Pythagoras, The Cult of Apollo

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PYTHAGORAS, THE C U L T OF APOLLO,
A N D THE BIRTH OF PHILOSOPHY
A Thesis
Presented
t o the F a c u l t y of
California State University Dominguez Hills
In Partial F u l f i l l m e n t
of t h e Requirements f o r the D e g r e e
M a s t e r of A r t s
in
Humanities
by
Jacqueline B e h l i n g
Fall 20 0 0
UMI Number; 1402770
Copyright 2000 by
Behling, Jacqueline Phyllis
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THESIS: PYTHAGORAS, THE CULT OF APOLLO, AND THE BIRTH
OF PHILOSOPHY
AUTHOR: Jacqueline Behiing
APPROVED:
William M. Hagan, S.TD

Thesis Committee Chair
Bryan/Feuer, Ph.D.
Committee Member
hD .
Committee Member
TABLE O F CONTENTS
PAGE
C OPYRIGHT PAGE .................................................. ii
AP P R O V A L PAGE .................................................. iii
TABLE O F CONTENTS .............................................. iv
ABSTRACT .......................................................... v
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1
2. THE E V O LVING M Y T H O F A P O L L O ................................ 3
3. PYTHAGORAS A T SAMOS: YOUTH A N D IONIAN B A C K G R O U N D ....... 14
4. PYTHAGORAS I N EGYPT: THE A N C I E N T W I S D O M ................. 23
5. PYTHAGORAS A T BABYLON: S L A V E R Y A ND A S T R O N O M Y ........... 29
6. R E T U R N TO SAMOS: THE CULT OF P H I L O S O P H Y ................. 35
7. PYTHAGORAS A T CROTON: A P O T H E O S I S A N D DOWNFALL .......... 40
8. C O N C L U S I O N ................................................... 4G
WORKS C I T E D ..................................................... 50
iv
ABSTRACT
T h e cult o f A p o l l o b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y p r o m i n e n t in
Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n b e t w e e n the e i g h t h a n d f i f t h centuries
B .C .E ., while t h e p e r c e i v e d nature a n d a t t r i b u t e s of t h a t
god w e r e b o t h c h a n g i n g a n d ga i n i n g hegemony. I n the s i x t h
century B . C . E ., Pyt h a g o r a s of S a m o s , w h o c o i n e d the v e r y
word "philosophy, " h a v i n g s tudied u n d e r Thales, the O r p h i c
Pherekydes, t h e E g y p t i a n priesthood, a n d p o s s i b l y in
Babylon, added i n t o this f l u i d p i c t u r e his o w n special
concept of Apollo. This h e p r o m o t e d at C r o t o n in M a g n a
Graecia, where h e f o u n d e d t h e l o n g - i n f l u e n t i a l sect of
Pythagoreans. T h e n e w l y - d e f i n e d A p o l l o was a n abstract,
unifying, m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d rational force o r principle,
qualitatively diff e r e n t f r o m and s u p e r i o r t o a l l o t h e r gods,
and p o t e n t i a l l y a va i l a b l e f o r na t u r a l and b e n e v o l e n t
communication w i t h h u m a n individuals in n e e d of s a l v a t i o n
through the n e w p r a c t i c e of philosophy, c o n c e i v e d as
including mathematics, m u s i c and asceticism. Western
philosophy, s c i ence a n d e thics h a v e since l a r g e l y
d eveloped from this p a r t i c u l a r c o n j u n c t i o n o f Ionian
rationalism a n d reli g i o u s innovation.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A p o l l o is comm o n l y c o n s i d e r e d as t h e "most 'Greek1 of
all the g o d s of Greece, " and t h u s his p o s s i b l e n on-Greek
origins a n d changin g attributes h a v e b e e n r a r e l y discussed
b y p o p u l a r w r i ters (Burkert " O l b i a ” 49) . T h o s e things the
Greeks s u p p o s e d l y m o s t valued, " b e a u t y . ..art, music,
poetry. . .youth, sanity and m o d e r a t i o n - all are summed u p in
Apollo" (Guthrie 73) . But o n l y a f t e r a long evolution did
he come t o p e r s o n i f y t hese concepts, as w e l l as "the
intelligible, deter m i n a t e [and] mensurable, as opposed to
th e fantastic, v a g u e a n d shapeless" (Fraenkel, qtd. in
Guthrie 152) . Then, a m i d the v a r i e g a t e d expressions of
G r e e k reli g i o u s worship, the c u l t of A p o l l o became u n i q u e l y
w e l l s u i t e d to b o t h provide s u p p o r t t o and g a i n strength
f r o m n e w enterprise s b a s e d on t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of the f aculty
of reason, during t h e seminal p e r i o d of Greece's "discovery
of the mind" (Snell 191-226) . A p o l l o n i a n va l u e s such as
reason, justice, u n i t y and u n i v e r s a l i t y p r o v e d especially
conducive t o the emergence of G r e e k philosophy.
The s t o r y of the origin a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of p hilosophy
in Greece f r o m the sixth c e n t u r y B.C. f orward illustrates
its relationship w i t h G reece's spe c i a l god. Apollo's oracle
at Delphi proclaimed, f o r example, that there was no one
w i s e r t h a n Socrates (P3.ato, A p o l o g y 21a) . But over a
2
c e n t u r y before, a k e y A p o l l o - i d e n t i f i e d culture f i g u r e had
a l r e a d y gained fame f o r hi s innovative d i s c o v e r y and
p r o m o t i o n of the v e r y c o n c e p t of philosophy. As the cult of
A p o l l o waxed in Gree c e b e t w e e n t h e seventh a n d fou r t h
centuries, Pythagoras o f Samos, w h o s e life span n e d th e
central part of this p e r i o d (c.575 - c . 5 0 0 ) , became its m o s t
p r o m i n e n t non - p r i e s t l y advocate, while e a r n i n g c r e d i t for
m a j o r early contributions to m a thematics a n d g e o m e t r y as
well as philosophy, h e i d e n t i f i e d himself c l o s e l y w i t h
Apollo, as e i ther a m e s s e n g e r or perhaps a n a v a t a r of the
god. Prefiguring Plat o ' s idealism, he a s s e r t e d th a t only
numbers and m a t h e m a t i c a l relationships wer e e t e r n a l l y
e xisting and t r u l y real, n ot th e f l u x of c h a n g i n g p h e n o m e n a
we observe, hence "all things are numbers." The g o d Apollo,
he believed, was mo r e lik e an impersonal p r i n c i p l e of that
h i g h e r reality than a g o d in t he traditional sense, an d as
such h a d a special relati o n s h i p w i t h the "real" w o r l d of
numbers. The h u m a n soul cou l d a s p i r e to i m m o r t a l i t y b y
focussing its a t t e n t i o n o n that r e a l wor l d t h r o u g h
"philosophy, " a n e w e n t e r p r i s e w h i c h he a s s e r t e d should
encompass mathematics, music, concentration, study, mental
exercises, ritual, a s c e t i c i s m a n d purification, all
centering about the f i g u r e of A p o l l o as P ythagoras h a d
r edefined him. (Gorman 63-70; Philip 153-179).
3
CHAPTER 2
THE EVOLVING MYTH OF APOLLO
References t o A p o l l o i n G r e e k literature g i v e at f irst
an undistinguished, somewhat conf u s i n g impression. Gr a v e s
asserted that th e g o d ’s o r i g i n was as "Apollo S m i n t h e u s , " a
mere "pre-Aryan . . . Demon, " w h o t h e n "gradually rose i n r a n k
b y force of arms, blackmail a n d fraud" (Graves, White
Goddess x) . In hi s initial appearances n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g
of Homer's Iliad, a n d at times on d o w n th r o u g h t h e f i f t h
century works of Aeschylus, Euripedes a nd ot h e r s A p o l l o is
portrayed as v a g u e l y foreign and at times inimical: as chief
go d of the Trojans, as s preader of plague a m o n g the Greeks,
and as b e a r e r of false warnings t o the A t h e n i a n s , a d v i s i n g
t hem to evacuate t h e city be f o r e t h e a dvancing Persians.
The reason for t h e s e seeming anomalies is p r o b a b l y t h a t the
original id e n t i t y o r identities o f A p o l l o d e r i v e d from o t h e r
than G r e e k sources (Guthrie 73,* Dodds, 69) .
Some scholars h a v e f avored the t h e o r y of a Northern, or
"Hyperborean, " o r i g i n of A p o l l o (Guthrie 74-82) . In H o m e r
and o t h e r e a r l y sources, A p o l l o is o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as
"xanthos," i.e. "fair-haired," suggesting a n o r t h e r n e r (Poe
363) . On e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y v e r s i o n of his m y t h has Apollo,
while e n route t o Delphi b y swan c hariot t o e x p o u n d t h e law
to mankind, t a r r y i n g instead in t h e n o r t h e r n l a n d of t h e
Hyperboreans an d s u b s e q u e n t l y choosing to r e t u r n there f r o m
4
Delphi e a c h w i n t e r (Fontenrose 386-387). It is p o s s i b l e
that he b e g a n his ca r e e r a s a m i n o r d e i t y of D a n u b i a n
tribesmen, wh o b e i n g s i t u a t e d n o r t h of G r e e c e w e r e the
actual " H y p e r b o r e a n s , " as g u a r d i a n of f l o c k s . This w o u l d
account fo r "wolfish A p o l l o , " w olves b e i n g the n a t u r a l e n e m y
of sheep, and the favor o r d i s f a v o r of t h e g o d thus b e i n g
alluded t o (Solomon 42-3).
O t h e r scholars, n o t i n g T r o j a n a n d L y c i a n associations,
h ave a s cribed to A p o l l o p r i m a r i l y A s i a t i c s o u r c e s .
A r chaeological evidence h a s s h o w n A p o l l o t o have b e e n a
p rominent d e i t y in inner A s i a Minor, f a r f r o m the Greek-
influenced coastal region. H e m a y h a v e a risen f r o m S y r i a n
o r H i t tite m i n o r di v i n i t i e s as a w o l f i s h - g u a r d i a n d e i t y
analogous to E g y p t i a n Anubis. A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e u r - s o u r c e of
Apollo m a y be the H i t t i t e d e i t y Apulunas, god of gates
(Solomon 86-88,- Graves, W h i t e Goddess, x) .
T h e q u e stion of A p o l l o 's origins is c omplicated b y t h e
likelihood that t h e Greeks t hemselves had, for the m o s t
part, origins outsi d e t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a of Greece.
Bronze A g e nomads, Cretans, Mycenaeans, indigenous Hellads,
Doric invaders, M e s o p o t a m i a n s ocieties a n d perhaps E g y p t i a n s
all contributed g o d s and g o d d e s s e s to t h e region,- t h o s e w h o
u l t i m a t e l y a t t ained to c u l t i c worship, then, were e v i d e n t l y
selected from t h e s e v a r i e d inputs for p e r p e t u a t i o n b y the
h istoric Greeks, including e s p e c i a l l y t h e twelve of the
O l y m p i a n Pantheon. Yet t h a t g r o u p d i d n o t o riginally
5
include Apollo. (Fustel de C oulanges 29; Graves, Greek
Myths X 28-45; V e r m e u l e 278-9; G r i f f i n 79) .
A p o l l o ’s o r i g i n is thus a mystery. H e was a l a t e c o m e r
to the Pantheon, o n e of "les d i e u x tardifs," l i k e Dionysos,
who was p o s s i b l y im p o r t e d f r o m Thrace (Gregoire 10) . He h a d
thus p r o b a b l y b e e n n e i t h e r a n A r y a n o r I n d o - E u r o p e a n god,
n o r a g o d of the indigenous i nhabitants of the P e l o p o n n e s u s
or the G r e e k islands, n o r e v e n of the Minoans o r Mycenaeans.
Graves refers to h i m as a d e i t y w h o h a d b e e n "adopted" at
some u n k n o w n p o i n t b y i n v a d i n g H e l l e n i c settlers i n Central
and So u t h e r n G r e e c e (Graves, G r e e k M y t h s I 66) . A n d another
talented generalist, M a r t i n Bernal, h a s r e c e n t l y p u r p o r t e d
to solve this p u z z l e w i t h h i s revival o f the a n c i e n t and
early m o d e r n c l a i m that A p o l l o was the G r e e k e m b o d i m e n t of
Egyptian Horus-on-the-Horizon, i.e.Osiris in h i s y o u t hf u l
phase as sun g o d (Bernal I 68-9) .
It seems l i k e l y that v a r i o u s gods later i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
Apollo h a d m a n y p l a c e s of o r i g i n p r i o r t o G r e e k times, and
that those diff e r e n t deities o r e a r l y v ersions of t h e g o d
became u n i f i e d at some p o i n t t o w a r d t h e end of t h e a rchaic
p eriod into one fig u r e w i t h m a n y aspects (Mercier 27) .
Sixth-century A t t i c vases, f o r instance, depict t h r e e
distinct A p o l l o s : the hunter, the warrior, and t h e musician,
u l t i m a t e l y merging, a n d o n l y a f t e r that c o a l e s c e n c e does
Apollo appear as t h e f a m i l i a r "naked o r n e a r l y n a k e d ephebe
of h i g h classical art" (Carpenter 79) . As late as the
6
latter p art o f the e i g h t h century, sites d e d i c a t e d t o older
local cults w e r e still b e i n g transformed b y A pollo-
worshippers into A p o l l o n i a n religious centers, w i t h their
deity's attributes t h e n b e i n g ascribed t o Apollo. T here a r e
evidences in coastal A s i a M i n o r of numerous oracles later
dubbed A p o l l o n i a n but w h i c h were in fact p r e - H e l l e n i c
(Burkert, Greek Relicrion 144) . Even the g r e a t o r a c u l a r site
at Didytna was pre-Ionian, according to t he an c i e n t travel
w r i t e r Pausanius (Solomon 51) . I n Greece proper, Ap o l l o w a s
a late-arriving i nt e r l o p e r at m o s t of t he g r e a t shrines a n d
centers associated w i t h h is name (W. G u t h r i e 84) .
Some of these sites h a d b e e n associated w i t h goddess
figures. Thus at Delphi, for example, t he o m p h a l o s , a
sacred r ock b e l i e v e d t o m a r k the "navel" o r c e n t e r of the
world, w o u l d have o r i g i n a l l y denoted a local e a r t h g oddess
