated as “The Art of Harmony” or “The Art of Peace”) is by far the most
recently created and codified of the four arts examined in this literature review, and as such there
is relatively little scholarly controversy regarding it or its origins. That being said, the precise
year in which it was given the name “Aikido” (as opposed to the earlier “Aiki-jutsu” and “Aiki-
budo”) is said to be 1942 by Stevens (1984; Ueshiba, 1992) and 1938 by Frederic, while
Saotome (1993) does not give a date. The formal founding of the Aikikai (Aiki Association),
Aikido’s governing organization, was in 1948 and it has since grown to encompass over one
million practitioners in more than fifty countries (Aikikai Foundation, 2005; Saotome; Stevens &
Rinjiro; Ueshiba).
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Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, was born on December 14, 1883. As a child he
was relatively weak and often ill, one of the initial reasons for his practice of the martial arts. He
also began studying Buddhism and Shinto at an early age. Throughout his life he trained in a
number of different martial arts, including Tenjin Shin-yo-ryu (a style of jujutsu), Yagyu
Shinkage kenjutsu (see above), and Daito-ryu Aiki-jutsu. Just as influential in the creation of
Aikido was his religious and spiritual life. In 1920 he became an adherent of Omoto-kyo, a
pacifistic quasi-Shinto religious sect. The head of the religion, Onisaburo, encouraged Ueshiba
to continue his martial training in order to “teach the real meaning of budo: an end to all fighting
and contention” (Heckler, 1985, p. 13). In 1925 Ueshiba had what can best be described as a
vision and afterwards realized that budo’s true purpose was “to carry out the mission of universal
compassion on earth, to protect and cultivate all things in nature” (Saotome, p.31). The first
principle of Aikido, as laid out by Ueshiba, states, “Aikido is the path that joins all paths of the
universe throughout eternity; it is the Universal Mind that contains all things and unifies all
things” (Saotome, p. 17). After creating Aikido and seeing it through WWII and the American
occupation to begin to flourish around the world Ueshiba sensei passed away on April 26, 1969
at the age of 85 (Heckler; Saotome; Ueshiba).
Conclusion
Despite the apparently strong connections between the martial arts and nature which have
been touched on in this literature review I have been unable to find any comprehensive
examination of this topic, though of course it is possible that one has been conducted that I
simply did not find, especially considering the extensive literature on the martial arts written in
the native languages of their countries of origin. All four arts examined in this literature review
did have some sort of connection to nature, though of course the meaning of that term was
different from art to art and philosophy to philosophy. These connections stem from various
religious and philosophical traditions, especially Taoism, Buddhism and Shinto, as discussed
briefly above. As we have seen, some martial arts have complicated and controversial histories
while others are more easily traced. Of the four martial arts traditions examined in this literature
review, the two Chinese arts seem to be on less stable historical ground than the two Japanese
ones. Whether this was solely a result of the relative recentness of the Japanese martial arts
compared to the Chinese ones or if there were other factors involved is unclear.
16
Project Design and Methodologies
This project deals “with meanings and the way people understand things,” and as such
relies on qualitative rather than quantitative data (Denscombe, 2003, p.267). The data has been
collected in two ways. First, I have examined martial arts texts. The primary sources I have
used in this regard are the core texts and “classics” of each martial art I have examined. These
include both core texts of the philosophies underpinning each martial art and the writings of the
founders, primary architects and influential figures within each. To supplement these sources I
have also used histories and select overviews of each art, biographies of important figures and
compilations of teachings and quotations of these individuals. I have used sources recommended
to me by my advisors, put out by reputable publishing companies within the field of martial arts
texts and those that are commonly sited by other texts.
Second, I have contacted and interviewed instructors from Tae Kwon Do (both from the
World Taekwon-Do Federation and from one of the offshoots of the International Taekwondo
Federation), Shotokan karate, Goju Ryu karate, Capoeira Regional, Capoeira Angola, Yang Tai
Chi, Aikido, Moo Gong Do, Shaolin kung fu and the Ta Merrian Institute. I chose the martial arts
to include based on three criteria: worldwide popularity of the art, historical significance of the
art and the perceived role which nature plays within the art. This last criterion came, of course,
with the caveat that until the interviews were actually conducted and analyzed I could not be sure
of the significance of nature within any particular art. I included popularity because the project
will have more relevance to a larger community if the most common martial arts are included
(see also Scope, Background and Significance of the Problem, above). Historical significance is
important because there are arts that, while not widely practiced today, have influenced a large
number of modern arts. As with popularity, examining arts that were widely influential will
increase the relevance of the project and broaden the potential audience. Finally, I examined
martial arts in which it seemed that nature likely plays a particularly central role. I feel that these
martial arts are important to look at because they are key in understanding the full extent to
which at least a portion of the martial arts incorporate nature.
I selected potential interviewees based on their authoritative knowledge within their
particular martial art (Denscombe; Ruane, 2003). Due to the nature of the martial arts the
highest quality knowledge will always reside with high-ranking instructors. Neither physical
technique nor spiritual understanding can be truly book-learned. While rank is not a perfect
17
indicator of knowledge, it provided a consistently reliable criterion to select potential
interviewees. As such, I attempted to secure an interview with the highest-ranking member of
each art that could feasibly be reached. The interviews were based on the “schedule” (without a
set of predetermined answers) (Ruane) and “semi-structured” (Denscombe) models and used
digital voice recording and field notes unless otherwise requested by the interviewee.
Instructors Interviewed
Martial Art Organization Name and Position/Rank Location Date

Capoeira Angola n/a Joao Grande, Mestre New York, NY June 5, 2006
Tae Kwon Do Unified International Hwang Kwang Sung, Manchester, CT June 6, 2006
Taekwon-Do Grandmaster, 9th Dan
Federation
Goju-Ryu Karate- International Okinawan Miko Peled, Head of US Coronado, CA June 19, 2006
Do Goju Ryu Karate Chapter, 6th Dan
Federation
Moo Gong Do World Moo Gong Do Dae Yong Kim, Lake Forest, CA June 21, 2006
Association Grandmaster, Founder &
President
Shotokan Karate Shotokan Karate of Tsutomu Ohshima, Founder, Santa Barbara, June 23, 2006
America Shihan (Chief Instructor) CA
Capoeira Regional n/a Acordeon, Mestre Berkeley, CA June 25, 2006
Tae Kwon Do World Tae Kwon Do Dr. Russel Ahn, Head of UC Berkeley, CA June 26, 2006
Association Martial Arts Program, 6th
Dan
Shaolin Gung Fu Order of Shaolin Ch’an Tor Bieker, Master Beaverton, OR June 27, 2006
Combination of Ta Merian Institute Kilindi Iyi, Founder and Detroit, MI June 30, 2006
African martial arts Chief Instructor
Yang Tai Chi n/a Robert Boyd, Master, Burlington, VT March 14,
Chuan Disciple 2007
Aikido International Aikido Benjamin Pincus, 5th Dan, Burlington, VT March 14,
Federation shidoin (certified instructor) 2007
Instructors contacted (interviews refused or did not hear back):
Martial Art Organization Name and Position/Rank Location

Shito-Ryu Karate-Do Japan Karate-Do Organization Minobu Miki, Head, 8th Dan San Diego, CA
Shotokan Karate-Do International Shotokan Karate Teruyuki Okazaki, Chairman & Philadelphia, PA
Organization Chief Instructor, 9th Dan
Apache Wolverine Tom Brown Jr.’s Tracking Tom Brown Jr., Founder of the Asbury, NJ
fighting style School School
Aikido United States Aikido Yoshimitsu Yamada, 8th Dan, New York, NY
Federation Chairman of the Board
Judo United States Judo Federation Noboru Saito, President, 7th Dan Clawson, MI
Wado-Ryu Karate-Do Wado International Karate-Do Arturo Girona, Treasurer, 6th Dan Pinecrest, FL
Federation
Chen Style Tai Chi American Chen Style Tai Chi Yan Gaofei, Board member, Head Boca Raton, FL
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Association FL Instructor
Yang Style Tai Chi International Yang Style Tai Yang Zhen Duo, Master, Founder Redmond, WA
Chuan Chi Chuan Association of the Association
Shindo Jinen Ryu Japan Karate-Do Ryobu-Kai Kiyoshi Yamazaki, Chief Anaheim, CA
Karate-Do Instructor, 8th Dan
Hapkido World Hapkido Association Tae Jung, 8th Dan, President Thousand Oaks,
CA
Interview Questions
The questions used in the interviews were initially constructed around the ideas apparent
within the literature review and my own experiences in the martial arts. The questions were then
reviewed by my advisors and several high level instructors in my own art, Moo Gong Do and
modified several times.
1. How does the martial art’s philosophy describe the term “nature”, and what attributes
does it assign to nature?
2. How does the martial art believe/teach the mind and spirit should be influenced by
and interact with nature?
3. How does the martial art believe/teach people should physically interact with nature?
4. How does the martial art use nature as a teaching tool?
5. How does the martial art use natural environments in its training?
6. How does the martial art imitate animals or natural phenomena in its physical
techniques?
7. Does the martial art name its techniques (or the art itself) using words that normally
describe animals or natural phenomena (ex. “crane stance,” “thunder strike”)? If so,
why?
8. Would you say that your martial art is most oriented towards sport, practical fighting
skills, self-development or something else? Please rank these aspects in order of
significance within your art.
9. How do you personally use nature in your teaching?
10. How do you personally use nature in your training?
11. What is your personal connection to nature?
I have applied for and received “Exempt” status under the IRB’s review process. See
Appendix 1: Informed Consent Form.
Limitations & Cautions

