Spektrofotometer UV-Vis

179
Portable UV–Visible Spectroscopy – Instrumentation, Technology,

and Applications
Anshuman Das
Labby Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
8.1 Introduction
Spectroscopy instrumentation is transforming, thanks to developments in advanced manufacturing techniques
in the integrated circuits (IC) and optical components (Crocombe 2013, 2018). With better lithographic
methods, such as nanoimprint lithography (Chou et al. 2014; Mohamed 2019) and extreme ultraviolet
lithography (Ogletree 2016; Radamson et al. 2018), it is now possible to pack millions of electronic components
within a single chip and even embed optical functionality. This has led to the realization of faster and powerful
on-chip computing, for instance, in our smartphones. High demand for these computing devices has driven
down costs and paved the way for field-level applications in virtually every industry. Whether it is in the form
of distributed sensing networks or Internet of Things (IoT) (Karanassios and Fitzgerald 2018)-based approaches
(Gubbi et al. 2013; Zanella et al. 2014), field-level instrumentation has dramatically changed over the last
decade.
Although spectrometers are routinely used in material analysis today, they have been more suited to
controlled laboratory environments (Nelson 2019). Several factors are responsible for this trend including the
cost of the instrument, need for an expert for interpretation, need for sample preparation, noise from ambient
light sources, and sensitivity to ambient conditions, among others. Among all the different spectral ranges for
spectrometers, from ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), near infrared (NIR), shortwave infrared (SWIR), mid-infrared
(MIR) and far infrared (FIR), the most successful field deployments have been possible for the UV–Vis
instruments. By far, instrumentation costs have limited the use of other optical spectrometers. Silicon (Si)-based
sensors and devices are low-cost, while those based on Germanium (Ge) and Indium–Gallium–Arsenide
(InGaAs) are expensive, and do not scale as well as Si. As a result, linear or image (2D) sensors based on these
detectors are not field-compatible due to much higher costs. Hence, innovative single-detector approaches have
been the focus of recent developments (Gelabert et al. 2016), although the principles behind these techniques
(e.g. Hadamard transform) have been known for many years. Due to these constraints, UV–Vis spectrometers
have been more successfully demonstrated in portable configurations, although for a limited range of
applications, such as water quality analysis (Langergraber et al. 2004).
In this chapter, the basic instrumentation configurations for portable UV–Vis spectrometers will be
introduced. This will be followed by an in-depth review of various approaches for achieving spectral acquisition
from digital micromirror devices (DMD) to do-it-yourself (DIY) approaches for teaching or hobby to
smartphone spectrometers. Finally, some applications and challenges of portable UV–Vis spectrometers will
be discussed, followed by challenges and future prospects.
Portable Spectroscopy and Spectrometry 1: Technologies and Instrumentation, First Edition.

Edited by Richard A. Crocombe, Pauline E. Leary and Brooke W. Kammrath.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 8 Portable UV–Visible Spectroscopy – Instrumentation, Technology, and Applications
8.2 Typical Instrumentation of a Portable UV–Vis Spectrometer
Although technically the UV–Vis spectrum spans from around 190–800 nm, most spectrometers will offer a
higher wavelength limit up to 1100 nm. This is because Si has an appreciable responsivity into the NIR region
(Pavesi et al. 2013). However, most common spectrometer configurations will not operate over this entire
wavelength range. There is generally a tradeoff between spectral bandwidth and wavelength resolution. So,
manufacturers will offer spectral ranges that are a subset of 190–1100 nm. Additionally, there are no light
sources that have such a broad emission spectrum. Generally, a combination of two or more light sources is
needed to achieve coverage from 190 to 1100 nm. Finally, most applications typically do not require their entire
bandwidth along with a high resolution. Due to these factors, spectrometers operate in limited spectral
bandwidths within the entire UV–Vis–NIR spectrum.
8.2.1 Basic Configuration of UV–Vis Spectrometers

A UV–Vis spectrometer, like most other spectrometer technologies (James 2007), comprises a broadband light
source, a dispersing element like a prism or grating, slits and a detector (Ball 2006; Milton et al. 2009), as
shown in Figure 8.1. Depending on the arrangement, the detector could be a point detector or a linear array.
Incident light is either focused or directed through a narrow slit on to the dispersing element, which spatially
separates the spectral components. These components are either directly collected at a detector or pass through
the test sample before being received at the detector. Depending on the instrumentation, the spectrum could be
captured sequentially by rotating the dispersing element or using a linear detector array.
8.2.2 Light Sources

Traditionally, Deuterium lamps are used as the excitation source in the UV spectrum with an emission in the
range of 190–400 nm. Xenon (Xe) lamps are also used in the 200–1000 nm range, sometimes in fiash mode, as
opposed to continuous mode, but they have intense peaks in the NIR region. More recently, a range of UV light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) have also been used although with lower bandwidths. Tungsten lamps are by far the
most common Vis–NIR sources with emissions in the 350–2500 nm. Again, broadband Vis LEDs are also available
with various phosphors to extend emission bandwidths. Although Tungsten and Xe lamps require cooling in
order to dissipate excess heat, they can be made quite compact and designed for portable spectrometers. A
comparison of emission spectra of various sources is shown in Figure 8.2.
Collimator
(lens) Wavelength selector Detector
(slit) (photocell)
0.20
Io It
Digital display
Light source Polychromator Sample or meter
(Prism or grating) solution
(in cuvette)
Figure 8.1 Typical spectrometer instrumentation.