cult. Th e De l p h i a n oracle, the Pythia, was h e r s e l f female
and o r i g i n a l l y h a d r e p r e sented Python, t he w i s e serpent w h o
dwelt in the womb of t h e Goddess, the earth-mother, and thus
k n e w he r secrets and c o u l d impart the p o w e r of prophecy,
w h e n the cult of A p o l l o s eized control at D e l p h i it e xpanded
to take o n those powers, so that Python b e c a m e a sort of
alter ego of Apollo, w i t h "the mythographers e v e n
m a nufacturing the s t o r y of A p o l l o *s slaying of ... Python
as a demonstration of h i s absorption of the p r e v i o u s
cult..." (Solomon 42-3). Ap o l l o supposedly u s e d Python's
skin to cover the h o l y tr i p o d o n which the s p e c i a l l y tra i n e d
7
sensitives embodying "the Pythia" w ere t o sit o v e r the
D e l p h i a n fissure, h e n c e f o r t h t r a n s m i t t i n g n o t t h e earth-
m o t h e r 's b u t A p o l l o 's proph e c i e s a n d d i v i n a t i o n s to h u m a n
petitioners (Mercier 16).
A similar process a p p a r e n t l y t o o k p l a c e w i t h r e g a r d to
Delos ("womb,") the sa c r e d island later d e s i g n a t e d as
A p o l l o ’s mythical birthplace. In the H o m e r i c H y m n to D e l i a n
Apollo, not o nly A p o l l o but a l s o his t w i n s i s t e r A r t e m i s is
bom on Delos, with Ar t e m i s as t h e firstborn t h e n proceeding
in he r c a pacity of goddess of c h i l d b i r t h t o assist t h e i r
m o t h e r Leto in the b i r t h of Apollo. B o t h m y t h o l o g i ca l and
archeological evidence indicate that some g r e a t goddess of
fertility and childbirth e v e n t u a l l y k n o w n as A rtemis was
wo r s h i p p e d at Delos since n e o l i t h i c t i m e s . This goddess did
indeed hav e a twin b r o t h e r at some point, a d e i t y of lesser
importance, whose name is now u n k n o w n b ut was d e f i n i t e l y not
Apollo. O n l y muc h later, after 1000 BC, p r e s u m a b l y w h e n
Apollo-worshippers h a d ent e r e d t h e region, d i d h e r "brother"
d e i t y b e c o m e so designated. A s A p o l l o ' s import a n c e came to
eclipse that of Artemis, and as h e p r o c e e d e d to appropriate
m a n y of the goddess' l eading attributes, p r e g n a n t w o m e n were
b a n n e d f r o m the island so that n o births w h a t s o e v e r c o u l d
oc c u r there, completely r eversing its religious
significance. This accords w i t h the evid e n c e as to t h e
timing of the Apollo c u l t 's emer g e n c e i n m a i n l a n d G r e e c e ,
8
which, would, s e e m t o h a v e t a k e n p l a c e a r o u n d t h e e i g h t h
century (Mercier 43-44).
B y th e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y the G r e e k " m y t h o g r a p h e r s " (to
u s e Solomon's term) h a d a p p a r e n t l y d e v e l o p e d a n e x t e n s i v e
b a c k s t o r y f o r t his "dieu t a r d i f ." A c c o r d i n g t o Hesiod, the
H o m e r i c H y m n to Apollo, a n d o t h e r early renderings, Apollo
h a d b e e n f a thered b y Zeus o n L e t o (or Latona) , a m i n o r
goddess w h o m a y h a v e b e e n m a j o r a t one time (her n a m e
recalls milk, th e M i l k y Way, a n d sacred cows, as w e l l as the
r e g i o n k n o w n as Latium) . Hera, jealous s p o u s e of Zeus, had
ej e c t e d L eto f r o m the r e a l m of t h e gods, f o r c e d G a i a to deny
h e r sanc t u a r y o n earth, a n d o r d e r e d the g r e a t s e r p e n t
Python, n o w seen as a monster, t o locate a n d s t i f l e b o t h
m o t h e r a n d u n b o r n child. But fre e - f l o a t i n g Delos, as yet
u n a t t a c h e d to the earth, gave L e t o sanctuary. The island
was t h e n a n c h o r e d t o t h e e a r t h b y the n e w b o r n g o d A p o l l o as
a reward, a n d als o t e m p o r a r i l y g i l d e d (gold - t h e c o l o r of
th e sun - came to b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Apollo) . T h e infant
p r o c e e d e d t o call f or h i s lyre a n d his s harp arrows, stating
that he was g o i n g t o r eveal the secrets of Zeus t o humans,
thus giv i n g the arc h e r a s p e c t a m o r e p o s i t i v e spin.
A p o l l o t h e n b e l a t e d l y e n t e r e d the a l r e a d y - c o n s t i t u t e d
Pantheon, d i s p l a c i n g in v arious v e r s i o n s e i t h e r Hera, Helios
o r Hephae s t o s (since the n u m b e r o f Olympian d e i t i e s w a s to
b e k ept constant at the zodiacal twelve) . In the Homeric
H y m n t o Apollo, t h e Olympians w e r e at the o u t s e t f e a r f u l of
9
this new son of Zeus a r r i v i n g f r o m a f a r (thus possibly-
h i nting at a foreig n origin) wh o a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e m w i t h
his d e a t h -dealing bow: th e s h o o t e r f r o m afar. (In an
alternative v e r s i o n of t h e s t o r y h e i m p r e s s e d t h e Olympian
gods o n l y w i t h his lyre a n d his l i g h t - i l l u m i n e d "P h o e b u s -
Apollo," g o d of light, aspect.) T h e y fea r e d t h a t he
intended to supplant his f a t h e r as s u p r e m e god, just as Zeus
h a d done to Cronos and C r o n o s to U r a n u s . But A p o l l o p r o v e d
intent o n l y to suppress a n i ncipient r e b e l l i o n b y jealous
Hera. A f t e r ki l l i n g h e r ally, the c h t h o n i c serpent-dragon
Python, a n d u ndergo i n g p r o p e r p u r i f i c a t i o n for that killing,
h e established loyal an d p i o u s p a n - H e l l e n i c cult centers at
Delphi a n d Delos, repla c i n g the e a r l i e r n o n - O l y m p i a n goddess
cults. Accepted, then, as a n Olympian, A p o l l o becomes no t a
threat t o the rule of Zeus b u t the p r i m a r y d i v i n e guar a n t o r
of stab i l i t y and permanence, as w e l l as the v e r i t a b l e
"mouthpiece" or s po k e s m a n of the less a p p r o a c h a b l e h i g h e r
d e i t y (Clay 23-6).
The further e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e A p o l l o m y t h saw h i m also
supplanting the for m e r G r e e k sun god, Helios. Apollo's
newly-proclaimed a s s o c i a t i o n wit h A r t e m i s m a y h a v e
contributed to this elevation. As a res u l t of their joint
b i r t h myth, he was n o w i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the sun as celestial
tw i n and counterpart to Artemis' l o n g s t a n d i n g identification
as f e rtility goddess w i t h t h e m o o n (Solomon 44-5) . W h e n the
g o d Hermes steals the su n god ' s cattle, that g o d is no w
10
Apo l l o and h e (unlike H e l i o s in an a s s u m e d e a r l i e r version)
is repaid w ith H e r m e s ’ invention, the lyre. Apollo then
takes o n the additional attri b u t e of g o d of music.
Music was t o b e o n l y t h e first incursion of A p o l l o into
the r e a l m of the arts. B e t w e e n the eighth and sixth
centuries, his priests at D e l o s were insinuating A p o l l o into
the existing cult of t h e Castalian N i n e Muses as
"Musagetes, " o r m a l e l e a d e r of those female entities, m a k i n g
h i m the god of all the arts, music i ncluded (Solomon, 44-46)
The sun, symbol of A p o l l o n i a n classicism, p r o g r e s s i v e l y
replaced the moon, w i t h its m o r e mystical o r D i o n y s i a n
associations, as artistic ideal. P o e t r y became lyre-
accompanied and less t h a n epic, while p h i l o s o p h y f lourished
a n d the Olympian gods, o t h e r than Apollo, were "laid low"
because of it (Solomon 39; Snell 40) .
B y the f ifth century, integration of t he m a n y d i v e r s e
"Apollos" was p r a c t i c a l l y complete (Carpenter 79) . H e was
no w the spokesman of Zeus,* i n fact, Burkert has s u g g e s t e d
that the very name "Apollo" stems f r o m the t e r m for a D o r i c
seasonal assembly of k i n s h i p groups, and implies a s ort of
speaker of the asse m b l y (Solomon 3) . Apollo became the
preeminent G r e e k culture deity, as "the g o d of speech-acts
[and] of poetry an d song" (G. Nagy, qtd. in Solomon 87) .
W i t h the establishment of h i s oracle at Delphi, h e w as
thought to have e x p a n d e d the reach of Zeus a n d b r o u g h t
h u m a n i t y into the p o s s i b i l i t y of communion w i t h the d i v i n e
11
(Clay 23-36). T h u s the famous inscriptions of Apollo's
temple there m a y b e seen as a n instructional m e s s a g e to
humans regarding th e control of e m o t i o n a n d focussing of the
mind, attitudes facilitating the e m e r g e n c e of classical
rationalism, in itself a m e a n s of p l e a s i n g A p o l l o and,
through him, Zeus:
Know thyself
N o t hing in excess
Curb t h y spirit
Observe the limit
Hate hybris
Keep a reverent t ongue
Fear autho r i t y
Bow b e f o r e the d ivine
G l o r y n o t in s trength
Keep w o m a n u n d e r rule.
(Guthrie 183-4)
The greatest initial impact of A p o l l o n i a n r a t i o n a l i s m
probably came t h r ou g h its as s o c i a t i o n w i t h law a n d
(potential) n a t iona l unity. All the G r e e k polities
recognized A p o l l o as b o t h t h e source a n d interpreter of
laws, a n d each city-state c o n s u l t e d t h e D e l p h i a n oracle to
determine their substance a n d application. Lycurgus,
legendary 9th c e n tu r y r u l e r of Sparta, thus h a d supposedly
obtained Apollo's instructions a n d a pproval in developing
the Spartan constitution a n d its w a r r i o r b r o t h e r h o o d
12
(Guthrie 183-204). Athens a n d o t h e r c ity-states m a d e laws
a c c o r d i n g to the Pythia's a d v i c e as n e w c ommercial wealth-
r e l a t e d divisions a n d strains t h r e a t e n e d social s t a b i l i t y
(Vernant 73) . Doctrines of N a t u r a l L a w e m e r g e d a f t e r the
m i d - f i f t h century, b u t e v e n t h e n a l i n k a g e to A p o l l o
remained. Thus in Plato's R e p u b l i c a l l l egislation
co n c e r n i n g religious m a t t e r s is to b e l e f t to A p o l l o as
r e p r e s e n t e d b y his pr i e s t s o r m inisters, the "e x e g e t a i ":
w e shall not, if w e are wise, listen to anyone
els e no r a s k a n y o n e to e x p o u n d t h e m to us save
the god of o u r country. F o r h e is the national
e x positor w h o e x p l a i n s t h e s e things t o all m e n
f r o m his seat at t h e navel of the earth.
(Plato, Repu b l i c iv 427b)
T he " exegetai” were part-priests, par t - l a w y e r s w ho
r e s i d e d i n th e vari o u s G r e e k c i t y - s t a t e s and t h e r e expounded
the w o r d of A p o l l o o n legal q u e s t i o n s b o t h religious and
civil. It is true that A p o l l o n i a n a d v i c e often c o n s i s t e d of
i n s t r u c t i n g that local r e l i g i o u s c u s t o m s b e u p h e l d and
ancestral gods honored, b u t this a d v i c e was forthcoming o n l y
a fter th e n e c e s s a r y ques t i o n s h a d f i r s t b e e n posed, w h i c h
implied tha t Apollo's w o r d w a s the u l t i m a t e authority. Thus
Apollonianism, rat i o n a l i s m a n d (intra-Greek) universalism
w e r e able to make advances u n d e r t he g u i s e of l o y a l t y to the
o t h e r d e i ties (Guthrie 186-7, 195).
13
Furthermore, a n c e s t r a l w a y s were n o t always u p h e l d b y
the "exegetai". T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r i e s t s of Delphi, they
s e e m to h a v e e n g i n e e r e d the alter a t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t laws
r e g a r d i n g h o m i c i d e a n d the rig h t s and s t a t u s of w o m e n into
m o r e "rational" a n d p a t r i a r c h a l forms. Parenthood became a
q u e s t i o n of p a t e r n i t y r a t h e r t h a n maternity, an d it wa s o n
t h i s g r o u n d that Orestes, for example, w a s m y t h i c a l l y
e x o n e r a t e d of the m u r d e r of his mother. Murder was made a
crime less against the clan or f a m i l y r e q u i r i n g t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n of b l o o d feuds a n d v e n d e t t a s a n d m o r e a g a i n s t
t h e state, a n d the b e l i e f i n i nherited g u i l t was r e p l a c e d b y
a more rational standard (Guthrie 187-8,* D o d d s 32-50) .
A s w i t h the k a t h a r s i s c r e a t e d (according t o
Aristotle) b y A t h e n i a n tragedy, the e m e r g i n g forces of ord e r
a n d reason w e r e felt to b e g r a p p l i n g w i t h those of d a r k n e s s
a n d irrationality (including " a t e , " an i r r e s i s t i b l e
emotional force t h a t sometimes w a s hel d t o p r e c l u d e
individual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e archaic a g e .) T h u s , as the
cult of A p o l l o g r e w in i m p o r t a n c e , p e r s o n s r e s p o n s i b l e for
i n f l i c t i n g d e a t h e v e n j u s t i f i a b l y or i n a d v e r t e n t l y w e r e
still r e q u i r e d to u n d e r g o rituals of p u r i f i c a t i o n t o
c ounteract the "miasma" t h e y n o w bore, b u t t h e y w e r e n o
longer p u n i s h e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e older D r a c o n i a n laws. This
further i n c r e a s e d t h e impor t a n c e of Apollo, who n ow took on
a n additional role as g o d of p u r i f i c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e
comfo r t i n g v a l u e of rea s o n (Guthrie 191-3) .
14
C HAPTER 3
PYTHAGORAS A T SAMOS: YOUTH A N D