The primary limitation on the results of this project is the fact that with the number of
instructors I have interviewed I am obviously missing the vast majority of the world’s martial
arts. In addition to this, it is my experience (and perhaps I am wrong), that because people are
19
physically, mentally and spiritually distinct and unique, no martial art will have one “absolute
truth” that is applied to and understood by each practitioner in exactly the same way. Because of
this, even high-ranking instructors will have their own personal take on each martial art that will
differ to one degree or another from that of the other instructors within their martial art. This
means that while the information I have collected should be reliable and generally applicable, it
is likely not a perfect measure of what each martial art teaches.
In addition to these limitations, I bring my own biases to this project. As I stated above,
the martial art I practice, Moo Gong Do, stresses heavily the influence of nature. In addition, it is
not a competition art or sport. These facts of my own training mean that I have been viewing the
information I have collected through a certain lens. I have done my best to look at the data
objectively and neutrally, but it is possible that I have overstressed the influence of nature on the
martial arts I am examining. More difficult to counteract, and more dangerous, is the possibility
that I may have overstressed particular aspects or views of nature that are taught in Moo Gong
Do while compiling the data on the other martial arts.
Two things must be note about these interviews. First, the martial arts that these
instructors teach and study are generally not uniformly practiced around the world, or even in
many cases within individual countries or even cities. Tae Kwon Do, for example, has for a long
time been broken up into the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) and the International
Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF). More recently, after the death of the founder of the ITF, General
Choi Hong Hi, the group has splintered into several competing organizations. In addition, there
are many other organizations that are not affiliated with either the WTF or any of the ITFs, and
other schools that are run completely independently of any of these bodies. Karate and Tai Chi
Chuan both refer to categories of related martial arts rather than individual, specific martial arts,
as does kung fu, but to an even greater extent. This is just to say that this project is, both
necessarily and because of its nature as a preliminary exploration of the topic, limited in both
breadth and depth.
Likewise, within an individual martial art every instructor will have likely a slightly
different idea of what is the “right way” or the “true teaching” of the art. I attempted to
counteract that by interviewing the highest ranking and hence most knowledgeable and
authoritative instructors within each art, but this is an imperfect solution. For simplicity’s sake I
sometimes refer to the martial arts in this study as if they were uniform (i.e. “In Goju Ryu
20
Karate…”), but because of these two limitations it is important to keep in mind that none of the
information here is complete, and none of the instructors I interviewed can speak for their art as a
whole. The one exception to this rule is the martial art I practice, Moo Gong Do. Because I
interviewed the founder and head of the art, and because the hierarchical structure of the art he is
by definition the single source that determines what is and is not Moo Gong Do.
In addition to these general caveats, two of the instructors I interviewed have particular
circumstances that are worth noting. There is some question as to the authenticity of Ahati
Kilindi Iyi and Master Tor’s background in their respective martial arts. In the case of Kilindi
Iyi this is due to the fact that there is very little documentation of the arts he teaches outside of
his own school. This is not surprising, however, due to the fact that African martial arts simply
are not nearly as well known or studied outside of their native environments as Asian martial arts
are. He is, as far as I can tell, essentially the first person to bring African martial arts to the
United States, and as such that there is some question to his background is unsurprising. He has,
however, spoken at several colleges and the questions raised do not seem to be widespread.
Master Tor (and the entire Order of Shaolin Ch’an), on the other hand, are somewhat less
accepted within the martial arts community. This is due to the fact that while they claim direct
lineage to Shaolin grandmasters emigrating from China around the turn of the 19th century, they
do not publicly document this lineage. In The Shaolin Grandmasters’ Text they give many
reasons for this anonymity, all of which are rooted in the teachings of the Order as described in
the text (Order of Shaolin Ch’an). This could obviously be an authentic result of authentic
religions beliefs, or it could simply be a clever way of an individual publishing a made-up book
without having to reveal their identity. There is in fact a 501c(3) non-profit registered under the
name “Order of Shaolin Ch’an” in Beaverton, OR (Oregon Secretary of State Corporation
Division, 2007), but beyond that there is no proof of the authenticity of the text, or the individual
who I interviewed (who only identified himself as “Tor” – I found his last name on the non-
profit registration). Ascertaining the validity of the claims by these two individuals is obviously
beyond the scope of this study, but I will say that both of them seemed to be authentic.
Two of the interviews I conducted were not useable in this study. They were the
interviews of Mestre Joao Grande on June 5, 2006 and Mestre Acordeon on June 25, 2006. In
both cases very little information was collected relative to the other interviews, to the extent that
I felt that they could not be usefully examined in the way the other martial arts for which I have
21
interviews were and could not be compared to the other martial arts examined. In the case of
Mestre Joao Grande there was confusion in both scheduling and in the interview itself due to
translation problems. This was compounded by the fact that he did not allow me to record the
interview, as well as the fact that it was shortened by his schedule. Similarly, my interview with
Mestre Acordeon was cut quite short because of a misunderstanding regarding scheduling.
22
Results: Interviews
The following section reviews the interviews I conducted. Each interview is broken
down into four to six sections which roughly correspond with the interview questions. However,
because a number of the interview questions overlap with each other in the way that they are
written and, more importantly, in the way that they were answered, breaking the analysis of the
interviews down by question alone would result in inconsistency from interview to interview.
As such, the analysis has been broken down into sections encompassing the concepts the
interview questions were aimed at. The sections each interview addresses are concept of nature,
interaction with nature, nature as a training environment, nature as a teaching tool, animals and
natural phenomena and instructor’s use of nature.
Moo Gong Do
Grandmaster Dae Yong Kim
Founder (Do Ju Nim) and President
World Moo Gong Do Association
Interaction with Nature

Moo Gong Do is strongly rooted in nature and teaches an environmental ethic. In
addition to every member respecting “oneself, one’s parents, one’s teachers, juniors and seniors,”
(this is the fifth principle of the art) (Kim, 1995), Grandmaster Kim said during the interview
that,
We have to learn how to respect, love our nature, because without nature we cannot be
here. Sometimes we take for granted it’s there…just like air…If every breath you take
you have to pay one dollar or ten dollars...you will really think about it. But your breath
is there, it’s no big deal, you take it. The sun is there, everything is there…We really
have to recognize, have to learn how to appreciate. Without that we cannot live. So this
is what Moo Gong Do is…
Grandmaster Kim also explained how he believes that learning, studying and applying
Moo Gong Do can lead to this greater appreciation of nature. By studying the elements and
principles associated with those elements one can become more conscious of the world around
23
them; “So basically Moo Gong Do is with nature and that relationship is Moo Gong Do, you and
nature. So actually student who learn, understand that, actually have more better relationship
with nature. They thinking more, like, “Oh, that is foundation, that is direction, that is Earth
Spirit.”…Everyday these elements we use, every single day. So you have them thinking more
consciously. So through our physical, mental training, study, learn understand more about
themselves, and we are part of the nature, so we have that relationship with nature.”
Nature as a Training Environment

Grandmaster Kim said that he advocates training outdoors for his students, but realizes
that often this can be difficult with a modern life. If fact, he stated that the place outdoors that he
most frequently trains is not at some remote forest or mountain, but rather in the park across the
street from his house. He does bring his students to more “natural” environments on occasion;
he described a trip that he took with his students when he was living in Vermont to Mt.
Mansfield as well as training at the beach in California. He says that these training trips provide
an opportunity to engage in various specific training practices, as well as providing an energy
that is simply different from that you get in a more urban or human environment; “You can do
forms, you can do special training for knifehands or punch…and then is also we do special
breathing training session…It is a great way to training outdoors, even same training…outdoors,
in the mountains. You will feel different, and obviously the energy you get from the
environment is different. It is much more, you can feel. For example, when you do waterfall
stance, you can feel when water is falling, that is waterfall, or waterwave block or sometimes [I]
take students here to the beach so they can feel the energy there.”
He repeatedly reiterated the idea that the energy in a natural environment is somehow
different; “training within nature, outdoors, it really a great feeling with all that energy you
feeling.” He also went on to describe in more detail several types of “special training” done
outdoors, including the “water training” mentioned above: “For example, I was in temple, I had
special training for special date, so many days, like 49 days. You can’t miss any one
day…Water is streaming, but more like pool type. So you have rice rolls and then a rod, and
water will be waistline or maybe below, then you do horseriding stance and knifehand strike.” It
was not clear to what extent these “special trainings” are used in Moo Gong Do.
24
Nature as a Teaching Tool
“Nature is my greatest teacher…nature shows the way as it is.”
– Grandmaster Dae Yong Kim
Moo Gong Do uses nature as a teaching tool in two primary ways. First, as outlined
briefly above, much of Moo Gong Do is based around the five elements of earth, water, fire,
wind and spirit and the principles that are associated with them within the art. Second,
Grandmaster Kim and the other instructors within the art make frequent use of nature metaphors
in their teaching. I have summarized the three principles of each of the five elements below.
Earth (Ji):
The first principle of earth is foundation, which Grandmaster Kim described by
comparing our personal foundation to the root system of a tree or the foundation of a building.
As the tree grows the root system has to get larger to support the tree; if you want to build a ten
story building you cannot do it on the foundation of a one story house. Likewise, a student must
develop their “physical foundation as well as mental foundation.” They should not focus on
techniques alone, nor should they focus on mental training alone, if they want to build a solid
foundation in order to grow in their training. The second principle of earth is direction.
Grandmaster Kim first points out that humans have always gotten a sense of direction from
nature, “like big dipper, or sunrise or sunset then they got the idea so they use that direction, how
to get from A to B.” He equates the philosophical lessons of Moo Gong Do to these markers in
nature or directions to someone’s house – without them you will not get where you are going,
and once you have them it is up to you to find your way. Again here he goes back to the idea of
training being something more than the physical techniques of the art; “If I don’t have that kind
of directions, I’m just kicking, punching, you know what I mean? …I’m sure you can build
power or speed if you train in certain way, but it is also very limited. The third principle of earth
is center. Here he equated a human’s center to that of the Earth or the Sun – despite the fact that
they are constantly moving they always have a consistent center, just as a human must keep their
center while moving to avoid falling. And again, he stated that this idea applies mentally as well.
Water (Soo):
25
The first principle of water is cleansing. Grandmaster Kim uses the example of a rain or
of a mountain stream. When the water flows consistently the stream stays clean. When the
stream becomes blocked garbage will accumulate and the stream will no longer be clean. He
equates this to letting negative thoughts build up or being inconsistent in one’s training. If, “you
are inconsistent, or not is flow, and then eventually, because you [are] not consistent, you will
keep collecting more of that physical or mental garbage.” The second principle of water is
nourishing. The example used here is one of plants or trees after a rain, or a wilted plant being
watered. Humans need to nourish themselves as well, but not only with water and food.
According to Grandmaster Kim, “Training will be like nourish. Because when we’re hungry we
have to eat but this body and mind we have to also do training so we can nourish, so we can
grow.” The third principle of water is purifying. This concept was not put in quite as clear a
natural metaphor as the other two. In his words, “sometimes is so easy to cloud it, so easy to
collect a lot of dirt, impurities…You can collect is sometimes that knowledge is great, but you
keep collecting, collecting, you don’t know how to digest that, it can cloud you.” Presumably
again here the analogy is with clouded or impure water, although that was not clear.
Fire (Hwa):
The first principle of fire is energy. The example given here is the sun and the fact that it
is constantly burning and constantly gives light. Through training in Moo Gong Do one is
supposed to learn how to create energy within oneself. In addition, Grandmaster Kim talks about
the difference between the energy inside and outside; “if you’re training outside, especially, you
can observe great energy from earth, the sun and the wind and all the elements.” Students should,
“learn how to cultivate the energy but also learn how to create [their] own energy.” The second
principle of fire is balance, with the primary example being used that of the balance between day
and night. Grandmaster Kim suggests that if it were daylight all the time, with no variation, we
would never know what daylight was. In his words, “nature shows day and night, and positive
and negative side…So then nature shows how is important to balance.” Relating this principle
back to the idea of energy, he says that while training is a great tool to give us energy, we need to
learn to balance all aspects of our lives – training, school, work, relationships, etc. “We need to
learn how to balance like nature does.” The third principle of fire is harmony, which in Moo
Gong Do is the idea that in nature everything works together, in balance either immediately or
26
over time, even during and after destructive events like volcanoes and hurricanes. Applying that
same concept, a human, a Moo Gong Do practitioner, needs to be able to take care of their
physical and mental wounds and, because identifying and dealing with mental wounds can be
very difficult, we must be able to work together. It was not completely clear whether he was
referring here to working with others, working with oneself, or both. Grandmaster Kim also
talked about the importance of training both the right and left side, as well as again stressing the
importance of training both the mind and body.
Wind (Poong):
The first principle of wind is air. Unsurprisingly part of the teaching with air is the
obvious – we need air to breathe. Grandmaster Kim also, however, ties breathing into meditation
and said that breathing, “connects us to the universal energy.” Finally, he also brings up the idea
of flowing to prevent stagnation, similarly to the concept discussed in relation to water and
cleansing. The second principle of wind is transportation. No particular example or metaphor
was discussed here, although in my personal training I have heard the image of the wind carrying
seeds used (it is important to note that this did not come up in the interview). Students in Moo
Gong Do, because they are learning a martial art, must learn how to transport and move “correct
way,” otherwise as Grandmaster Kim put it, “If they deliver wrong way it can kill people, it can
really damage.” The third principle of wind is communication. Again here no example was used,
beyond Grandmaster Kim saying that he often uses nature for examples to compensate for his
poor English. In applying the philosophy, he said that people need to learn how to communicate
with themselves; “I have to understand why I believe, why I am thinking that way, because
everybody, the way how they think, they will eventually act on,” as well as, and in order to,
communicate with others.
Spirit (Shim):
Of the five elements, Grandmaster Kim said by far the least about this one and its
principles, essence, uniqueness and self. The entire concept is essentially that while everyone
and everything is unique, everything has the same essence. Because of that we need to learn
how to respect ourselves as well as other human beings and nature and the world around us.not
be here.
27
Based on the fact that Moo Gong Do is structured around these elements, along with the
extensive use of nature metaphors, Moo Gong Do seems to have been strongly influenced by
ideas about and observation of nature. This is obviously supported by the fact that Grandmaster
Kim, the founder of Moo Gong Do, repeatedly and directly talked about this influence; “Nature
is my greatest teacher…nature shows the way as it is,” “nature give us a lot of lessons if you
observe,” “I choose Moo Gong Do as nature because we also live in with nature,” etc.
However, where the line is drawn between direct influence of nature on the art and the
use of natural terms as metaphors to convey meaning is not clear. Grandmaster Kim also said
multiple times that he uses metaphors from nature because he feels that they are often the best
way to compensate for his poor English; “Nature actually give me a great deal, whatever I want
to convey that ideas, so I can use, ‘look at this, look at that, look at this.’ So then the student
understand better, concepts, ideas,” and “because lack of my English…I have to utilize how I can
convey that my ideas to students or to people so they can understand what I am talking about…If
I want to explain some concept, idea, so how can I explain…foundations, so I want to explain
and then is easy things to give examples like nature, have like for examples trees.” It should be
noted that several times during the interview Grandmaster Kim also used metaphors or examples
from outside of nature – once of a car, once of a building’s foundation, and several times of a
student’s life outside the Do Jang (training hall).
So the unanswered question now is how much of the nature content of the martial art is
due to observation and intentional use of nature and how much of it came after the fact, so to
speak, in order to better convey the intended physical or philosophical lessons. In addition,
Grandmaster Kim twice brought up the idea that using the nature metaphors actually helped him
develop his own philosophy in regard to nature; “Nature, for example, I use a great deal in
communication, examples…Through the teaching, through the sharing, so I realized more, you
know, it is really great things, you know, it shows the way as it is. Because all the answers,
examples I am looking for is there,” and “So using nature is my communication skills. Actually
that helped me develop my own philosophy.” This suggests, at least to some extent, that the
involvement of nature in Moo Gong Do (and possibly in other martial arts as well) is self-
reinforcing – as the instructors and students use and hear nature metaphors and concepts used
28
they see other connections to nature that may not have already been pointed out to them, and
then may use those in their own teaching or personal philosophy.
Animals and Natural Phenomena