8.2 Typical Instrumentation of a Portable UV–Vis Spectrometer
102
150 W Halogen
450 W Xe
Spectral irradiance at 0.5m (mw m−2 nm−1)
101
75W Xe UV
100 W Halogen 150 W Xe UV
100
30 W D2
150 W Xe
150 W Xe OFR
10−1 75 W Xe
75 W Xe OFR
200
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 8.2 Spectra of common UV–Vis light sources. Source: Spectroscopy Instruments Catalog, Zolix. © Zolix Instruments
Co.,Ltd.
8.2.3 Dispersing Elements

Although early designs of spectrometers involved prisms, most modern configurations have gratings (James
2007; Loewen and Popov 2018). Compared to prisms, gratings are lighter, more compact and offer fiexibility in
terms of resolution, size and bandwidth. Typically, ruled gratings are used in spectrometers with high diffraction
efficiency, customizable coatings and a choice of blaze parameters. A typical diffraction grating is shown in
Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 Gratings as dispersing elements. Source: Photo courtesy of Newport

Corporation.
182 8 Portable UV–Visible Spectroscopy – Instrumentation, Technology, and
Recently, there have been demonstrations of spectrometers without a traditional dispersing element. Config-
urations involving a miniature 2D sensor with suitable filters over each pixel have shown limited applicability
due to low spectral resolution (Oliver et al. 2013). However, they offer a simpler approach to achieve
wavelength separation and may find niche applications.
In many benchtop configurations, these gratings are mounted on precision rotation stages for wavelength
selection. Although this approach offers very high spectral resolution, it is complex to implement and sensitive
to vibrations. Therefore, they are not generally suited for portable spectrometers. There are two most commonly
used grating mount configurations. One is a Czerny–Turner configuration, where a plane grating is used with
two concave mirrors. Light is incident from an entrance slit on to one of the concave mirrors that collimates the
beam on to the grating. The diffracted light from the grating is focused by the second concave mirror on to the
detector. The other is an aberration-compensated Paschen mount configuration, where the grating is etched on a
concave surface that acts as a dispersing and focusing element, as shown in Figure 8.15. The Paschen
configuration has fewer optical components and can be monolithically integrated on a chip. However, such
gratings are challenging to fabricate and less fiexible to employ.
8.2.4 Detectors
Almost all spectrometers that operate in the UV–Vis region have Si detectors (Acree 2006). Si has an excellent
responsivity over the entire UV–Vis–NIR range; and it is readily available and customizable into regular
photode- tectors, avalanche detector or photomultiplier tubes, depending on the sensitivity required. Most
portable UV–Vis spectrometers today use diode arrays in the complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) or charge coupled device (CCD) configurations and can have several thousands of pixels for high-
resolution applications, as shown in Figure 8.4. These arrays are compact with fast readout times and can have
inbuilt high-resolution analog-to-digital (A/D) converters.
8.2.5 Interfaces, Displays, and Data Storage

Depending on the application, benchtop and portable spectrometers can have their own display. Although
several general-purpose spectrometers may require a desktop computer, there are scenarios where some amount
of computing is done on the spectrometer itself and results are displayed on a built-in display unit. There is a
range of portable spectrometers that require universal serial bus (USB) interfaces and work with laptops or
desktop com- puters, while others have wireless capabilities to transmit data to a Bluetooth- or Wi-Fi-enabled
device. Hence, a
Figure 8.4 Photodiode arrays used in portable UV–Vis spectrometers. Source: Photo courtesy of Hamamatsu Photonics.
8.3 Measurement Configurations
(a) (b)
Figure 8.5 (a) Standalone spectrometer with display. Source: Permission from Sekonic. (b) Typical USB-type spectrometer.
Source: USB4000 Fiber Optic Spectrometer, Ocean Optics. © 2006 Ocean Optics, Inc.
distinction can be made that portability always does not imply field compatibility. Several popular
spectrometers like the one shown in Figure 8.5, do offer portability but their interface is USB-based, which
means they require an external laptop or desktop computer to visualize and process data. This does not support
standalone operation and is generally suited to lab-based studies. Standalone spectrometers with inbuilt displays
have local data storage and can have secure digital (SD) cards or USB storage capability for portability of data.
8.2.6 Other Instrumentations

In addition to the basic instrumentation, portable spectrometers have circuitry to convert incident analog signals
into digital signals for storage and postprocessing. A/D converters are usually present on the spectrometer board
itself along with microcontrollers, buffers, and other control circuits. If some computing is done locally on the
spectrometer, additional circuitry involving field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) could be present as well.
Finally, data transfer circuitry in the form of USB, local area network (LAN), or Bayonet Neill–Concelman
(BNC) ports may be found on spectrometers. In wireless devices, transmitting and receiving antennae will
be present.

A spectrometer is always used in a specific configuration depending on the sample state (solid, liquid, or gas),
material interaction, and type of assay among other factors. For instance, liquid samples are typically examined
using a transmission or absorption arrangement where the illuminating light source and detector are on either
side of the sample. A few common illumination-collection geometries are presented in this section.
8.3.1 Reflection
In a refiection arrangement, the light source and detector are on the same side of the sample that is being exam-
ined. Upon illumination, the sample refiects certain wavelengths, which are collected by the detector.
Depending
Input end Figure 8.6 Typical setup for reflection spectroscopy using
optical fibers. Creative Commons license. Source: Edwards
et al. (2017). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Sample end
Scanning...
Collection end
on the sample surface, there can be diffuse and/or specular components. In some cases, an integrating sphere
may be required to capture both the diffuse and specular components simultaneously. Figure 8.6 shows a typical
refiection arrangement using optical fibers. A fiber bundle with six illuminations and one centrally placed
collection fiber is used as the probe. The sample is illuminated by the six fibers on the periphery and the
refiected light is guided to the spectrometer using a splitter arrangement. This is a common refiection
configuration in portable spectrometers and the use of optical fibers minimizes any alignment issues. A similar
setup can be realized in a free-space arrangement without optical fibers.
This configuration is most commonly used for color-sensing applications, where the refiection spectrum of a
sample needs to be determined. Color measurements are used across several industries to characterize and stan-
dardize paints, pigments, and displays among others. Section 8.5 will discuss specific examples in color
sensing.
8.3.2 Absorption
In an absorption measurement setup, the light source and detector are on either side of the sample, as shown in
Figure 8.7. Light first passes through a reference, which is typically a nonabsorbing material like distilled water.
The reference transmission spectrum is captured and saved. Next, the sample is introduced and another trans-
mission spectrum is recorded. By assuming that there are no other interactions like scattering or refiection, the
absorption spectrum can be deduced from the transmission spectrum by applying Beer–Lambert’s law.
Benchtop spectrometers generally have a double beam configuration for measuring absorption, wherein the
reference and sample measurements can be done simultaneously. However, in portable spectrometers, those are
not feasible, and measurements for the reference and sample need to be done sequentially. In such cases,
fiuctuations in the light source limit the sensitivity of detection. An example of a portable absorption
spectrometer is shown in Figure 8.7b.
8.3.3 Fluorescence
Another common configuration that is especially seen in biomedical applications involves detecting
fiuorescence (Lakowicz 2006). Depending on the use case and sample state, there are several geometries for
detecting fiuorescence from thin films, solutions, droplets to powders among others. Typically, a narrowband
source is used for exciting the fiuorophore and the wavelength of the source chosen such that it coincides with
an absorption maxi- mum of the fiuorophore. In most cases, laser sources are used to obtain suitable signal
strength, but high-intensity LEDs have also been used in recent implementations. On the detector side, longpass
filters are generally used to reject the excitation wavelength and only transmit the fiuorescence signal
comprising longer wavelengths. This is a versatile configuration where the source and detector can be arranged
in absorption or refiection-like geometries.
Reference measurement
Reference
Intens
Sample/reference
Transmissi
Wavelength
Broadband Empty Spectrometer