I O N I A N BACKGROUND
I n early sixth, c e n t u r y Greece the cult of A p o l l o was
strongest in Ionia, that secondary Greek w o r l d which, h a d
been established i n we s t e r n A sia Minor u n d e r A t h e n i a n
leadership a f t e r t h e D o r i a n invasion in a b o u t "the s i x t h
generation a f t e r th e fall o f Troy" (Grant 36, 137) . The
twelve polei a n d is l a n d states of the I o n i a n League,
included the i s l a n d state of Samos, where P y t h a g o r a s during
his formative y e a r s was a citizen or resident. T h e r e were
sizable Phoenician, T y r r h e n i a n and other immigrant
minorities, a n d Pythagoras' father may h a v e b e e n a
Phoenician (Graves, W hite Goddess 253) . Nearby, in the
middle of the I o n i a n sea, l a y Apollo's a l l e g e d birthplace,
the island of Delos, w h i c h functioned as t h e League's
religious center.
Heirs to th e commercial skills and s e a g o i n g t e c h n o l o g y
of the Cretans, Mycenaeans, Phoenicians a n d e arlier Greeks,
and b en e f i t t i n g f r o m a k e y crossroads location, the I onian
League cities s u rvi v e d m a i n l y b y maritime t r a d e (McNeill
216) . The y e n j o y e d sufficient prosperity i n the 700-560
period t o produce for t he first time in G r e e k h i s t o r y m e n of
independent means, other t h a n priests, w h o c o u l d d e v o t e
their time to p u r e thought (Snodgrass 161) . The a d o p t i o n of
15
th e i r Phoenician minori t y ' s alphabet a f t e r 750 w a s to prove
a crucial event i n the r i s e of c l a s s i c a l G r e e k civilization,
as w e r e the effects of e m u l a t i n g the L ydian i n v e n t i o n of
coinage shortly the r e a f t e r (Grant 2 9 6 8 ).- O t h e r cultural
influences came f ro m Egypt, a m a j o r t r a d i n g p a r t n e r that
attracted visits b y Ionians such as Thales, Solon,
Pythagoras an d Herodotus, a n d a l s o M e s o p o t a m i a n Babylon,
w i t h its astronomical a n d mathematical, lore.
As commerce an d m a n u f a c t u r i n g f lourished i n Ionia, land
became less i m p o r t a n t . A n e w c ommercial culture arose, in
w h i c h religion e a r l y t o o k a rationalistic, secularizing
direction. Homer's Ionian-dialect e pic poems, cr e a t e d in
Ionian Chios, alrea d y e m b o d i e d a par t i a l rationalization and
demystification of the old pantheon, a n d L e o n a r d Shlain
has argued that the spread of t h e P h o e n i c i a n alphabet m a y
have encouraged analytic "left-brain" thinking. These
interactive influences u l t i m a t e l y stimul a t e d the emergence
in Ionia of the world's first k n o w n philosophers.
Th e "Seven Sages, " o r "Seven w i s e Men" w h o eme r g e d in
different G r e e k polities in t he l atter seventh c entury
reflected stirrings of a n e w rationalism. T h e y included the
Ionian/Athenian statesman S o l o n a n d the y o u n g e r Ionian
Thales, as well as several tyrants (Grant 85-87, 179, 183,
308) . The Sages ge n e r a l l y e x p r e s s e d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and
legislative ideas through m o r a l i s t i c sayings but,
significantly, i n "left-brained" p r o s e r a t h e r t h a n "right-
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
brained" p o e t r y (Snodgrass 162) . M o s t of them, like t h e i r
"wise" Chinese c o n t e m p o r a r i e s C o n f u c i u s a n d Lao-Tzu,
inclined m ore t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of w i s d o m than t o the
pursuit of new knowledge.
Th e leading thi n k e r s o f the n e x t generation, however,
d i d seek new k n o w l e d g e a n d b r o u g h t f o r t h a v e r i t a b l e I o n i a n
Enlightenment. Pythagoras, w h o was o n e of them, w as b o m
b e t w e e n 582 an d 568; his d e a t h date e s t i m a t e s m a n b e t w e e n
507 an d 470. He probably received the customary education
an d training of t h e n o r m a l f r e e m a l e S a m i a n child, w hich is
to say elementary writing, gymnastics, Homer, Hesiod, the
Orphic poets, a n d i n s t r u c t i o n on t h e lyre. His fa t h e r is
re p orted to have b e e n a p r o s p e r o u s t r a v e l l i n g m e r c h a n t n a m e d
Mnesarchus, of p o s s i b l e P h o e n i c i a n origin, holding honorary
citizenship in Samos. A s P y t h a g o r a s g r e w into a n "ephebe, "
he m a y have b e e n at a s o c i a l disadvantage: b e c a u s e of his
father's foreign b i r t h (and p o s s i b l y h i s own), he would have
b e e n ineligible t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e m u n i c i p a l p r i e s t h o o d
w h i c h admin i s t e r e d the m o u n t a i n t o p c u l t of Poseidon, m a j o r
d e i t y of the s e agoi n g Samians, and o p e r a t e d the reno w n e d
Temple of Hera, f e m a l e a r c h - e n e m y of Apollo, la r g e s t in t h e
G r e e k world. B u t M n e s a r c h u s w as a b l e t o p a y f o r the
instruction of h i s son b y t h e m o s t f a m e d expon e n t s of the
n e w learning, incl u d i n g T h a l e s (Gorman 21-23) .
Thales (c.636-c.546) w a s b o t h a l i n k to t h e n e w
g e n e r a t i o n and a l s o the f i r s t actual philosopher. A
17
pr o b a b l e descendant of P h o e n i c i a n s , h e w a s the first
s cientific t h i n k e r Cor "physicist") r a n d the first t o u s e
Eg y p t i a n g e o m e t r y i n G r e e c e (Grant 160) . He h a d g a i n e d fame
a n d some w e a l t h b y lear n i n g e n o u g h B a b y l o n i a n a s t r o n o m y to
p redict th e solar eclipse o f M a y 28, 585. In his
d e s c r i p t i o n of th e p h y s i c a l world, he l a r g e l y d i s p e n s e d w i t h
th e gods, asserting the f i r s t k n o w n scientific hypothesis,
n a m e l y t hat "all things a r e water." A s Frankfort points
out, "Thales speaks of water, not of a water-god,- [his
Ionian successor] A n a x i m e n e s refers t o air, not to a g o d of
a i r or storms" (Frankfort 378). W i t h h i m began p h i l o
sophy's primal "Milesian school," b a s e d i n Ionian Mi l e t u s
an d including s u c h thinkers as A n a x i m a n d e r , Anaxim e n e s and,
later, Anaxagoras, b r i n g e r of p h i l o s o p h y to Athens.
Thales was t o b e the first of P y t h a g o r a s ' m e n t o r s . H e
was, however, in his old a g e b y then, w i t h limited t e a c h i n g
ability. A f t e r s ome initial instruction, and a p p a r e n t l y
impressed b y the youth's abilities, h e is supposed t o h a v e
advised Pythagoras to i n s t e a d seek the ancient w i s d o m of
Egypt, learning f r o m its priests, as T h a l e s himself h a d
done,- if h e w o u l d d o so h e h a d the p o t e n t i a l to b e c o m e t he
wisest m a n in the w o r l d (Fideler 59) . Putting that i d e a off
until later, Pythagoras t h e n t u r n e d f o r further i n s t r u c t i o n
to Thales' pupil A n a x i m a n d e r (611-546), whose phy s i c s was
b a s e d o n the idea of a s u s t a i n i n g p r i n c i p l e that he c a l l e d
the "apeiron" (the U n b o u n d e d o r the Infinite) . A l l things
18
aro s e from t h e apeiron thro u g h a proc e s s of t h e s eparating
out of opposites- Again, the g o d s d i d not f i g u r e in th e
explan a t i o n (Frankfort 379-80) .
Some t h i n g of this gene r a l a p p r o a c h stuck, b e c a u s e
Pythagoras w a s later to find his o w n basis f o r e x i s t e n c e in
a n o n - m a t e r i a l principle ("all is number"), a n d to emphasize
the importance of opposites. T h e Boundless, however, he
l a t e r d e s i g n a t e d as the v e r y p r i n c i p l e of e v i l because, in
its inf i n i t y of time a n d change, it acts t o d e s t r o y the
limited, harmonious cosmos (Gorman 29) . A n d h e w o u l d come
to v i e w numbers themselves as god s of a n e w type, w h i c h m a y
be a n indication that A n a x i m a n d e r 's thought wa s too proto-
scientific f o r his taste.
A n o t h e r such indication was th a t wit h t h e m y s t i c a l
Orphic m o v e m e n t gaining adherents throughout Greece,
Pythagoras n o w undertook further studies w i t h Pherekydes of
Syros, founder of an Orph i c c o m m u n i t y on Sam o s (Gorman, 27-
30) . T h e lice-ridden Pherekydes, bom d u r i n g th e forty-
fifth O l y m p i a d (600-597) , was k n o w n for h is t h e o l o g i c a l
poetry. His combination of rational philosophy, mythology,
and scientific astronomy was w i d e l y disseminated, e v e n as
far as Egypt, and was th e sort of m i x e d s y s t e m that
Pythagoras h i m s e l f was later to d e v e l o p (Gorman 25) .
Pherekydes w a s p oss i b l y the first p e r s o n t o p u b l i s h a b o o k
in prose, a n d it m a y h a v e b e e n h e w h o i n troduced into Greece
th rough the O r p h i c movement the ideas of r e i n c a r n a t i o n and
19
the immortality of the soul, thought to b e of Thracian,
Egyptian or Indian origin (Gorman 25-30) . (Rougier [1984]
assigns the introduction of the concept of i m m o r t a l i t y to
Pythagoras himself) . Pherekydes h a d s t u d i e d a s t r o n o m y in a
rather scientific way, remodelling a s pecific c a v e t o create
a sun movement meas u r i n g device he called a "he 1 io t r op i o n , "
but unlike the thinkers of the Mil e s i a n school, his
explanations of physical reality w ere still c o u c h e d in terms
of newly-imagined gods as well as things a n d forces.
Pherekydes' n e w gods included Zas, i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
ether (the u p p e r atmosphere) , Kronos or time, a n d Chthonie,
earth. Zas, a semi-rationalized Zeus, was the c r e a t o r who
after their sacred m arriage embroidered Cht h o n i e w i t h the
shape an d figures of t h e c o s m o s . N ature w a s the product of
five elementary principles: ether, air, water, f ire and
earth. Time was the m e d i u m in which the c r e a t i o n t o o k place
and the a r e n a for the continuing i nteraction of m a t t e r with
Zas (Gorman 27-9) . Some of this cosmo l o g y was t o b e
integrated into the later thought of Pythagoras u n d e r other
terms, as was the underlying basic a pproach of d e v i s i n g n ew
conceptions of the gods in aid of the p h i l o s o p h i c quest.
The linkage b e t w e e n Pherekydes a n d A p o l l o n i a n i s m lay in
his Orphism. He was a leading figure i n that m o v e m e n t
which, having originated in Thrace or Egypt, h a d be c o m e a
counter-cultural o r anti-establishment congeries of popular
cults throughout m u c h of Greece, provi d i n g p s y c h i c relief
20
f r o m the c i v i c r e l i g i o n of t h e remote a n d impersonal
Olympian gods (Grant 305) . Its w o r s h i p of Orpheus, the
m y t h i c a l X y r e - p l a y i n g poet-musician, s o n of A p o l l o a n d the
M u s e Calliope, f e a t u r e d domi n a n t A p o l l o n i a n as w e l l as
lesser D i o n y s i a n aspects. I n Orphic myth, the h u m a n race
h a d b e e n f o r m e d f r o m t h e ashes of t h o s e Titains who, after
having e a t e n all b u t t h e heart of the d i v i n e infant D ionysos
Zagreus, h a d b e e n b l a s t e d b y Zeus' lightning. E a c h human,
like t h o s e ashes, was t h e r e f o r e p a r t l y d i v i n e a n d p a r t l y
(the T i t a n i c part) evil. Souls i n i t i a t e d into a n O rphic
Mystery c u l t could when transmigrating to a new b o d y be
p u r g e d of t h e i r evil, T i t a n i c aspect, and ultimately achieve
a b l e s s e d a f t e r l i f e w i t h the gods in t h e Ely s i a n Fields o r
the Isles of th e Blest, i n distant re g i o n s of t h e earth,
rat h e r t h a n g o i n g b e n e a t h to Hades.
L i k e O s i r i s m in Egypt, the Orphic m y t h b o t h s y m b o l i z e d
an d p r o m i s e d r e s u r r e c t i o n a f t e r death. Wi t h i n it A p o l l o w a s
no t so m u c h a n active agent as a d ivine p r i n c i p l e r e p r e s e n
t ing O r p h e u s ' r e s u r r e c t e d o r eternal a n d p u r i f i e d spirit as
w e l l as t h e p r i m a c y of the intellect o v e r the r e a l m of the
senses ( G o r m a n 114). A n d Orpheus, p l a y i n g the A p o l l o n i a n