The teachings of Moo Gong Do are based around five elements: earth (Ji in Korean),
water (Soo), fire (Hwa), wind (Poong) and spirit (Shim). In Grandmaster Kim’s words, “Moo
Gong Do is uses five elements, which is universal elements…earth, water, fire, wind and spirit.
This is a universal element…everybody use, not only humans. Animals, plants, all living things,
they use and interact always. So I choose Moo Gong Do as nature because also we live in with
nature.” Later, when I asked him whether Moo Gong Do imitated animals or natural phenomena,
he responded, “The elements…certain elements, the concepts. That’s how is incorporated and
that’s how is teaching.” Further, each element has three principles associated with it within Moo
Gong Do. Earth teaches foundation, direction and center, water teaches cleansing, nourishing
and purifying, fire teaches energy, balance and harmony, wind teaches air, transportation and
communication and spirit teaches essence, uniqueness and self. Each element is introduced with
a corresponding form (hyung in Korean, also known as patterns or kata in other martial arts) –
earth with Earth Spirit Form One (Ji Shim Il Hyung), water with Water Spirit Form One (Soo
Shim Il Hyung), etc. At higher ranks additional forms for each element are introduced, along
with additional philosophical concepts for each principle. These principles will be discussed in
more detail below, under Nature as a Teaching Tool.
In addition to this elemental basis for the art, Moo Gong Do has numerous techniques
bearing the names of natural phenomena, as well as at least two having animal names. At a
minimum there are thirteen stances, attacks and blocks with names such as whirlpool kick,
waterfall stance, full wind block, pushing mountain and thunder strike (I personally know
thirteen from my five years of training, there are likely more). The two techniques bearing
animal names are crane stance and crab-hand strike, though again, there may be more. However,
when I asked directly about animal techniques Grandmaster Kim’s response was, “There is no
animals I put in that.” I suspect that this indicates that the names of these techniques are
descriptive rather than imitative in nature. That is to say, based on the available information it
seems likely that the techniques were named after things that would be good descriptors for their
29
physical characteristics rather than the physical characteristics of the technique being determined
by the physical characteristics of a particular animal or phenomena.
Instructor’s Use of Nature

Much of how Grandmaster Kim uses nature in his teaching and training has already been
covered in previous sections, but I will review it briefly here. He said repeatedly that he trains
outdoors, including on the beach, in the mountains, in a park near his house, etc. He also
stressed how useful images of nature and nature metaphors are in helping him to convey
concepts that his limited English would otherwise make difficult.
His answer to the final question, “What is your personal connection to nature?”:
I am part of the nature, eventually I will return the way I came from. This body
eventually dies, eventually will go to whatever is each element will return. So nature is
always there, provides whatever I need. They never ask any special from me, do this for
me, do that. Never asks. I appreciate, I respect, I like nature…But sometimes our life is
going on, sometimes we have a very hard, difficult, you have to take care of day to day
things, just like anybody else. Nature never asks, nature always provide, and I respect
nature. I enjoy the nature.
Aikido
Benjamin Pincus Sensei
5th Degree Black Belt, Shidoin (certified instructor)
United States Aikido Federation, International Aikido Federation
Concept of Nature
The very first concept that came up in my interview with Pincus Sensei was that of the
Japanese term for nature – shizen. According to Pincus Sensei this word breaks down into two
ideas; zen, meaning “resemblance” and shi, meaning “oneself.” He pointed out that at a very
basic level having the word for nature etymologically break down to mean essentially “self
resemblance” set the Japanese idea of nature, and thus the idea of nature in Aikido, apart from the
sort of human-nature dichotomy seen in the West;
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There’s no objectivity in the sense that it’s outside of ourselves…whereas we posit in the
Western tradition a sort of dualism, that nature is something beyond and
inaccessible…And rather than maybe for me using the word nature it would be helpful to
use the word interrelatedness. Which makes sense, you know? If something resembles
yourself there’s a profound and fundamental interrelatedness.

“I think within the Japanese tradition of martial arts becoming a human being is to
recognize ones interrelation to everything else.”
- Benjamin Pincus Sensei
The theme running throughout the entire interview was interrelatedness. According to
Pincus Sensei, while the art does contain some linear movements, the central idea in Aikido is
that of blending with an attack and with an attacker, rather than meeting the attack with an
opposing force and the attacker as someone wholly separate from you. He even says that,
“you’re in a sense seeing things from their perspective,” because of this blending. This idea also
extends beyond simple martial effectiveness to the question of how one should (in the normative
sense) react to an attack; “This person is not simply an object to destroy or strike…we need to
resolve this conflict creatively and neutralize the conflict effectively, but also protect this person
who’s attacking me. That’s the highest level of practice.”
According to Pincus Sensei, this idea of blending goes beyond the Aikido practitioner’s
relationship to their opponent or attacker and also informs their view of nature. Just as they are
taught to blend with an attack or an attacker, blurring the line between themselves and their
opponent, they should “[Let] go of all these concepts that separate us from nature.” He gives the
example of different ways in which a person could view a beach tree;
When I go out in the woods I see a tree and I say, “Oh, that’s a beech tree…the nuts are
really tasty, but the bears like the nuts, there’s scratches on it” ...all these things that
arguably remove me from experiencing that beech tree. I could also go and just smell
that beech tree and smell the bark, taste it and just be in the presence of it. It would be a
very different experience…Nature is something that exists beyond the categories we
attribute it to…Nature resembles itself, we’re within it. But to get to that understanding
we have to eliminate, temporarily let go of all of our attachments to all these concepts
and principles and philosophies that sort of interfere with my encounter with nature, if we
use that term.
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Finally, the concept in Aikido of shoshin, or “beginner’s mind” also has implications for a
student’s view of nature. In martial arts the idea of beginner’s mind refers to the mentality of
someone completely new to martial arts. Whereas someone who has been training for a while
has many ideas about how to perform techniques, how things are supposed to work, what
movements work when, etc. a true beginner has no preconceived notions about any of these
things – their mind is completely open. As Pincus Sensei put it, “they don’t have any of the
limitations of an expert, they don’t have any of the sort of egocentric arrogance of an expert.” So
Aikido practitioners (and many other martial artists) strive to keep or regain this shoshin “by
working with your breath, working with relaxation” in order to “experience the world around
you more profoundly.” Pincus Sensei again states that Aikido practitioners should strive to apply
this concept not just in the dojo (training hall), but also when interacting with the world around
them. Again, he uses the example of our potential experience with a beech tree;
Can you keep that beginner’s mind when you move into the natural world? ...Rather than
saying that beech tree is from whatever genus it is…What is really that beech? Well, we
can talk about the history or our relationship to that beech, you know, “I know someone
carved their initials on it, etc., etc.” But that’s not encountering the beech with shoshin or
beginner’s mind.

While Pincus Sensei did say that he personally trains outside and that the idea of training
outside the dojo exists within Aikido, he also made clear that training outdoors is not an integral
part of Aikido. He brought up the idea that “the whole world is your dojo, the whole world is
your zendo,” and that because ki exists everywhere you can train everywhere. So, while training
outside of the dojo is certainly done and accepted (Pincus Sensei said that they frequently do
weapons training outside), there is no particular emphasis put on training outside or in natural
environments.

While Aikido does use some nature imagery, especially water imagery, the use does not
seem to be extensive. Pincus Sensei stated that the founder of Aikido, Morihei Ueshiba,
frequently used images of water in his writing and his teaching, and also said that he personally
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likes using water images. He suggested that this frequent use of these particular images was
likely due to the fact that water flowing through a river or stream is a useful metaphor for ki
flowing through a practitioner’s body. He also said that the use of natural images more generally
has to do with, “opening the body…under stress,” and again said that images of “a body of water
or a sea” are useful for that.

According to Pincus Sensei Aikido does not imitate animals or natural phenomena in its
physical techniques, and does not name its techniques after animals or natural phenomena.
Pincus Sensei described how Aikido uses a natural, human posture, rather than “becoming animal
like.” He related this to the concept of shizentai or “natural posture,” the idea that, “In Aikido
you’re trying to have the same body that you would have if you were with someone you deeply
cared about or you had to defend your life, your body doesn’t change.” In addition, because
Japan historically, as the Aikijutsu (the precursors to Aikido) evolved, was a “bladed culture” in
which all samurai and many or most commoners carried blades, this “natural posture” was also
martially more effective. As he put it, “as soon as you have any of those round positions,
whether you’re a mantis or a tiger or something and someone comes at you with a sword, it’s
totally irrelevant.”