light source cuvette Wavelength
−log10(Sample/Reference)
Sample measurement
Sample
Absorban
Intens
Wavelength
Wavelength
Broadband
light source Cuvette Spectrometer
sample
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.7 (a) Absorption spectroscopy setup. Source: Permission from Ibsen Photonics. (b) Example of a portable
absorption spectrometer. Source: Permission from PASCO.
In applications where the fiuorophore has a weak fiuorescence or exists in low concentrations, additional focus-
ing optics are employed to increase the signal collected by the spectrometer. This geometry is routinely used in
confocal microscopy where a spectrometer is coupled to the microscopy objective and fiuorescence spectra are
captured at each point as a raster scan is carried out. However, in portable fiuorescence measurement configura-
tions, optical fibers are typically used to minimize alignment errors. In some cases, a custom sample holder has
been designed to house the filters and other optical components, as shown in Figure 8.8. Yu et al. demonstrated
a smartphone-based spectrometer, where the fiuorescence signal was incident on a grating placed at the camera
of the smartphone that played the role of a detector (Yu et al. 2014). The image captured by the camera could be
calibrated with known sources and a spectrum could be extracted based on that.
Although a spectrum can be obtained using the geometry shown in Figure 8.8, that is only the first step
toward a usable device. Several questions need to be addressed regarding the stability of the wavelength
calibration, the
(a) (b)
f1 = 40 mm
f2 = 50 mm
Test sample
Focusing lens Collecting lens
Green laser pointer Optical fiber
(c)
Diffraction grating (1200 lines/mm) Smartphone camera (Lens and CMOS sensor)
Cylindrical lens (f4 = 50 mm)

Holder
Collimator (f3 = 75 mm)
Pinhole (d = 1 mm)
Cradle
Fluorescence
(d) (e)
200
150
Intensity
100
50
0
Broadband lightRed and green lasers 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 8.8 Smartphone-based portable fluorescence spectrometer arrangement. Source: Yu et al. (2014). © 2014 American
Chemical Society.
8.4 Types of Instrumentation Used in UV–Vis Spectroscopy
linearity of the response, effect of background noise, and summing of adjacent pixels. Without a complete
under- standing of the device performance and limitations, developing applications, particularly in the
biomedical field can lead to low sensitivity and specificity of tests. Section 8.6 discusses some of the parameters
to keep in mind when developing applications based on such spectrometer configurations.

Due to the need for robust field operation and cost constraints, several innovative designs have been
demonstrated in portable UV–Vis spectrometers. Some of these are unique to portable spectrometers with
marked differences compared to traditional spectrometer instrumentation. In general, the bulk of the
instrumentation is focused on accurately converting an incident light signal into its spectral components. Light
sources, guiding optics, A/D conversion and other peripheral electronic components are straightforward to
implement. The process of reli- ably dispersing the incident light signal, capturing it with low noise and then
converting it to a calibrated optical spectrum is a challenging aspect of spectrometer instrumentation. The
accuracy of this process determines the eventual possible applications. For instance, a robust implementation
allows for use of such devices in highly sensitive biomedical applications, whereas a basic lower quality version
would be good for teaching purposes.
In this section, various approaches for achieving light dispersion and subsequent conversion to the light spec-
trum will be introduced.
8.4.1 Grating with Linear Detector Array

This approach can be considered as a compressed version of a traditional benchtop spectrometer. Almost all the
instrumentation is identical except for a reduction in component size and distances involved. A diffraction
grating is used to spatially disperse the incident light signal and a suitably placed linear detector array
simultaneously captures its constituent spectral components, as shown in Figure 8.9a. Typically, the linear array
is comprised of 2n (n = 8,9,10,11,12…) CCD or CMOS pixels. The grating density, size, and the number of pixels
determine the wavelength resolution of the spectrometer. Additionally, the input aperture diameter, optical
magnification, and aberrations can affect the final spectral resolution. These spectrometers are also called array
or grating spectrometers due to the instrumentation type, as shown earlier in Figure 8.5.
8.4.2 Digital Micromirror Devices

A major drawback of linear array-based spectrometers is the need for a sensor with multiple pixels or detectors.
Typically, to achieve a wavelength resolution of around 1 nm or lower, 4096 pixels may be required. This is not
a problem for Si-based detectors as image sensors in consumer cameras generally have a comparable number of
pixels. However, if the detector is made from other materials like InGaAs or Ge in the case of NIR
spectrometers, the cost of the device increases significantly. In such cases, single detector arrangements are
desirable. An alternate approach involves using Fourier transform (FT)-based techniques. Although FT
spectrometers are quite popular, they have some drawbacks. For instance, they do not directly measure spectra,
but obtain interferograms, which need to be transformed into spectra by postprocessing. This enforces a higher
requirement for computing power. In 2003, Spudich et al. came up with an innovative approach that eliminates
linear arrays and addresses the drawbacks of FT-based systems (Spudich et al. 2003). They introduce a digital
micromirror array where the orientation of the mirror can be digitally controlled. After a grating splits the
incident light into the spectral components, each micromirror sequentially refiects light on to a single detector,
almost behaving like a rotating grating. A spectrum can be generated after all the micromirrors have refiected
their respective spectral components. Since these mirrors have a size of 10 μm and a pitch of about 5.4 μm, they
can be operated at microsecond-switching speeds.
Broadband
Broadband light
light Colluminating
Colluminating lens
lens
Diffraction
Diffraction grating
grating
Slit
Slit
Focusing
Focusing lens
lens
Single Point
DLP InGaAs detector
Detector:
InGaAs micromirror array ADC
linear array (wavelength selector)
Collection
lens
Traditional linear array DLP based

detector based spectrometer spectrometer
(a) (b)
Figure 8.9 (a) Traditional array-based spectrometer. (b) Micromirror-based spectrometer. Source: © Texas Instruments.
This allows for fast acquisition of spectra with minimal postprocessing requirements, based on a Hadamard
transform. Recently, Texas Instruments (TI) commercialized micromirror-based spectrometers using their
digital light projector (DLP) technology (Gelabert et al. 2016), as shown in Figure 8.9b. Figure 8.10 shows a
micromirror-based spectrometer using the DLP2010NIR module, which can operate from 700 to 2000 nm.
8.4.3 2D Filter Array-Based Devices