lyre r a t h e r t h a n the D i o n y s i a n flute, w a s said t o have
created d i v i n e h a rm o n i e s that soothed savage beasts, caused
trees t o d a n c e a n d m a d e rivers stand still: it w a s the
triu m p h o f h a r m o n y a n d u n i t y o v e r d u a l i s m (Harrison 459) .
21
Pherekydes e v e n t u a l l y r e l o c a t e d t o Athens, where a f t e r
561 he lived as a fr i e n d of t h e tyrant P e i s i s t r a t u s , w h o was
t hen attempting t o assert A t h e n i a n control o v e r Ionia.
Pythagoras, m e a n w h i l e , h a d b e e n convi n c e d b y P herekydes that
h e had a l r e a d y b e e n r e i n c a r n a t e d a n d h a d the p o w e r to
recollect his p r e v i o u s lives, the m o s t recent b e i n g t h a t of
Aithalides, a p r o m i n e n t m y s t i c t e a c h e r and magician.
(Gorman 27-30) . H e also a p p a x e n t l y n o w d e v e l o p e d the b e l i e f
that h e was t h r o u g h some r e i n c a r n a t o r y or o t h e r p rocess a
messenger, son, o r actual a v a t a r of Apollo, a n d d e s t i n e d to
perfect a n d co m p l e t e that g o d ' s m i s s i o n to e f f e c t the
general salvation of h u m a n i t y b y offe r i n g it t h e A p o l l i n e
gift of philosophy, to r e d u c e its s ense of d i s t a n c e f r o m the
ideal d i v i n e w o r l d (Rougier, R e l i g i o n A s t r a l e 29) .
Pythagoras n o w b e c a m e a c harismatic figure, convincing
as a speaker, a n d able t o d a z z l e the h o i p o l l o i w h e n
n ecessary w i t h t h e o c c a s i o n a l hint of supernatural
abilities. H e w o r e r e b e l l i o u s l y D o r i a n - s t y l e long hair,
like the pro - a r i s t o c r a t i c a n d A p o l l o - w o r s h i p p i n g Spar t a n s
a n d pro-Spartans o f I onia a n d Athens, and d r e s s e d
flamboyantly, w i t h w hite robe, white trousers a n d a g o l d
coronet (Grant 228) . T hus h e capitalized o n t h e t r a d i t i o n
of the mysterious, wise, a n d m ag i c a l - p o s s i b l y sharaanic -
Orphic "mountain m an" (Dodds 153-4,- Gu t h r i e 151-2) . Unable
to participate as a p r i e s t in the cults of P o s e i d o n or, he
asserted A p o l l o n i a n relig i o u s beliefs b o t h o p p o s i t i o n a l to
22
H e r a a n d at t h e same t i m e i nnovative a n d " p h i l o s o p h i c a l ." To
cap it off, a n e nig m a t i c g o l d e n m a r k on his t h i g h no w lent
h i m c r e d i b i l i t y as n o less t h a n t h e "Hyperborean Apollo"
(Gorman 61) .
23
CHAPTER 4
PYTHAGORAS I N EGYPT: T H E A N C I E N T W ISDOM
Sometime between. 535 a n d 525, Polycrates, tyrant of
Samos, w h e t h e r from motives of f a v o r i t i s m o r a de s i re to be
r i d of Pythagoras, is said to h a v e g i v e n h i m a letter of
introduction t o Pharaoh A masis of Egypt, w h o was a n ally of
Samos against the growing P e r s i a n threat (Gorman 39, 50, 62;
G r a n t 324) . Determined to l e a r n the ancient w i s d o m of the
Eg y p t i a n priests, Pythagoras, if this s t o r y is true, thus
came to follow T h a l e s ' a d v i c e . Perhaps the accounts of his
e n s uing j o u r n e y to Egypt (with stopovers among Phoenicians,
Philistines a n d perhaps Jews) w e r e no m o r e than a later-
c o n c o c t e d myth, but the fact t h a t Pythagoras, alone of all
pr ominent ancient Greeks of his era, m a y h a v e actu a l l y
learned t o r e a d hieroglyphics w o u l d t e n d to v e r i f y the
f a c t u a l i t y of at least the E g y p t i a n part (Johnson 232) .
Egypt u n d e r Ahmose I (569-525) , w h o m t he Greeks called
Amasis, h a d o n l y recently (in 652) emerged f rom a p e r i o d of
first Ethiopian, then A s s y r i a n control. Its current 26th
D y n a s t y Pharaohs were restorationists ru l i n g from Sais, who
despite their traditionalist "Saitic Revival" a fforded Greek
merc h a n t s and mercenaries a b u n d a n t entry, perhaps t o
counterbalance the looming P e r s i a n threat. Thus the
Miletus - founded Greek city of Naukratis h a d become Egypt's
foremost commercial center (Gorman 50, 62; Grant 324) .
24
Amasis was s u f f i c i e n t l y G r e c o p h i l e that w h e n t h e t e m p l e
of A p o l l o a t Delph i w a s d e s t r o y e d b y f i r e in 548, h e b e c a m e
th e largest c o n t r i b u t o r (300 talents) t o its reconstruction,
almost as if A p o l l o a n d t h e D e l p h i a n o r a c l e w e r e c o n n e c t e d
in some w a y to th e E g y p t i a n r eligious t r a d i t i o n (Poe, 114) .
This indeed is p a r t of t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l thesis of M a r t i n
Bernal, w h o i n d e r i v i n g m o s t of G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n f r o m a
pu t a t i v e earlier E g y p t i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n asserts t h a t A p o l l o
was the G r e e k embod i m e n t of Horus-on-the-Horizon, the
y o uthful rising sun g o d (Bernal X 68-9) - Apollo's periodic
a n d chilly H y p e r b o r e a n v i s i t s m i g h t in t hat case b e
i dentified w i t h the r e p e a t e d inevit a b l e trans f o r m a t i o n s of
H orus into Osiris, l o r d of t h e d e a d (Fontenrose 386-387) .
A r r i v i n g in E g y p t p o s s i b l y around 530, P ythagoras w o u l d
h a v e interacted w i t h t h e l a r g e G r e e k c o m m u n i t y there. After
v i s i t i n g Sais to p r e s e n t h i s le t t e r of i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e
Pharaoh, h e r e p o r t e d l y p r o c e e d e d to O n - H e l i o p o l i s , c e n t e r of
H o r u s - o r i e n t e d sola r worship, b u t his p r e s e n c e as a curious
observer, student o r w o u l d - b e acolyte w a s n e i t h e r a c c e p t e d
t h e r e n o r at M e m p h i s . Then, at D i o s o p o l i s , it seems that
Pythagoras, perhaps a i d e d b y a n order f r o m Amasis, talked
his w a y into the s ecrets of t h e priesthood. H e was said to
h a v e b e e n e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h o s e aspects of E g y p t i a n
r e l i g i o n centering o n t h e d e a t h and t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n of
Osiris - the model, c l a i m e d t h e Egyptians, for t h e G r e e k
E l e u s i n i a n mysteries, s u p p o s e d l y e s t a b l i s h e d w h e n At h e n s
25
still r e c a l l e d its o r i g i n as an E g y p t i a n colony. This
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e anc i e n t writer D i o d o r u s Siculus (Poe 116;
Foucart [1914] was of t h e same opinion) . The Osirian
legends r e s e m b l e d the m y t h s of Orpheus: Osiris, l i k e the
Orphics, p r o m i s e d e t e r n a l life to w o r s h i p p e r s (Gorman 60) .
Th e s t o r y of A p o l l o n i a n Orpheus s e e m i n g l y w a s c o n c e r n e d with
a c h i e v i n g immortal i t y i n a m a n n e r a n a l o g o u s to that of
Horus, as son a n d r e b o r n embodiment of O s i r i s (Frazer 366-
75) . T h i s is one r e a s o n w h y Herod o t u s s i m p l y a s s u m e d that
Horus w a s in fact A p o l l o (Gregoire 9,* H e r o d o t u s 2.144) .
P y t h a g o r a s n o w a llegedly l e a r n e d h i e r o g l y p h i c writing,
as well as E g y p t i a n m athematics a n d geom e t r y . The latter
d i f f e r e d f r o m the B a b y l o n i a n o r "Chaldean" variety, a
s e x a gesimal s y s t e m t h a t had d e v e l o p e d as f a r as fractional
notation (Boyer 27) . Y e t a ny c l a i m t h a t E g y p t i a n
m a t h e m a t i c s a n d g e o m e t r y were b y c o m p a r i s o n r u d i m e n t a r y and
m e r e l y p r a c t i c a l has b e e n rejected b y scholars s u c h as
S c h w a l l e r de Lubicz w h o have f o u n d in E g y p t i a n art a n d
a r c h i t e c t u r e exp r e s s i o n s of a s upreme F e n g - S h u i - l i k e
p r i n c i p l e of u n i v e r s a l ma t h e m a t i c a l harmony. If, indeed,
the t e m p l e s a n d p a l a c e s of Egypt w e r e d e s i g n e d to reflect,
b e n efit f r o m a n d influence the h a r m o n i c s tructure o f the
cosmos, t h e n it was p erhaps f r o m the E g y p t i a n p r i e s t s that
Pythag o r a s first l e a r n e d to e n v i s i o n a n i d e a l mathematical
w o r l d as the t rue reality, still w i t h O r p h i s t - l i k e h armony
as its b i n d i n g principle, and all o p e r a t i n g b e h i n d a n
26
a p p a r e n t l y dualistic p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y (Campbell, O ccidental
M y t h o l o g y 243; S c h w a l l e r d e L ubicz 21-5, 257-62).
It appears t h a t t h e m o r e hol i s t i c a n d p i c t o r i a l
a ttributes of hier o g l y p h i c writing, as w e l l as the pre s u m e d
c o n n e c t i o n of hierog l y p h s w i t h ancient knowledge, m a y have
led h i m t o think t hat h i e r o g l y p h s were in themselves b o t h
links t o t h e idea of c o s m i c harmonies a n d correspondences
a n d symbols of th e sacred w o r l d of numbers. N u m b e r s became,
in his mind, not m e r e abstractions, b u t m e a n i n g f u l shapes,*
thus l a t e r m athema t i c i a n s s p e a k of the "square" or "cube" of
a given number (Russell 35-37).
A t some p o i n t in t h e s e inquiries, Pythagoras conceived
(or appropriated) p r o b a b l y t he m o s t crucial idea in the
entire h i s t o r y of mathematics: the idea of studying it for
its ow n sake. I n this n e w f i e l d of mathematics that he
e s t a b l i s h e d Pythagoras did, to b e sure, a l s o m a k e a nu m b e r
of specific mathe m a t i c a l a n d geometrical discoveries,
a l t h o u g h th e so-called "Pythagorean theorem" s h o u l d perhaps
b e cr e d i t e d only t o his l a t e r followers (Burkert, L o r e 401-
27) . B u t i n his own mind, his most important c ontribution
wa s the assertion of m y s t e r i o u s numerical a n d g e o m e t r i c
correspondences b e t w e e n p h e n o m e n a of different orders, and
the crucial involvement of m a t h e m a t i c s w i t h b o t h cosmic
h a r m o n y a n d the travels of t he soul.
Numbers, for Pythagoras, e a c h h a d a m y s t i c a l a n d cosmic
m e a n i n g relating t o v a r i o u s metaphy s i c a l categories o r
27
concepts. Thus o n e a n d t w o w e r e not nu m b e r s at all: one w a s
"the One, " the source of t h e universe, t h e male prin c i p l e of
form, identified w i t h Apollo, a nd two was the dyad, the
female principle, i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Rhea o r Hera, m o t h e r of
the gods, opponent of A p o l l o and source of divi s i o n and the
troublesome threat of i n f i n i t y (perhaps pr e f i g u r i n g m o d e m
superstring or "M" theorists who speak of the d estruction of
a p o s t u l a t e d p rimal s y m m e t r y ) .
B e t w e e n them, the p rinciples of one a n d two generate
all the o t h e r numbers,- thus three is m o r e than a principle,
it is the first t r u e n u m b e r as such. T h r e e stands for
plurality, and multitude, a n d our world of three d i m e n s i o n s ,-
like one, it is s a c r e d to Apollo. Four is actually ten in
disguise (1+2+3+4), a nd stands for roots (i.e., t h e four
elements) as well as A p o l l o n i a n justice i n the sense of
(foursquare) equality. Five is marriage (2+3), sa c r e d to
Aphrodite, and is r e p r e s e n t e d b y the p e n t a g r a m of i m m o r
tality. Si x was a l s o m a r r i a g e (2X3) b u t w i t h perfection, it
being a p erfect number. S e v e n is v i r g i n i t y (Athena) because
it cannot be g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h m ultiplication b y other
numbers a n d cannot itself g enerate other numbers b e l o w 10.
Eight b e i n g a cube is "harmonia," as w e l l as friendship a n d
eros. N i n e was a l s o justice, being the square of three a n d
the enforcer of a limit on t h e numbers b e l o w it before
starting a new series w i t h t e n (Gorman 138-52) .
28
T e n was the ideal n umber in P y t h a g o r a s ' system,* it was
"the symbol of limit a n d f o r m w h i c h i n t e r r u p t s t h e