Pincus Sensei uses nature in a number of ways. He does train outdoors; “I personally do
training outside. I go in the woods, I go outside and train because that’s really valuable, training
on different terrain,” but his interaction with nature also extends beyond that.
We go to a metaphorical level. You know, the notion of a metaphor of a carrier, a

beyond carrier, that sort of literal translation of a metaphor of trying to see ourselves and
relate our experience to things beyond us, to the natural world, rather than live on a literal
level. So this is training on a level of feeling…The only way we can describe [our
experiences] in a deeper way is to resort to metaphor…I don’t speak about that [to my
students] because it’s very personal…It’s fundamentally technique and then you take that
technique where you need to. So if I say this technique is like a billowing cloud people
are going to look at me like I’m crazy, you know what I mean? But maybe in some level
I’ll feel that way in my own practice, but I’m not going to talk about it…It’s saying
there’s more to the practice than the technique, there’s something beyond that, and that’s
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about feeling. When we try to convert that feeling to thought the only way of accessing it
in a way that captures even a glimpse of the feeling is to resort to metaphor.
He also spoke again about the concepts discussed in Interaction with Nature, above:
I think again…that notion that it’s not something out of me. I love books on wildlife and
stuff like that. I always have to remind myself [that] things like taxonomy and natural
history are still not fundamentally what this experience of the natural world is all about.
It’s just simply being in the presence or being in the breathing of that world.
When I go into the natural world it’s sort of like for me that’s an exercise, that’s a martial
arts training method itself, to let go of all that martial arts training and just be present
within what’s happening.
Yang Tai Chi Chuan

Robert Boyd
Disciple of Grandmaster Ip Tai Tak
Yang Family Tai Chi

The “biggest” idea within Yang Tai Chi, as Master Boyd referred to it, is the idea that we,
as humans, are no longer using our bodies as efficiently or effectively as we have in the past. Tai
Chi is designed to help its practitioners regain a “natural kinesthetic understanding” that humans
lost over time as we became more and more separated from the natural world by civilization.
The other main idea that came through in the interview was that of Tai Chi practitioners learning
to tap into an energy flowing from the earth. Master Boyd described that energy as coming up
from the earth through the practitioner; “The idea in Tai Chi is that the energy comes from the
ground, from the earth and that you have energy in your body, but… if you want to cultivate you
need to create some kind of action that draws more intensely that energy from the ground and
cultivates it into a force. “

Master Boyd spoke repeatedly about the idea of training outdoors in a natural
environment as a distinctly different and generally better experience than training indoors. He
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said that his experience has been, “the more natural the environment the better my energetics are
when I practice,” and also spoke about sometimes feeling compelled to practice Tai Chi when he
is in particular natural environments. He said that he believes the reason that natural
environments are better to train in than indoor environments is that Tai Chi is very based on
drawing and creating energy, which is inherently different and better outdoors;
A more natural environment is going to intensify that process. You can do it inside, you
can do it anywhere, but to me outside, on the ground, with environment that’s
quiet…where nature’s pulsing around you, that’s probably the peak experience for Tai
Chi.
At the same time he did say that the difference is “not huge,” and while he said he does
encourage his students to train outdoors, the only outdoor training they do as a school is a once a
year retreat.

Master Boyd spoke of several ways in which nature is used as a teaching tool within Tai
Chi, the first and most obvious, as mentioned above, being the use of nature metaphors and
images in its training. He said that while he does use many metaphors that are not from nature
(he gave the example of when his teacher equated chi flow to the subway), nature metaphors are
very common for a number of reasons. First, nature has much to draw on that relates to the
physical practice of Tai Chi. Second, natural images are generally easy to understand because
people have experienced or seen them. For example, he mentioned using the image of a tree
branch snapping back after being bent as a metaphor for returning an opponent’s energy to them,
a cat waiting patiently and then pouncing to describe how the generally slow movements of Tai
Chi can be used martially and the roots and branches of a tree to describe how energy comes up
through the body from the earth. All of these images are ones that most people are already
familiar with, which means that they work well to describe less familiar concepts he is trying to
get across. Finally, he posed the question of how important it is that the images come from
nature when talking about the branch analogy mentioned above;
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I just think that’s because it’s alive those are better images when you’re teaching people
who are alive to be more alive or to behave in a different way, one that’s closer to nature,
because as I said before, that’s really where we’re going.
Finally, Master Boyd spoke of the idea of living in the present as a trait characteristic of
animals and nature that Tai Chi attempts to teach (or re-teach, going back to the idea of our lost
natural state). He used a story his teacher told him to illustrate the point;
There’s a female lion, just killed a wildebeest. It’s eating. The jackal comes, nipping at
its legs, trying to get it away because it wants to steal some food. The lion turns, fierce,
turns on this fierceness, drives away the jackal. Goes back and eats…Could a human do
that? …The point being there’s part of that living in the moment…We have to learn that
it’s not an emotional thing, it’s more of a natural thing. So to control yourself under that
sort of stress requires a deep understanding of who you are and what your behavior is
like. So in Tai Chi as self defense, we base our main principle on composure. So in a
way I’m saying that lioness is composed. She turns it on when she needs to, turns it off
immediately and is able to do another task.

Yang Tai Chi names numerous techniques after animals and actions involving animals.
Master Boyd mentioned specific techniques named “retreat and repulse of monkey,” “snake
creeps down,” “strike the tiger,” “retreat and ride the tiger,” “shoot the tiger with the bow,”
“crane spreads its wings” and “grasp the bird’s tail.” He also stated that while some of these
names are primarily to describe a movement, Tai Chi is in fact based on observation of nature;
“Martial arts, all of them have come out of a sort of observation of nature, but I’d say the Taoists
in particular and Tai Chi also in particular.” In the case of “retreat and repulse of monkey” he
described how the technique connected to the actions of actual monkeys; “If you go to grab a
monkey…they’re one of the fiercest things to catch…they go like this (claws in front of him with
his hands) and they’ll rip your arm to shreds…So the repulse of the monkey is because that’s
what monkeys do.”

Master Boyd repeatedly stated that he trains outside frequently and that he believes that
training outside is in fact more effective or valuable than training inside. He even said that he
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specifically chose to buy a house that had both a studio indoors as well as ten acres because of
the value he places on training outdoors.
I am a believer in that we’re part of the whole equation, and therefore we need a deep
respect for the environment. And I believe in self cultivation, and I believe in trying to
find out more about what my relationship is with nature or with the natural world around
us. That’s why I live in a rural area. I’ve made many choices in my life and that’s where
I feel most comfortable…I find the natural world to be an influence on that. It’s not my
domain, nature’s not at my beck and call. I’m a character in it and I want to be a good
character in it, I’d like to be a responsible character in it.
African Martial Arts

Ahati Kilindi Iyi
Founder and Head Instructor
Ta Merrian Martial Arts Institute
This section of the study is slightly different in that while all of the other sections refer to
a single, specific martial art, this one refers to a broad group of martial arts taught at a single
school, the Ta Merrian Martial Arts Institute. Ahati Kilindi Iyi, the founder and head instructor
of this school, teaches, and has studied, many different African martial arts. While I initially
thought this may be a problem in examining the teachings of these arts, he assured me that they
were similar enough that the various teachings could be taken as a singular whole;
The philosophy and the structure to all those things that I named are the same…The
differences are if it’s a different language we’ll call it something else. In other words, if I
say Senegalese wrestling is Laam and Nigerian wrestling is Gidibu, they’re both just
wrestling, but one ethnic group calls it one thing and another ethnic group calls it
something different. So if we’re talking philosophically or traditionally or we’re talking
culturally or ethnically we’re all talking the same thing under that umbrella [of the Ta
Merrian school].
Because of this close relation between the martial arts taught at Iyi’s school they will be
collectively referred to as “Ta Merrian martial arts” here.
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Concept of Nature
Iyi described the concept of nature integrated in the Ta Merrian martial arts by going all
the way back to the origin of the word “nature” and the Kemetic (Egyptian) pantheon.
According to Iyi, “Nature comes from the root of the Kemetic or Egyptian word inter or what
they call the nataru or neter, and that has been deemed by contemporary historians and
philosophers the neter or Gods.” He also described a number of the Kemetic gods that consisted
of a man’s body and the head of an animal – “animal totem heads,” as he called them. He said
that these totem heads being integrated with an otherwise human form was a way of showing that
the animal kas or spirits exist within humans, that these animals (and nature more generally) are
a part of human beings;
By putting a birds head on a man’s body you’re saying the bird is inside of the man. By
putting the bull’s head on a man’s body you’re saying the bull is inside of a man. So it is
a reflection of the natural environment or those things that are in our natural environment
also within us.

“Our system of martial art…is a relationship with the environment that you’re in.”
- Ahati Kilindi Iyi
The Ta Merrian martial arts seem to teach two main things in regards to their students’
interactions with nature. First, they teach that humans are a part of rather than separate from
nature, that we are another animal, and that “the only separation is in the contemporary mindset
of humans who view us as separate from nature when in actuality we’re not.” He also
specifically brought up the Judeo-Christian idea of humans as superior to the rest of creation as
antithetical to the worldview taught in these martial arts. Second, the Ta Merrian martial arts
seem to have a strong sense of place, with the martial arts practices themselves changing
somewhat depending on where they are practiced as noted in Animals and Natural Phenomena,
below. In addition to the cross-correlation of animals and the utilization of elements appropriate
to the local climate he also said that in certain practices involving plants they will use native
plants that correspond closely with the plants originally used. According to Iyi, by adapting the
martial arts to the local environment, “that keeps the art form a living, breathing, functioning,
38
thing, rather than something that is stuck in a particular place,” although he also said that they
need to maintain a balance between these practices and the traditional application of the arts.

The Ta Merrian martial arts do utilize natural environments in their training by training
outside and in natural environments, and they hold occasional rural retreats as well as an annual
training trip to Africa. However, Iyi also said that the general, day to day training in their school
in Detroit is contemporary and similar to most other martial arts in that training outdoors is the
exception rather than the rule. In addition to this, the martial arts go beyond simple fighting
techniques and actually use plants and other natural elements for their herbal, healing,
camouflaging and other properties. Iyi gave numerous examples, including using bird calls and
animal sounds, disguising your scent with lion dung when in their territory, clothing with leaves
for camouflage and herbal identification and use for healing. And again, as with the animals and
elements utilized, these practices will vary depending on where the arts are practiced.

While the Ta Merrian martial arts clearly do use images and metaphors of nature and the
natural world, as described above, they also use nature as a teaching tool through stories. He
used the example of the story of Anansi the Spider as one based on animal totems and also said
that in Aesop’s Fables, “a lot of the totemic dynamics of understanding how you relate in the
world are put in animal metaphors.” He also said that at the higher levels of the martial arts
entheogens or “power plants” are used to “lock [practitioners] into a more efficient harmony with
our environment and nature…to experience nature that is outside the ordinary realms of reality,”
and gave several examples of specific plants used in this way.

The Ta Merrian martial arts make extensive use of natural elements and animals in their
techniques. In these arts you do not simply imitate an animal or name techniques after an
animal, you rather invoke or take on the mind and essence of an animal or element when you are
fighting. He spoke of 42 different “animal transformations” as well as a number of natural
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phenomena which have associated techniques. Specific animals mentioned include the bull, the
rhinoceros, the crocodile, the cobra, the falcon, the eagle and the porcupine. Natural phenomena
mentioned include wind, earth, fire, thunder and lightning. Furthermore, which animal or
element you imitate or use depends on which animals exist in the environment local to you.
Traditionally because all 42 animals were “there to learn from” they were all incorporated into
the arts, but now between the art being taken out of Africa and the changed environment in
Africa far fewer animals are used in any one place;
Many times in a modern environment you have certain areas where animals aren’t
anymore because of desert encroachment…In more contemporary times the systems are
more animals specific in their environment. In other words, if you’re in the environment
where the crocodiles are you learn the crocodile totem, but if there’s no crocodiles there
you don’t use it…And the same thing with the natural environment as far as the elements
are concerned. If you’re in a desert environment the sun is most prominent; its heat, its
fierceness in the height of the day, whereas if you’re in a place like the rainforest where
they have a lot of thunder and lightning, those relationships are more prominent.
He also said that when the martial arts are practiced in the United States or in other places which
are not home to the exact species which the original art forms utilized they “cross-correlate”
native animals with similar species from the original 42 animals. For example, he said that in at
the Ta Merrian Institute (in Detroit) they cross-correlate the “totem animal of Michigan,” the
wolverine, with a badger native to Africa.