For grating-type spectrometers to be effective, there has to be a gap introduced between the grating and the
linear detector array. A larger gap allows for better spatial separation of wavelengths, which results in higher
resolution. Due to this inherent requirement, conventional grating-type spectrometers cannot be made into
miniature chip-like devices unless monolithic fabrication is carried out. As a result, these portable grating-based
spectrometers often have dimensions in the tens of centimeters. There are applications that require
ultracompact spectrometers, where resolution can be traded for size. For instance, in space applications, there
is a need for lightweight and compact sensors. In such scenarios, spectrometers fabricated with grating-free
elements, such as filter arrays are more suitable (Oliver et al. 2013). In this approach, a filter array with varying
transmission spectra is placed over a CCD image sensor, as shown in Figure 8.11a.
In this arrangement, the filters have a selective transmission spectrum that exclusively allows a narrow wave-
length band. By designing several filters that cover a given spectral region, a spectrum can be reconstructed by
analyzing the intensities obtained at individual pixels of the CCD. Wang et al. demonstrated a 128-channel filter
array-based spectrometer with dimensions of 12 mm × 12 mm × 5 mm, giving rise to a volume of 1 cm3 (Wang
et al. 2007). Although this technique yields extremely compact spectrometers, fabricating a 128-channel filter
array with each pixel having a different transmission pattern is quite tedious.
On similar lines, quantum dots (QDs) have also been used as filters due to ease of manufacturing. Chemical
approaches can be used to alter the transmission properties of QDs and create the desired filter array. Bao and
Bawendi demonstrated a QD spectrometer (Bao and Bawendi 2015) comprising a filter with 195 unique QDs,
as shown in Figure 8.12.
Focusing lensesInGaAs detector
Collection lenses
Grating
DLP2010NIR
885 nm wavepass filter
Collimating lenses
Slit
Figure 8.10 Micromirror-based spectrometer developed by Texas Instruments. Source: Texas Instruments Incorporated.
Light source
Light Object of interest Filter array
Filter array
CCD array
Smart phone with digital signal processing chip
C CD
Analog to digital converter
Raw spectrum, y
(a) (b)
Figure 8.11 (a) Filter array-based portable spectrometers. Source: Wang et al. (2007). © 2007 The Optical Society (b) Filter
array with the random transmission. Source: Oliver et al. (2013). © 2013 The Optical Society.
Even though this approach is promising for realizing ultracompact spectrometers, most demonstrations have
been shown in laboratories. There is one commercial instance of a spectrometer based on this approach called
SCiO (SCiO n.d.). This product uses 12 filters in an array and operates from 700 to 1100 nm. Limited studies have
shown reasonable prediction accuracy for measuring fat and moisture using this approach.
8.4.4 Smartphone Camera-Based Approaches

In recent years, due to the ease of accessibility, high computational power and high-resolution cameras of smart-
phones, several groups have utilized smartphones as the central detection and computation module. This
approach
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 8.12 Quantum dot spectrometer. (a) Schematic and (b) detailed configuration. Source: Bao and Bawendi (2015).
© 2015 Springer Nature.
eliminates the need for components, like displays, A/D converters, and other peripheral communication circuitry
(Long et al. 2014; McGonigle et al. 2018). An external battery-powered light source can be used with a grating
directly in line with the smartphone camera, as shown in Figure 8.13. A test sample is introduced in this path
and the spatially dispersed light is captured on the smartphone camera (de Oliveira et al. 2017). By accessing
the raw optical data, the effect of Bayer color filters can be suppressed. Finally, using light sources with known
wavelengths, a calibration can be set up.
This approach offers a cost-effective way to realize spectrometers without designing displays and other
electronic components. However, not many commercial spectrometers based on this approach have reached the
market, except for some do-it-yourself (DIY) kits that will be introduced in the next subsection. The technical
details of smartphone-based spectrometers are described in the chapter in this Volume by Scheeline, and the
field clinical applications in the chapter by Algar in Volume 2.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(5.5 cm) (8 cm) (14 cm)
(2.5
(3
(3
(9 cm)
Battery
Battery
(9 cm)
(f)
Figure 8.13 Spectrometer design utilizing the camera of a smartphone as the detector. Source: Permission from Oliviera
et al. (2017). © 2017 Elsevier.
8.4.5 “DIY” Approaches

The emergence of rapid prototyping using 3D printers, laser cutters, and computer numerical control (CNC)
machines has also ushered in DIY approaches for building spectrometers from readily available and inexpensive
components (Hopkins 2014; Scheeline and Kelley 2013). For instance, Public Lab offers spectrometer kits for under
$10 consisting of a laser-cut cardboard attachment housing a DVD fragment that serves as the grating, as shown
in Figure 8.14a. This attachment can be aligned with the camera of a smartphone to observe spectra using any
camera app. This approach offers a great way to introduce spectroscopy into a teaching curriculum without the
need for expensive spectrometers. Since these devices are suitable for education and hobby activities, they have
(a) (b)
Figure 8.14 DIY Spectrometer Kits. (a) Attachment for a smartphone. (b) Complete assembly. Source: Permission from
Jeffrey Yoo Warren and Public Lab.
High-sensitivity
CMOS linear image Incident light
sensor with slit
Input slit
Hollow
Reflective concave blazed

grating Grating chip
KACCC0757EB
(a) (b)
Figure 8.15 (a) Architecture of MEMS-based spectrometer. Source: Structure/Technology | Mini-spectrometers, Hamamatsu.
© Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. (b) Line of micro-spectrometers from Hamamatsu Photonics. Source: Photo courtesy
of Hamamatsu Photonics.
limited applicability in scenarios that require high sensitivity and robust operation. In one instance, a webcam
was modified with fiber optic cables to perform the action of an n-channel spectrometer (Sumriddetchkajorn
and Intaravanne 2012).
8.4.6 Compact Chip-Based Spectrometers