contin u i t y of infinity, enabling m e n t o c o u n t " (Gorman 151) .
It con t a i n e d the s u m o f the m o s t d i v i n e u n i t s one, two,
three a n d four. T h e m o s t s a c r e d fi g u r e o f a l l t o
Pythagoras, e v e n m o r e s o t han Apollo's t r i p o d o r the
pentagram, was the " t e t r a c t y s " : a f i g u r e c o m p o s e d of ten
points shaped as a p y r a m i d of ones, twos, t h r e e s a n d fours:
The tetractys h a d e v e r y t h i n g : ten, a l l tine f i r s t four
numbers, the shape of an E g y p t i a n p y r a m i d , t h r e e sides in
honor of Apollo, a n d m a n y o t h e r features - b u t m o s t
importantly it was t h e symbol of the c o s m i c music, whose
m a t h e m a t i c a l l y - b a s e d chords P ythagoras w a s t o discover, w i t h
numbers 1,2,3 and 4 prominent. This sort of m a t h e m a t i c a l
number-mysticism, w h i c h he l a t e r c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
astronomical/astrologica l t h e o l o g y of t h e Magoi, was to p l a y
a k e y role i n Pythagoras' d e v e l o p i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l system.
Thus Pythagoras was a lready d e v e l o p i n g o r r e f i n i n g a sort o f
proto-Platonist set of ideas,- namely, t h a t number, g o d and
hu m a n souls were all aspects of a h i g h e r r e a l i t y than that
of e i t h e r the trans i t o r y mate r i a l w o r l d o r t h e physical
bodies of the h u m a n beings w i t h i n it.
29
CHAPTER 5
PYTHAGORA S I N BABYLON: SLAVERY AND ASTRONOMY
Later Pythagorean tradition said that P y thagoras1
E g y p t i a n p e r i o d en d e d a b r u p t l y i n 525, w h e n the d r e a d e d
P e r sian threat fin a l l y erupted. W i t h the conquest of Egypt
b y the P e r s i a n king Kambyses, t h e e x i l e d o r itinerant G r e e k
t h i n k e r m a y h ave b e c o m e a " p r i s o n e r of war" (i.e., slave)
an d have b e e n h e l d i n P e r s i a n - c o n t r o l l e d B a b y l o n f or a
p e r i o d e s t i m a t e d at b e t w e e n 5 a n d 13 years. Supposedly,
like some h i g h e r status Jews w h o h a d r e c e n t l y u n d e r g o n e a
"Babylonian captivity" f r o m 586 t o 538, h e was f a i r l y w e l l
tr e a t e d an d eve n able t o f u r t h e r his studies (Gorman, 49) .
A l t h o u g h it h a d r e c e n t l y (538) f a l l e n tinder t he r u l e of
expansionist, n e w l y - Z o r o a s t r i a n Persia, B a b y l o n h a d a long
religious t r aditio n o f its own d a t i n g b a c k to S u m e r i a n
times. T hus Pythagoras n o w e n c o u n t e r e d b o t h m e s s i a n i c
Zor o a s t r i a n a n d o l d e r B a b y l o n i a n b e l i e f s c o n c e r n i n g the
interplay of oppos i n g deities o r p r i n c i p l e s in t h e universe.
Thus, a c c o r d i n g to Porphyry, P y t h a g o r a s w a s a b l e to s t u d y
u n d e r the Ch a l d e a n M a g i Zaratas, w h o t a u g h t that t h e r e w e r e
t w o basic causes in t h e universe, "the Father" a n d "the
Mother, " w i t h the h e a v e n l y "Father" f o r m i n g t he p s y c h e or
life-principle and t h e infernal "Mother" the m a t e r i a l world,
including the body. Z a r a t a s 1 d o c t r i n e of m e t a p h y s i c a l
interconnections b e t w e e n the t w o as t h e source of all
30
r e a l i t y s u p p o s e d l y led Pythagoras at this t i m e t o coin the
e x p r e s s i o n "the cosmos" (Gorman 63-68) .
B u t P ythagora s also e n c o u n t e r e d i n B a b y l o n tw o m o r e
e x treme sets of dual i s t i c w o r l d v i e w s - One w as the
m i l l e n a r i a n fai t h of the Z o r o a s t r i a n s , wh o b e l i e v e d that the
a g e - o l d struggle b e t w e e n A h u r a M a z d a (or Orrauzd), god of
light, a n d Ahriman, g o d of darkness, w o u l d f i n a l l y culminate
in the v i c t o r y of th e former a f t e r t h e Second Coming of a
m e s s i a n i c "saviour" figure c a l l e d the "Saoshyant." This
cre e d m a r k e d the initial a p p e a r a n c e of the p h e n o m e n a of
M e s s i a n i s m a n d m i l l e n a r i a n i s m in w o r l d history, with, as
N o r m a n C o h n h a s shown, u l t i m a t e l y dram a t i c e f f e c t s on the
th inking of some e a r l i e r J e w i s h capti v e s there. The o t h e r
d ual i s t i c belief s y s t e m was p a r t of t h e long t r a d i t i o n of
C h a l d e a n astrology. Since t h e origins of t h e i r parent
Su m e r i a n civ i l i z a t i o n in th e four t h m i l l e n n i u m BC, the
p r i e s t l y forebears of Zaratas a n d t h e Mag o i h a d b e e n
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y tracking, r e c o r d i n g a n d c a lculating the
m o v e m e n t s of the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s . T h e y b e l i e v e d that the
stars a n d planets were gods, e m i t t e d music, w e r e each
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h numbers, a n d all m o v e d in a g r e a t sphere
a r ound t h e e a r t h (Gorman 64) . B u t w h e r e a s th e fixed stars
m o v e d in r e gular paths, s e e m i n g l y a r o u n d the earth, the five
"wandering stars, " o r p l a n e t s , s e e m e d to m o v e i n a "goatish"
(i.e., "capricious") manner, e v e n maliciously, n ot only in a
con t r a r y d i r e c t i o n but irreg u l a r l y as well, a n d the m o o n and
31
sun also p r o c e e d e d a l o n g devious astronomical r o u t e s . Since
all w e r e d e e m e d gods, t h e d u a l i s t i c explanation followed
that there w a s a w a r i n heaven. T h e fixed stars we r e gods
or spirits loyal to o r d e r l y Ormuzd, whereas the "goatish"
p l anets we r e o bviou s l y m i n i o n s of Ahriman. The errant sun
a n d m o o n w e r e also troubling, a l t h o u g h m o r e regular than the
planets and so u n r e s o l v e d (Rougier, R e l i g i o n A s t r a l e 22-35) .
Pythagoras, fre s h fro m his E g y p t i a n studies, n o w f o u n d
a m a t h e m a t i c a l solution for t h e dilemma, i n effect saving
the appearances as t h e y r e l a t e d t o the sun, Apollo's
celestial body. The s u n (and a l s o the moon) m o v e d
differently, h e said, b e c a u s e t h e y w ere e a c h embedded in an d
p r o p e l l e d b y not one b u t two t u r n i n g s p h e r e s . A l l was well
in t h e heavens, therefore, b e c a u s e all was still spherical
as w e l l as m a t h e m a t i c a l l y h a r m o n i o u s . There was no war of
the gods: all evil, th a t is t o s a y imperfection, was
sublunar; i.e. belo w th e spheres prope l l i n g the moon, an d
everything abo v e the m o o n was perfect. Extending his idea,
Pythagoras d e d u c e d t h a t the p l a n e t s were also not real l y
capricious,* e a c h of t h e m must h a v e its ow n sphere b e y o n d the
moon, w i t h subspheres (later c a l l e d epicycles) affecting
t h e i r orbits i n m a t h e m a t i c a l l y p r e d i c t a b l e ways. This
concept was t o become t he bas i s for the Ptolemaic system,
and in that f o r m to d o m i n a t e th e science of astronomy u n t i l
the e r a of Copernicus a n d Kepler.
32
The sphere was t h e p e r f e c t geom e t r i c s h a p e a n d t h e only-
one appropriate for t h e gods. T h e cosmos w a s spherical,
enclosing smaller g r e a t spheres, a n d the stars, p l a n e t s and
the earth w er e s m a l l e r sph e r e s (Pythagoras was t h e f i r s t
k n o w n thinker to as s e r t t h a t the e arth w as a s p h e r e .) The
final sphere, that of t h e f i x e d stars, was v e r y far d i s t a n t
a nd not at all the s a m e as those of any of the planets, and
rotated in a d i r e c t i o n c o n t r a r y t o theirs (Rougier, Religion
A s t r a l e 22-35).
Pythagoras' s y s t e m of a s t r o n o m y d i d d i f f e r in s o m e
important respects f r o m t h e l a t e r Ptolemaic conception. It
was not earth-centered,- a l l m o t i o n within t h e cosmos, he
thought, was g o v ern e d b y a controlling f o r c e e m i t t e d b y a
"central f i r e , " a r o u n d w h i c h r e v o l v e t e n (the ideal number)
bodies: first the " a n t i c h t h o n , " o r counterearth, always
invisible to earthlings, t h e n earth, the moon, t he sun, the
five planets, and the s p h e r e of t h e fixed stars. That outer
contra-rotating sphere c o n t a i n e d t h e others in d e s c e n d i n g
order, plus smaller s p h e r e s a f f e c t i n g the a s s u m e d l y c i r c u l a r
orbits of one or a n o t h e r body, creating t h e "music of the
spheres" as t h e y moved. This m u s i c o b v i o u s l y a f f e c t e d
everything below, w h e t h e r h u m a n s h e a r d it o r not,- it w a s the
means b y w h i c h a s t r o l o g i c a l influences w e r e effected. The
universe ha d to b e finite, as i n f i n i t y or "the u n l i m i t e d "
was th e essence of evil,- t h e r e w a s h owever a n i n f i n i t e v o i d
b e y o n d the universe, w h i c h e n c l o s e d it, p r o v i d i n g it w i t h
33
"breath." (arguably a c o n c e p t anal o g o u s t o m o d e r n p h y s i c i s t s '
treatment of t i m e as a f o u r t h dimension.) (S a n t i l i a n a 242) .
His n o n - P t o l e m a i c i d e a of a non-stationary, o r b i t i n g earth
was t o prove of special s c i e n t i f i c i m p o r t a n c e : Copernicus,
2000 years later, credited Pythagoras’ system with inspiring
his ow n r esearches (Rougier, R e l i g i o n A s t r a l e 22-35;
Burkert, Lore 357-68; S c h w a l l e r d e L u b i c z 21-5).
T o Pythagoras, all of this h a d i m p o r t a n t religious
implications. E v e n if H a d e s w as a p p r o p r i a t e l y sublunar, the
Eg y p t i a n Isles o f the B l e s t a n d the O r p h i c E l y s i a n Fields
would b e l o g i c a l l y h i g h above, among t h e f i x e d stars,
especi a l l y the M i l k y W a y (Santillana 242) . The immortal
part of man, t h e soul, r i g h t l y b e l o n g e d above, i n t he
perfect and i m m o r t a l (fiery) part, of t h e u n i v e r s e (Rougier,
Origine A s t r o n o m i q u e 7) . Rather than become wandering
shades t r a p p e d i n the u n d e r w o r l d c averns of Hades or
elsewhere on earth, immortal souls at d e a t h r e t u r n e d to
their homes in t h e heavens, awa i t i n g reincarnation. A
de c i s i o n was m a d e at the l e v e l of the m o o n as to w h e t h e r a
pa r t i c u l a r soul m u s t b e a g a i n r eborn o r w o u l d b e al l o w e d t o
finally p r o c e e d to, and b e c o m e one of, o r one with, the
stars. N e w souls d e s c e n d i n g f r o m t h e stars accumu l a t e d
passions and d e s i r e s as t h e y p a s s e d e a c h a s s o c i a t e d
p l a n e t a r y sphere,- w h e n r e t u r n i n g a f t e r d e a t h t h e y cast t h e s e
off on e b y one u n t i l t h e y w e r e n u d e a n d spherical, like t h e
stars (Rougier, R e l i g i o n A s t r a l e 3,74-83). Exis t i n g
34
concepts of t h e sk y w e r e thus as it w e r e effect i v e l y
p r e p a r e d for t h e advent of the l a t e r C hristian be l i e f in
Heaven.
35
C HA P T E R 6
R E T U R N T O SAMOS: THE C O L T O F PHILOSOPHY
Pythagoras wa s able to re t u r n to Samos some time
b e t w e e n 520 a n d 512, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e the is l a n d was n o w
Persian-controlled: the t yrant Polyc r a t e s h a d b e e n captured
b y trickery a n d c r u c i f i e d in 522 (Gorman 78) . U p o n his
return, Pythagoras a s s u m e d the l i f e o f an O rphic-style guru,
living in a cave w i t h a f e w followers, and teaching larger
groups i n a n e a r b y o p e n - a i r rock f o r m a t i o n k n o w n as the
" Hemicircle." (Gorman 71-6/ S c h w a l l e r de Lubicz 259) . He
n o w coined a n o ther word: “p hilosophy." He b e g a n to
characterize himself a n d his d e v o t e e s as " p h i l o s o p h e r s ,"
lovers of a w i s d o m w h i c h could b e b e s t found thr o u g h
attention to the p u r e g o d h e a d of m a t h e m a t i c s and to music,
intermediary b e t w e e n t h e divine a n d ea r t h l y worlds; thus he