Presumably Ahati Kilindi Iyi utilizes nature in the same ways the Ta Merrian martial arts
he described do, although he did not explicitly say. However, as he is the founder of the Ta
Merrian institute and has spent most of his life studying and teaching these martial arts I believe
this is a reasonable assumption to make.
My personal connection to nature is through understanding of who I truly am and where I

fit in the whole picture of the Earth, that physically I’m part of this whole world. A part
of it, not above it, not the master of it, not the conqueror of it, but one who likes to blend
in and be a firm husband-man of the place that I have to live. So that’s why personally I
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view nature as something that is part of me, that is inside of me as well as outside of me.
So it’s a thing where I enjoy life and I enjoy the life that’s around me, so I have a
personal relationship with that which is within and that which is without.
Shotokan Karate
Tsutomu Ohshima Shihan
Founder and Shihan (Chief Instructor)
Shotokan Karate of America
It was frequently difficult within this interview to tease apart when Ohshima Shihan was
talking specifically about the teachings of Shotokan Karate from when he was talking about his
personal beliefs and practices and when he was talking about the historic roots of Shotokan
which may or may not apply in its current form. I believe this resulted from a combination of
problems with his understanding of the questions, a hesitation on my part to ask follow up or
clarification questions and his personal speaking style.
Concept of and Interaction with Nature

Ohshima Shihan explained that Japanese martial arts, including Shotokan, have a very
strong historic connection to Buddhism and Shinto. Shinto in particular he emphasized. He said
that the first principle of Shinto is that we must live in harmony with nature and that we, “must
not against nature.” Whether this teaching has been incorporated into Shotokan was unclear,
although it almost certainly has not been explicitly, as he very clearly stated that religion (as well
as politics) is completely separated from the art. In addition, Ohshima Shihan emphasized the
concept of humans as part of, not separate from, nature and the universe;
We are little parts of the nature. Little parts, tiny parts…We are like the dust. But
wonderful thing is this dust…I took a long time, 75 years…[to] start to understand wow,
this is life, is beautiful, wonderful, and human strength is much more than what I thought.
Here the confusion is whether he is referring to his personal view or to that of the art, and again
there is evidence that this view may not necessarily be part of the art. Immediately after the
above passage he said, “That way I understand nature.” Finally, he said “we are conscious next
generation,” and as evidence cited that the property he was living on would go to the school after
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he dies. Here it seems more likely that this is a teaching of the art, as the “we” he used seemed
to imply the school community. He also extended this concept to protection of the environment;
“To next generation means we want to leave this Earth beautiful and safe and natural and healthy
place.”

When I asked Ohshima Shihan how Shotokan Karate uses nature as a training
environment he said simply, “You can see. I think one of the most beautiful environments in
southern California…we have a little river, oak forest, all kinds of animals and birds. I have
hundred, hundred natural species here, so I don’t have to explain too much. Everybody knows.”
The implication was clearly that training in natural environments is valued in Shotokan Karate,
although the answer obviously did not shed any light on exactly how much it is valued and how
frequent outdoor training is used.

Ohshima Shihan gave only one example of the use of a metaphor from nature. This was
the phrase “Water and Moon” which is used to describe the ideal mental state of a martial artist
in which one can react without conscious thought;
When the nighttime in the pond, cloud is moving and covers moon, is nothing there, but
as soon as this cloud pass the moon is simultaneously exists on the water…In other
words, when you face opponents…if your mind is clean and no mental blocks and strong
and beautiful…opponent’s mind offers, immediately reflect here, without thinking.
That’s very idea mentality.
Other than this Ohshima Shihan gave no indication of whether or not other natural metaphors are
used and did not give any other ways in which Shotokan Karate uses nature as a teaching tool.

According to Ohshima Shihan while historically predecessors of Shotokan Karate were
informed by masters observing animals, he said that these ideas and techniques had been
“digested” into the current martial art. Beyond that he did say that one animal technique name,
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“monkey elbow,” is still used, although the technique is not imitative of a monkey. He also said
that Master Funikoshi, because of his love of ancient literature, named two of the kata (forms or
patterns) “Crane on a Rock” and “Flying Swallow.” Further, Ohshima Shihan actually seemed to
actively dislike the idea of martial artists imitating animals and said that trying to pass such
techniques off as effective is disrespectful to the person you are teaching. He views such
techniques as rudimentary and said that training as human beings is far more effective.

Throughout the interview Ohshima Shihan very clearly displayed a strong environmental
ethic. He brought up global warming, pollution, overpopulation and contamination foods,
among other issues, and even talked about his respect for Al Gore’s work on climate change (this
was shortly after An Incontinent Truth came out in theaters). He also talked about specific
actions the United States and the world must take. Whether this environmental concern was
partly, mostly or at all a result of his training in Shotokan Karate was unclear.
Goju Ryu Karate

Miko Peled Sensei
6th Dan, Chief Instructor, USA
International Okinawan Goju Ryu Karate Federation

Peled Sensei stated that Goju Ryu Karate teaches that we are a part of nature, rather than
separate from it; “What we’re taught and what we teach is that we’re part of nature. So in other
words we’re part of the world and everything that’s around us.” It also teaches that we should
strive to “be in harmony with the world around us, with nature, with the universe.” He also
implied a certain interrelatedness between ourselves and the world around us in stating that we
need to, “learn as much about it as possible so we learn about ourselves and build a strong
spirit.”
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Peled Sensei made it clear that training in natural environments is highly valued in Goju
Ryu for a number of reasons. First, he said that practitioners train simply to, “take advantage of
the fact that we’re part of this big thing, this environment, this universe.” Second, he repeatedly
brought up the idea that nature provides challenges to martial artists that they cannot get within
modern martial arts schools. At the most basic level, even simply stepping into a natural
environment, away from the protection of the, “lights and mirrors and the nice floor and the even
surface” of the modern dojo challenges one’s balance and gives a new perspective on kicks and
other techniques that you can’t get indoors. He also brought up several other training methods,
including conditioning the hands and feet using trees and sand and practicing stances in ocean
waves. In addition to the pure physical challenges these practices can provide, he also suggested
that they can, “develop our appreciation for nature and also develop our spirit.” A part of that
development comes from the appreciation of our place within nature that can come from this
training; “We think we’re so strong but you just hit a tree and the pain is really hard and the tree
is immovable, it doesn’t ever really phase them. Suddenly we get a feeling of how big and
strong everything else is and how weak and small we are.” He also said that simply being in
nature without anything to help can allow us to, “use the nature around us to inspire us again.”

Peled Sensei said that natural metaphors are both common and powerful methods of
teaching within Goju Ryu. He mentioned several examples used, including animals, wind and
water, and said that these natural metaphors can provide a means of explanation that can get
across the, “characteristic of a technique,” better or more easily than other forms of explanation.
He used one specific example of a metaphor that had been used by one of his teachers;
I was in Okinawa a couple of years ago training with one of the older senseis there, he
described this combination of technique and it was like the wave building up, building
up, building up and the breaking on the shore and then smoothly coming back…It was
fabulous. It wasn’t just a certain technique, it was this whole combination of techniques,
it was in a kata, it was in a form. And you never forget. It’s so powerful, you can see
that something so you can execute the technique you have that image and you understand
the smoothness.
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According to Peled Sensei, looking back over the history of Goju Rytu Karate at the
origins of the techniques and forms many or most were based in some way on animals, and a
number are still named after animals. He brought up several ways in which observing animals
helped develop the techniques and fighting methods, including watching particular animals fight
and imitating their fighting styles as well as more generally observing animals to better
understand how the body works and discover useful weak points by watching where animals
attacked.
Instructor’s use of Nature

Peled Sensei seems to have a strong environmental ethic within his own life. In addition
to talking about how the martial art teaches its students to interact with nature, he also brought up
pollution and as he put it, while we “have to sustain our existence here…we don’t necessarily
need to destroy everything…[We should] live within what we need but also to contribute, and
not to destroy.” He finished by saying,
I completely buy into all the stuff that we talked about as far as our connection to nature,
our being part of nature our desire to be in harmony with nature as much as possible, to
be conscious of our universe, to find a relationship between us as humans in our human
life to this big thing that we don’t understand, to use martial arts as the tool to gain a
better understanding of ourselves but also of our connection to the world and to the
universe.
Taekwondo
Dr. Russel Ahn
Director of the University of California Martial Arts Program
6th Degree Black Belt, World Taekwondo Federation
As noted in “Limitations & Cautions” above, Taekwondo (or Tae Kwon Do, or Taekwon-
Do) is a very diverse martial art. I interviewed two instructors – one from each of the two main
branches of the art, the World Taekwondo Federation and the International Taekwon-Do
Federation. As noted above, this is not by any means a complete picture of Taekwondo. To
further complicate things, because of the recent fracturing of the ITF the instructor I interviewed,
Grandmaster Hwang, cannot speak for all of ITF despite his very high rank.
45
While Dr. Ahn did not have much to say about modern Taekwondo’s teachings about its
students’ interactions with nature, he did say that the hwarang, a group of young men in 7th
Century Silla (one of three nations on the Korean peninsula at the time) who studied Buddhism,
the arts and scholarly works as well as the martial arts, were taught as one of their five principles
not to kill another living thing without purpose. This principle has not come down in its original
form to today’s Taekwondo, but Dr. Ahn did say that the modern principle of self-control
probably originated with it. In addition, he said that historically Korean martial artists training in
natural environments “try to protect nature. They don’t want to kick the trees and kick off the
branches.”

According to Dr. Ahn nature has been used as a training environment since the very early
predecessors to Taekwondo, the martial arts of the hwarang. They lived “deep in the mountains”
in an attempt to get closer to nature and remove themselves from the “secular world.” He also
stated that this tradition of living and training in the mountains to remove themselves from the
secular world and reach “enlightenment” through training has continued, although he said that
the practice was more prevalent thirty or forty years ago than it is today. Historically, natural
environments were also used, “because there not too many facilities,” with martial artists,
“training by using the environments, running between the trees and climbing up, all sorts of
things.” Finally, Dr. Ahn also said that there is a common perception that the energy is more
powerful in natural environments than in “contemporary training halls,” that in fact it is possible
to collect “supernatural energy” when in natural environments via breathing exercises and
meditation.
Within mainstream Taekowndo, however, because most instructors now run their schools
as businesses with modern training halls and because there is less of an emphasis on going
beyond the physical or technical aspects to the “Do level” or “enlightenment stage,” there is also
far less use of and interest in nature as a training environment. However, he did say that the
program he runs at UC Berkeley does have a once a year retreat utilizing training in natural
environments, alternating between rural areas of the United States and the mountains and
temples of Korea.
46
According to Dr. Ahn a well known Taekwondo instructor and philosopher, Kung Myong
Lee, interprets the meaning of “Taekwondo” differently than most. The generally accepted
definition, according to Dr. Ahn, is, “Tae is stepping or kick, Kwon means fist or punching and
Do means the way of life.” However, according to Professor Lee, “Tae means earth, earth that
we are standing on, and Kwon means your body, Do means enlightenment. So you practice
training through TKD you finally reach the enlightenment. So you train on the earth to reach the
enlightenment.” Dr. Ahn also said that he agrees with Professor Lee in bringing up “different
philosophical aspects of Taekwondo;”
Sometimes we forget the true educational value of Taekwondo because we’re too
secularized, we’re too developed so we just take everything for granted. Good facilities
there, good training equipment there, but if you go to nature you have nothing else but
nature. So you have to find yourself to adapt to, adapt yourself into environment, be able
to carry out your techniques and training and develop it fully. So I think that’s very
important.
However, while he was clear in his agreement with the general idea of seeing Taekwondo as
more than physical techniques, it was not clear whether or not he agreed with Professor Lee’s
differing interpretation of the meaning of the art’s name.