With the advent of advanced lithographic techniques for fabricating nanostructures, it is becoming possible
to integrate optical assemblies at a chip level. For instance, Hamamatsu Photonics (Shibayama and Suzuki
2008) introduced a microspectrometer chip that had a blazed grating and CMOS linear sensor integrated into
a single chip, as shown in Figure 8.15a. The spectrometer chip was fabricated using techniques commonly
used in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) manufacturing. These chips only weigh about 5 g, have a
wavelength resolution around 10–15 nm, and can operate from 340 to 840 nm. Recently, an SMD spectrometer
chip (Figure 8.15b) was introduced that is designed to operate in the 640–1050 nm range and has a weight of 0.3
g, thereby making it suitable for applications where lightweight sensors are desirable.
8.4.7 Standalone Smartphone Spectrometers

Smartphone-based spectrometers could be defined as devices where a significant process of the spectral
conversion and postprocessing is carried out in a smartphone. This could be either using the phone’s camera as
an image sensor or capturing wireless spectral data followed by postprocessing on the phone through an app.
Most examples introduced in previous sections used the camera of a smartphone and postprocessing to obtain a
spectrum. In this subsection, some examples of standalone smartphone spectrometers are presented. Here, the
spectrometer does not use the smartphone camera but has an inbuilt detector along with dispersing elements and
other circuitry (Das et al. 2016). Most commonly, data captured from the sensor is transmitted using a wireless
communication framework.
Bluetooth antenna and transmit/receive (Tx/Rx) protocols have been used in most such devices. An app on
the smartphone is able to control the operation of the spectrometer, trigger data capture and Rx/Tx operations.
Das et al. (2016) demonstrated a high-performance smartphone spectrometer design that used the Hamamatsu
microspectrometer chip, as shown in Figure 8.16. They designed and fabricated all the wireless and control
8.5 Applications
Light switch Filter

(a)
Rechargeable bettery
LED
Power switch
Spectrometer chip
Arduino pro mini
(b) Bluetooth module

Filter (d)
(c)
LED
Figure 8.16 Components involved in a standalone smartphone spectrometer developed by Labby Inc. Source: Das et al.
(2016). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
circuitry along with a customized smartphone app that could calibrate and process the data on the phone itself.
This configuration is advantageous for remote operation where the smartphone needs to be at a distance from
the spectrometer. Bluetooth antenna can communicate with the smartphone at a distance of up to 9–12 m for
classic chips and beyond 100 m for low-energy chips. Additionally, it can work with any smartphone that has
the app installed, without having to deal with specific camera configurations. However, they are more expensive
mainly due to the chip.
8.5 Applications
In this section, various applications of portable UV–Vis spectrometers will be discussed.
8.5.1 Color Sensing

By far, the most common use of portable UV–Vis spectrometers is in color sensing (Giusti and Wrolstad 2001). The
ability to quantifying color characteristics in terms of RGB, Lab, XYZ, ΔE (color difference), and other metrics
is central to several industries. Color matching is an important process for selecting paints in virtually any
application that uses them. Portable color sensors are routinely used for color selection and matching in
dentistry (Brewer et al. 2004; Sproull 1973), automotive (Streitberger and Dössel 2008), displays (Streitberger and
Dössel 2008), food and
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 8.17 Some portable color-sensing spectrometers. (a) Hach DR900. Source: Courtesy of Hach. (b) HunterLab Miniscan
EZ 4500L. Source: Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc. (c) Nix QC. Source: NIX SENSOR, LTD. (d) X-Rite eXact. Source: X-Rite,
Incorporated.
beverage (Giusti and Wrolstad 2001), anthocyanins (Giusti and Wrolstad 2001), and textile (Berns 1992; Zhang and
Li 2008) industries among many others. Spectrometers are used to obtain a calibrated refiection spectrum which
is the first step in color measurement. Depending on the illuminant and International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) color space, a refiection spectrum can be transformed to RGB, Lab, cyan, magenta, yellow, and
key (CMYK), and other systems. Notable examples of portable color sensors are X-Rite, HunterLab, Nix, and
Hach, as shown in Figure 8.17. Some color sensors, based on discrete filter sensors, are the size of a lipstick and
can cost as low as
$59.
In addition to color systems like RGB and Lab, industrial applications have their own standards for quality
control of oils, lubricants, beer, wine, etc. For instance, ASTM D1500D and D6045 are color-based methods for
quantifying oil quality. ASBC 10 (standard reference method, SRM) is a standard for measuring beer color,
whereas OIV-MA-AS2-07B is a standard for wine color (tone and intensity) using spectrophotometric methods
(Streitberger and Dössel 2008).
8.5.2 Life Science Assays

Portable UV–Vis spectrometers have shown great potential in point-of-care (POC)-based assays, especially in
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Thiha and Ibrahim 2015). Most implementations of ELISA use
either fiuorescence or absorption spectroscopy in the UV–Vis spectrum, which makes UV–Vis spectrometers
ideal for such applications (Schmid 2001). Long et al. demonstrated a smartphone-phone spectrometer-based
ELISA for detecting peanut allergens (Long et al. 2014). They used the camera of the smartphone as the
detector, earlier
8.5 Applications
1 Peaunt allergen ara h1

concentration
20 ppm
0.8
10 ppm
5 ppm
0.6 2.5 ppm 0 ppm
Absorbance
Absorbance at 450
0.4
Optical cradle
0.2
0
400 450 500 550
Wavelength (nm)
(a) (b)
Figure 8.18 (a) Smartphone spectrometer arrangement for ELISA. (b) Absorption spectra correlated to peanut allergen.
Source: Long et al. (2014). © 2014 Optical Society of America.
described in Section 8.4.4. A schematic of their setup is shown in Figure 8.18a along with the absorption spectra
in Figure 8.18b.
Nucleic acids like deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) have a characteristic absorption
peak at around 260 nm, which can be used to detect and quantify their concentration (Desjardins and Conklin
2010). Additionally, proteins have an absorption centered at around 280 nm. Portable UV spectrometers are
well-suited for these applications. For instance, the NanoDropTM is a portable spectrophotometer that only
intakes 1–2 μl of a sample and can analyze absorption or fiuorescence spectra to detect concentrations of
nucleic acids and proteins. Figure 8.19a shows the NanoDrop One/OneC spectrophotometer manufactured by
Thermo Fisher. Another small-volume spectrometer is the UV5Nano from Mettler Toledo, as shown in Figure
8.19b.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.19 (a) NanoDrop One/OneC spectrophotometer. Source: Permission from Thermo Fisher. (b) UV5Nano small
volume spectrometer. Source: METTLER TOLEDO.
Figure 8.20 Smartphone-based fluorescence spectrometer for the screening of skin disease. Source: Poojary et al. (2019).
8.5.3 Biomedical Applications