considered p h i l o s o p h y t o b e "the h i g h e s t music" (Durant 4).
But mathematics, i n turn, was t h e highest p h i l o s o p h y
(Gorman 43-49/ Philip 29-91) . T h i s meant that Apollo, god
of music, was also the g o d of philosophy, since according to
Pythagoras he was m a t h e m a t i c a l i n essence.
This belief was n o w r e i n f o r c e d when, l egend has it,
Pythagoras m a d e his f a m o u s (and q u i t e scientific) discovery
of the mathematical n a t u r e of t h e m u s i c a l h armonic scale.
A f t e r hearing tones e m i t t e d b y t h e striking of anvils in a
36
b l a c k s m i t h ' s shop, he b e c a m e cur i o u s a n d m e a s u r e d the
lengths of lyre strings, and f o u n d (using t h e e x perimental
method) that m u s ica l p i t c h was i n d e e d e x a c t l y m a t h e m a t i c a l l y
based, w i t h p e r f e c t h armonies c r e a t e d b y s t r i n g length
ratios of 2-1, 3-2, 4-3 a n d 9-8. Since 1,2,3 a n d 4 w e r e
a l s o the components of the tetractys, a n d s ince m athematics
al s o g o v e r n e d the orbits of the planets, w h i c h e m i t t e d the
m u s i c of th e spheres, it seemed e v i d e n t t o h i m that a
prin c i p l e of m a t h em a t i c a l mus i c a l h a r m o n y h a d b e e n confirmed
as the basis of the universe. Henceforth, b e i n g a fine
k i t h a r a player, an d claiming that he c o u l d act u a l l y h e a r the
m u s i c of th e spheres, h e p s y c h i c a l l y p u r i f i e d his followers
w i t h his o w n m u s i c each m o r n i n g u p o n a r i s i n g a n d at n ight
u p o n g o i n g t o sleep, j ust as A p o l l o h a d m y t h i c a l l y p l a y e d
th e lyre at Olympia n b anquets (Gorman 160-8) .
"Philosophy" thus became f o r P ythagoras a m e t h o d for
th e r e f o r m of Greek religion t h r o u g h i n t e r p o s i t i o n of the
p r i m a c y of h i s newly - c o n c e i v e d Apollo. H i s society of
phil o s o p h e r s was to b e c o m e k n o w n a s t he "pythagorikoi, " a
prot o - m o n a s t i c b r o t h e r h o o d w hose m e m b e r s a d h e r e d to
systematic rules of life, and w h o s e a i m w a s to save t h e
w o r l d one soul at a time through t h e ac h i e v e m e n t of
"katharsis", in the A p o l l o n i a n sense. T h i s was attainable
th r o u g h philosophy, d e f i n e d p a r t l y t o i nclude a s c e t i c i s m and
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in certain rituals a n d o b s e r v a n c e of ce r t a i n
taboos, since these w e r e aspects of wisdom. T h e n e w element
37
w a s hi s a s sertion that o n l y t h r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g the
o r d e r l y essence of the 'kosmos*, t h r o u g h philos o p h y , could
m e n b y e m ulating its p r i n c i p l e s ach i e v e b o t h p r o p e r o r d e r in
th e earthly w o r l d and " 'k o s m i o s ' o r orderly" individual,
souls (Guthrie 198).
T o prevent p o l l u t i o n b y an u n c l e a n world, a n d t r a i n the
s oul to attend to h i g h e r intimations, s u c h as r e c o v e r e d
m e m o r i e s of j o y o u s l y f l o a t i n g a m o n g the s t a r s face t o face
w i t h the gods listening t o the m u s i c of t h e spheres, an
ascetic life style was t o b e s t r i c t l y followed. Devotees of
Pythagoras w e r e i n s t r u c t e d to p e r f o r m r i t e s of purification,
a n d t o respect diet a r y (vegetarian) and m o r a l rules. Less
p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t a l e n t e d devotees, slow t o u n d e r s t a n d the
r a t i o nalism a n d m a t h e m a t i c s of Pythagoras, w ere called
"a k o u s m a t i c s . " T h e y w e r e not a l l o w e d into t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s
innermost chamber, the e n t r a n c e t o w h i c h w a s m a r k e d w i t h the
words: "all w h o d o not s t u d y geometry, r e m a i n outside"
(Cottrell 73) . These l e s s e r acolytes w e r e i n s t r u c t e d to
fol l o w m a n y seeming l y r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e taboos: not t o p i c k
u p w h a t has fallen, t o u c h a w h i t e cock, b r e a k bread, step
o v e r a crossbar, stir t h e fire w i t h iron, e a t f r o m a w hole
loaf, sit on a quart measure, look in a m i r r o r beside a
light, and m a n y others (Burnet 96) . Supposedly, b y
foll o w i n g s uch rites a n d practices, p e r h a p s analo g o u s to the
612 strictures of (later to b e Orthodox) J u d a i s m t h e n in
p r o cess of elaboration, even an unintelligent person might
38
be t r a ined in a s c e t i c i s m a nd t h e r e b y a t t a i n some degree of
spiritual p u r ificat i o n (Gorman 88-99) .
But Samians ap p a r e n t l y d i d not w a n t their rel i g i o n
reformed. Pythagoras* u n - G r e e k p r o m o t i o n of a s c e t i c i s m was
p r o b a b l y a n important f a c t o r in a l i e n a t i n g h i m f r o m the
majority. Al t h o u g h n o m i n a l l y secret, s u c h doctrines as that
th e gods are actually n umbers w e r e f a x t o o radical for most
citizens, an d could e v e n threaten to r e d u c e the t ake at the
recently rebuilt Temple of H e r a (Philip 174). Pythagoras'
strange 'barbarian' lo n g - h a i r e d a p p e a r a n c e , his remarks
about the Olympic games, his general d e n i a l of t h e Greek
gods' i m p o r t a n c e , e x c e p t i n g a v e r y abstract f o r m of Apollo,
w o u l d h a v e v i o l a t e d t h e i r sense of the sacred. His
reloca t i o n of the Isles of t he Blest l i k e l y s h o c k e d them
too: o n l y gods could travel to t he stars (Gorman 83) . Then
again, h e o f t e n made allusions t o r e i n c a rnation that were
b a s e d o n events in his o w n life. Xenophanes, himself a
pr o n o u n c e d skeptic as t o the gods, was p r o b a b l y attuned to
the m a j o r i t y v i e w in his scathing r e j e c t i o n of t h e
reincarnation doctrine, and his o t h e r fellow I o n i a n thinker
Heraclitus considered Pythagoras a m e r e charlatan. (Gorman
79-83,- Bu r n e t 85).
H a v i n g b e e n invited, Pythagoras d e c i d e d t o emigrate to
Croton in M a g n a Graecia. A f t e r 560 m o s t of Ionia's
liveliest m inds were d o i n g so, m o v i n g w e s t to A t h e n s and
elsewhere. Ionia's location close t o e astern civilizations,
39
which, h a d b e e n so i n t e l l e c t u a l l y stimulating, n o w exposed it
t o g r e a t m i l i t a r y dangers a n d Persia w a s t a k i n g control of
th e region. B y the latter p a r t of the century, therefore,
I o n i a 1s culture was decl i n i n g while t h a t of A t h e n s b e g a n to
f l o w e r f r o m this emigration of talent (Snodgrass 162) .
But Pythagoras, like s o m e other o u t s t a n d i n g lonians,
c hose i n s t e a d to resettle n o t in A t h e n s but in Greece's
w e s t e r n colonies. Leaving Samos in o r a r o u n d 518, h e m o v e d
w i t h his innovative sect of p h i l o s o p h e r s t o M a g n a Graecia in
s o u t h e r n Italy, it was there, in the c i t y - s t a t e of Croton,
t h a t he w o u l d realize the c u l m i n a t i n g p h a s e of his life and
a t t a i n to the final e l a b o r a t i o n of his ideas.
40
C HAPTER 7
PYTHAGORAS A T CROTON: A P O T H E O S I S
A N D DOWNFALL
M a g n a G r a e c i a at t h e time of Pythagoras' a r r i v a l was
already in t h e midst o f a n Orphic religious renais s a n c e w i t h
strong A p o l l o n i a n elements, involving a m o n g others the n o t e d
Orphics Kerkops and a l s o Brontinos, w h o l i k e l y h a d issued
Pythagoras' invitat i o n (Gorman 89) . Croton, a relative
back w a t e r c o l o n y of A c h a e a n Greeks with o n l y a small port
a nd little commerce, w a s according to t r a d i t i o n f a v o r e d b y
Delphic Apollo. Its r e l a t i v e dearth of t r a d e m a y h a v e also
have b e e n a n attrac t i v e attribute in Pythagoras* anti-
coramercial eyes,* m e r c h a n t s were the least s p i r i t u a l l y
developed h u m a n group- The city's coins f e a t u r e d Apollo's
oracular tripod, f r o m w h i c h the Pythia p r o p h e s i e d (Gorman
87, 105) . T h e city leaders, treating Pythagoras as a
reincarnation of Apollo, received h i m w i t h the h i g h e s t
honors as a "sort of O r p h i c Pope" (Graves, G r e e k M y t h s I 60;
White Goddess 307).
He p r o c e e d e d to cr e a t e a thriving o r g a n i z a t i o n and to
become the m o s t p r o m i n e n t figure in Croton. A s before,
those devotees w h o l i v e d communally w i t h t h e M a s t e r were the
most advanced, the "philosophers, " while t h e less elevated
"akousmatics" did not partic i p a t e in m a t h e m a t i c a l studies,
and went hom e every n i g h t (Gorman 113-23) . Despite
41
Pythagoras' a s c e t i c doctrines, including v egetarianism and a
sort of communal ism, m a n y lea d i n g c itizens and i n f l u e n t i a l
Orphics, t h e i r w e a l t h b a s e d o n l a n d n ot commerce, seem to
have a p p r o v e d a n d participated. P y t h a g o r a s is s a i d t o h a v e
m a r r i e d B r o n t i n o s ' d a u g h t e r T h e a n o a n d f a t h e r e d at l east two
children b y her: a son, Telaugus, a nd a daughter, Damo. The
movement, c o n t r a r y to the customs of t h e era, admitted women
to membership, and. D a m o later b e c a m e a p r o m i n e n t l e a d e r
(Gorman 89-90, 108).
Pythagoras* d o c t r i n e s as f i n a l l y p r o m u l g a t e d in Croton,
fruits of a li f e t i m e search for k n o w l e d g e that h e i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l wisdom, i n c l u d e d reincarnation, t he
mathe m a t i c a l n a t u r e of the cosmos, astrology, dualism
without a final apocalypse, numerology, e q u a l i t y of t h e
sexes, c o m m u n a l i s m and vegetarianism. Since Apollo was
s u p p o s e d l y th e f a t h e r of Asklepios, g o d o f healing, the
Pythagoreans w ere n o t e d for t h e i r m e d i c a l a n d health-
o r i ented practices, w h i c h b e c a m e a m a j o r p a r t of t h e i r
tradition. P r o p e r m athematical ratios of diet a n d e x e r c i s e
w ere s e e n as the k e y t o good health, while revering above
all the h o l y tetractys, t hey a l s o u s e d t he p e n t a g r a m as a
sign of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a symbol f o r h e a l t h and immortality,*
m e anings that p e r s i s t e d and r e a p p e a r e d i n R e n a i s s a n c e
drawings a n d a l c h e m i c a l diagrams. (Burnet 295,- Graves,
G r e e k M yths I 57; W h i t e Goddess 277).
42
Pr i o r t o Pythagoras' arrival, Croton h a d suffered a
cr u s h i n g m i l i t a r y d e f e a t b y the Locrians. C i t y leaders with
w h o m Pythagoras wa s a l i g n e d e v i d e n t l y e n c o u r a g e d P y t h a g o r a s 1
ascetic t e a c h i n g s in p a r t as a t o u g h e n i n g m i l i t a r y m e a s u r e
d i r e c t e d at th e p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e (Philip 179).
A p o l l o 's w a r r i o r a s p e c t as well as A p o l l o n i a n civic v a l u e s
w e r e to b e th e basis f o r future v i c t o r i e s . In speeches to
th e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n that h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d (or per h a p s
invented) b y l a m b l i c h u s , w r i t i n g eight c enturies later, we
f i n d Pythagoras u r g i n g all citizens t o live acco r d in g to
strict a n d r a t h e r p u r i t a n i c a l s t a n d a r d s . H e reportedly
"praised v i r t u e a n d s u m m e d u p the w r o n g of l u x u r y a n d the
fate of states that h a d b e e n r u i n e d b y t hat p l a g u e ."
(Justinius, q u o t e d in V o g e l 6 2 . ) T h e l oyal C r o t o n i a n was to
h e n c e f o r t h d i s p l a y sobriety, modesty, a n d simplicity,
d i s d a i n i n g lux u r y and finery. W o m e n w e r e t o g i v e up t h e i r
fine clothes an d m e n t h e i r concubines (Vogel 2) . Asceticism
wa s the ideal, w i t h semi-celibacy, a n d c l o t h i n g was t o b e
wh i t e w i t h n o n - l e a t h e r sandals. H e e x t o l l e d above a l l the