According to Dr. Ahn Taekwondo does imitate animals, though not to as great an extent
as Chinese martial arts do. He specifically mentioned techniques that imitate the tiger and crane,
and also said that the “poomse” or forms contain many such techniques. He also specifically
highlighted one form, keumgang, which is named after Mt. Keumgang, a well-known mountain
in North Korea; “Left side and right side will be blocking, one is blocking inside to outside, the
other is blocking outside to inside. And this is indicating top of the mountain…So you are
actually receiving energy from sky.”
47
Dr. Ahn seems to prefer, or at least sometimes prefer, natural environments over more
“civilized” ones;
Sometimes I would rather walk on grass than concrete. I would rather swimming in the
ocean than swimming in the swimming pool. I like to do some hiking because it
refreshes my mind and body because sometimes I fell like we’re captivized by boxes or
civilized environment, so I want to get away from that environment and try to find myself
and try to find some connection within the nature, instead of within the secular world.
Taekwon-Do
Grandmaster Hwang Kwang Sung
9th Degree Black belt
Unified International Taekwon-Do Federation
Harry Hill
4th Degree Black belt
Unified International Taekwon-Do Federation
See the note at the beginning of the interview of Dr. Russel Ahn under “Taekwondo,”
above.
Concept of Nature
The concept of nature that most influences Taekwon-Do, according to Grandmaster
Hwang, is a scientific one. He repeatedly brought up physics in describing how the art was
designed and how the art works, as well as in describing how individual techniques are executed.
Several times in the interview he said how Taekwon-Do was perfect for the study because it so
utilizes the way the world works. For example, at one point he exclaimed, “You never would
have heard this any other martial art. This…only Tae Kwon Do we talk about this, all the time.
You brought this in, really, really good one for us,” (emphasis his). Specific concepts brought up
include development of power using mass and acceleration, using rather than fighting gravity,
concentration of power, and “sine wave” movement, among others.
48
Grandmaster Hwang, while he emphasized other the scientific aspects of the art more
than any environmental ethic, he did three times bring up the idea that we have to “respect”
nature; “First thing is, I believe the respect…you have to know, you have to respect nature. This
a big thing. You can’t against them, you have to follow them, you have to listen to them, you
have to go with them.” He also pointed out that the phrase “learn and respect” is actually on the
pamphlet for his outdoor summer training camp. In addition, when he talked about training in
natural environments he definitely implied an ethic of protection of the environment one is
training in. For example, he said that when he uses trees for conditioning he chooses larger trees
that will be relatively unaffected rather than saplings that he could damage.

Grandmaster Hwang made clear that outdoor training is an important part of Taekwon-
Do. Although it was unclear how frequent such training is he did say that he has held a summer
training camp incorporating training in natural environments every single summer since he
arrived in the United States in 1971. In his words, “I believe that TKD training have to
be…sometime in wilderness. Just wild place, outdoors. We believe that, I believe that.” In
addition, as mentioned above, he specifically mentioned using trees to condition one’s hands and
feet.

While, according to Grandmaster Hwang and Mr. Hill, natural metaphors are used in
Taekwon-Do, they are used infrequently – “if you’re thinking about nature at the time you
would,” but otherwise natural metaphors would generally not be used, according to Mr. Hill.
Several specific examples were used during the interview, including a smaller animal fighting a
larger animal to illustrate the importance of speed, and a twig being thrown in a tornado or a
river narrowing to illustrate concentration of power. However, it seemed that these examples
were used simply because of the topic being covered. That is to say, while these examples may
be used infrequently in Grandmaster Hwang or Mr. Hill’s teaching, they were used during the
interview specifically because of the questions I was asking.
49
Grandmaster Hwang was very clear in stating that Taekwon-Do does not use any animal
movements. He said that this is because the structure of the human body and the tools we have
available to us are very different than those of animals;
First, we are standing straight upright. No animal does that. Monkeys pretty close, but
their movement is not close. …When bears fight they might do kind of human hooks,
things like that…but we cannot learn from them because a bear have so much weapons
there…Look at our fingers. Animals fingers are much stronger, animals toes…their toes
is much strong weapon. We not.
Essentially Grandmaster Hwang is saying here that it makes no sense to imitate animals, because
techniques and strategies designed for the human body are inherently better when executed by a
human than ones based off of animal movements. As Mr. Hill put it, “You know who doesn’t
have animal movement? Animals. A tiger will never use its beak, but an eagle will, because an
eagle has a beak.” In addition, Grandmaster Hwang also made clear that another reason
Taekwon-Do does not use animal techniques is that it is, “dedicated to preserving human
dignity,” and imitating animals would be contrary to that goal.
Shaolin Gung Fu
Tor Bieker
Master, Order of Shaolin Ch’an
Concept of Nature
According to Master Tor, within Shaolin nature is seen not a separate entity from
humans, or from human created environments, but rather as everything. He expressed a very
strong sense of interrelatedness between humans and everything else; “Everything in the
universe is interrelated to everything else. The atoms in my body have been all over the
galaxy…The idea is just that everything is so strongly interconnected that in a sense even the
very rocks are a part of us.” In perceiving the world as it truly is the Shaolin Buddhist student
realizes that we are not separated from the rest of the world, as our ego would have us believe,
but rather we are interconnected to everything else. In Master Tor’s words,
50
In Buddhism we’re trying to see reality and the reality, at least from our perspective, is
that’s not just you, you’re more than just your selfish little thoughts and the things going
on inside your head, because of your intimate connection to everything else.

Master Tor indicated that while (as described above) Shaolin generally does not
concentrate on nature in the “birds and the bees” or the “conservationist” sense, it definitely does
teach a certain environmental ethic. The overarching idea that he emphasized within Shaolin
Buddhism is that the Buddha taught how to end suffering, “the cessation of suffering.” The first
idea he brought up in this regard is that of “non-harm” or being “harmless,” that is, Shaolin
students, “try not to harm other living things.” While he said that how this principle is applied is
essentially up to the individual student, he also gave a few examples of suggestions he might
give guidance to junior students;
Take that as a rule of thumb, try to go through your daily life not harming people or
animals or things. See what happens…If you see some, I don’t know, garbage over a
flower, blocking its sunlight, remove it, throw it in the trash, allow the poor plant to
engage in photosynthesis.
The next idea that he brought up was the Eightfold Path. While he did not go into detail
regarding the entire Eightfold path, he did use one of the eight principles, Right Livelihood, as an
example. He described this as the idea that you should,
Find a work to do that gives something back to the world that you live in…You get so
much. You get wonderful air to breathe, warm sunshine, the company of fine
individuals, you should give back. How do you give back? You should find a way.
However, he did make sure to say here that he was referring to “the world” expansively, to
everything, rather than just to “nature” in the more narrow sense. In addition to this view of the
world, Master Tor also called Shaolin a “nature order, in the birds and the bees and the
conservationist sort of sense.” He said that while the Order is not politically active, this manifests
itself in other ways. For example, the Order is planning on purchasing a tract of land with the
proceeds from a series of books they are publishing that would be primarily left as wilderness,
with a small part set aside to build a temple. He also said that many Shaolin students are active
in conservation efforts in their personal lives, although also said that it is not important that their
51
efforts be in conservation or environmental protection, but rather that they “live [their] life in a
way that is consonant with not harming other creatures or living things,” giving the example of
one student who founded a nonprofit to help people with asthma.

According to Master Tor, training in natural environments is not a “significant part” of
Shaolin gung fu training until the higher levels when they begin Chi Gung training. He declined
to describe this training beyond saying that, “immersion in a rich biosphere, a rich part of the
biosphere, is important at developing a certain kind of sensitivity,” and that very few people ever
reach this level of training. However, while Shaolin gung fu does not specifically incorporate
nature into its training, he also said that because of the foundation of the art in observation of
animals (see below) many students spend time observing animals in their natural environments
to better understand them. He made clear that this is not something prescribed by their
instructors, but rather something that students do on their own out of curiosity. As he put it, “if
you spend enough time around a group of people that are interested in “nature” you’ll be infected
with some of that interest.”

Master Tor said that while he uses metaphors from many sources, because of the basis of
the art in observation of animals (again, see below) the art lends itself to use of metaphors
incorporating animals. For example, when the tiger style is being taught, because it is based on
the tiger and as he put it, “its techniques are designed to break bones and rend flesh off the body”
metaphors and examples of the tiger are often used.

According to Master Tor, the Shaolin martial arts are based on the observation of
animals. Rather than simply imitating the movements of a particular animal, however, the art is
based on the observation of the, “behaviors and movements and psychological associations [of]
the animal,” – they take the useful aspects of what has been observed from the animal. While
this does result in movement somewhat reminiscent of the animal style being practiced, from
52
what Master Tor described the art seems more based on the strategies and tactics of the animals
rather than being physically imitative. Master Tor gave the example of the snake style, which is
what his personal training has emphasized;
Can I move like a snake? In a sense, but I don’t have a spine like a snake, I can’t slither
across the ground. My behavior is going to be very different from a snake because I’m a
human…The idea is that when you observe a snake you notice lots of things about them.
Snakes are reclusive creatures, snakes are typically not aggressive creatures. They fight
back when they’re attacked but with the snake it goes for a kill. Many snakes are
poisonous. They don’t waste any time. If they’re under threat and they think their life’s
in danger they try to either get away – that’s the first option, get away – or kill
it…Almost everything in Shaolin is very defensive…Snake is the exception here in that it
contains a few sets which are offensive. They’re basically designed to be used when
you’re outnumbered and outclassed and you have to take people out of commission very
fast or else you’re going to be mobbed and you’re going to die…Snake’s for taking our
eyes, vital points on the body, for taking people out fast…That’s just one concrete
example of how snake tactics translate to snake style. But when someone really studies
the style you do being to be able to move in a way similar. People remark, if they see it
from a distance, they say, “Oh, that’s snake like.” And you can’t help but develop an
interest for the creature itself when you realize how efficacious the style is.