Several molecules that constitute blood, urine, and skin have absorption or fiuorescence in the UV–Vis
spectrum. As a result, spectrometers operating in this spectral region can be used for not only detecting
concentrations of chromophores like hemoglobin (Edwards et al. 2017), but also screen for any disease or
abnormalities in a POC setting (Das et al. 2015). Wahi et al. (2018) demonstrated a smartphone spectrometer
to excite fiuorophores in the skin, such as collagen and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) plus
hydrogen (H)) with 385 nm UV-A light for diagnostic applications. Poojary et al. (2019) used a portable
smartphone spectrometer to screen for skin diseases like vitiligo by observing UV fiuorescence, as shown in Figure
8.20. Their device was effective in detecting hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation in the skin with the
advantage of tracking variations over time. This could be useful in monitoring treatments of patients who are
receiving different medications and determining efficacies (Figure 8.21).
Edwards et al. demonstrated a Grating-Fresnel (G-Fresnel) spectrometer design that could measure
hemoglobin concentration from diffuse refiectance spectra from tissue phantoms (Edwards et al. 2017). They
obtained errors under 10% for hemoglobin concentration, which establishes the efficacy of these devices for
POC settings. In another study, Maity et al. developed a portable spectrometer for detecting malaria in blood
samples (Maity et al. 2019). Thiha et al. demonstrated a portable absorption spectroscopy-based ELISA reader
for diagnosing dengue fever (Maity et al. 2019). Although only a few of these devices have made it to the
market, these studies point to the potential of the portable spectrometer for biomedical applications.
8.5.4 Water Testing

An established application of portable UV–Vis spectrometers has been in water quality testing, with several
products available today in the market. Water quality analysis plays an important role in the individual- and
community-level health. There is always a threat for water contamination from various sources, such as
industrial waste, sewage (Langergraber et al. 2004), agricultural pollution among others. In such scenarios, a
portable device can prove crucial for testing water quality from reservoirs and other sources. For instance,
measuring the absorption spectrum of water can detect several colored materials like dyes (Antonov et al. 1999;
Özdemir et al. 2017). Additionally, reagents can be used to bring about some kind of contrast to improve the
detectability of trace or nonabsorbing contaminants. The Hach DR3900 is an excellent example of a portable
water quality tester that has been used for detecting a host of contaminants, such as chromium, ammonium, and
phosphorus, among others, as shown in Figure 8.22.
8.5 Applications
(a) G-Fresnel (b)

Spatial Slit Camera
Optical fibre
400 600 800 1000

cross section Wavelength (mm)
(c) 1
0.8
4.8 mm
4.4 mm
0.6
Intensity
5.1 mm
0.4
6 nm
0.2
0
400 500 600 700 800 900
wavelength (nm)
Figure 8.21 G-Fresnel spectrometer for detecting hemoglobin concentration. Source: Edwards et al. (2017). Licensed under
CC BY 4.0.
Figure 8.22 Hach DR3900 spectrophotometer for water quality analysis. Source: Courtesy of Hach.
0.25 mm0.5 mm1.0 mm (b)

(a)
1.0Spectrometer
0.25 mm fiber
0.5 mm fiber
1.0 mm fiber
0.6
H
0.2
400 500 600

700
Wavelength (nm)
(c)
Figure 8.23 Smartphone spectrometer for detecting methylene blue in the water. (a) Smartphone spectrometer prototype
with an optical fiber coupled to the camera flash. (b) Images of light output from the fibers. (c) Spectra corresponding to the
fibers compared with a standard spectrometer. Source: Özdemir et al. (2017). © 2017 Royal Society of Chemistry
In a recent study, Özdemir et al. (2017) demonstrated a smartphone spectrometer for detecting dyes like
methylene blue by adsorbing dye molecules on polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/zeolite nanofibers, as shown in Figure
8.23. In another example, Wang et al. used a DVD grating-based smartphone spectrometer to detect neurotoxins
in water (Wang et al. 2016).
8.5.5 Food and Beverage Applications

By far the most commonly researched application of portable spectrometers is in the space of food and beverage
quality analysis. They have been used for a range of applications, such as detecting ripeness (Das et al. 2016),
composition, chlorophyll content (Maxwell and Johnson 2000; Porra et al. 1989), anthocyanins (Boulton 2001;
Giusti and Wrolstad 2001; Gupta et al. 2018), phenols (Acevedo et al. 2007; Martelo–Vidal and Vázquez 2014), and
meat freshness (Boulton 2001; Giusti and Wrolstad 2001; Gupta et al. 2018), among others. This is attributed to
the fact that fruits, vegetables, cheese, meats, and seafood all contain components that absorb, refiect, or
fiuoresce under UV–Vis light. Many of these components also change as foods age, and, hence, can be good
indicators of ripeness or freshness. For instance, Das et al. (2016) developed a portable smartphone
spectrometer that utilized a longitudinal variation of chlorophyll fiuorescence to determine the ripeness of a
variety of apples, as shown in Figure 8.24.
8.5 Applications
(a) (b) (d)
(c)
(e)
Figure 8.24 Smartphone spectrometer for detecting ripeness of apples using chlorophyll fluorescence. Source: Permission
from Das et al. (2016).
Figure 8.25 Linksquare smartphone spectrometer being used in fruit freshness analysis. Source: Permission from
Linksquare and You et al. (2017).
In this application space, there are a few commercial portable Vis spectrometers out in the market, such as
Linksquare, which have shown some success in classifying food and detecting freshness, as shown in Figure
8.25a. You et al. (2017) used the Linksquare spectrometer to classify identical-looking food powders, like sugar,
salt, rice, etc., using refiection spectroscopy, as shown in Figure 8.25b. They used machine learning algorithms
for classification and achieved near 100% accuracy for eight different types of food powders.
In another report, Cai et al. (2017) demonstrated pencil-like spectrometer using a prism-grating configuration
with an image sensor, as shown in Figure 8.26a. The spectrometer operated in the 400–675 nm region with a
(a) (b) (c) ×104