elusive g o a l of "homonoia", or u n i o n of minds: communities
o n earth s h o u l d b e g u i d e d b y the e x a m p l e o f the harmonious
h e a v e n l y w o r l d of the g ods and e m u l a t e it (thus recalling
b o t h the e a r l i e r E g y p t i a n "as above, so below" and t h e later
C h r i s t i a n "on e a r t h as it is in Heaven.") "Man and t h e
s t a t e , " h e is r e p o r t e d to h a v e said, "ought to b e w h a t the
w o r l d a c t u a l l y is ... a v i s i b l e r e f l e c t i o n of supreme
43
harmony" (Gorman 260) . This h a r m o n y w a s b o t h t h e u l t i m a t e
source an d th e true m e s s a g e of Beauty, w h e t h e r in music, the
arts, o r architecture (Fideler 12) . M o r a l precepts like
those of his order w e r e urged as fost e r i n g h a r m o n y t h r o u g h
d e v otion t o w hat l a t e r p hilosophers w o u l d call the Good. As
fo r Truth, since that w a s attainable i n m a n ' s m i n d t h r o u g h
philosophy, it was unitary, harmonious a n d mathematical;
there could b e no t o l e r a n c e for t h e p o l l u t i o n of d i s c o r d or
disagreement (Gorman 96-102).
Thus m o r a l l y revivified, t h e Crotonians e v i d e n t l y
became r e a d y fo r r e n e w e d military efforts. The rival city
of Sybaris t o the n o r t h of Croton was a h i g h l y p rosp e r o u s
trading center, as proverbial f o r its m u n i c i p a l l u x u r y as
Croesus of L y d i a h a d recently b e e n for his personal wealth.
In the ubiquitous conflict b etween a ristocratic and
democratic forces in t h e Greek city-states of the time, the
Pythagoreans ha d e v i d e n t l y undertaken the p r o t e c t i o n of
certain aristocratic exiles w h o h a d f l e d a s udden d e m o c r a t i c
tyranny in Sybaris. In o r around 510, at a time w h e n Croton
was reported as b e i n g controlled b y "the sect of the
Pythagoreans," the c i t y went t o war. Croton's forces, led
b y the famous Olympic athlete (and P ythagorean acolyte)
Milo, ruthlessly a n d pe r m a n e n t l y d e s t r o y e d Sybaris b y
diverting its adjoining river, floo d i n g the t o w n (Grant 229-
30; Vogel 190).
44
This t r i umph of t he vir t u o u s o v e r the im p u r e was s h o r t
lived, however. T h e Pythagoreans h a d e v i d e n t l y laid
themselves o p e n t o domestic p olitical attack b y siding w i t h
aristocratic forces. Crotonians of democ r a t i c inclinations
m a y h a v e felt that Pythagoras was a i m i n g to estab l i s h the
rule of a self-appo i n t e d elite of t he virtuous. If i ndeed
Pythagoras h a d once p e r s o n a l l y obs e r v e d h ow t h e Egypt i a n
p r i e s t h o o d p l a y e d a n important p olitical role, amou n t i n g t o
u noffi c i a l control of the state, he w a s perhaps u n w i s e l y
t e m p t e d t o emulate them. Consid e r i n g that p r i e s t s p e r se
g e n e r a l l y p l a y e d n o poli t i c a l role in G r e e k society (which
was one of its g l o r i e s ) , f or Pythagoras to e ncourage s u c h a n
attempt o n the part of his s emi-monastic s o c i e t y w o u l d h a v e
b e e n a grave lapse of judgment. His o t h e r m i s t a k e m a y h a v e
b e e n to assume that the r e a l m of mathema t i c a l o r g e o m e t r i c a l
explanation could include rel i g i o n a n d m o r a l i t y in the f irst
p lace (Kitto 193). Or, it m a y b e that he was b a s i c a l l y
correct, and h u m a n i t y h as since ignored that n eeded
connection to its detriment (Santillana 330-1).
A s a consequence of the war, poli t i c a l opponents of the
Pythagoreans, including ex-members of the cult, combined
w i t h democratic elements u n d e r the leadership of a c e r t a i n
C ylon to take p o w e r in or a r o u n d 508. T h e y ejected
Pythagoras f r o m C ro t o n or c a u s e d his flight, leaving the
c i t y e m broiled in a syndrome of long-persistent viol e n c e
b e t w e e n the c l a s s e s . Then, in the m i d - f i f t h century, there
45
w a s m o r e v i o l e n c e as P y t h a g o r e a n organizations w e r e s t a m p e d
out t h r o u g h o u t Italy. I n C r o t o n itself 50 or m o r e
Pythagoreans w e r e m u r d e r e d w h e n t h e i r m e e t i n g place, the
h o u s e of Milo, was s a c k e d a n d b u r n e d (Grant 231) .
Th e a g e d Pytha g o r a s h i m s e l f p r o b a b l y fled t o n e a r b y
M e t a p o n t u m a n d there c o m m i t t e d suicide around 500 B.C.
(Grant 229) . it is h o w e v e r a l s o p o s s i b l e that h e n e v e r m a d e
it t o Metapontum, or t h a t h e d i d so a n d t h e n r e m a i n e d a l i v e
th e r e into t h e 470's. T h e r e a r e at least six d i f f e r e n t
v e r s i o n s of h i s en d (Gorman 182-3,- P hilip 191-2) . It is
n o t a b l e that of the c o n t e m p o r a r y cities of M a g n a G r a e c i a
o n l y M e t a p o n t u m fo l l o w e d C r o t o n in a p p a r e n t l y h o l d i n g A p o l l o
in th e h i g hest regard, w i t h C r o t o n iss u i n g t r i p o d coins
a r o u n d 550 a n d M e t a p o n t u m i s s u i n g A p o l l o coins a r o u n d 470
(Burkert, L o r e 113-114).
46
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
O p ponents of t h e Pythago r e a n s long d e p i c t e d t h e i r
des t r u c t i o n as a v i c t o r y for f r e e d o m ag a i n s t the w o r s t sort
of tyranny. Croton's a n n i h i l a t i o n of the c i t y of Sybaris in
510 had b e e n the m o s t terr i b l e k n o w n a t r o c i t y o f G r e e k s
against G r e e k s up t o t h a t time, a n d they s a i d it h a d b e e n
p e r p e t r a t e d u n d e r t h e leade r s h i p of Pythagoreans if not of
t h e sage himself, p u n i s h i n g "sybaritic" l u x u r y i n t h e name
of pur i t a n i c a l C r o t o n i a n a s c e t i c i s m (Burkert, L o r e 116-117).
The P y t h a g o r e a n movement, des p i t e its n e a r - t o t a l
suppression i n M a g n a Graecia, e v e n t u a l l y resurfaced. The
y o u n g Plato, among others, a b s o r b e d its A p o l l o n i a n amb i a n c e
i n Tarentum. Plato him s e l f w a s sometimes s a i d t o h a v e b e e n
fathered b y Apollo, a n d to h a v e b e e n b o r a o n A p o l l o ' s
birthday. I n the r e a l m of philosophy, t h e o u t l o o k s of
Socrates a n d Plato, in particular, and t h e later
n e o p l a t o n i s m of Plotinus, all reflect p r o f o u n d P y t h a g o r e a n
influences.
It has b e e n s a i d that the Pythag o r e a n b e l i e f t h a t
N u m b e r sets limits t o t h e o t h e r w i s e b o u n d l e s s U n l i m i t e d w as
in some w a y s analogous in Plato, A r i s t o t l e a n d s ubsequent
p h i l o s o p h y t o the k e y d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n F o r m a n d M a t t e r
(Fideler 35). A f t e r Pythagoras' death, h i s on e t i m e follower
47
Parmenides of E l e a an d his school developed a f o r m of
m o d i f i e d Py t h a g o r e a n i s m that resolved t h e q u e s t i o n of the
One and t h e M a n y in a m a n n e r facilitating the c o n c e p t i o n of
P l a t o ’s i d e a l i s m (Gorman 92) . According t o B e r t r a n d
Russell, "what appears as P l a t o n i s m is, w h e n analysed, found
to b e in essence Pythagoreani s m . " (Russell 37) .
The poli t i c a l analogue of P l a t o ’s ideal Forms, m o r e real
than a n y individual exemplar, was the doct r i n e of his
h armonious u t o p i a n Republic w i t h its g o v e r n m e n t b y
collectivistic Guardians. Th a t concept c l e a r l y o w e d a great
deal to the P y t h a go r e a n philosopher-ruled collectivistic
ethos w h i c h Plato h a d e x perienced at Tarentum. Plato's
Academy, as is well known, admit t e d no on e wh o h a d not
m a s t e r e d geometry. Fo r Socrates, Pythagoras h a d b e e n
correct t o s a y that "philosophy was the highest music, " bu t
his later followers h a d erred in allowing their m e d i c a l
interests to lead t h e m into deemphasizing the impor t a n c e of
the soul vis- a - v i s the b o d y (Burnet, E . R . E ., vol. 10 528) .
Apollo, f o r Socrates, was a na m e of "terrible signification"
because it expr e s s e d t he god's powers in regard t o music,
prophecy, medicine, and, most of all, t he p r i n c i p l e of
ha r m o n y as e lucidat e d b y "astronomers a n d musicians" since
the time of P y t h a g o r a s . To a t t a i n to this harmony, he
asked, "is not A p o l l o the purifier, an d the washer, and the
absolver fr o m all impurities?" The n a m e as h e interprets it
also mea n s the g o d w h o "makes all things move together, " a nd
48
does so "by a harmonious power, as a stronomers a n d musicians
ingeniously declare." (Cratylus, in P l a t o ' s Dialogues 404e-
406a). while awaiting his execution, h a v i n g obtained its
postponement until a f t e r t h e festival of Apollo, Socrates
composed a p o e m to the god, as a sort o f s wan song (the
swan, like the rave n and t h e wolf, b e i n g one of Apollo's
manifestations) . I n a r emarkable p a s s a g e in the Phaedo, he
asserts his (and p r e s u m a b l y Plato's) special relationship
w i t h A po l l o as well as A p o l l o 's p o w e r t o extend i m m o r tality
to m o r t a l s :
[swans about to die] .. .sing m o r e loudly and
sweetly t h a n t h e y h a v e sung in all t h e i r lives
before, for joy t h a t they a r e g o i n g a w a y into
the presence of t h e god w h o s e servants t h e y
are....the swans, b e l o n g i n g as t h e y d o t o Apollo,
have prophetic p o w e r s and s i n g b ecause t h e y know
the good things t h a t await t h e m in the un s e e n
world . . . .Now X cons i d e r t h a t I a m in t h e same
service as the swans, and d e d i c a t e d t o t he same
god, and that I a m no w orse end o w e d w i t h prophetic
powers b y m y master, and n o m o r e disconsolate at
leaving this life. (Plato, P h a e d o , in Dialogues
84e-85b)
Partly through the i n f l u e n c e of Socrates a n d Plato,
Pythagoreanism w i t h its a s s o c i a t e d cult of A p o l l o long h eld
strong appeal for t h e e d u c a t e d element of the Greco- R o m a n
49
world. The v i t a l i t y of P y t h a g o r e a n i s m was e n h a n c e d b y its
v e r y complexity. A s Bu r k e r t says o f t h e later Pythagoreans,
there w a s no c l ear- c u t 'doctrine of Pythagoras,- ' rather a
"maze of c o n f lictin g tendencies" in w h i c h m y t h a n d science
mingled. But this was e v i d e n c e of vitality, b e c a u s e "only
d e a d d o g m a is p r e s e r v e d w i t h o u t change,- d o c t r i n e taken
s e r i o u s l y is alw a y s b e i n g r e v i s e d i n the continuous pr o c e s s
of reinterpretation" (Burkert 135) . Thus C i c e r o was a
Pythagorean, a n d A u g u s t u s p r e s e n t e d himself as a son of
Apollo, w h o m h e m a d e one of the m a i n R o m a n deities.
Pythagoreans s u c h as Iamblichus a n d Apoll o n i u s of T y a n a
flourished, a n d t h e school e n j o y e d per i o d i c revivals u n t i l
the tra g i c e a r l y d e a t h of t h e E m p e r o r Julian, after which
all s uch "paganism" was d r a s t i c a l l y suppr e s s e d b y v ictorious
Christianity, at least i n s o f a r as it was o v e r t .
M a n y thinkers have s i n c e d i s c e r n e d a p ernicious
cultural thread of o p p o s i t i o n to e a r t h l y r e a l i t y b y t hat
"pure spirit. . .that in its A p o l l o n i a n - P l a t o n i c a n d Jewish-
C h r i s t i a n form h a s led to t h e abst r a c t con c e p t u a l i t y of
m o d e m consciousness" (Neumann 57) . F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w
of p u r e philosophy, however, P y t h a g o r a s ' m a thematical
insight has p r o v e n e n d l e s s l y fruitful: his k e y concept of a
q uantitative b a s i s for p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y turned out, w h e n
r evi v e d in the Renaissance, t o m a k e the pro g r e s s of m o d e m
physics possible.
* * * *
W O R K S CITED
51
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Pythagoras, The Cult of Apollo