Master Tor did not discuss a personal environmental ethic beyond what he described
Shaolin as teaching, although he did say that he has had many “interesting” encounters with wild
animals in nature, including one run in with a bear that he relayed to me;
Once in the Cascades I was hiking alone at a high elevation and I ran into three bears, a
mother and her cubs…Mother bears are not typically really friendly when they’re around
their cubs and they see a human or another big animal...I think without my training I
might have had a problem, but I didn’t…My spirit, if I can talk sort of metaphorically…I
only have positive thoughts, [although I also] knew not to make any sudden
moves…They were eating berries…and I sat down on a log and got out my sack lunch
and ate my lunch and the bears didn’t move. And I sat there for like a half an hour and
had lunch with the bears and then got up and continued my hike.
He said that he has had numerous experience like that, and attributes it to, “the fact that animals
are very intuitive in ways that people sometimes forget to be because we get so caught up in our
egos that we can’t just relax and be receptive to what’s around us.”
When I asked him, “What is your personal connection to nature?” he responded, after
saying that the question struck him as very “new age-y,” “I’m just a part of the world.”
53
Results: Survey
In addition to the interviews I also gave a short, quantitative survey to each of the
instructors I interviewed (see Appendix I). Seven of the nine instructors completed it, with
Ohshima Shihan and Master Tor refusing. With such a small number of surveys the data would
not be useful for statistical analysis. It also was not designed to determine any distinction
between correlation and causation in possible connections between answers to the various
questions. Rather, the survey was simply intended to get at the martial arts’ teachings from a
different angle.
The first question on the survey asked the instructors to rank in order of importance
within their art “personal growth and development,” “physical self-defense and fighting skills,”
and “sport-based competition.” The question was intended to determine whether there was any
correlation between what aspect of each martial art was seen as important and whether the
martial art placed an emphasis on nature. However, all seven instructors rated personal growth
as the most important aspect of their martial art, self-defense second and sport-based competition
as least important. The only variation between the answers was that five instructors rated sport
as “3,” Pincus Sensei specifically marked it as “0” before asking if he actually had to put a 3 and
Kilindi Iyi left the space blank.
Moo Gong ITF WTF Goju Ryu Aikido Yang Tai Ta Merrian
Do Taekwondo Taekwon-Do Karate Chi martial arts
Personal growth and
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
development
Physical self-defense and
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
fighting skills
Sport-based competition 3 3 3 3 * 3 *
* - indicated that “sport-based competition” should play essentially no role in their art
The second question asked each instructor to rate the incorporation of “personal growth
and development of the student,” “physical self-defense and fighting skills,” “sport-based
competition,” “tradition,” and “nature” into their art as “very important,” “moderately
important,” “of low importance,” or “not important,” (in the tables below “very important” is
given a three and “not important” a zero). The third asked them to rate the same elements of
their art on the same scale, but rather than rating how the art should ideally be taught they were
asked to rate how the believed the art to be taught in most of its schools (see Appendix I for
specific wording). The idea with this set of questions was once again to determine whether there
54
was a correlation between emphasis on certain other elements of each art and their emphasis on
nature.
How the art “should be ideally”:
Moo ITF WTF Goju Ryu Aikido Yang Ta Merrian Average
Gong Do Taekwondo Taekwon-Do Karate Tai Chi martial arts
Personal growth and
development of the 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3.0
student
Physical self-defense
2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2.9
and fighting skills
Sport-based
2 2 2 1 0 0 0 1.0
competition
Tradition 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2.7
Nature 3 1 * 3 3 2 3 2.5
* - did not answer question
How the art “is taught in the majority of its schools or training halls”:
Personal growth and
development of the 3 3 1 3 2 2 2 2.3
student
Physical self-defense
2 3 2 2 1 3 2 2.1
and fighting skills
Sport-based
2 3 3 3 0 3 3 2.4
competition
Tradition 3 2 1 0 2 1 3 1.7
Nature 3 2 0 0 1 1 0 1.0
Several things are of note here. Most intriguingly, the largest difference between the
ideal and what, in the opinion of the instructors interviewed, is generally taught was the 1.5 point
drop in the average rating of the importance of nature in the arts. How exactly this manifests
itself is not clear, but the difference is drastic. The only art in which nature was seen as being
over-emphasized in most schools was in Unified ITF. In addition, all of the aspects asked about
except for sport-based competition were seen as being given less emphasis in most schools than
they should be. Presumably this indicates that instructors are shifting time away from these other
elements of the art to concentrate more on sport, although of course there could be other
elements that were not covered in the question. Finally, the only martial art in which the
instructor did not identify any areas in which he believed there to be a difference between what
should be taught and what is taught was Moo Gong Do. This likely stems from the fact that of
the martial arts included in this study Moo Gong Do is by far the smallest, consisting of four
55
locations in Vermont, one in California and one instructor with several students in Utah. With
such a small number of schools and instructors it would presumably be easier for Grandmaster
Kim to keep control of the instruction throughout the art than it would be in a much larger art.
The final question asked the instructors to indicate how strongly they agreed that their art
incorporated seven different uses of nature which roughly corresponded with the questions asked
in the interview. The scale was “strongly agree,” “agree,” “neither agree or disagree,”
“disagree,” and “strongly disagree,” (these are converted to a 5-1 scale in the table below, with 5
indicating “strongly agree” and 1 indicating “strongly disagree”).

The art uses nature as a
5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4.7
teaching tool
The art uses nature
5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4.9
metaphors in its teaching
The art uses natural
5 4 5 4 3 3 5 4.1
environments for training
The art’s techniques
imitate or are informed 4 2 4 5 1 5 5 3.7
by animals
The art’s techniques
imitate or are informed
by natural phenomena 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4.7
(waterfalls, wind, fire,
trees, etc.)
The art names techniques
after animals or natural 5 2 5 5 4 5 3 4.1
phenomena
The art encourages a
personal connection to 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 4.6
nature
Total 4.9 3.4 4.9 4.7 3.9 4.4 4.7 4.4
According to the instructors’ answers the most common use of nature in these martial arts
is the use of natural metaphors, with the use of nature as a “teaching tool” and each art’s
techniques imitating or being informed by natural phenomena both close behind. The use of
metaphors and the use of nature as a teaching tool mesh well with what was indicated in the
interviews; every instructor said that their art engages in this to one extent or another. That so
much importance was put on techniques imitating or being informed by natural phenomena was,
however, far less expected. Most of the instructors mentioned this only in passing rather than
56
concentrating on it or stressing its importance. I suspect this is due to a flaw in the survey. Or
rather, perhaps the survey cannot be used to make these kind of comparisons. In other words, the
instructors could have marked “strongly agree” when in fact they “strongly agree” that their art’s
techniques imitate or are informed by natural phenomena to some small degree. If this is the
case these numbers can be used to see what arts focus on which things, but not the degree to
which they focus on them. And of course there is also the possibility that some instructors
answered the question indicating the degree and others answered it in more of a yes/no manner.
This disconnect between the question and measurements of intensity or degree is reinforced by
the fact that the answers of Grandmaster Kim of Moo Gong Do and Master Ahn of WTF
Taekwondo were identical, despite the fact that the interviews indicated Moo Gong Do has a
stronger connection to nature.
57
Themes: Comparing and Contrasting the Martial Arts Analyzed
In comparing the nine interviews I have condensed the information into the following
table, attempting to assign values indicating the importance of each of five categories on a scale
of zero to two, zero meaning that based on the interview the given aspect is either not a part of
the art or the art does not place any emphasis on it, one meaning that it is a part of the art and
some emphasis is placed on it and two meaning it is an important and/or integral part of the art.
In several cases it was hard to determine what values to assign. In particular, Shotokan Karate’s
Ohshima Shihan was unclear as to whether he was referring to the teaching of the art or his
personal view when he said, “we are little pieces of nature.” In addition, determining values for
“nature as a training environment” was particularly hard for several reasons. First, no extremes
became apparent in the interviews. That is to say, none of the instructors said that using natural
environments in training in their art is a daily or required aspect of the art, and none of them said
that it is completely unused either. In addition, many of the instructors discussed specific
methods of training (for example, Grandmaster Kim’s water training and jumping training) but
did not make it clear to what extent these methods are used within their art.
Moo ITF WTF Shotokan Goju Ryu Aikido Yang Shaolin Ta Merrian Total
Gong Do Taekwondo Taekwon-Do Karate Karate Tai Chi Gung Fu martial arts
Nature as a
training 2 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1.2
environment
Natural
2 0 1 0 2 1 2 2 2 1.3
metaphors
Animals 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 2 2 1.1
Natural
2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 .6
phenomena
Lack of
human-
2 0 0 2* 2 2 2 2 2 1.6
nature
dichotomy
Total 9 1 4 3 8 3 7 7 10 5.8
* - unclear if this view was Ohshima Shihan’s or was a teaching of Shotokan Karate

One theme that became apparent very quickly was that of training outdoors – every
instructor interviewed said that their art encourages training outdoors or in natural environments
58
to one extent or another. At one end of the spectrum Pincus Sensei of Aikido said that while he
personally trains in natural environments and he and his students often do weapons work
outdoors, training in natural environments is not an integral or necessary part of Aikido. While
none of the instructors interviewed placed their art at the other end of the spectrum, with training
in natural environments being an essential, everyday practice, all eight other instructors said that
they or their martial art encouraged students to train outdoors or in natural environments. Three
instructors – Dr. Ahn of WTF Taekwondo, Grandmaster Hwang of ITF Taekwon-Do and Kilindi
Iyi of the Ta Merrian Institute – mentioned annual retreats or trips that they take their students on
involving training outdoors. Grandmaster Kim of Moo Gong Do described a number of specific
training practices utilizing natural environments, and Dr. Ahn, Grandmaster Hwang and Peled
Sensei all mentioned using trees for body conditioning.
Probably the most interesting aspect of this trend is the fact that within it there was
another distinct theme – natural environments are somehow different and better as training areas
than indoor training halls. Grandmaster Kim said of training in natural environments, “You will
feel different, and obviously the energy you get from the environment is different. It is much
more, you can feel.” Master Boyd of Yang Tai Chi said that because Tai Chi is based on drawing
energy from the earth, “A more natural environment is going to intensify that process…where
nature’s pulsing around you, that’s probably the peak experience for Tai Chi,” and Master Tor of
the Order of Shaolin Ch’an said that in some aspects of the higher levels of training, “immersion
in a rich biosphere” is very important. In addition to these three outright statements of the
difference and importance of training outdoors, Dr. Ahn said that, “lots of martial artists believe
they can get supernatural energy from nature,” although he did not say that this view was part of
Taekwondo. Grandmaster Hwang and Peled Sensei also implied a similar attitude without saying
it in so many words. Ohshima Shihan of Shotokan Karate did not say so and did not give
enough information to determine any implication, but based on the information he did give I
would not rule it out. Kilindi Iyi also did not say or imply it, but again, based on the available
information it seems very possible.
Natural Metaphors
The second theme that jumped out was the prevalence of the use of natural metaphors, as
well as the reason for that usage. Five of the instructors – Grandmaster Kim, Master Boyd,
59
Kilindi Iyi, Peled Sensei and Master Tor – said specifically that they frequently use natural
metaphors and images in their teaching. Pincus Sensei said that water images specifically are
used somewhat frequently, although it seemed they played less of a central role in his teaching.
Grandmaster Hwang and Mr. Hill of ITF Taekwondo said that they use natural images and
metaphors, but only, according to Mr. Hill, if, “you’re thinking about nature at the time.”
Ohshima Shihan and Dr. Ahn both mentioned one example of a natural metaphor but did not
specify any use beyond that, although given that Dr. Ahn indicated that WTF Taekwondo does
have several techniques named after animals it would seem likely that at least sometimes images
of those animals are used.
In addition to the use of natural metaphors and images, the reason for that usage was
similar across several of the martial arts. In three of the martial arts – Aikido, Yang Tai Chi and
Goju Ryu Karate – the instructor interviewed indicated that these metaphors and images were
used primarily because of their usefulness in describing otherwise hard to convey concepts. As
Master Boyd put it, “those are images that people can understand.” Grandmaster Kim also said
that this ability of natural images to more easily convey difficult concepts was a driving force
behind his use of them, especially because of his poor English, although in this case the use of
natural images seemed to go much deeper than this simple utilitarian motive. This dual purpose
to the images – both to easily convey and because they are more fully a part of the art – also
seemed to be present in Shaolin gung fu.
Animals
The observation or lack thereof of animals within the martial art seemed to fall into three
distinct categories; first, arts whose techniques, tactics and strategies have been informed by
observation of animals, second, arts which view animal techniques as at the least an irrational
and ineffective basis for a martial art and third, arts which are not based on observation of
animals but at the same time do not particularly oppose the idea. The first category was the
largest, with Shaolin gung fu and the Ta Merrian martial arts falling solidly within it and Yang
Tai Chi, Goju Ryu Karate and WTF Taekwondo also fitting it to a lesser degree. The second
category included Shotokan Karate and ITF Taekwon-Do, and the third category included Moo
Gong Do and Aikido.
60
Both Kilindi Iyi of the Ta Merrian Institute and Master Tor of the Order of Shaolin Ch’an
described their arts as not necessarily imitating (or only imitating) animal movements as the
basis for specific techniques, but rather trying to capture the essence of the animal’s fighting
strategy. Iyi described it as “an invocation and taking on the mind of the animal,” and used the
example of a porcupine; “The porcupine defends in all directions [and] the Asanti, who are the
warriors of Ghana…their totem is the porcupine…That doesn’t mean they get down on all fours
and you know, try to quill up, it just means that [they] can move and defend in all directions.”
Likewise, Master Tor described the animal styles of Shaolin gung fu as, “typically not developed
around an attempt to mimic the exact movements of the animals. The idea is to take behaviors
and movements and psychological associations with the animal, and sort of take what’s useful
about that and manipulate it to our needs.” Peled Sensei of Goju Ryu also talked about his art
being originally based on observation of animals, and said that this extended beyond simple
imitation to observation of fighting strategies and weak points commonly attacked. Master Boyd
of Tang Tai Chi and Dr. Ahn of WTF Taekwondo also said that their arts have animal based
techniques, but neither mentioned any larger context of observation of animals.
Grandmaster Hwang and Ohshima Shihan of ITF Taekwon-Do and Shotokan Karate,
respectively, share very similar views on the folly of imitating animals in a martial art used by
humans. Due to the simple fact that humans are constructed in a very different manner than
animals are (two legs instead of four, upright instead of on all fours or, in the case of a snake, on
our bellies), with different tools (we do not have claws, talons, beaks, fangs, etc.), both
Grandmaster Hwang and Ohshima Shihan believe that a good martial art should not be
constructed around observation of animals. In addition, both instructors seemed to believe that,
in addition to being ineffective, animal based movements were actually bad in a normative sense.
Grandmaster Hwang said that basing techniques on animals goes against, “human dignity,”
which is at the core of Taekwon-Do, and Ohshima Shihan said that teaching someone who needs
to defend themselves an animal based art is disrespectful, as you are giving them an inferior tool
to do so. Finally, Grandmaster Kim of Moo Gong Do simply said that he did not incorporate any
animal based techniques into the art without any comment on their relative effectiveness. Pincus
Sensei, while saying Aikido does not use any animal techniques and that he thought that they
were ineffective in dealing with swords and other blades and thus inappropriate for a “bladed
61
culture” such as Japan, actually said that in other circumstances animal techniques could be
perfectly effective.
Are We Separate From or a Part of Nature?