300 4 547
547581
Pixel index axis
250 437
3
200 598
2 nd
order diffraction 407 406
Intensity
Intensity
150 620 2
1st order diffraction
437 579
620
th
100 1
0 order diffraction
50 596
0
400 450 500 550 600 650 400 450 500 550 600 650
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
(a)
(a)
1 (b)
1
0.8
0.6 Reflectance
0.8
Reflectance
0.4
0.6
0.2
0
500 550 600 650 0.4
500 550 600 650
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)
(c)
1 0.35 (d) 0.58
1
Reflectance
Reflectance
0.56
0.8 0.54
0.3 0.8
530 540 550 530 540 550
Reflectance

Reflectance
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0
542 nm 0
500 550 600 650 500 550 600 650
(b)
Figure 8.26 Top. Panel A, Pencil-like smartphone spectrometer. Panel B, Mercury lamp spectrum captured by the pencil
spectrometer. Panel C, Mercury lamp spectrum obtained using a commercial spectrometer. Bottom. Panel A, Reflectance
spectrum of unripe banana. Panel B, Reflectance spectrum of ripe banana. Panel C, Reflection spectrum of pork muscle. Panel
D, Reflection spectrum of pork fat. Source: Cai et al. (2017). © 2017 Optical Society of America.
resolution of 17 nm. The spectrometer was used for several applications including detecting ripeness of bananas
and freshness of pork, as shown in Figure 8.26b.
8.5.6 Geosensing Applications

Spectroscopy has been a powerful technique for atmospheric and environmental remote sensing. In recent years,
portable spectrometers have been increasingly used in volcanology, aerosol sensing, and detection of
atmospheric
8.5 Applications
Entrance slit Polarization optics Collimator lens Transmission grating
¼λ
pol. 2×4λ Camera lens Detector chip
Figure 8.27 Smartphone spectropolarimeter for sensing atmospheric aerosols. Source: Snik et al. (2014). © 2014 John
Wiley & Sons
gases, like SO2, among other applications. For instance, Snik et al. (2014) demonstrated a smartphone
spectropolarimeter for aerosol mapping, which measured the degree of linear polarization as a function of
wavelength, as shown in Figure 8.27. They designed a low-cost add-on comprising polarizers and a
transmission grating, which was attached to the camera of the smartphone. Using this miniature arrangement,
multiple (over 3000) measurements could be conveniently made by “citizen spectroscopists.” Reasonable
agreement between ground-based spectrometers was observed, which establishes the potential of portable
spectrometers for aerosol sensing.
Galle et al. (2003) developed a portable UV spectrometer for sensing SO 2 emissions for applications in vol-
canic surveillance. The spectrometer had a Czerny–Turner configuration and operated in the 245–380 nm
spectral range for achieving differential optical absorption. A telescope was used to capture the scattered UV
light from aerosols, which was then coupled to the spectrometer using an optical fiber cable, as shown in Figure
8.28a. The telescope-spectrometer arrangement could be mounted on a car, a helicopter, or a tripod, such that
measurements
USB output to laptop computer Incoming

sunlight
Linear CCD
array
Plane grating Lens 1

50 micron Lens 2
slit DOAS
telescope Optical fibre
Telescope
Optical fibre
Collimating mirrorCurved mirror
Figure 8.28 Portable UV spectrometer for SO2 detecting during volcanic eruptions. (a) Spectrometer design. (b) Field
implementation. Source: Permission from Galle et al.
Figure 8.29 Ocean Optics STS spectrometer mounted on a drone. Source: Ocean Optics Inc. and VOXearch Inc.
could be made close to the site of the volcanic eruption, as shown in Figure 8.28b. Compared to the existing SO2
detectors, this approach was attractive as the spectrometer could capture the entire UV spectrum, thereby
provid- ing greater fiexibility to identify errors and apply better statistical methods. Furthermore, a good
agreement was observed with a standard correlation spectrometer, which established the accuracy of their
prototype.
8.5.7 Spectrometers on Drones and Aerial Platforms

Due to the recent availability of compact microcontrollers, like Raspberry Pi and Arduino, and the ease of inter-
facing with a host of peripheral components, it has become increasingly possible to integrate spectrometers on
to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones and other aerial platforms (Dwight et al. 2018; Hakala et al.
2018). This allows for surveillance of vegetation and crops, forests, and other natural resources on a large scale.
For instance, Ocean Optics has developed a spectrometer kit designed for drone applications, as shown in
Figure 8.29. This spectrometer operates in three ranges – UV (190–650 nm), Vis (350–800 nm), and NIR (650–
1100 nm). It has a
2.4 GHz Wi-Fi link that operates in a range of up to 150 m. Furthermore, the kit works on a Raspberry Pi
micro- controller, which makes it straightforward to control and capture data. Due to this feature, it can work
with most imaging and navigation systems. The drone-spectrometer has already been used by research groups
for monitoring for pesticides and fertilizers in farms.
8.6 Challenges for Portable Spectrometers

8.6.1 Tools Versus Toys
Portable UV–Vis spectrometers have been in the market for decades now and have shown promise in a range of
applications. However, with the emergence of new approaches, like filter arrays, chip-based sensors, micromir-
rors, and image-based spectrometers, there has been an explosion in researchers demonstrating proof-of-concept
demonstrations. While this opens up new opportunities for applications, there are instances where there is
not much focus on performance characterization. Just being able to detect a spectrum is not a sufficient
criterion for the method to be applicable in a realistic application. Spectroscopic measurements go beyond mere
spectral acquisition and involve several steps from sample information/preparation, dark and reference
acquisition, sample
8.6 Challenges for Portable Spectrometers
203
acquisition, spectral data conditioning, postprocessing, and, finally, interpretation. Without careful assessments
at each stage, errors can propagate and result in less-effective measurements. A distinction should be made
whether the spectrometer is a “toy” or a “tool.” A toy version would be great for educational and hobby use,
whereas a tool version would be imposed with stringent performance requirements. The issues involved in the
construction of appropriate libraries and calibrations are described in the chapter by Schreyer.
Although there are several approaches and reports of new spectrometer designs, only a few of them have
made it to the market. Within them, a smaller subset has been commercially successful. By looking at
established spectrometers in the market, it is possible to impose certain constraints, such as ease of
manufacturing, scalability, robustness, among others, that will determine the successful deployment of newer
portable spectrometer technologies. This section highlights a few aspects that will aid in the development of
robust spectrometers.
8.6.2 Need for Robust Protocols