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A N D THE BIRTH OF PHILOSOPHY

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AUTHOR: Jacqueline Behiing

William M. Hagan, S.TD

C OPYRIGHT PAGE .................................................. ii

AP P R O V A L PAGE .................................................. iii

TABLE O F CONTENTS .............................................. iv

2. THE E V O LVING M Y T H O F A P O L L O ................................ 3

3. PYTHAGORAS A T SAMOS: YOUTH A N D IONIAN B A C K G R O U N D ....... 14

4. PYTHAGORAS I N EGYPT: THE A N C I E N T W I S D O M ................. 23

5. PYTHAGORAS A T BABYLON: S L A V E R Y A ND A S T R O N O M Y ........... 29

6. R E T U R N TO SAMOS: THE CULT OF P H I L O S O P H Y ................. 35

7. PYTHAGORAS A T CROTON: A P O T H E O S I S A N D DOWNFALL .......... 40

Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n b e t w e e n the e i g h t h a n d f i f t h centuries

god w e r e b o t h c h a n g i n g a n d ga i n i n g hegemony. I n the s i x t h

century B . C . E ., Pyt h a g o r a s of S a m o s , w h o c o i n e d the v e r y

word "philosophy, " h a v i n g s tudied u n d e r Thales, the O r p h i c

Babylon, added i n t o this f l u i d p i c t u r e his o w n special

concept of Apollo. This h e p r o m o t e d at C r o t o n in M a g n a

Graecia, where h e f o u n d e d t h e l o n g - i n f l u e n t i a l sect of

Pythagoreans. T h e n e w l y - d e f i n e d A p o l l o was a n abstract,

unifying, m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d rational force o r principle,

qualitatively diff e r e n t f r o m and s u p e r i o r t o a l l o t h e r gods,

through the n e w p r a c t i c e of philosophy, c o n c e i v e d as

including mathematics, m u s i c and asceticism. Western

philosophy, s c i ence a n d e thics h a v e since l a r g e l y

d eveloped from this p a r t i c u l a r c o n j u n c t i o n o f Ionian

rationalism a n d reli g i o u s innovation.

A p o l l o is comm o n l y c o n s i d e r e d as t h e "most 'Greek1 of

all the g o d s of Greece, " and t h u s his p o s s i b l e n on-Greek

origins a n d changin g attributes h a v e b e e n r a r e l y discussed

b y p o p u l a r w r i ters (Burkert " O l b i a ” 49) . T h o s e things the

Greeks s u p p o s e d l y m o s t valued, " b e a u t y . ..art, music,

poetry. . .youth, sanity and m o d e r a t i o n - all are summed u p in

Apollo" (Guthrie 73) . But o n l y a f t e r a long evolution did

he come t o p e r s o n i f y t hese concepts, as w e l l as "the

intelligible, deter m i n a t e [and] mensurable, as opposed to

th e fantastic, v a g u e a n d shapeless" (Fraenkel, qtd. in

Guthrie 152) . Then, a m i d the v a r i e g a t e d expressions of

G r e e k reli g i o u s worship, the c u l t of A p o l l o became u n i q u e l y

w e l l s u i t e d to b o t h provide s u p p o r t t o and g a i n strength

f r o m n e w enterprise s b a s e d on t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of the f aculty

of reason, during t h e seminal p e r i o d of Greece's "discovery

of the mind" (Snell 191-226) . A p o l l o n i a n va l u e s such as

reason, justice, u n i t y and u n i v e r s a l i t y p r o v e d especially

conducive t o the emergence of G r e e k philosophy.

The s t o r y of the origin a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of p hilosophy

in Greece f r o m the sixth c e n t u r y B.C. f orward illustrates

its relationship w i t h G reece's spe c i a l god. Apollo's oracle

at Delphi proclaimed, f o r example, that there was no one

w i s e r t h a n Socrates (P3.ato, A p o l o g y 21a) . But over a

c e n t u r y before, a k e y A p o l l o - i d e n t i f i e d culture f i g u r e had

a l r e a d y gained fame f o r hi s innovative d i s c o v e r y and

p r o m o t i o n of the v e r y c o n c e p t of philosophy. As the cult of

A p o l l o waxed in Gree c e b e t w e e n t h e seventh a n d fou r t h

centuries, Pythagoras o f Samos, w h o s e life span n e d th e