Finally, the idea that humans are a part of rather than separate from nature was prevalent
throughout the martial arts examined; six of the instructors specifically mentioned it as a part of
their art. This included Moo Gong Do, Aikido, the Ta Merrian martial arts, Shotokan Karate,
Goju Ryu Karate and Shaolin gung fu. In addition, Master Boyd of Yang Tai Chi also brought
up this idea, although only in relation to himself rather than as a teaching of the art. Pincus
Sensei spoke at length about the “interrelatedness” of everything in the universe and Master Tor
said that, “Nature is not a concept or a term that we set aside and we have certain ideas
about…Everything in the universe is interrelated to everything else.” Peled Sensei said that,
“What we’re taught and what we teach is that we’re part of nature…we’re part of the world and
everything that’s around us,” and Ohshima Shihan said, “We are little parts of nature…we are
like the dust.” Kilindi Iyi confronted the Western view that we are separate from nature directly;
“The only separation is in the contemporary mindset of humans who view us as separate from
nature when in actuality we’re not,” and Grandmaster Kim said simply, “We are a part of
nature.” The only two instructors interviewed that did not express this view were Grandmaster
Hwang of ITF Taekwon-Do and Dr. Ahn of WTF Taekwondo.
62
Discussion
Possibilities for Future Research

The first and most obvious potential for future research would be a more in depth study
of individual arts that attempts to paint a more complete picture than I have been able to. This
sort of study would include numerous interviews of high level instructors, attempting to cover as
much of the art as possible, to counteract the problems associated with small samples that you
pointed out. This sort of study would also be able to delve into the texts associated with an
individual art much more than I am able to. I have no doubt that there is a lot of information to
be found, but because of how scattered it seems to be a very large number of texts would have to
be combed for the individual paragraphs, sentences and phrases that I simply do not have the
time to find. If a number of such studies were done it would be very interesting to see a true
comparison between more complete pictures of how a number of arts relate to nature.
Another avenue that has potential is a study of the views of the students of an art on how
the art relates to and uses nature. While this preliminary exploration, and the study described in
the previous paragraph, examines the ideal or true teaching of the art – what the people who
really understand the whole art teach – a study of the low and mid level students and instructors
would be worthwhile not because it would shed any light on what the art is supposed to be, but
rather it would shed light on what, for the majority of practitioners, it actually is.
Along the same lines another avenue would be an analysis of the instruction of an art,
comparing what instructors say about nature with what they actually pass on to their students.
This sort of study would be especially useful combined with a study of the views of the students.
When are the views on nature passed on? If they aren’t until later in an individual’s training, is
that intentional or simply because they aren’t high on the priority list? How much does what is
taught about nature vary depending on the instructor teaching? Why is that; is it a function of
who taught the instructor, the instructor’s personal views outside the art, or something else?
These sorts of questions would be interesting not just academically, but also to the higher level
instructors with in an art, as they would tell something of how well or correctly an art is
disseminated.
Finally, I would love to see an analysis of the actions of individuals who practice arts that
have a stronger element of teachings on or have been more influenced by nature vs. the actions
63
of individuals in arts that are less influenced by nature. This sort of study could also be done
within an art, depending on how much or how little emphasis a particular school or instructor
puts on the art’s teachings on nature. Does being in an art that is heavily influenced by nature or
at a school that puts a particular emphasis on teachings that relate to nature influence a student’s
environmental ethic or actions, statistically speaking? Of course the problem with that sort of
study would be that it is possible that individuals with a stronger environmental ethic would tend
towards martial arts that fit that ethic. To counteract that, this sort of study could also be done
over time within one school or art, following students from when they start, on through the
ranks, and even after they leave (if they do within the timeframe of the study, of course) in order
to see if there is a change in their environmental actions or beliefs that could be attributed to the
art.
Conclusion
While the literature reviewed in this study was limited both in the breadth of martial arts
reviewed and depth with which the literature regarding each martial art and religious-
philosophical tradition was examined, the review completed did indicate the distinct possibility
of a strong connection between at least some martial arts and nature. That possibility seems to
have been born out by the interviews and surveys conducted in this study. Nine high-level
instructors interviewed across eight distinct martial arts all indicated that the art in which they
train and teach has a connection to nature. Of course the strength and makeup of this connection
varied from art to art, but that it was there in each of these eight, according to these instructors, is
undeniable.
The strongest apparent connection in the literature review was the use of animal
techniques. Both kung fu and Tai Chi, according to the texts examined, based at least some of
their techniques on the observation of animals and also named many of their techniques and
styles after animals. This connection was emphasized in both the interview with Master Boyd of
Yang Tai Chi and Master Tor of Shaolin gung fu. Master Boyd gave several specific examples
of techniques named after animals, including “snake creeps down,” which was mentioned by
Huang (P. 257), “grasp the bird’s tail,” which is presumably the same or a very similar technique
to the one Huang called, “Step up, grasping the Bird’s Tail,” (p. 227) and “crane spreads its
wings,” which could very well be what Huang called “White Stork Spreads its Wings,” (p. 201).
64
These variations on technique names were also seen between different texts, with many names
mentioned by Liao being slightly different than those cited by Huang. Whether this is due to
differences in translation, differences that evolved between different branches of Tai Chi or
something else is unclear.
The observation and imitation of animals in Shaolin gung fu, while described in both the
literature and in the interviews, was characterized differently in the interviews than in the texts.
While the texts reviewed generally described the utilization of animals in kung fu as imitative or
descriptive, Master Tor described it as an observation and imitation of the “behaviors and
movements and psychological associations [of] the animal.” Rather than merely imitating a
particular animal movement in a particular technique Master Tor described Shaolin gung fu as
taking the strategies, tactics and, again, “psychological associations,” of an animal and adapting
them to be useful to humans in a martial way.
Possibly the most interesting comparison between the literature reviewed and the results
from the surveys and interviews is not what appears in both, but rather what was shown in the
results that in fact was not readily apparent in the literature. For example, that six of the nine
instructors interviewed indicated their art specifically teaches that humans are a part of rather
than separate from nature would not have been predicted by the literature reviewed regarding the
martial arts. The idea was certainly present in the concepts of the underlying religions and
philosophies, but I was surprised that it came through so clearly in the teachings described by the
instructors. That this concept is well known in relation to Eastern religions but generally
unknown in relation to Eastern martial arts is noteworthy. The fact that there are concepts so
strongly connected to nature within the teachings of the martial arts, and yet these concepts are
so hard to discover seems, to me, to be an argument for continued study in this area.
There is no doubt that this study has left many questions unanswered and many stones
unturned. As a preliminary examination of a topic that seems to have so far escaped any
significant study it has started to paint a picture of the extent to which and the manner in which
martial arts have a connection to nature. How representative the views of the instructors
interviewed in this study are of the greater martial arts community and how wide a range of
views they represent is unclear, but based on my review of the literature it certainly seems that
this research has broken new ground. It is my hope that this area will be studied in more detail;
if this study has shown anything it has shown that this is indeed an topic that has potential for
further study.
65
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68
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
Please rank the following aspects of the martial art in order of importance within the art.
Use “1” to indicate the aspect of the greatest importance, “2” for the next most important, etc.
____ Personal growth and development

____ Physical self-defense and fighting skills
____ Sport-based competition
………………………………………………………………………………………………
How important is the incorporation of each of the following things to the martial art?
Please note that there are two distinct sets of questions in this section with different directions.
***This first set of questions refers to the martial art how you believe it should be ideally,
based on what you have been taught.***
Very Moderately Of low Not

Important important importance important
Personal growth and development
of the student
Physical self-defense and fighting
skills
Sport-based competition.
Tradition
Nature
***This set of questions refers to how you believe the martial art is taught in the majority
of its schools or training halls. Please answer all of the questions, regardless of whether the
answer is the same or different to that of the corresponding question above.***
Very Moderately Of low Not

Important important importance important
Personal growth and development
of the student
Physical self-defense and fighting
skills
Sport-based competition.
Tradition
Nature
………………………………………………………………………………………………
69
Please answer the following questions about how you believe the martial art should
ideally use nature, based on what you have been taught.
Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly

Agree Agree or Disagree
Disagree
The art uses nature as a teaching
tool
The art uses nature metaphors in
its teaching
The art uses natural
environments for training
The art’s techniques imitate or
are informed by animals
The art’s techniques imitate or
are informed by natural
phenomena (waterfalls, wind,
fire, trees, etc.)
The art names techniques after
animals or natural phenomena
The art encourages a personal
connection to nature
Thank You!
70

Martial Arts and Nature

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Martial Arts and Nature

The Teaching, Philosophy and Technique of the Martial Arts

Introduction to the Martial Arts

Religion and Ecology

Philosophical and Religious Background

Tai Chi Chuan

Martial Arts of Japan

Kenjutsu and Samurai Traditions

Martial Art Organization Name and Position/Rank Location Date

Instructors contacted (interviews refused or did not hear back):

Martial Art Organization Name and Position/Rank Location

Limitations & Cautions

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

We go to a metaphorical level. You know, the notion of a metaphor of a carrier, a

Yang Tai Chi Chuan

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

African Martial Arts

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

My personal connection to nature is through understanding of who I truly am and where I

Concept of and Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

Goju Ryu Karate

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Instructor’s use of Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Interaction with Nature

Nature as a Training Environment

Nature as a Teaching Tool

Animals and Natural Phenomena

Instructor’s Use of Nature

Moo ITF WTF Goju Ryu Aikido Yang Ta Merrian Average

Nature as a Training Environment

Are We Separate From or a Part of Nature?

Possibilities for Future Research

Callicott, J. (2003). Foundations in environmental philosophy: A text with readings. Boston:

Liao, W. (1990). T'ai Chi classics. Boston: Shambhala Publications.

Lowry, D. (1985). Autumn lightning: The education of an American samurai. Boston:

Rhoades, C. V. (1999). Strike like lightning. Hartford: Turtle Press.

Ruane, J. M. (2003). Essentials of research methods : a guide to social research. Malden,

Saotome, M. (1993). Aikido and the harmony of nature. Boston: Shambhala.