Establishing a protocol is critical for obtaining effective test results. A robust protocol starts with proper
attention to the sample. Is there sample preparation needed? Is the sample contaminated? Is the sample
homogenous? Are there relevant spectral changes in the region being measured? These are a few questions to
ask before actually going ahead with tests. Unfortunately, there have been instances of commercial
demonstrations where a portable spectrometer is shown to operate with random sample geometries, and accurate
results are claimed. Materials like animal feed and hay are very inhomogenous, and a forage testing lab would
make pellets out of them for accurate testing. Yet, we can see some portable spectrometers testing piles of hay
in the field and claiming some kind of utility from that. This issue is explored in the context of NIR
spectroscopy in the chapters in Volume 2 by Siesler and colleagues.
Additionally, if the same spectrometer is used for analyzing multiple materials, like produce, cheese, or
meats, then there needs to be different protocols as the raw signal from them is different. The signal will have
different noise characteristics, the texture of various materials can have different specular and diffuse refiection
features, and the homogeneity may be different. In such cases, there is a need for customizing the protocol to
suit each fruit, vegetable, meat type, etc. In general, without a robust testing protocol, it will not be feasible to
obtain meaningful test information.
8.6.3 Noise Suppression

Since portable spectrometers are often operated in the field, there is a chance of noise entering the system from
a range of sources. Unlike tests done in a controlled laboratory setting, noise plays a significant role in
uncontrolled environments. Specifically, in the case of UV–Vis spectrometers, ambient light can be a source of
the noise. Hence, care must be taken to isolate the sample from ambient noise, i.e. eliminate stray light. In
refiection mode, the distance between the sample and spectrometer can increase the chance of stray light and
hinder repeatability. The design and user protocol need to ensure that the distance remains fixed. Finally, noise
can also originate from electronics. Dark noise subtractions must be performed routinely before testing samples.
Additionally, light source fiuctuations should be studied and their effect needs to be quantified on the accuracy
of testing.
8.6.4 Calibration
Wavelength calibration is a critical process in spectroscopy and plays an important role in determining the accu-
racy of measurements. All factors that can affect calibration need to be considered, such that their effect can be
quantified and minimized (Burggraaff et al. 2019). For instance, in camera-based spectrometers, internal Bayer
filters in the image sensor can disrupt the calibration. The use of RAW format images has shown to minimize
the effect of these filters. The positioning of the grating must be robust and not change, as that can affect the
calibration. In the case of filter array-based spectrometers, the spectral overlap of the filters needs to be
considered.
8.6.5 Device-to-Device Repeatability

As the fabrication method becomes more complex, device-to-device performance repeatability can become a
chal- lenge. For instance, filter array-based spectrometers require several hundreds of optical filters to achieve
wavelength separation. Small changes in the spectral characteristics of these filters will change the calibration.
In the case of chip-based spectrometers, small tolerances during fabrication can change the performance.
Protocols for calibrating every unit are needed, such that their performance is identical.
8.7 Outlook
The notion of a “lab” is taking a new meaning thanks to new sensors, the increased computing power of smart-
phones and the emergence of cloud functionality. On the one hand, today’s smartphones boast of 6 GB random
access memory (RAMs), 2 GHz processors, and a range of wireless communication approaches with the
availability of programmable open source components. On the other hand, miniaturized spectrometers have
been realized due to advanced fabrication approaches. The merger of these technologies offers promising
opportunities for a range of applications that were not feasible earlier. Today, portable spectrometers can be
seamlessly integrated into smartphones via apps and be made more effective through cloud computing and
machine learning. It will be possible to generate large spectroscopic datasets for a range of food, beverage, and
agricultural products that will pave the way for intelligent sensors that “learn” over time and enable new
applications like counterfeit detection, predict harvest times, and improve the distribution of produce among
other uses: so-called “smart agriculture.”
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179

Portable UV–Visible Spectroscopy – Instrumentation, Technology,

Portable Spectroscopy and Spectrometry 1: Technologies and Instrumentation, First Edition.

8.2 Typical Instrumentation of a Portable UV–Vis Spectrometer

8.2.1 Basic Conﬁguration of UV–Vis Spectrometers

8.2.2 Light Sources

Figure 8.1 Typical spectrometer instrumentation.

8.2.3 Dispersing Elements

Figure 8.3 Gratings as dispersing elements. Source: Photo courtesy of Newport

8.2.5 Interfaces, Displays, and Data Storage

8.2.6 Other Instrumentations

8.3 Measurement Conﬁgurations

Broadband Empty Spectrometer

Focusing lens Collecting lens

Green laser pointer Optical fiber

Cylindrical lens (f4 = 50 mm)

8.4 Types of Instrumentation Used in UV–Vis Spectroscopy

8.4.1 Grating with Linear Detector Array

8.4.2 Digital Micromirror Devices

Traditional linear array DLP based

8.4.3 2D Filter Array-Based Devices

Focusing lensesInGaAs detector

Light Object of interest Filter array

Smart phone with digital signal processing chip

8.4.4 Smartphone Camera-Based Approaches

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(5.5 cm) (8 cm) (14 cm)

8.4.5 “DIY” Approaches

Reflective concave blazed

8.4.6 Compact Chip-Based Spectrometers

8.4.7 Standalone Smartphone Spectrometers

Light switch Filter

(b) Bluetooth module

8.5.1 Color Sensing

8.5.2 Life Science Assays

1 Peaunt allergen ara h1

8.5.3 Biomedical Applications

8.5.4 Water Testing

(a) G-Fresnel (b)

400 600 800 1000

0.25 mm0.5 mm1.0 mm (b)

400 500 600

8.5.5 Food and Beverage Applications

(a) (b) (d)

(a) (b) (c) ×104

Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

8.5.6 Geosensing Applications

Entrance slit Polarization optics Collimator lens Transmission grating

USB output to laptop computer Incoming

Plane grating Lens 1

Collimating mirrorCurved mirror

8.5.7 Spectrometers on Drones and Aerial Platforms

8.6 Challenges for Portable Spectrometers

8.6.2 Need for Robust Protocols

8.6.3 Noise Suppression

8.6.5 Device-to-Device Repeatability

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